Contents E V

ERT cover 32-3 5/6/08 09:09 Page 1

CONTENTS E V

Theme: Transformations A N

Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice: An G E L

Evangelical Perspective I C

DEREK J. TIDBALL A L

page 196 R E V

A History of the Relationship of the Evangelical Alliance I E

with the Roman Catholic Church W

PIETRO BOLOGNESI O F

page 210 T H

From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church E O

OSKAR SKARSAUNE L O

page 224 G Y The Institutions of Hope V CHRISTOPHER FUNG O Articles and book reviews reflecting L page 238 U M global evangelical theology for the purpose

‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel: E

3 of discerning the obedience of faith 2

Reconsidering ‘Holistic’ (Integral) Mission , N

JIM HARRIES O

page 257 3 , J Book Reviews page 271 u l y 2 0 0 8

Volume 32 No. 3 July 2008 Evangelical Review of Theology

EDITOR: DAVID PARKER

Volume 32 • Number 3 • July 2008 Articles and book reviews reflecting global evangelical theology for the purpose of discerning the obedience of faith

Published by

for WORLD EVANGELICAL ALLIANCE Theological Commission ISSN: 0144-8153 Volume 32 No. 3 July 2008

Editor David Parker

Committee The Executive Committee of the WEA Theological Commission Dr Rolf Hille, Chairman

Editorial Policy The articles in the Evangelical Review of Theology reflect the opinions of the authors and reviewers and do not necessarily represent those of the Editor or the Publisher.

Manuscripts, reports and communications should be addressed to the Editor and sent to Dr David Parker, 17 Disraeli St, Indooroopilly, 4068, Qld, Australia

The Editors welcome recommendations of original or published articles or book reviews that relate to forthcoming issues for inclusion in the Review. Please send clear copies of details to the above address.

Email enquiries welcome: [email protected] http://www.worldevangelicalalliance.com/commissions/tc/

Typeset by Toucan Design, 25 Southernhay East, Exeter EX1 1NS and Printed in Great Britain for Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS by Polestar Wheatons Ltd., Exeter, Devon. ERT (2008) 32:3, 195 Editorial: Transformations

WE INTRODUCE THIS issue with Derek ical Commission is keeping abreast of Tidball’s seasoned article reviewing these and so we present an overview of the way the Bible is used by evangeli- the situation by Pietro Bolognesi cals in the important ministry of pas- (Italy) which was prepared for a recent toral care. This leading English theolo- consultation of the European Evangel- gian says, ‘The goal of using the Bible ical Alliance. in pastoral practice must be to bring Our concluding articles embody new people to experience eternal life approaches which will spark interest. through Jesus and then to lead them to Christopher Fung, a scientist from maturity in him. Used rightly, it is a Hong Kong, presents a comprehensive wonderful channel of life, and life in all vision of the work of Christ in relation its fullness.’ But he warns, ‘If our use to the Sabbath and its deepest meaning of the Bible does not accomplish this, in the history of salvation. This will then we should re-examine whether we doubtless not appeal to all our readers, are using it aright.’ but its fascinating images will surely Then, to coincide with a consulta- evoke new appreciation for the wonder of God’s plan for us and the world. tion the WEA Theological Commission Then Jim Harries puts forward the is sponsoring soon on the uniqueness view that the ‘implementation of of Christ in relation to the presentation “holistic mission” strategies across of the gospel to Jewish people, we have Africa (and presumably elsewhere) has a review by Oskar Skarsaune (Norway) inadvertently resulted in serious prob- of the way early Christological think- lems’, especially unhealthy depen- ing developed in relationship to the dency and serious impeding of local ini- Jewish concept of Messiah. He chal- tiatives and development due to funda- lenges the popular idea of the ‘hell- mental misunderstandings and mis- enization’ of Christianity, arguing that communication of ideas and intentions. the developed Christologies have ‘a This results not only in ‘serious theo- solid biblical and Jewish basis’. So with logical distortions’ but also the disem- credible evidence, he supports the view powering of the recipients, the very that ‘it is unjewish to say that this [the opposite of the purpose of the aid in the incarnation] is something the God of first place. At very least, this raises a the Bible cannot do’. serious challenge about presupposi- Evangelical attitudes towards the tions and methods which needs careful Roman Catholic Church and relation- attention. But then we expect all of our ships between the two traditions con- articles to present us with truths that tinue to occupy the attention of many, challenge and therefore contribute to especially as significant changes are our aim of ‘discerning the obedience of continuously taking place within both faith’! these communities. The WEA Theolog- David Parker, Editor. ERT (2008) 32:3, 196-209 Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice: An Evangelical Perspective

Derek J. Tidball

KEYWORDS: Evangelical, Bible, pas- revival of interest in the role of the pastoral care, hermeneutics, exegesis, toral use of the Bible, not least because psychology, wholeness of initiatives that Stephen Pattison has taken with his colleagues at Cardiff University, in conjunction with the In 1988 Stephen Pattison commented (British) Bible Society. Research pro- on the curious absence of discussion jects have been undertaken and con- about the way to use the Bible among ferences held which have led to the pastoral theologians. There was, he publication of several significant vol- suggested, no doubt about the Bible’s umes.2 These encouraging initiatives importance, or even its authoritative have sought to be genuinely inclusive status, since it was consulted and and brought evangelicals into real appealed to frequently but, he engagement with those who would lamented, ‘The fact is that pastoral have a very different understanding of theologians seem to have almost com- the Bible from them. pletely avoided considering the Bible….There is an almost absolute and embarrassing silence about the 2 Paul Ballard and Stephen Holmes (eds.), Bible in pastoral care theory.’1 The Bible in Pastoral Practice (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 2005); Gordon Oliver, Recent years, however, have seen a Holy Bible, Human Bible (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, 2006); and, Stephen Pat- tison, Margaret Cooling and Trevor Cooling, Using the Bible in Christian Ministry: A Work- 1 Stephen Pattison, A Critique of Pastoral Care book (London: Darton, Longman and Todd, (London: SCM, 1988), p. 106. 2007).

Rev. Dr. Derek J. Tidball (PhD Keele) is a Baptist pastor who has served as the Head of the Mission Department of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and most recently for twelve years as Principal of London School of Theology. He is chair of the Council of the Evangelical Alliance in the UK. He has written numerous books including Skilful Shepherds: An Introduction to Pastoral Theology, The Message of the Cross and The Message of Leviticus in IVP’s ‘Bible Speaks Today’ series. This is a revised and updated version of a paper originally given to an MA Seminar for the Cambridge Theological Federation in 2004. (Email: [email protected]) Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 197

This paper does not set out to takes place in the context of preaching review the Cardiff/Bible Society pro- and worship in formal services, while ject but to reflect independently on the other pastoral care takes place in per- use and abuse of the Bible in pastoral sonal, often casual, conversation. practice from an evangelical perspec- By ‘a pastor’ I do not intend to imply tive.3 someone who is necessarily ‘ordained’ since Evangelicalism has always recognized leaders who have emerged out- I Definitions side the formal structures of the I begin with definitions. ‘Pastoral prac- church and, indeed, some of its tice’ I interpret as an inclusive term to branches, such as the Christian include not just the one-to-one dimen- Brethren, reject the clergy/laity dis- sion of pastoral care or counselling, or tinction altogether. Certainly in many that pastoral practice which might local churches pastoral care is exer- involve a pastor with a family or small cised by lay folk and, sometimes less group, but the total range of pastoral happily, often by untrained lay folk. activity which includes the activity of That makes an examination of how preaching and the leading of worship they might use the Bible even more and the shaping of the liturgy as well. crucial. This broad definition consciously ‘Evangelical’ might be more diffi- embraces ‘the whole gamut of Christ- cult to define. I use it not in the Euro- ian ministry related to the comprehen- pean sense of the evangelical church which emerged in contrast to Catholi- sive needs of other human beings’4 so cism following the Reformation, but in as to broaden our understanding of the sense of that stream within the care away from a narrow focus on indi- church which became a self-conscious vidual counselling. Much pastoral care movement following the Evangelical Revivals in the 1700s. It has gone through many forms and today is a 3 This paper is a revised and updated paper, diverse movement. The label is fre- originally given to an MA Seminar for the Cam- quently used as if synonymous with bridge Theological Federation in 2004. Those Fundamentalism but such an equation who issued the invitation had not expected me 5 to comment as an evangelical on how others is indefensible. Evangelicalism used the Bible but to confine myself to an embraces a spectrum of positions exploration of how evangelicals used it. The which at one end finds more funda- title given, however, seemed to invite wider mentalist expressions but at the other reflection, even if the major part of the paper appears to have a fuzzy boundary with was devoted to exploring evangelical practice. classic liberal theology. What then 4 This is part of the definition used in Patti- holds it together? son, Cooling and Cooling, Using the Bible in Christian Ministry, p. 10. Pattison’s own definition was, ‘pastoral care is that activity, undertaken especially by representative Christian persons, directed towards the elimination of 5 See, Derek Tidball, Who are the Evangeli- sin and sorrow and the presentation of all peo- cals? (London: Marshall Pickering, 1994), pp. ple perfect in Christ to God’ (Critique, p. 13). 17-18. 198 Derek J. Tidball

For all the criticism there has been to God, to Christ, the living Word, and of it, David Bebbington’s6 suggestion to the Spirit, the one who transmits the that Evangelicalism is that section of word today. But they see no reason to the church marked by a combination of downgrade the importance of the Bible four characteristics, namely, conver- in their theological framework and sionism, activism, biblicism and cruci- they will not accept any disjunction centrism, remains an excellent frame- between the living word and the writ- work to distinguish it from others in ten word. The Bible is central in shap- the church. To these perhaps the willing their view of God—it is a revelation ingness to act interdenominationally of God and his ways—and their inter- should be added. pretation of the Christian faith. It is the third of these characteris- We could develop the theme of an tics which particularly concerns us in evangelical view of the Bible, paying this paper. Taking their cue from the particular attention to the way evan- Reformers and Wesley, who desired to gelicals have formulated their views be a ‘man of one book’,7 Evangelicals over the centuries, being at first very show a supreme interest in the Bible much affected by the Enlightenment, and a devotion to it. Their doctrinal then by the Romantic movement and statements will usually refer in a short- recently by postmodernism. This, of hand way to ‘the authority’ of the Bible8 course, has an impact on the way the as ‘supreme’ or ‘sole’ and their critics, Bible is used pastorally, as we shall somewhat understandably, might refer see, but this is not the primary subject of this paper. Suffice it to say that the to them as having a trinity of Father, Bible is central. Son and Holy Bible—at least until Its centrality stems from its inspira- recently when the advent of the closely tion (2 Tim. 3:16-17) and this gives related charismatic movement some- rise, in turn, to its sufficiency and its what changed the emphasis. When dynamic nature. Paul tells Timothy challenged, evangelicals, of course, that the God-breathed scripture ‘is use- believe the supreme authority belongs ful for teaching, rebuking, correcting, and training in righteousness, so that God’s servant may be thoroughly 6 David Bebbington, Evangelicalism in Modern equipped for every good work’. There is Britain (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), pp. 5- nothing we should need that we do not 17. Criticisms may be found in D. A, Carson, The Gagging of God: Christianity Confronts Plu- find within it: it is sufficient; but that ralism (Leicester: Apollos, 1996), pp. 449-451 does not mean every question will and Kenneth Stewart, ‘Did evangelicalism receive a direct and immediate answer predate the eighteenth century?’, EQ, 77.2 or that it is right to come to the Bible (2005), 135-153. as if it is some form of supreme refer- 7 Wesley used the phrase more than once but ence book where we can find obvious it can be found in the Preface to his Sermons, solutions to all the problems we face in vol 1. life. This was the mistake of some dur- 8 For a review see, J. I. Packer and Thomas C. Oden, One Faith: The Evangelical Consensus ing the initial stages of Enlightenment (Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press, enthusiasm and is still reflected in the 2004), pp. 39-57. way some evangelicals use the Bible. Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 199

The evangelical position also gives II The Greatest Abuse… rise to the view that the Bible has a Before, however, turning in more detail dynamic power which generates to how evangelicals use the Bible in change in people’s lives. It is not pastoral care, let me mention three regarded as magic: take a text a day, as general abuses which evangelicals dis- you may take an aspirin, and the cure cern in the way the wider church uses will automatically follow. The reading the Bible in pastoral care. and study of the Bible needs to be combined with faith, as Hebrews 4:2 argues. Nonetheless, James 1:21, 1. Neglect which uses the dynamic image of ‘the One form of abuse is neglect. Child car- implanted word, which can save you’ ers do not have to physically assault a and 1 Peter 2:2 which uses the image child to be guilty of abuse—they just of craving for ‘pure spiritual milk, so have to ignore the child. Evangelicals, that by it you may grow up in your sal- of all shades, would want to argue that vation’ suggest a basis for the evangel- the greatest abuse of the Bible is its ical view of the Bible as a spiritual neglect. The failure to use it is one of growth hormone.9 It is as Justin Martyr the greatest scandals of the church in said: recent times. As Herbert Anderson I would wish that all, making a res- notes, while evangelicals have olution similar to my own, do not asserted more and more strongly the keep themselves away from the authority of the Bible, others have words of the saviour. For they pos- found it less and less relevant or seen it merely as one resource among many sess a terrible power in themselves 11 and are sufficient to inspire those others but not especially normative. Thomas Oden, in a number of who turn aside from the path of rec- 12 titude with awe; while the sweetest places, has championed the cause (and it is a cause) that pastoral care rest is afforded those who make a should not be held in psychological diligent practice of them.10 captivity. He has researched the text- Exactly how that translates into the books used in the training of clergy in practical handling of the Bible in Evan- pastoral care and found that the disci- gelicalism varies and leads some, at pline which informs clergy training is the fundamentalist end of the spectrum, to a proof-text, sound-bite type of approach and to others at the more open end to a more reflective imagina- 11 Herbert Anderson, ‘The Bible and Pas- tive approach. toral Care’, in Ballard and Holmes (eds.) The Bible in Pastoral Practice, p. 196. 12 Care of Souls in the Classic Tradition (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1984); ‘Recov- ering Pastoral Care’s Lost Identity’ in The 9 See further, Derek Tidball, ‘The Bible in Church and Pastoral Care Leroy Aden and J. evangelical spirituality’ in Ballard and Holmes Harold Ellens, eds., (Grand Rapids: Baker, (eds.) The Bible in Pastoral Practice, pp. 258- 1988), pp. 17-40 and Pastoral Theology: Essen- 274. tials of Ministry (San Francisco: Harper and 10 Dialogue with Trypho, ch.8. Row, 1983). 200 Derek J. Tidball psychology, with its amoral commit- Michael Taylor, is a later English ments, rather than theology. Whilst representative of this position. In his there are many references to contem- book Learning to Care, he dismisses the porary psychological theories and possibility of absolutes guiding our scholars, there is almost the total pastoral practice and pleads for it to be absence of reference to the Bible or based on living doctrine, informed by even to the great tradition of pastoral contemporary knowledge. He con- care to be found in the Apostolic cludes, Fathers. On occasions older literature The situation has changed in some including the Bible will deal with respects since Oden began his cam- the same issues that we are dealing paign on this issue. There has been a with and will be worth consulting, greater recognition that pastoral care though we shall need to remember cannot be detached from a moral that changes in culture and circum- framework and it has broken out some- stances often make the similarities what from a psychological captivity to more apparent than real.14 embrace wider sociological and psychological perspectives. But still too For an evangelical this is to margin- often pastoral caregivers in the church alise Scripture in an unwarranted fash- neglect the Bible altogether. ion and an abuse of the Bible in pastoral practice. The Bible is not only to be used, but to have a sense of priority, 2. Demotion not only an ancient document but a So, although from their viewpoint there contemporary and living word. are gains, evangelicals remain uneasy with an approach to pastoral practice 3. Revisionism which uses the Bible but merely as one of a number of resources to which one This raises huge issues of hermeneu- might turn without giving it any sense tics and here is not the place to address of priority. The approach, common, them. But evangelicals become very according to Donald Capps of Prince- unhappy when what they regard as the ton,13 in the middle of the last century plain teaching of the Bible on an issue in Europe, recognizes the Bible has a is reinterpreted in such a way that the place, but it is only one voice around Bible is made to sound as if it is saying the table and has no privileged status. the exact opposite of what it appears to Its use is ad hoc and it only indirectly be saying. A particular current exam- informs the discussion. It neither ple is that of homosexual practice. establishes the goals to be reached in Complex as it is, many evangelicals are the pastoral process, nor is it allowed handling the issue with great personal to critique the other voices that con- and pastoral sensitivity, and they are tribute to the conversation. grappling with the theological, moral and exegetical complexities of it but

13 ‘The Bible’s Role in Pastoral Care and Counselling’ in Aden and Ellens (eds.) The 14 Michael Taylor, Learning to Care (London: Church and Pastoral Care, pp. 43f. SPCK, 1983), pp. 101f. Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 201 most still cannot agree that homosex- become of them and there can be a ual practice is one which can be com- fairly wide gulf between scholarly writ- mended for disciples of Jesus. A good ing and popular practice. illustration of how they are handling it To evangelicals, the Bible is the pastorally and theologically might be book of the people, not the book of the found in Ray Anderson’s recent book, scholars, or even of the pastors.16 It is The Shape of Pastoral Theology: Empow- a book for all, not just the intelli- ering Ministry with theological Praxis, gentsia. To them, as Gregory the Great chapter 16.15 put it, ‘The Bible is water where lambs may safely walk (as well as) great ele- phants swim.’ Many evangelicals, III The Evangelical Use and therefore, have been brought up to love Abuse of the Bible it, read it, learn it and imbibe it. They How then do evangelicals use the believe Psalm 119:105 at face value: Bible? Evangelicalism is essentially a ‘Your word is a lamp to my feet and a popular movement and a protest move- light to my path’. They also take seri- ment. Its scholars, however, have ously the active role of the Holy Spirit increasingly adopted the tools of mod- as its interpreter today. ern scholarship in their approach to the This has both strengths and weak- Bible, wishing to defend the Bible nesses. Its strengths are that it pro- against its critics on their own terms. vides a particular reader-response type Hence, many have engaged in histori- approach to Scripture, albeit one which cal criticism and there is a wealth of predates recent postmodern theories Bible commentaries to demonstrate and albeit one where readers are not the point. They have been less involved usually aware of their own presupposi- until recently in systematic reflection. tions. That is lauded in some circles as Many rejoice in the more recent a rediscovery of what the Bible origi- developments in hermeneutics and nally was: the book of the community have grappled with the philosophical of ordinary people. It gives the Bible and epistemological foundations back to the people. involved, even if some remain very cau- An example was presented in the tious about the more subjective and Cardiff Conference as a positive exam- postmodern underpinning of the enter- ple by one speaker. The reading of the prise. Canonical approaches have been parable of the Good Samaritan in one welcomed with some enthusiasm. But household in Sheffield led to the chil- the more the scholars have engaged dren demanding they should share with the academy, the more suspicious their food with their poor neighbours. many evangelicals at pew level have In this case the outcome was positive

15 (Downers Grove: IVP, 2001). Among a 16 This differs from Wesley Carr, Handbook vast literature see also, Stanley J. Grenz, Wel- of Pastoral Studies (London, SPCK, 1997), p. coming But Not Affirming: An evangelical 27, who says, ‘Scripture chiefly addresses the response to homosexuality (Louisville: West- pastor and not the client’. Nonetheless, he minster John Knox Press, 1998). refers to scripture as a vital resource. 202 Derek J. Tidball but no one asked the question as to glesworth has provided us with a what would have happened if they had robust critique of it in the Dictionary of read some parts of the Deuteronomic Pastoral Care.17 Law and decided as a result to stone The hotel bedroom, ‘Gideons’ Bible their neighbours who were having contains a list of verses deemed affairs? Undisciplined reader- suitable for various problems in response, whether by evangelicals or life. Whatever emergency value others, can prove disastrous. Good this may have, it is a poor model for hermeneutical principles cannot be pastoral use…. The pastoral prob- avoided. lems created by this approach Here we turn to particular evangeli- should also be listed: absence of cal approaches in the use of the Bible relationship, blocked expression of in pastoral care. feelings, coerced responses, failure to listen, hasty diagnosis, prema- 1. A ‘promise box’—snippets of ture advice, selective emphasis, insight. superficial solutions, etc. More My grandmother had a box containing serious still is the attraction this little scrolls of paper on each of which approach has for the insecure pas- was a verse, or even part of a verse, of tor whose authority is shored up by scripture. It was her practice to extract the symbolic significance the Bible one at random each day using a pair of has for many people. Linked to this tweezers and read what it said, taking is the dependence (q.v.) encour- it as the motto for the day. The choice aged by the pastor who is expected of texts often reflected an evangelical to know the ‘correct’ verse for each canon within the canon. The text was, succeeding need. It is hardly sur- of course, completely out of context prising that such abuse has led and made to apply to one’s life regard- many counsellors into leaving out less of its particular relevance. It was use of the Bible from their work. assumed that whatever problem we His objections may be expressed faced—and here we see the Enlighten- like this: ment legacy—there will be an answer, • It ignores hermeneutical issues, usually a very clear and direct answer, whilst practising poor to it in the Bible. Whether this exact hermeneutics. ‘The Bible says it, custom is practised or not it is symbolic we believe it, that settles it.’ of the way many evangelicals use their Anyone can justify all sorts of Bibles in relation to themselves and behaviour and belief without pastorally in relation to others. decent hermeneutics. A cre- A popular but more refined example ation, fall, redemption and con- of this is seen in the approach of the summation framework is need- Gideons Bible. It is not as hit-and-miss ed. as the promise box, since the reader is • It can be insensitive, saying the directed to an appropriate text by consulting a menu of problems or circumstances. Nonetheless, Chris Wig- 17 (London, SPCK, 1987), p. 25. Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 203

right thing at the wrong moment the counsellor or skilled in hermeneu- or in the wrong way. Job’s com- tics he or she might be, if the conver- forters often come to mind. sation is to bear good fruit. • It can degenerate into the use of Furthermore, who is to say that proof texts. Learn the words and while radical surgery may be neces- quote them as if it is a magic sary, first aid may not prove the first chant or as if that automatically step on the road to healing before deals with the problem. surgery is possible? And in some situa- • It shows no awareness of how tions it may be sufficient on its own. people respond to the Bible. Is it Deeper solutions may well be required seen by readers as a construc- than the Gideons Bible provides but it tive authority or an authoritari- may well provide (and in countless an task master which may, cases it has provided) a crucial prelim- indeed, be part of their problem? inary step towards a more mature •It can deal with superficial faith. symptoms while failing to deal It would be wrong for evangelicals with deeper issues. to derive false encouragement from • It can be very hit and miss in its this and think themselves exempt from use of scripture. the need for good hermeneutics and the • It can be wooden, literalistic and serious work involved in handling legalistic in its use of the Bible. scripture aright. But the God who is • It can provide the pastor with a capable of speaking through Balaam’s false, even dangerous, authority. ass, and who provides a multitude of illustrations in the Bible of speaking Although evangelicals must plead through imperfect messengers, is guilty to some of Wigglesworth’s stric- capable of owning the less than perfect tures, both in relation to something efforts of such an approach. like the Gideons Bible and even more widely in relation to their use of the Bible in preaching, many of the above 2. A textbook—detailed criticisms fall because they fail to take prescriptions into account the presence of the Holy This is illustrated most clearly by the Spirit in the transaction between the writings of Jay Adams who has had a person reading the Bible and the Bible major influence on a segment of the itself. God’s normal method may well Evangelical church. He rejects the be to use people to interpret and apply value of contemporary disciplines such Scripture to needy individuals, as illus- as psychology or psychiatry and trated by Philip’s encounter with the regards the church’s adoption of them Ethiopian Official in Acts 8:26-40, but as a betrayal of our message. He he is not restricted thereby. The Holy argues that the Bible alone is all we Spirit is the chief interpreter (Jn. need. He advocates using the Bible as 14:26-31; 16:12-15) who is present and a textbook both in diagnosing prob- at work even when others are absent. lems and prescribing answers, both He is the indispensable partner in any when handling general and when han- pastoral transaction, however gifted dling specific problems. 204 Derek J. Tidball

He does not consider this a debat- been severely criticised by other evan- able option.18 ‘The Bible’s position is gelicals for a number of reasons.21 The that all counsel that is not revelational noutheteo word group is small in com- or based upon God’s revelation, is parison with other words that relate to Satanic.’19 He asserts his belief that the pastoral care in Scripture, such as Bible is able to answer every problem parakaleo, and Adams over-emphasizes comprehensively.20 Hand in hand with it.22 He lacks a deep understanding of this conviction goes a particular creation and personhood. People are method. The Bible is to be used con- essentially actors and what people do frontationally as a tool of rebuke, in is what they are. He does not take into order to correct wrong behaviour, not account the deeper structures of per- as encouragement or paraklesis. Bas- sonhood or that they may, for example, ing his approach on Colossians 1:28-29 be complex unities who are shaped and where Paul writes of ‘warning’ or moulded by their genes or their ‘admonishing’ (nouthetountes) every- upbringings. So, never mind what the one, so that he may ‘present everyone problem is, change their doing and the fully mature in Christ’ (TNIV), Adams rest will follow.23 Emotions have a sec- calls his approach ‘nouthetic coun- ondary and contingent place at best. selling’. The same lack of depth is evident in There are attractions to this posi- handling of sin. He has little place for tion. Busy pastors have no time, let the fallenness of creation. Although he alone expertise, to negotiate their way does not believe that the difficulties we through contemporary counselling the- experience are in direct proportion to ories. So to be told that their expertise the sin we commit, he very quickly which lies in their knowledge of the builds a connection between the symp- Bible, is not only all they need but all toms of our suffering and our individual that it is legitimate for them to use, sin as the cause of them, or a major boosts their confidence. It is not diffi- contributor to them. Sin is about the cult to see the connection between this actions we do rather than a result of counselling approach and the Evangel- being the people we are. ical doctrine of the sufficiency of Scrip- Confrontation about our behaviour, ture. therefore, is the answer without In spite of this, the approach has indulging in the the complexities of a solution. And, as with Wigglesworth’s

18 Jay Adams, The Use of the Scriptures in Counselling (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and 21 See, inter alia, William Challis, The Word of Reformed, 1975), p. 5. Life: Using the Bible in Pastoral Care (London: 19 Jay Adams, More Than Redemption Marshall Pickering, 1997), pp. 126-145 and (Phillipsburg, Presbyterian and Reformed, Derek Tidball, Skilful Shepherds: Explorations 1979), p. 4. in Pastoral Theology (Leicester: Apollos, 1986, 20 Among his many other writings see, Com- 2007), pp. 236-241. petent to Counsel (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian 22 Challis, The Word of Life, p. 139f. and Reformed, 1970) and The Christian Coun- 23 This applies to Christians only. Adams selor’s Manual (Phillipsburg: Presbyterian and regards regeneration as an essential prerequi- Reformed, 1973). site to helping people. Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 205 criticism of the approach of the such an approach for some who have Gideons Bible, the practitioners of this been seduced by over-self-indulgent approach can use the Bible very atom- western cultures, or who face trivial istically (hence, Adams’ love of depressions that are more due to self- Proverbs) and credit pastors with a ishness than to reality, it requires a dangerous authority that leads them to fairly strong ‘self’ or ‘ego’ to benefit give superficial answers to any and from such advice when depressed and it every problem when sometimes more would be a despairing and damaging in depth treatment is required. approach for those who were clinically There are other, more nuanced, less depressed. The nouthetic approach is clumsy and more sympathetic exam- not a responsible pastoral approach if it ples of this position, which is often is used exclusively or even if it is the associated with Reformed Evangeli- default position which is adopted. A cals although not exclusively so. Mar- much broader and more sensitive range tyn Lloyd-Jones, for example, a medical of tools is essential for effective pastoral physician who became one of London’s care as the Bible itself recommends.26 best known preachers, often argued that the need was to believe the right doctrine and to understand correctly 3. A framework—significant with one’s mind and then the right perspective actions and emotions would follow. A The Bible is seen by other evangelicals classic statement of it can be found in not, on the one hand, as a detailed ref- his book, Spiritual Depression: Its causes erence book but certainly, on the other and cure.24 He succinctly sums up his hand, as much more than a vague approach in the opening chapter. resource. Examples may be found in 27 The main art in the matter of spiri- Selwyn Hughes or Larry Crabb. Sel- tual living is to know how to handle wyn Hughes recently wrote that we yourself. You have to take yourself need a clear grasp of our problems ‘and in hand, you have to address your- we must understand them from a bibli- 28 self, preach to yourself, question cal point of view’. But he does not yourself…And then you must go on mean the same by this as Jay Adams to remind yourself of God, Who God does. He is not anti-psychiatry and is, and what God is and what God gives serious attention to the emo- has done, and what God has tional dimension of our lives and to the pledged himself to do. Then having power of imagination within them. done that, end on this great note: defy yourself, and defy other people, and defy the devil and defy the 26 See, for example, 1 Thess. 5:14. whole world…25 27 Larry Crabb, Effective Biblical Counselling: How to become a Capable Counsellor (Grand Although one can see the value of Rapids: Zondervan, 1977) and Understanding People: Reaching Deeper through Biblical Coun- selling (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1987). 24 M. Lloyd-Jones, Spiritual Depression (Lon- 28 Selwyn Hughes, Christ Empowered Living don & Glasgow: Pickering and Inglis, 1965). (Nashville: Broadman and Holman, 2001), p. 25 Lloyd-Jones, Spiritual Depression, p. 21. 91. 206 Derek J. Tidball

Even so, he insists, ‘I simply believe here. A professional psychotherapist, that Scripture can give us more com- Hurding believes strongly that pas- plete and reliable answers to human toral care should be community-based problems than the best secular text- and exercised both within the fellow- books on the subject of the human psy- ship and outside in the local commu- che.’29 nity. He argues that there are four main It does this by addressing the frame- psychological perspectives and each work through which we view life and one uses the Bible in a different way. our worldviews rather than dealing on No one system is superior to another, a surface level just with the presenting although one might be more appropri- problem itself. Consequently, much ate than another, and each relates to a has to do with unearthing the deep particular style of scripture.31 longings and thirsts which drive our •Cognitive-behavioural lives and how they express themselves approaches are prophetic in style in the goals we choose (many of which and prescriptive in their use of may be inappropriate) and of the the Bible. Hebrews 4:12 epito- escape strategies (which may well be mises the approach. neurotic) that we devise to retreat from • Analytic approaches look for frustration when our goals are not met. healing (inner healing) and These factors have an effect on our emphasize the wisdom approach sense of security, self-worth and sig- and reflection. Psalm 139 and nificance. meditation would epitomize this It is a long way from the Bible as a approach. quick tonic. It is a more open explo- • Relationship counselling empha- rative approach, as well as a deeper sizes issues of formation and is one. It demonstrates a much greater pastoral in style. It tends to understanding of human personhood, paraklesis, with John 14:16-18 of the need for intimacy and community and passages like 2 Corinthians and of the varied impact of the fall on 1:3-5, epitomizing the approach. people’ lives. Yet it stays within the •Inner journey, which Hurding reach of popular counsellors, thou- calls Christian transpersonal- sands of whom have been trained ism. It is priestly in style and uses through CWR seminars and courses the Bible imaginatively. The 30 around the world. counsellor is a fellow traveller on pilgrimage with the person seek- 4. The Bible informs a system: ing help. shaping a psychological Hurding himself adopts an eclectic approach Roger Hurding is our representative 31 Roger Hurding, The Bible and Counselling (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1992), pp. 29 Hughes, Christ Empowered Living, p. 91. 147-178. His fuller position is to be found in 30 CWR is the Crusade for World Revival, the Roots and Shoots: A Guide to Counselling and organisation founded by Selwyn Hughes as an Psychotherapy (London: Hodder & Stoughton, umbrella for his ministries. 1986). Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 207 approach but within some very clear counselling and represents a treasury boundaries.32 He writes of the way in of human experience which ‘has the which ‘much counselling is blighted on claim of divine sanction’. It provides the one hand by a hard-edged emphasis ‘arrows’ into life and understanding. on the written word that tends towards Parables often relate to broken rela- aridity and judgmentalism and, on the tionship with resolutions coming when other hand, by a type of experience- people gain new perceptions about centred stress on the Holy Spirit that themselves, others and their world. leads to emotional instability and doc- Eugene Peterson is an example that trinal looseness’.33 He believes we need Evangelical pastors would be familiar to negotiate between the twin perils of with, especially his book, Five Smooth Biblicism and subjectivism by a right Stones for Pastoral Care.36 Peterson and careful balance between the word takes the Wisdom books as models of and the Spirit. the pastoral work of prayer-directing (Song of Songs); story-making (Ruth); 5. Living communication and pain-sharing (Lamentations); nay-say- understanding genre ing (Ecclesiastes) and community This approach has much in common building (Esther). He provides us with with what Stephen Pattison terms the rich insights—for example, that the ‘informative approach’.34 He illustrates Song of Songs was read at the it chiefly in reference to Donald Capps’ Passover so that the meal did not book, Biblical Approaches to Pastoral degenerate into a mere ritual and Counselling.35 It works with the genre empty formula and in order to rekindle of scripture and uses scripture to give warmth in the heart for God. Ecclesi- intentional shape to our experiences. astes, which he takes as a book of true Capps has done much in terms of the piety, refuses to let pastors come up use of lament in the grief process. He with the easy answer or promise mira- relates it to Kubler-Ross’s work on cles that never happen. grief and shows how by expressing Each generation of pastors, he complaints, trust, petition, finding argues, needs to build its own super- assurance and renewing vows, our val- structure and, for that ‘there is not ues are addressed and comfort is much pastoral work in scripture that found. can be taken over, as it is, into a pas- But he has also written of the place tor’s routines’.37 But the Bible does of proverbs and parables. The former is provide us with a foundation on which particularly relevant in premarital we must build and it is on this, not our own, we must build. To do so we have to dig down deep into scripture, like 32 For a critique of Hurding see Challis, The Word of Life, pp. 156-161. 33 Hurding, The Bible and Counselling, p. 158. 36 Eugene Peterson, Five Smooth Stones for 34 Stephen Pattison, Critique, pp. 123-126. Pastoral Care (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 35 Donald Capps, Biblical Approaches to Pas- 1980). toral Counselling (Philadelphia, Westminster, 37 Peterson, Five Smooth Stones for Pastoral 1981). Care, p. 11. 208 Derek J. Tidball archaeologists, to unearth the stones are either right or wrong and that no we need to use. teachers worthy of their profession would be satisfied with pupils end- 6. A workbook—helping us to lessly working through the exercises learn to solve problems unless they were learning to come to the correct answers, by the correct Brian McLaren, one of the leaders of methods, as a result. To some evangel- the Emerging Church, has recently put icals this approach seems to give away forward the view of the Bible as a pas- too much toral workbook. He points out that the Bible in 2 Timothy 3:16 does not claim to be authoritative but useful. He com- IV Conclusion pares it to a maths book where you Evangelicals, then, do not adopt a sin- work through exercises, using the text- gle but rather a variety of approaches book to give you practice and teach you when using the Bible in pastoral care. methods and formulae which will help Some of the approaches are better at 38 you solve the problems for yourself. avoiding the pitfalls of wooden inter- This he says is what much of Scripture pretations or of texts out of context is doing, especially in the narrative and than others. Though each has proverbial sections, which are exten- strengths and weakness, none is sive. exempted from the need to engage in It is an approach which resonates careful exegesis, take note of ques- much more with a postmodern evan- tions of genre and interact seriously gelical generation and engages with with hermeneutical issues. The more the ambiguities of ethics and para- imaginative approaches as much as the doxes of life more than traditional more proof text approaches are all in approaches. It makes more sense of need of solid foundations lest they the narrative parts of the Bible which prove to be nothing more than flights of are often open-ended or ambiguous in unsanctified fancy. But evangelicals, terms of the right or wrong handling of by definition, should have no fear of situations. Our mistake, he would serious biblical study and of a mature argue, is to see narratives as prescrip- handling of scripture for pastoral pur- tive rather than illustrative, as poses. enshrining propositional truth, instead The goal of using the Bible in pas- of inviting us to enter a story and mesh toral practice must be to bring people it with our own. To such people, the to experience eternal life through Jesus use of narrative and tentativeness in and then to lead them to maturity in pastoral care is likely to grow. him.39 Used rightly, it is a wonderful Many evangelicals, however, would channel of life, and life in all its full- want to point out that at the end of the maths book there are answers which 39 This differs from the objective many in the mainstream would adopt which speaks more 38 Brian McLaren, A New Kind of Christian of physchological than spiritual wholeness, or (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001), p. 53. even of freedom defined as human autonomy. Use and Abuse of the Bible in Pastoral Practice 209 ness. If our use of the Bible does not you refuse to come to me to have life’ accomplish this, then we should re- (John 5:39-40). I do not believe there examine whether we are using it are any tensions between the written aright. word of God and the living word of God, As evangelicals, because we love yet, we do well to remind ourselves the Bible so much, we need to remind that our objective must be to assist ourselves frequently of the words of people in their growth in Christ and not Jesus to the Jewish leaders of his day: primarily to be able to quote chapter ‘You diligently study the Scriptures and verse of the Bible. The Bible is a because you think that by them you wonderful means that God has given, possess eternal life. These are the but the end is Christ himself. Scriptures that testify about me, yet

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9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2008) 32:3, 210-223 A History of the Relationship of the Evangelical Alliance with the Roman Catholic Church

Pietro Bolognesi Note: This paper was presented at a consultation sponsored by the European Evangelical Alliance in Padua (29-31 May 2007) on relations with Roman Catholic Church. Other papers dealt with ‘Perspectives on relationships with the Roman Catholic Church: Southern Perspectives’ (Leonardo De Chirico, IFED Padova) and ‘Perspectives on relationships with the RC Church: Northern Perspectives’ (Tony Lane, London School of Theology). One outcome of the consultation was a protocol (still being processed within the EEA) that indicates some guidelines for the dialogue with the Roman Catholic Church. For more information, contact [email protected]

KEYWORDS: Vatican Council, aggior- throughout history and in relation to namento, dialogue, magisterium, ecu- other beliefs. menism, biblical authority, evange- Undoubtedly, the relationship with lism, persecution, confession. Roman Catholicism [from now on RC] represents a major issue for Evangeli- cals and, particularly, for the Evangel- ONE OF THE MAIN strengths of God’s peo- ical Alliance [from now on EA] which ple is their memory. The importance of represents them. Moreover, the under- memory for Christians depends on the standing of a complex issue, such as basic fact that Christian faith is, above the relationship between the EA and all, a historical faith. History, of the RC church, demands a historical course, is not the ultimate norm for perspective and the following report Evangelicals; nevertheless it remains represents such content. central in the definition of their beliefs Of course, we will not be concerned and identity, though this is sometimes with considering particular situations, forgotten. Therefore, in order to define but rather we will oversee the general the contemporary evangelical profile, trend and the great changes that it is necessary to consider how Evan- occurred in the last decades of the last gelicals have considered their faith century, in the relationships between

Dr Pietro Bolognesi (ThM) is President of Istituto di Formazione Evangelica e Documentazione (IFED), a library, research and teaching centre in Padua, Italy. He has studied at Bologna and at the Faculté Libre de Théologie, Vaux-sur-Seine, France. Amongst his publications are Il popolo dei discepoli. Contributi per un’ecclesiologia evangelica, 2001; Il movimento evangelicale, with Leonardo De Chirico, 2002; Dizionario di teologia evangelica, with Leonardo De Chirico, 2007. (Email: [email protected]) A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 211

EA and RC. While the general history denote a reformation in the evangelical of the EA has already been written, so sense, but neither is it a merely politi- far no study on this particular topic has cal and linguistic device adopted to appeared.1 conceal an unchanging reality. It is, The different approaches towards instead, the Catholic way of respond- RC within the worldwide evangelical ing to the need of some kind of renewal, movement have often not been appro- without altering the fundamental priate. Due to the global profile of the structure inherited from the past. It is evangelical movement it is not correct a kind of moving without changing. to approach this topic from either a Some of the most insightful evan- national or a personal theological per- gelical observers of the Catholic scene spective. It is also naïve to try to after the Council (i.e. Gerrit Berkouwer explain the past Protestant/Roman and David Wells) expressed perplexity Catholic debate in terms of personal or in their understanding of what was geographical animosities. This issue is going on within RC. The old critical deeper than that. If as evangelicals we apparatus adopted by most evangelical want to understand the Roman theologians, until that moment, Catholic theology we need to have a appeared inadequate or obsolete to more general or systemic approach. explain this evolving scenario. After Any analysis of RC that fails to adopt a more than forty years, today’s question systemic approach, will risk misunder- is whether that ‘suspension of judge- standing the real nature of the issue. ment’, which was thought to be neces- The Second Vatican Council (1962- sary, has contributed to much of the 1965) was an ‘aggiornamento’, a revi- present-day evangelical disarray and sion, to the Catholic church. However, has even become the typical evangeli- the word ‘aggiornamento’ does not cal impasse in coming to terms with Catholicism. Both resentful resistance based on 1 J.W. Massie, The Evangelical Alliance: Its clichés from the past and undiscerning Origin and Development (London: 1846); J.W. openness, mainly nurtured by ‘culture Ewing, Goodly Fellowship: A Centenary tribute war’ concerns, lead to a stand-still. to the Life and Work of the World Evangelical Alliance 1846-1946 (London: Marshall, Mor- Yet, the ‘wait-and-see’ approach can- gan and Scott, 1946); J.B.A. Kessler, A Study not be sustained indefinitely. Evangel- of the Evangelical Alliance in Great Britain icals need a pertinent framework to (Goes: Netherland, Oosterbaan & LeCointre interpret Roman Catholicism. This N.V., 1968); Philip Jordan, The Evangelical needs to reflect their theological iden- Alliance for The United States of America, 1847- 1900 Ecumenism, Identity, and the Religion of tity as well as being able to account for the Republic (Mellen Press, 1983); David M. the multifaceted, yet unitary, reality of Howard, The Dream that Would Not Die, RC. In the absence of a solidly evan- (Exeter: WEF/Paternoster, 1986); W. Harold gelical theological interpretative Fuller, People of the Mandate (Carlisle: model, evangelicals will continue to be WEF/Paternoster; Grand Rapids: Baker, 1996); Ian Randall and David Hilborn, One astonished by some of the inner devel- Body in Christ (Carlisle: Paternoster Press, opments within Catholicism which do 2001). not change its fundamental structure. 212 Pietro Bolognesi

I Some historical mileposts issues. On some occasions, on doctri- We will proceed from the present to the nal issues it becomes even more diffi- past to gain a better understanding of cult to disassociate themselves. At the evangelical identity set forth. At worst, there is a feeling of a kind of present Evangelicals are open to some neutralism. The only uncertainty is the kind of relationship with Catholics. attitude of the new pope Benedict XVI. Although not widely recognized, this He seems more concerned with unity reflects a very new atmosphere. The with the Orthodox Church than with controversies of the past seem to have Evangelicals. become a very far memory. Evangeli- This staunch separation between Protestants and Catholics reflects part cals have gained social stability in of the EA’s history as well. Before the many countries. In some they continue Evangelical Alliance was born, evan- to grow and to arouse attention. At the gelicals made clear that the possibility same time they have more and more of living out our unity in Christ academic respectability. depended strongly on the will of all After centuries of controversy, it believers belonging to different denom- seems that Evangelicals and Catholics inations to overcome past doctrinal are learning the art of dialogue based controversies and seek unity. They on mutual respect. When someone made clear that Protestants should points out harshness or dogmatic learn to protest a little less and to love severity, it seems possible to explain it a little more. The unity of the people of in terms of internal plurality within God was perceived as a leading force Catholicism. In spite of unresolved and the divergences in doctrine of the issues on doctrine, proselytism and past were not considered central and religious freedom, this atmosphere no longer a reason for separation prevents us from regarding each other between Christians. as strangers. Discussions, dinners, Although the desire to open greater and time together seem to open up a dialogue within the evangelical move- new season in EA and RC relations. ment was very strong among the fore- It seems possible even to explore runners of the Alliance, this corre- some kind of co-belligerency between sponded with a definitive closing of the the two, which is developing a sense of dialogue with Catholicism and infi- comradeship. Secularisation appears delity. This great opening towards to many Evangelicals and Catholics to internal unity and a closing toward be the real danger. Catholics can be Catholicism and infidelity meant that heard adopting a conservative stance both systems of belief were seen as on many ethical issues. In this atmos- wrong, and thus Catholicism was not phere, it becomes more and more diffi- treated differently from infidelity.2 cult to make distinctions. On many If creativity is a kingdom calling, issues Catholics and conservative Evangelicals seem to have the same opinion. The Evangelicals have great 2 The preparatory conference was held in Liv- difficulty in distancing themselves erpool from 1-3 October, 1845, with 216 lead- from the RC magisterum on ethical ers from 20 denominations participating. ‘The A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 213 this presents a problem not only for The Document consists of two doctrinal issues, but also for ethical parts: 1. The Church as koinonia (Fel- issues. Paradoxically, there is an lowship, Communion); 2. Our Respec- impression that Evangelicals are not tive Views on Evangelization/Evange- able to engage in creative thinking any lism. After some consideration as to more. They seem to have difficulty get- the meaning of ‘Fellowship’ in the NT, ting a perspective that can distinguish the document tries to describe the sig- them from the RC Church. The Roman nificance that the idea has for Evangel- Church presents itself as a universal icals and Roman Catholics. ‘Catholics ethical agency in which all conserva- tend to interpret koinonia in this pas- tives can find a place. Sadly, rather sage to mean a participation in the than reflect upon the issues at hand, divine life and “nature” while Evangel- many Evangelicals assume the stance icals tend to interpret koinonia as provided by the RC church of not dis- covenant companionship, as it entails tinguishing the nature of the discus- escaping moral corruption and the way sion or the outcome of such ideals. of the world.’ We must now consider what roads The report takes into account the have led to this point. Most recently, ‘Respective Understandings of the the document, Church, Evangelisation, Church and of Other Christians’, and the Bonds of Koinonia. A Report of according to both the Catholic and the the International Consultation between Evangelical Views. The document is the Catholic Church and the World Evan- also concerned with ‘Some Dimensions 3 gelical Alliance (1993—2002), repre- of the Church’: its origins, the Local sents the last important step in the and Universal Church, with Conver- relationship between the Roman gences and Differences Between Catholic Church and the EA. The Catholics and Evangelicals on this Report is the work of an International topic. Another section concentrates on Consultation between some represen- ‘Preparing for a Different Future’ for tatives of the Catholic Church and further dialogue. The second part, ‘Our some of the World Evangelical 4 Respective Views on Evangelization/ Alliance. Evangelism’, gives space to the Catholic view, the evangelical view and emphasis in this conference was on unity and the challenge of common witness. love rather than on controversy. […] How- The Document recognizes that it is ever, there was a definite position of strong not an authoritative declaration and opposition both to Roman Catholiocism and affirms that it is a study document pro- also to infidelity’ ( Howard, Dream, pp. 8-9). duced by participants in the Consulta- 3 Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity, Information Service 113 (2003/II-III) pp. tion with the aim of being widely dis- 85-101; www.ecumenism.net/archive/2002_ wea_pcpcu_church.htm 4 The Report is the result of some meetings consultations beginning in Venice in 1993, sponsored by international bodies on both and continuing at Tantur, Jerusalem in 1997, sides: the World Evangelical Alliance and the Williams Bay, Wisconsin in 1999, Mundelein, Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity. Illinois in 2001, and Swanwick, England in This initiative eventually resulted in formal 2002. 214 Pietro Bolognesi cussed. To our knowledge, only one concludes with a very concrete ‘two- document has tried to offer a contribu- fold proposal’. tion to this Report: A Response by the The document exists in a context IFED Faculty.5 where contact between Evangelicals This fact is interesting in itself. It is and Roman Catholics is a widespread evident that a large number of Evan- practice. Evangelicals and Catholics gelicals do not seem very concerned by Together has produced its fourth docu- the question. In the face of a turning ment as a result of a series of conver- point such as this, there seems to be a sations which took place between great deal of passivity. Two things, some Evangelicals and some Catholics however, have significantly changed in the USA over the ten-year period the perception of these events for many 1994-2003.7 This process was chal- people. The world is moving into a cul- lenged by some theologians,8 but the ture of uncertainty and the Roman ecclesiastical trend seems stronger. Catholic Church seems to be taking the It is also interesting to note that in responsibility to give guide lines. We 1999, the World Lutheran Federation are said to be living in a sceptical age. and the Roman Catholic Church signed Actually, we live in an age of outra- a joint Declaration on the Doctrine of geous credulity. Justification. At the time of the Refor- The only Response known, under- mation, it was the doctrine on which lines the ‘inadequacy of the format; of the church stood or fell; in the Joint 6 the language and of the methodology’. Declaration it is affirmed that ‘the doc- Moreover it focuses on the ‘Standing trine of justification is the measure or theological issues which need to be faced’ and the ‘Long-term missiologi- cal implications’ of the issues raised. It 7 While the first statement ‘Evangelicals and Catholics Together’ (1994) introduced the conversation, ‘The Gift of Salvation’ (1997) 5 Padova, 27th May 2005; www.ifeditalia.org focused on justification by faith, and ‘Your 6 In Roman Catholicism it is possible to Word is Truth’ (2002) touched on Scripture speak of the written Word of God as the ‘final and tradition. The on-going dialogue produced authority’, but this does not exclude the fact ‘The Communion of Saints’ (First Things, that the Scripture is always inextricably joined March 2003, pp. 26-33; hereafter COS) which to ecclesial tradition and magisterial teaching develops the theme of Christian fellowship (Dei verbum II,9-10). By this conception the among believers. Word of God includes sacred tradition. 8 For a clear discussion see De Chirico, ‘Roman Catholic theology can reconcile the ‘Christian Unity vis-à-vis to Roman Catholi- affirmation of both, whereas Evangelical the- cism. A Critique of the Evangelicals and ology cannot. Evangelicals can affirm some- Catholics Together dialogue’ ERT Oct 2003 thing and, while affirming it, deny its contrary, (27:4), pp. 337-352; Chirico, Evangelical Theo- whereas Roman Catholics can affirm some- logical Perspectives on post-Vatican II Roman thing without necessarily denying what is not Catholicism (Oxford/Bern: Peter Lang, 2003). explicitly denied. Their theological epistemol- This doctoral thesis provides critical analyses ogy is a programmatic ‘both-and’ one and a of evangelical writings on present-day Roman meaningful dialogue with Roman Catholics Catholicism (including the dialogue in which should take it into consideration.’ (IFED Fac- WEF-WEA is involved) as well as a systemic ulty 2002, Your word is truth). theological approach to the Roman worldview. A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 215 touchstone for the Christian faith’.9 denomination. Unity in truth consti- The document seems to suggest that tuted the goal that the evangelical the condemnations of the Reformation world was called to achieve and the were based on misconceptions and the Alliance was the means by which to separation was a mistake. reach such a goal. As a consequence, In 1999 the Italian Evangelical the theological debates between Chris- Alliance endorsed the document, An tian denominations which were of sec- Evangelical Approach Toward Under- ondary importance were rejected in standing Roman Catholicism. The docu- order to confess unity. Therefore, ment draws attention to a global under- although the Alliance supported an standing of the phenomenon, helping attitude of listening to and under- to give a theological and cultural per- standing between Christians, a firm spective on the issue. However, it does opposition towards Catholicism and not seem that this Evangelical infidelity continued to characterize its Approach received the necessary con- attitude towards other beliefs.11 The sideration even though it was pub- founding fathers considered the con- lished in four different languages (Ital- flict with Rome as an inevitable princi- ian, French, German and English).10 In ple and a specific element of the iden- fact, the EA at the European level did tity of the Evangelical Alliance.12 not take it into consideration. Such In 1995, the General Director of lack of interest over a pertinent issue WEA, Jun Vencer, was asked about the is contrary to the historical identity of document ‘Evangelicals and Catholics the Evangelical Alliance. From the beginning of its story, the Together’ (ECT), signed by some Evan- Alliance felt itself to be a guarantor of gelicals, that caused so many reactions a fully catholic belief—that is a univer- in parts of the world. His response was sal belief, capable of uniting in truth that ‘Catholic relationships with Evan- every fully declared evangelical gelicals vary from country to country. It can range from cordiality to persecu-

9 Joint Declaration of the Doctrine of Justifica- tion (Grand Rapids, Eerdmans 2000); see also 11 In the first issue of Evangelical Christen- Anthony N.S. Lane, Justification by Faith in dom (the Evangelical Alliance publication Catholic-Protestant Dialogue: An Evangelical from January 1847 to 1954) it was written: Assessment (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark 2002). ‘Evangelical Christendom will advocate and 10 The text can be found in Ideaitalia III:5 exalt these common and uniting truths. (1999) pp. 7-8. Translations are available in Rejecting what is sectarian and partial, its French: ‘Le catholicisme romain: une pages will exhibit only the Catholic faith of approche évangélique’, Vivre 8-9 (2000) pp. God’s elect. […] Its only controversy will be 10-14 and Fac-Réflexion 51-52 (2000/2-3) pp. with Romanism and Infidelity.’ (18 cited from 44-49; in German: ‘Ein Evangelikaler Ansatz Kessler, A Study of the Evangelical Alliance, p. zum Verständnis des Römischen Katholizis- 42) mus’, Bibel Info 59/3 (2001) pp. 10-13; in Eng- 12 ‘The conflict…with Rome was a major lish: ‘An Evangelical Approach Towards factor in the thinking of those early founders, Understanding Roman Catholicism’, Evangeli- and repeated references to this are found in cals Now, Dec 2000, pp. 12-13 and European the pages of the journal’ (Fuller, People of the Journal of Theology X (2001/1), pp. 32-35. Mandate, p. 19). 216 Pietro Bolognesi tion.’13 At the same time he affirmed some within the EA toward a more that ‘The critical issue really is the doc- open approach to ecumenism. An inter- trinal differences between the two that national dialogue on missions between remain unresolved and must not be some Evangelicals and Roman denied or underplayed. The use of a Catholics took place between 1978 and common religious language does not 1984. On the Catholic side it was spon- mean that the meanings are the same. sored by the Vatican’s Secretariat There are reasons to believe that they (after 1988, Pontifical Council) for Pro- are not and have not changed since the moting Christian Unity.16 From the Reformation.’14 This was a very clear evangelical side there was no precise statement from an official leader to be strategy stated. In dealing with the considered by all who shun discussions Roman Catholic Church, nobody asked about our relations with the Roman whether evangelical identity could be Catholic Church. either powerfully strengthened or dan- Taking this into consideration, it is gerously weakened. There is the also possible to consider some of the impression that people were involved most important worldwide declara- thoughtlessly and without reflection tions from Evangelicals. When they on evangelical identity. have spoken about Roman Catholi- The contacts were always made on cism, they have agreed about the dan- the basis of the authority of the indi- ger of Romanism and its vast differ- vidual participants, without officially ences from the Evangelical faith—in representing any evangelical body. fact, this was an unquestioned part of Evangelical participants included evangelical conviction. The Evangelical some prominent leaders such as John Affirmations (1989), the result of a con- Stott, not in the name of WEF/WEA. sultation co-sponsored by NAE and These Evangelicals felt that it could be Trinity Evangelical Divinity School, helpful to have a more irenic dialogue have a very clear position on Roman and the contacts show some degree of Catholicism.15 Reformed faith was not respectability vis-à-vis Evangelical- conceived as a compatible component ism. But the issue became more and within the RC system, but notably, as more confusing to the point that some were asking if in the evangelical con- an alternative to it. text something was changing in the It is entirely possible to affirm that doctrinal content and if they shared a some recent contacts between Evan- common future with those with whom gelicals and Catholics have influenced they engaged.17

13 Fuller, People of the Mandate, p. 192. 16 For the Evangelical-Roman Catholic Dia- 14 Fuller, People of the Mandate, p. 192. logue on Mission (ERCDOM) see Basil Meet- 15 On Evangelical Affirmations (1989), a ing and John Stott, (eds.), The Evangelical- consultation co-sponsored by NAE and Trinity Roman Catholic Dialogue on Mission 1977-1984 Evangelical Divinity School; see Evangelical (Carlisle: Paternoster, 1986). Affirmations, S. Kantzer and Carl F. H. Henry 17 Thomas P. Rausch, (ed.), Catholics and (eds.) (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1990). In Evangelicals. Do They Share a Common Future? particular see Donald A. Carson (p. 379). (Leicester: IVP, 2000). A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 217

Moreover, in the context of WEF, WEF, and Msgr. Kevin McDonald and the starting point of the process from Msgr. John Radano for the PCPCU. Venice (1993) to Swanwick (2002) was This discussion helped to increase Jerusalem (1988). Evangelicals met interest in these pertinent matters and some Catholic leaders at the annual it was proposed that a well prepared meetings of the Conference of Secre- and longer consultation should be taries of Christian World Communions arranged for a later date. Bishop Pierre (CWC).18 The CWC meeting provided an Duprey invited the consultation to occasion for a private conversation meet in Venice. between Rev. David Howard, Interna- What was amazing was that the tional Director of WEF, and Dr. Paul document, A Contemporary Evangelical Schrotenboer, General Secretary of the Perspective on Roman Catholicism, was Reformed Ecumenical Synod and not intended for ecumenical discussion Chairman of the WEF Task Force, as or dialogue, nor for external confronta- well as Rev. Pierre Duprey, Secretary tion, but for internal clarification. It of the Pontifical Council for Promoting was the final step in a three-year Christian Unity and Msgr. John Radano process after a dubious action by the of the same Pontifical Council. The WEF General Secretary, Waldron issue was a Document approved by the Scott, at the Seventh General Assem- delegates at the WEF Eighth General bly of the World Evangelical Fellow- Assembly in Singapore (1986) about ship, 24-28 March, 1980, in Hertford- Roman Catholicism, A Contemporary shire, England. Scott had invited two Evangelical Perspective on Roman representatives from the Roman Catholicism.19 Catholic Church to bring greetings. These church leaders meeting in Ralph Martin of the Roman Catholic Jerusalem decided to hold a short Charismatic Renewal Movement, and meeting to discuss issues raised in the Monsignor Basil Meeking of the Vati- book, which took place on the occasion can Secretariat for Promoting Christ- of the CWC meeting in October 1990 in ian Unity were given a platform from Budapest, Hungary. Two persons from which to speak within the realm of the each side attended: Dr. Paul Schroten- evangelical assembly. boer and Dr. George Vandervelde for It was a totally new approach to the Roman Catholic Church and was difficult for many at the Asssembly to 18 This Conference, existing for more than accept. In fact, the appearance of these forty years, was an informal annual meeting two Catholic theologians at a Protes- including the general secretaries or their tant gathering provoked a reaction. equivalent, from a broad range of Christians. Delegates from Spain, France and Italy The International Director of the World Evan- protested. After a heated debate, the gelical Fellowship and the Secretary of the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Italian Evangelical Alliance withdrew 20 Unity have been among the participants in this its membership and the Spanish Conference. Evangelical Alliance placed its partici- 19 Published as Paul G. Schrotenboer (ed.), Roman Catholicism: A Contemporary Evangeli- cal Perspective (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1988). 20 General Assembly AEI, 29/03/1980. 218 Pietro Bolognesi pation in abeyance. General Assembly of the WEF, it As a result of the deep feelings and was concluded that the report misunderstandings generated by this ‘deals with only a limited range of issue WEF appointed a carefully issues of Roman Catholicism’. selected Task Force to study relation- Moreover ‘the Theological ships with the Roman Catholic Church. Commission did not have an oppor- It was emphasized that WEF was con- tunity to discuss the statement cerned that ‘as Protestants we do not before it was sent to the Assembly’. lose our evangelistic ministry to It was therefore decided that the Roman Catholics and that we do not Theological Commission should compromise our theological convic- continue this study of contempo- tions in our contact with them’.21 rary Roman Catholicism. The Task Force was commissioned The spirit of A Contemporary Evan- to draw up a statement on the evangel- gelical Perspective on Roman Catholi- ical stance toward Roman Catholicism cism can be found also in other evan- that all member bodies and fellowships gelical documents of the time, for could endorse. This Task Force was example in the Recife Conclamation composed of leading theologians from (1980)23 and in the Wheaton Declaration every major region of the world, with (1966) on missions.24 In these docu- special attention given to those areas ments, reformed faith was not con- such as southern Europe and Latin ceived of as a compatible component America where the Roman Catholic within the RC system but, once again, Church has exercised special influence as an alternative to it. in the life of the nations and peoples. At At the Lausanne Consultation at the Eighth General Assembly in Singa- Pattaya, Thailand (1980), the commit- pore in 1986 this Task Force produced ment to evangelize pressured Evangel- the report, A Contemporary Evangelical icals to produce reports dedicated to Perspective on Roman Catholicism. As the title indicates, the report was very ‘Christian Witness to Nominal Chris- irenic but also very clear about the tians Among Roman Catholics’. If impossibility of cooperating with the some Evangelicals were not happy Roman Church, perhaps the result of a about the expression, ‘Nominal Chris- clearer theological perspective even if tians Among Roman Catholics’, there not too systemic. Gordon J. Spykman,22 was still a concern for bringing the one of the members of the TF WEF TC, gospel to RC. said: In May 1976, the participants at the annual Evangelical Alliance Confer- This story does not yet have an ending. In view of the shortcomings in the Perspective, a further chapter 23 The Italian text is published in P. Bolog- has yet to be written. At the recent nesi (ed.), Dichiarazioni evangeliche. Il movimento evangelicale 1966-1996 (Bologna: EDB 1997), §186-193. 21 Bruce J. Nicholls’ letter to E. Milazzo 24 H. Lindsell, (ed.), The Church’s Worldwide 27/08/1980. Mission (Waco: Word Books, 1966), pp. 215- 22 Christian Beacon, March 12, 1987. 237, DE §12. A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 219 ence at Papua New Guinea, were led by going from a ghetto to a network27 in a Gottfried Osei-Mensah, as guest very new way. However, historically speaker, to study Stott’s commentary speaking, these dialogues are contrary on the Lausanne Document. Protes- to EA identity. The Alliance has histor- tants and Catholics met on this occa- ically affirmed that the controversy sion side by side, thinking about and with Catholicism and infidelity have discussing evangelism. In the end it been integral elements of the EA since was stated that ‘right through the sem- its inception. inar it became very clear that we Furthermore, the commitment to should be united in proclaiming the Christian unity, the missionary effort, Gospel’.25 the defence of religious freedom, the In the meantime, contacts between international organization of confer- Catholics and Evangelicals took place ences and the worldwide week of within the activities of United Bible prayer provided a precise definition of Societies and in the context of the Billy the evangelical belief and identity. Graham evangelistic crusades.26 These Every form, more or less, of declared were very good occasions to unite the ecumenicalism, aside from the repre- RC and Evangelicals together for coop- sentation of the Alliance, constitutes not only a betrayal of the historical eration on the field. In some countries identity of the Alliance, but also a this kind of cooperation caused dis- threat to the continuity of these activi- agreements among Evangelicals ties, which have established our iden- because it gave the impression of a doc- tity. Each of these dialogues, meetings trinal agreement with Roman or invitations to representatives of Catholics. Catholicism embodies a negation of In a few countries some Evangeli- everything which the Alliance has rep- cals also started open dialogues with resented for millions of evangelicals Catholics. This was a great change worldwide. Those who think to pro- from the historical past of the EA. This mote such dialogue may seek to do so, change could give the impression of but this will clearly not be a promotion of the interests of the Alliance, but in fact, a negation of those interests. 25 ‘To Members of the Lausanne Committee for World Evangelisation’ LCWE, Nairobi, (June 23, 1976), pp. 1,2. But at Lausanne Con- II Some Systemic Approaches gress, Ramez L. Atallah feels that in view of the complex and ambiguous situation of It is impossible to follow all the situa- Roman Catholicism ‘it becomes impossible to tions in past years, but it is possible to adequately study trends in modern Catholi- cism’. See his ‘Some trends in the Roman Catholic Church Today’ in J. D. Douglas (ed.), 27 It is the case in France. See Louis Let the earth hear his voice, (Minneapolis: World Schweitzer (ed.), Le dialogue catholique- Wide Publications, 1975), pp. 872-884. évangéliques, Débats et documents (Cléon d’An- 26 For some elements, see Iain H. Murray, dran: Edifac, Excelsis, 2002); Sébastien Fath, Evangelicalism Divided. A Record of Crucial Du ghetto au réseau. Le protestantisme Change in the Years 1950 to 2000 (Edinburgh: évangélique en France 1800-2005 (Genève : Banner of Truth, 2000), pp. 68-78. Labor et Fides, 2005). 220 Pietro Bolognesi derive some main points from these After the Second World War, Evan- occurrences. gelicals in the United States were An important step in the history of aware of the policy of the Roman differences between Evangelicals and Catholic Church in seeking a dominant Catholics was the National Assembly role in public life. It was seen as one of of Evangelicals in Great Britain in the contenders with Protestant mod- 1966. Martyn Lloyd-Jones and John ernism and secularism in a ‘struggle Stott focused on what was a Christian for power’ for the dominant role in and what was a church.28 The question shaping ‘America’s cultural patterns’. of dialogue and relationship put at The NAE represented a ray of hope for stake the question of identity. winning America. Its doctrinal position The Evangelicals charged that ‘the and its spirit of cooperation were seen Church of Rome continually denounces as a good bulwark.31 Catholicism was the public-school system of the United enjoying unprecedented vitality and States and that to Roman policy mak- respectability in America and Ameri- ers, state support of their schools is can Catholic leaders felt more confi- only one step toward RC control of all dent than ever that they could promote government functions and of the Gov- their dream of applying the ‘culture of ernment itself’.29 The National Associ- Catholicism’32 to every sphere of life, as ation of Evangelicals (NAE) also they had done in so many other nations opposed the establishing of diplomatic before. ties with the Vatican that sounded like This kind of approach was not new a preference of one religion over oth- in the context of the EA. From the very ers, and unwarranted entanglement of beginning, the EA was involved in church and state. Also, in the 1960s, protesting at the persecution of Protes- the Evangelicals in the United States tants in Roman Catholic countries. were not happy about the religious Having become General Secretary of affiliation of President Kennedy. NAE the British organisation in 1904, H. leaders were not optimistic about the Martyn Gooch took on an ‘ambassado- matter: ‘We doubt that the RC presi- rial role’ in the 1920s and 1930s in dent could or would resist fully the support of European Evangelicals pressures of the ecclesiastical hierar- oppressed by Roman Catholicism. chy.’30 After the fall of the Berlin wall, when

28 Murray, Evangelicalism Divided, pp. 68-78; 31 Harold J. Ockenga, ‘Can Fundamentalism D. Martyn Lloyd-Jones, The Fight of faith 1939- Win America?’, Christian Life and Times (June 1981 (Edinburgh: Banner of Truth, 1990). 1947), pp. 13-15. At Fuller, Harold Lindsell 29 ‘Learning from the past: A History of the wrote A Christian Philosophy of Mission Public Policy Resolutions of the Nation Asso- (Wheaton: Van Kampen, 1949), where Roman ciation of Evangelicals’ in Ronald J. Sider and Catholicism was considered among the ‘arch Diane Knippers (eds.), Toward an Evangelical enemies of America and our way of life and of Public Policy (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2005), p. the true faith’ (p. 223). 40. 32 Harold Fey, ‘Can Catholicism Win Amer- 30 Sider and Diane Knippers, Toward an ica?’ (Christian Century eight-part series in Evangelical Public Policy, p. 45. 1944 and 1945). A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 221 the EA was founded in Romania of temporal power and the establish- (1989), believers in that country pro- ment of religious liberty opened the claimed that repression of Evangeli- opportunity for such a Conference to be cals did not start with the Communist held’.36 Many testimonies reported dis- regime, but that the RC Church had crimination, but the perspective wasn’t always been hostile to Evangelicals. merely geographical. They hoped that the EA would help to We know, also, how great, power- oppose the discrimination and oppres- ful, astute, and implacable is our sion in their nation and enable them to enemy, the Papacy… Catholicism live out their evangelical faith. cannot succeed in this work of For Evangelicals it seemed clear awaking the conscience… that Roman Catholicism was a ‘sys- Romanism destroys the power of tem’.33 For this reason there was no the Gospel by its subtle distinctions sense in considering only one particu- between different kinds of sin.37 lar topic or doctrine in Catholicism. For centuries Antichrist was a code This was a unanimous conviction on word among Protestants for Roman the part of all evangelicals. Catholicism, but for Evangelicals the Another occasion on which the EA more important question was the con- gave due attention to Catholicism was version of people from darkness to light. the Ninth General Conference of the The Conference underlined also a Evangelical Alliance, held in Florence historical perspective. Philip Schaff in 1891.34 Even though some other Con- was very clear about the effect of the ferences were important as well [Lon- Reformation. don (1851), Paris (1855), Berlin (1857), Geneva (1861), Amsterdam It emancipated half of Europe from (1867), New York (1873), Basel the spiritual tyranny of the papacy, (1879), Copenhagen (1884)], the Ninth and cleared away the rubbish of General Conference was considered as medieval traditions, which ‘one of the most delightful and suc- obscured and ‘made void the Word cessful gatherings of Christian of God’ like the rabbinical tradi- brethren ever held’.35 tions of old (Matthew 15:6) and The Conference showed a remark- which obstructed the access to able awareness of the context by giving Christ, the only Mediator between 38 attention to the ‘new aspect of the God and man. Roman Catholic religion since the loss The Evangelicals spoke without fear of the reasons for the suppression of the Reformation in Italy and their 33 Loraine Boettner, Roman Catholicism great consequences for the national (Philadelphia: Presbyterian & Reformed, culture. They said that ‘Italy has fallen 1962), pp. 455,459. asleep religiously in the Roman 34 R.A. Redfor(ed.), Christendom from the standpoint of Italy. The Proceedings of the Ninth General Conference of the Evangelical Alliance, held in Florence in 1891 (London: 36 Redford, Christendom, p. 2. Office of Evangelical Alliance, 1891). 37 Redford, Christendom, pp. 115, 195. 35 Redford, Christendom, p. 1. 38 Redford, Christendom, p. 29. 222 Pietro Bolognesi

Catholic doctrine’ and that ‘Romanism felt that to be near to Roman Catholi- has inoculated into the Christian reli- cism could be a fatal seduction for the gion the form of a magical and idola- gospel that they would preach. The trous naturalism’… and it is ‘the very Evangelicals were convinced they opposite of that duty which distin- were an alternative to Roman Catholi- guishes the human soul’.39 There was cism because Catholicism was a factor no illusion about the possibility of a of cultural pollution in the life of the renewal with such a doctrine because country. ‘its ultimate result can only be ignorant From the beginning the EA was con- credulity in the midst of ignorant cerned with a ‘definite posture of a incredulity’. ‘Here, indeed, Romanism strong opposition both to Roman has worked the greatest destruction’ Catholicism and also to infidelity’.44 (p. 54). ‘It will be easy to understand The spiritual unity of the pioneers had now that the Evangelicals are the only a doctrinal basis and the conflict with ones who have rightly understood the Rome was a major factor in their think- religious problem of Italy.’40 ing. ‘The references to “Romanism” Evangelical thought is the opposite and “Infidelity” are elaborated with of Catholic thought. A historian said pejorative language.’45 They realized that the obstacles to Reformation in ‘the paralysing influences of the the fifteenth century as well as in the Romish Antichrist’. Evangelicals were nineteenth were ‘centred in the not terrorized by such controversial Papacy. Everyone knows that the polit- issues. They were confident in the ical obstacles were impersonated power of the gospel for salvation and there’…. ‘Rome is an amalgam of truth spoke as such. and error.’41 Prior to the 1891 conference, the It is well-known that one of the rea- Evangelical Alliance of Geneva sons why the Reformation could not received an invitation extended to take root in Italy was the concern of Protestants by Pius IX in 1868, on the Roman Catholicism to keep the coun- eve of the First Vatican Council, to try divided:42 on one side the formal come back to the fold of Rome. The Latin and Romanic unity, on the other Alliance answered that for Christians side individualism. In a certain way it who submit to the authority of Scrip- seems possible to think in a systemic ture it was impossible to fall back manner. It was perhaps for this reason under the power of Rome. The freedom that Evangelicals were conscious that of God’s children was and is endan- Florence would be ‘the first attempt to gered by the tyranny of the Roman influence a Catholic population’.43 They yoke. There was no way of accepting the invitation of the Pope, given the fundamental clash between Rome and 39 Redford, Christendom, p. 52. the Protestant faith. 40 Redford, Christendom, pp. 53, 55. 41 Redford, Christendom, pp. 61, 113. 42 N. Macchiavelli, Discorsi I, 1, cap. 12, AE, 44 Howard, Dream, p. 9; also Kessler, A Study p. 79. of the Evangelical Alliance, p 42. 43 Macchiavelli, Discorsi I, p. 39. 45 Howard, Dream, p. 19. A History of the Relationship of the EA with the RC Church 223

III Some Provisional affirmed that it was impossible to coop- Conclusions erate with RC. This kind of clear polar- isation was based on a different doctri- Based on these matters and historical nal perception. Twenty years ago, facts, how can we come to a conclu- evangelical leaders were not afraid of sion? It would be wrong to attach too possible disagreements with the RC much significance to these labels, but Church because they knew that such it is obvious that the future belongs to contrasts were unavoidable. those Evangelicals who can learn from But since then important changes their past. have taken place. Great changes fre- It seems that the Roman commu- quently go unnoticed when they hap- nion does not appear to be a strictly pen under the guise of cultural change. confessional body inasmuch as, since The true nature of such changes often Vatican II, it is quite latitudinarian in becomes evident only after the fact. doctrine and practice. It is not neces- Dialogues have a function in gaining a sary to adhere strictly to the magister- better perspective. The approach has ial doctrine as embodied in the concil- been less and less global. The EA has iar pronouncements or the Catechism of refused in this day to fully develop its the Catholic Church to be regarded as a attitude toward Catholicism. There faithful Roman Catholic. What is have been some episodic approaches, essential is to remain in submission to but nothing concrete to provide a the Roman see. But from the very strong identity. It is clear that a coher- beginning the EA was born with the ent vision is being lost. This is the rea- conviction that the church was one; son why it seems urgent to develop a this was the reason why its task is not 46 theological approach that will enable ‘to create this unity, but to confess it’. the EA to have a common methodolog- If we take for granted that ‘that semi- ical approach to the RC church. It also nal concept not only characterized the needs to develop secure identity as to Alliance formed in 1846, but also its who we once were, based on our com- subsequent history in every land and 47 mon history as Evangelicals. every era’, it seems possible to search If the EA is to be the most repre- for a more coherent approach. sentative international institution or It seems that until A Contemporary agency for Evangelicals, it must have a Evangelical Perspective on Roman common theological understanding of Catholicism (1986), the EA was aware Catholicism and a confessional that it held a different perspective from approach to it. The search for identity that of Catholicism. It was clear that in ecumenicity needs to take into the EA and the RC Church had two dif- account a clear view of Roman Catholi- ferent theological structures. It clearly cism and the theological implications of such a union with RC. Based on our search for an enduring identity, the 46 Minutes of the Proceedings of the Confer- ence held at Freemasons’ Hall in London, relationship with the Roman Catholic August 19 September 2, 1846, cit. in Fuller, Church is not a secondary matter, and People of the Mandate, p. 18. therefore there is a need for a common 47 Fuller, People of the Mandate, p. 19. attitude toward it. ERT (2008) 32:3, 224-237 From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church

Oskar Skarsaune

KEYWORDS: Divinity of Jesus, world and reestablish the full obser- Enthronement of the Messiah, vance of the Torah. Jesus did not live Hellenization of Christianity, Jewish up to what was legitimately expected Messianism, Wisdom Christology of the Messiah;1 accordingly it was a hopeless task, right from the beginning, to proclaim him as the Messiah to a Jewish audience. Therefore this pro- I Introduction ject was soon discarded, and instead The title of my paper suggests a kind of Jesus was launched as something movement or change: from the Jewish other than the Jewish Messiah, and Messiah, which is one thing, to the before a non-Jewish audience, and with divine Saviour of the creeds of the much greater success. Instead of being church, which is something quite dif- the Redeemer of the nation of Israel, he ferent. If you take this change for granted, another conclusion immediately follows: since the point of depar- 1 In Antiquity this objection was stated by ture, the Messiah, is characterized as Trypho in Justin’s Dialogue, 32.1. In the Mid- Jewish, the end product, the Saviour of dle Ages it was stated with much force by Ramban (Rabbi Moshe ben Nachman, a.k.a. the creeds, has every chance of being Nachmanides) at the disputation at Barcelona, non-Jewish. That is a point of view 1263; see his Vikuach in Hyam Maccoby, shared by many Jews, whether they Judaism on Trial: Jewish-Christian Disputations believe Jesus to be the Messiah or not. in the Middle Ages (London/Washington: The The traditional Jewish position is Littman Library of Jewish Civilization, 1993, pp. 120-122.) In modern times the argument is this: Jesus never was the Messiah repeated, for example, in David Berger and because he did not accomplish the mes- Michael Wyschogrod, Jews and ‘Jewish Chris- sianic task, which was to liberate tianity’ (New York: KTAV Publishing House, Israel from oppression, redeem the 1978), pp. 18-22.

Oskar Skarsaune (Dr. theol.), is professor of church history at the MF Norwegian School of Theology (Det teologiske Menighetsfakultet), Oslo, and a member of The Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters. His English publications include The Proof from Prophecy. A Study in Justin Martyr’s Proof-Text Tradition (Supplements to Novum Testamentum 56; Brill, 1987); Incarnation: Myth or Fact? (Concordia, 1991); and with Reidar Hvalvik, eds., Jewish Believers in Jesus: The First Centuries (Hendrickson, 2007). He is an active participant in the Norwegian Church Ministry to Israel. This article is a revised version of a paper published in Lausanne Consultation on Jewish Evangelism: Seventh International Conference Helsinki 2003 (ed. Kai Kjær-Hansen; Århus: LCJE 2003), pp. 71-80, with permission from the editor. From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 225 was turned into something quite differ- In recent times, this idea has been ent: the divine Saviour of the individual widely abandoned, except by the schol- souls of Gentile Christians. ars belonging to the Jesus Seminar in This development is often called the USA, who have tried to modernize ‘the hellenization’ of early Christian- it. Much more in vogue, however, and ity,2 and it is more or less taken for especially in circles engaged in Jew- granted in many quarters that this is ish/Christian dialogue, is another twist the right way to describe it historically. to the basic concept. This is the view Not only do many Jews think this way; that Jesus in fact never was and never many Gentile Christians also share the claimed to be the Jewish Messiah. basic historical presuppositions of this Instead, his divine mission was to model. They may evaluate it differ- redeem the Gentiles, to become pre- ently, however. Some think it was a cisely what he became: the Saviour of healthy and also necessary develop- the Gentiles. In this way, there can be ment, Christianity breaking away from a peaceful and harmonious co-exis- Jewish nationalism and particularism. tence between Judaism and Christian- This, more or less, was the position ity. God gave the Torah and the of classical liberalism within the Covenant to Israel, and he has never Protestant camp. It was a good thing revoked either of them. But he gave that Jesus did not remain the Jewish Jesus to the Gentiles to be their Messiah he probably never was. Lib- Covenant and their Saviour.4 This posi- eral Protestantism was, however, not tion is not as new and original as some entirely happy about the Saviour of the of its defenders may think. In the creeds either. They found him too debate with Justin, Trypho the Jew said Greek, too embedded in Greek philoso- the following: phy and metaphysics. So they sought a Let him [Jesus] be recognized of third alternative, which they believed you who are of the Gentiles, as they had found in the real Jesus, the so- Lord and Christ and God, as the called historical Jesus, who was neither Jewish Messiah nor the divine Saviour of the creeds, but rather a good liberal theologian himself, with a mes- Hinrich, 1900); English translation: What is sage that modern liberals found conge- Christianity? (transl. by Thomas Bailey Saun- nial.3 ders) (New York: Harper, 1957). Cf. the dev- astating criticism of this concept in Albert Schweitzer, Von Reimarus zu Wrede: eine Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung (Tübin- 2 The classic statement of this concept is gen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1906—later editions under Adolf von Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dog- the title Geschichte der Leben-Jesu-Forschung I- mengeschichte I-III (several Auflagen, the final II); English translation: The Quest of the His- from Harnack’s hand being the fourth, Tübin- torical Jesus (3rd. ed.; London: Black, 1954). gen: J.C.B. Mohr, 1909); English translation: 4 Perhaps the most prominent spokesman for History of Dogma (in Seven Volumes Bound as this position is Allan Brockway, director of the Four) (transl. from the third German ed. by WCC’s Committee on the Church and the Jew- Neil Buchanan; New York: Dover, 1961). ish People 1979-1988. See, for example, his 3 Again, the classic statement is due to von article in Current Dialogue 1986, issue 10, pp. Harnack, Das Wesen des Christentums (Leipzig: 9-12. 226 Oskar Skarsaune

Scriptures signify, seeing also that lined the context in which I want to set you have acquired the name of the discourse contained in the rest of Christians from him. But as for us this paper. I shall first of all briefly [Jews], who are [already, by the summarise my argument: I want to Torah] worshippers of God…—we challenge the common presupposition do not need to confess him or wor- in all the points of view referred to ship him.5 above, namely that there is a radical If I am not completely mistaken, difference between the Gospel portrait many Jewish believers share the view of Jesus and that contained in the that a significant development took creeds. In my view, the Apostolic Creed place between the Jewish Messiah embodies a Messianic portrait of Jesus Jesus they find in the Gospels, and the that is strikingly Jewish, and in line rather un-Jewish Saviour of the Gen- with that contained in the Synoptic tiles they find in the creeds. But they Gospels. Next, I want to argue that the are unhappy about this change. They Nicene Creed has no other Christology think Jesus, or rather the picture of than the one contained in the Prologue him, was transformed in the process to to the Gospel of John, and in some such an extent that he has become important passages in the Pauline let- alienated from his own people. He ters, and that this Christology has a became what he was not, and what he solid biblical and Jewish basis. was, was lost. That—they would I thus want to contend that both add—is why the Saviour of the creeds Christologies, the ‘Synoptic’ of the is not a Messiah we can present to our Apostolic Creed, and the ‘Johannine’ of Jewish friends. They would never rec- the Nicene Creed, though different, are ognize him as the Messiah of Israel, Jewish. This also means that I will and rightly so. argue that our picture of Judaism and Jewishness at the time of the New Tes- This view is supported not only by 7 modern groups of Jewish believers who tament needs to be broadened. emphatically identify themselves as Judaism at that time could comprise a wider plethora of Messianic models new Ebionites.6 It finds echo among than became the case later. many rather mainstream Jewish believers who cannot suppress a persistent uneasiness about the Greek terminol- II The Christology of the ogy and the philosophically sounding terms of the creeds. Apostles’ Creed With this, I have more or less out- The exact date and provenance of this creed is not known, but there is general

5 Translation according to Arthur Lukyn Williams, Justin Martyr: The Dialogue with 7 In general, see my two books Incarnation: Trypho 64:1 (London: S.P.C.K., 1930), p. 133. Myth or Fact? (Concordia Scholarship; St. 6 On the web one can find several homepages Louis: Concordia, 1991); and In the Shadow of of Ebionite groups, like Bet Emet Ministries, the Temple: Jewish Influences on Early Chris- The Ebionite Jewish Community, Sons Aumen tianity (Downers Grove, Ill.: InterVarsity Israel, and others. Press, 2002), esp. pp. 35-39 and 301-338. From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 227 agreement among scholars that we into Greek of Hebrew mashiach and should not be very far off the mark if we Aramaic meshicha. In this creed, there- say that in its present form it was fixed fore, Christos could well be understood in writing around AD 600 in the south- to be a title rather than a second name west of France, and that it was a for Jesus. (When translating, you nor- daughter creed of the much older creed mally translate a title, but not a name. used in the Christian community at A name is only transliterated. Render- Rome, probably already in the third ing maschiach/meshicha as christos in century A.D.8 This famous Old Roman Greek thus means you treat the word Creed reads like this in the second arti- as a title, not a name. But when the cle: Greek word was rendered in Latin texts, it was no longer translated into And [I believe] in Christos Iesous His its Latin equivalent, unctus, but was only Son, our Lord, only transliterated: Christus. This (1) Who was born from the Holy means: the word was now perceived to Spirit and the Virgin Mary, be a name, not a title. From Latin this (2a) Who under Pontius Pilate was name passed into the vernacular Euro- crucified and buried, pean languages as Christus, Christ, (2b) on the third day rose again from Kristus, Krist, etc.) the dead, Accordingly, the best way to trans- ascended to heaven, late the words Christos Iesous in the Old sits at the right hand of the Father, Roman creed is very likely ‘Messiah whence He will come to judge the Jesus’ or ‘The Anointed Jesus’. From 9 living and the dead. the very beginning, christos was under- The original language of this creed stood to be the title of the end-time king is Greek, and I have left the words for of Israel, the Anointed One. And the Christ Jesus untranslated as they general rule is that when Christos is put stand in the Greek text. This is because before the name Jesus, it often still I am not certain the best way to render retains its meaning as a title, even in them in English is by saying ‘Christ later texts. Jesus’. In Greek, Christos means So far, this has to remain an attrac- ‘Anointed,’ and is a wooden translation tive hypothesis, but let us see if there are more messianic characteristics of this old creed. Many have observed the striking fact that this article of the 8 The classic monograph on the Apostles’ Creed and on the Nicene Creed, and on early creed leaves many interesting things creeds in general, is John N.D. Kelly, Early out. There is no explicit statement Christian Creeds (3rd or later editions; 3rd ed. about the pre-existence of Jesus before London: Longman, 1972). On the Apostles’ he was born by Mary; there is in fact no Creed, the most recent extensive study is explicit statement about his divinity at Liuwe H. Westra, The Apostles’ Creed: Origin, all. Concerning his human life, the History, and Some Early Commentaries (Turn- hout: Brepols, 2002). creed is silent about his preaching and 9 This and the following translations of early teaching, and also, more surprisingly, Christian creeds are taken from Kelly, Early has nothing to say about his healings Christian Creeds. and his fight against the evil powers. 228 Oskar Skarsaune

Born by Mary, crucified under Pon- What Paul is saying here, in tius Pilate, on the third day risen from essence, is that the Davidic descen- the dead, ascended to heaven, sitting dant, Jesus, was made Son of God, that at the right hand of the Father, coming is: was enthroned as the Messiah by his to judge the living and the dead: what- resurrection from the dead (and in this, ever this summary might be, it is the ascension and enthronement at clearly no ordinary biography, no sum- God’s right hand are implied). mation of an ordinary, not even an Once we have recognized this extraordinary, human life. Even an twofold structure of the creed, in extraordinary human life is character- agreement with Romans 1:3f., we also ized by what happens between birth observe that the judgement of the liv- and death, but in Jesus’ case it seems ing and the dead is the last and crown- to be exactly the opposite: only his ing expression of the reign of the Mes- birth and death receive any attention! siah, and that his suffering and death But let us assume, for a moment, are, so to speak, the necessary point of that the intention of the creed was not departure for his resurrection and to tell the story of the life of Jesus, but ascension. Before he could ascend, he to proclaim him as the Messiah. What had to descend. Before he could rise, would be most important about the he had to die. Messiah? Basically two facts: firstly his This structure in the understanding birth as a member of the house of of the Messianic career of Jesus is very David, and second his enthronement as clearly spelled out in some other texts the Messiah, the King of Israel, the Son which also have good chances of repre- of God. And precisely these two points senting some of the oldest samples of are the dominating centres of the Christian preaching that we have: the creed! We have to understand the first speeches of Peter in Acts. In his creed’s statements about the resurrec- speech on the day of Pentecost, Peter tion of Jesus, his ascension and heav- refers to David in the following words: enly enthronement at the right hand of ‘He was a prophet and knew that God the Father as the story of his enthrone- had promised him on oath that he ment as King—as the creed’s way of would place one of his descendants on telling how Jesus was enthroned as the his throne’ (Acts 2:30). And how did Messiah. God fulfil this promise? By raising If we do so, we recognize in the Jesus from the dead! creed exactly the same structure as in By the raising of Jesus from the one of the oldest summaries of the dead and exalting him to heaven, gospel ever written, Romans 1:3f: enthroning him at the Father’s right … the gospel concerning God’s Son, hand, Jesus was enthroned as the (1) who was of David’s seed accord- Davidic Messiah promised to David by ing to the flesh, the prophet Nathan (2 Sam. 7:12 ‘I will (2) but was made Son of God in power raise up your offspring… and I will according to the Spirit of holiness, by his resurrection from the dead: Jesus Messiah, our Lord.10 10 My own translation. From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 229 establish his kingdom.’11). In this and rising again and ascending to his prophecy, says Peter, ‘he spoke of the heavenly throne. In Peter’s speeches resurrection of the Messiah’ (Acts in Acts, and also in Jesus’ teaching 2:31). In Peter’s understanding, Jesus after his resurrection (according to has now been enthroned, and in his Luke), the death of Jesus is seen as imminent appearance he will establish almost only a necessary transition that his Messianic reign, fulfilling all made it possible for him to rise from the promises given to God’s people: dead, Acts 2:23-24; 3:18. Repent, and turn to God… that he Did not the Messiah have to suffer may send the Messiah who has these things and then enter his been appointed for you—even glory? (Luke 24:26, cf. also 24:46- Jesus. He must remain in heaven 47). until the time comes for God to restore everything, as he promised It was, I suppose, only after some long ago through his holy time that the disciples of Jesus were prophets…. Indeed, all the able to understand that the death of prophets from Samuel on, as many Jesus was an integral part of the total as have spoken, have foretold these event of the enthronement of their days (Acts 3:19-24 NIV, slightly Messiah, and that his death on the modified). cross was a saving event in itself, with its own significance. They found the It is clear from this that the tradi- clue to this, as Jesus had done before tional Jewish objection against Jesus being the Messiah—that he did not ful- them, in Isaiah 53. fil the Messiah’s task before he died— We have seen how Peter in these is widely off the mark, in Peter’s per- speeches, and Paul in Romans 1:3f, spective. Peter would agree that Jesus’ both emphasize the Davidic descent of mission during his life on earth, before the Messiah, and we know that the the last Passover, should not be seen early Church was convinced that not as fulfilling the Messianic task; it was only was Jesus’ adoptive father Joseph rather a preparation for it.12 Jesus a son of David, but his mother in the entered his Messianic office by dying flesh, Mary, was also of David’s seed.13 So now we are in a position to see how entirely biblical the second article of 11 On verbs for ‘raising up’ in messianic texts being understood to imply the Messiah’s rising from the dead, see D.C. Duling, ‘The tive: An Examination of His Sayings, Actions, Promises to David and their Entrance into and Eschatological Titles (transl. by David E. Christianity: Nailing Down a Likely Hypothe- Aune; Minneapolis: Augsburg 1987). sis’, New Testament Studies 20 (1973/74), pp. 13 This is emphatically affirmed already in 55-77. Ignatius’ creed-like formulas around A.D. 12 In this Peter would probably be in line 110: ‘… conceived by Mary according to God’s with Jesus’ own understanding. His baptism plan, of the seed of David…,’ Ephes. 18.2; ‘… by John was not his enthronement as the Mes- who was of the stock of David, who was from siah, but rather his designation as the Messiah- Mary…,’ Trall. 9; ‘… he was truly of David’s to-be. Cf. the extensive argument for this view stock after the flesh… begotten truly of the in Ragnar Leivestad, Jesus in His Own Perspec- Virgin…,’ Smyrn. 1.1-2. 230 Oskar Skarsaune the Apostolic Creed is. Jesus was born first-begotten before all creation, of Mary; he was a son of David as well begotten before all ages from the through her as through his adoptive Father, father Joseph. He entered his Mes- through whom [i.e. the Son] all sianic reign by dying and rising on the things came into being, third day and ascending to heaven and who because of our salvation was being enthroned at God’s right hand, incarnate, where he now reigns as Messiah and and dwelt among men, will complete the Messianic task at his and suffered, return when he comes to judge the liv- and rose again on the third day, ing and the dead. and ascended to the Father, and will come again in glory to judge the living and the dead. III The Christology of the At the famous council at Nicaea in Nicene Creed. AD 325, another local creed, very sim- Perhaps I succeeded in convincing ilar to this, and possibly the creed of some of you that the Christology of the Jerusalem, was adopted by the council Apostles’ Creed is much more Jewish as its creed, with only some few preci- than would appear at first sight. My sions being made in the text of the task now is probably more difficult: I creed itself.14 The metaphorical expres- shall try to convince you that the Chris- sions, ‘God from God, light from light’ tology of the Nicene Creed is also Jew- and ‘begotten from the Father, only- ish. begotten’ were made clear by adding Let me begin by saying a few words that they mean the Son is ‘of the same about its age and provenance. I said stuff’ (or of the same substance— earlier that the Apostles’ Creed derives Greek: homousios) as the Father (as a from a local creed in Rome which can ray of light from the sun is ‘of the same be dated to around the middle of the light-stuff’ as the sun itself: light from third century AD. The Nicene Creed light, or as a brook from a source is of likewise derives from a much older the same stuff as the source from creed that may have been used in the which it flows: water from water; or a land of Israel during the third century. tree is of the same stuff as the root We know one example of such a creed; from which it grows: wood from 15 it was the one on which Eusebius of wood.) Caesarea was baptized in his childhood or youth, probably in the 260s or 270s. Its second article runs like this: 14 On the council and its creed-making there is an overwhelming amount of scholarly liter- And [we believe] in one Lord, Jesus ature. See, for an authoritative overview, Christ, Kelly, Early Christian Creeds, chs. VI-VIII. As the Logos of God, an introduction to more recent discussions, God from God, see Skarsaune, ‘A Neglected Detail in the Creed of Nicaea (325),’ in Vigiliae Christianae light from light, 41 (1987), pp. 34-54. life from life, 15 These three metaphors (light from light, Son only begotten, river from source, tree from root) were to From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 231

This ‘of the same stuff’ concept also As you will understand, I have applies when a human father begets a printed the additions made at Nicaea in son, but not when he makes a statue: italics. The Fathers at the council the son, because begotten, is of the same would have argued strongly that these stuff as the father: man from man. But additions did nothing else than make the statue, because made, is of a differ- explicit the more metaphorical lan- ent stuff from its maker. It was there- guage of the older creed, and I shall fore also added in the creed that begot- here only state that I think they were ten means begotten, not created, not absolutely right. Some argument for made. The resultant creed of AD 325, this view will come as we proceed. In second article, runs like this: AD 381 in Constantinople, this creed of And [we believe] in one Lord Jesus AD 325 was reaffirmed, with only Christ, minor polishing of style in the second the Son of God, article, and some interpolations from begotten from the Father as only- the Old Roman Creed (printed below in begotten, bold characters), possibly to make it that is, from the substance of the truly ecumenical. It is this creed from Father, AD 381 we know as the Nicene Creed. God from God, Again I quote only the second article: light from light, And [we believe] in one Lord Jesus true God from true God, Christ, begotten not made, the onlybegotten Son of God, of one substance with the Father, begotten from the Father before all through Whom all things came into ages, being, things in heaven and light from light, things on earth, true God from true God, who because of us men and because begotten not made, of our salvation of one substance with the Father came down and became incarnate, through whom all things came into becoming man, existence, suffered who because of us men and because and rose again on the third day, of our salvation ascended to the heavens, came down from heaven, will come to judge the living and the and was incarnate from the Holy dead. Spirit and the Virgin Mary and became man, and was crucified for us under Pon- become commonplaces in the works of the tius Pilate, Fathers from Justin onwards. Tertullian says and suffered these metaphors are taught us by the Holy and was buried, Spirit—obviously in Scripture. As I am going and rose again on the third day to point out below, all three metaphors are indeed biblical. The introduction of the term according to the Scriptures ‘substance’ (essence, stuff) is meant only to and ascended to heaven, clarify the import of these metaphors. and sits at the right hand of the 232 Oskar Skarsaune

Father, based on some New Testament pas- and will come again with glory to sages and some Old Testament pas- judge living and dead, sages (including some from the Jewish of whose kingdom there will be no Apocrypha). The New Testament pas- end. sages are the following: There can hardly be any doubt: the For us there is but one God, the question of whether this creed is bibli- Father, from whom all things [were cal, depends on the question of made], and for whom we [live], whether the shorter creed behind it is and there is but one Lord, Jesus biblical, e.g. the one quoted by Euse- Christ, through whom all things bius of Caesarea. I therefore suggest [were made], and through whom we we turn to this somewhat simpler [live] (1 Cor. 8:6 NIV, modified). creed in the following. I here repeat its text, but insert the primary biblical ref- He is the image of the invisible erences for each of the clauses which God, the firstborn before all creation. this creed has extra, compared with For by him all things were created; the Apostles’ Creed: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible…. all things were And [we believe] in one Lord, Jesus created by him and for him. He is Christ, (1 Cor. 8:6) before all things, and in him all the Logos of God, (John 1:1f.) things hold together (Col. 1:15-17 God from God, (John 1:1) NIV, modified). light from light, (Wis. 7:26) life from life, (John 5:21, 26) In the beginning was the Logos, Son only begotten, (John 1:14,18; and the Logos was with God and 3:16,18) the Logos was God. He was with first-begotten before all creation, God in the beginning. Through him (Col. 1:15; Prov. 8:22) all things were made; without him begotten before all ages from the nothing was made that has been Father, (Prov. 8:23 Septuagint) made. In him was life and that life through whom [i.e. the Son] all was the light of men…. The Logos things came into being, became flesh and pitched his tent (1 Cor. 8:6; John 1:3; Col. 1:16; among us. We have seen his glory, Heb. 1:2; Gen. 1:1; Prov. the glory of the Only begotten, who 8:22.30; Wis. 7:22) came from the Father, full of grace who because of our salvation was and truth (John 1:1-4,14 NIV, mod- incarnate, (John 1:14, Sir. 24:8) ified). and dwelt among men, (Baruch In these last days God has spoken 3:38) to us through his Son, whom he and suffered, appointed heir of all things, and and rose again on the third day, through whom he made the universe. and ascended to the Father, The Son is the radiance of God’s and will come again in glory to judge glory and the exact image of his the living and the dead. being, sustaining all things by his It is easy to see that this creed is powerful word. After he had provid- From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 233

ed purification for sins [through his By Wisdom the Lord laid the earth’s death], he sat down at the right foundation… (Prov. 3:19 NIV). hand of the Majesty in heaven The Lord begat me as the Beginning (Heb. 1:2-3 NIV, modified). of his ways, before his deeds of old. These are the words of the Amen, I was formed at the first, before the the faithful and true witness, the earth.16 When there were no depths origin of God’s creation (Rev. 3:14 I was born,… before the moun- NIV, modified). tains… before the hills I was begot- Not only can most terms in the creed ten…. When he set for the sea its be recognized in these passages, but limit… then was I beside him as his some of them exhibit the same total craftsman… (Prov. 8:22-30, my own structure, having the same story-line translation). as the creed. So there is no doubt that Wisdom… is a pure emanation of the second article of the creed is bibli- the glory of the Almighty… for she cal in the sense that each and every one is the radiance of the eternal light, the of its sayings can be seen to have sup- spotless mirror of the power of port in New Testament texts. But God, the image of his goodness. And then—some would argue—our initial she, who is one, can do all things, question whether any of this can be and renews everything… (Wis called Jewish, is not answered. We 7:25-27 NAB, modified). have to pose it anew, this time with ref- Now with you is Wisdom, who erence to New Testament texts and knows your works and was present New Testament Christology. Is this when you made the world (Wis 9:9 Christology Jewish? NAB). Let me say it at once and quite [Wisdom says:] From the mouth of bluntly. When looking for the Old Tes- the Most High I came forth, and tament and Jewish background of this mistlike covered the earth… I Christology, one should not begin by sought a resting place,… then the looking at the Messianic prophecies of Creator of all gave me his com- the Bible. Instead, one should look in mand… saying: Pitch your tent in the biblical and apocryphal texts with Jacob… In the holy tent I ministered the following question in mind: Where before him, and in Zion I fixed my in these texts do I find sayings about an abode (Sir. 24:3-10 NAB, modified). ‘X’ of which it is said: God created the world by/through/with the help of X? One Here we meet God’s Wisdom spo- needs only pose this question, and every ken of as if it were a person outside Bible reader will know the answer: say- God, yet at the same time clearly being ings of this kind are not made about the Messiah, the king of David’s seed, but about God’s Wisdom personified. Let us 16 The Septuagint here reads pro tou aioonos, review some of the most important pas- an expression which the creed takes over and intensifies by saying the Son was begotten of sages. I italicise the words and phrases the Father pro pantoon toon aioonoon, ‘before most relevant to the New Testament all the worlds/ages’, or, a little more freely passages and the creed: translated: ‘before any world was created’. 234 Oskar Skarsaune conceived of as God’s own wisdom. Proverbs 8:22, and the latter is obvi- Wisdom is part of God, and therefore ously Wisdom. Wisdom being Torah, divine, and assists him in creating the this results in two possible readings of world. We also hear, in Sirach 24, of a Genesis 1:1: either ‘By Wisdom God kind of incarnation of this preexistent created…,’ this is the reading of two Wisdom, and the verb used for Wis- Targums; or ‘By the Torah God cre- dom’s dwelling on earth is the same as ated…,’ this is the reading of the main the one used in John 1:14: Wisdom rabbinical commentary on Genesis 1:1, pitched its tent on Zion—clearly a refer- Genesis Rabba.18 This midrash also ence to the tent of meeting and the combines this with Wisdom/Torah, functionally equivalent temple on Zion. calling itself God’s craftsman or master There is every reason to believe that builder in Proverbs 8:30, and weaves all within second Temple Judaism a of this together in the following well- strong need was felt to clearly identify known midrash: this divine Wisdom, so as not to make The Torah declares: ‘I was the it a threat to God’s unity. The solution working tool of the Holy One, was to identify it with God’s Word (so blessed be He’ [cf. Prov. 8:30: ‘I Philo), or the Torah (so Sirach and the was with him as a master worker’ Rabbis). The result was a transforma- (Hebrew: ‘amon)]. In human prac- tion of the concept of the Torah: from tice, when a mortal king builds a now on, the Torah was thought to be palace, he builds it not with his preexistent before creation, and to be own skill but with the skill of an the tool with which, or the plan accord- architect. The architect moreover ing to which, the world was created.17 does not build it out of his head, but Proverbs 8:22-31 became an impor- employs plans and diagrams to tant text concerning the Torah, result- know how to arrange the chambers ing in the concept that the word Begin- and the wicket doors. Thus God ning in Genesis 1:1 was identified as being the Torah. This is based on a sim- consulted the Torah and created the world, while the Torah ple gezera shawa combination of Gene- sis 1:1 and Proverbs 8:22: the reshit of declares, ‘By ‘The Beginning’ God Genesis 1:1 is the same as the reshit of created’ [Gen. 1:1], ‘The Beginning’ referring to the Torah, as in the verse, ‘The Lord made me The Beginning of His way’ [Prov. 17 For this and the following, see W. 8:22].19 Schencke, Die Chokma (Sophia) in der jüdischen Hypostasenspekulation (Skrifter utg. av Det This specific midrash is anony- Norske Videnskapsakademi II, 1912; Nr. 6; mous, and could be too late to be of Christiania 1913); K. Schubert, ‘Einige interest to us. Basically the same Beobachtungen zum Verständnis des Logos- midrash is preserved in Philo, how- begriffes im frührabbinischen Schrifttum’, Judaica 9 (1953), pp. 65-80; Hans-Friedrich Weiss, Untersuchungen zur Kosmologie des hel- lenistischen und palästinensischen Judentums 18 See Gary Anderson, ‘The Interpretation of (Texte und Untersuchungen 97; Berlin: Genesis 1:1 in the Targums’, Catholic Biblical Akademie-Verlag, 1966), pp. 181-330. Quarterly 52 (1990), pp. 21-29. From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 235 ever, and Rabbi Akiva seems to hint at in John it is the evangelist who often it when he says: ‘Beloved are Israel, for portrays Jesus as the substitute of the to them was given the precious instru- Torah, and not only in the prologue to ment… by which the world was created’ the Gospel.23 (Mishnah Aboth 3:14).20 The position My contention is that the Christol- accorded to the Wisdom-Torah in such ogy of the Nicene Creed is a spelling texts as these prompted the Rabbis to out of this very Jewish Wisdom Chris- call the Torah ‘God’s daughter’ (Baby- tology. But if it turns out that the Wis- lonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 101a; Leviti- dom Christology of this creed is Jewish cus Rabba 20:10 etc.). enough, how messianic is it? Has this Jews who believed in Jesus, how- anything to do with the Jewish Mes- ever, identified this Wisdom with siah? Jesus, God’s Son. This explains why That is a question not easy to Jesus, in texts which speak of him in answer. The reason is simple: If there this role, is not so much portrayed as were Jewish texts that made a connec- the Messiah as he is portrayed as the tion between pre-existent Wisdom and Torah in person. He is Wisdom incar- the Messiah, these texts would be sup- nate. In him, the Wisdom/Word with pressed within mainstream Judaism in which God created the world, became the early Christian era, precisely flesh, became a flesh and blood human because they provided building materi- being.21 In the synoptic Gospels it is als for early Christology. The early Jesus himself who frequently enters Church, for its part, betrays great this role of God’s Wisdom in person;22 uncertainty with regard to the contents and status of such texts. The result is that only a part of the Jewish literature 19 Translation according to H. Freedman and Maurice Simon, eds., Midrash Rabbah: Genesis from this period is preserved. But in (London: Soncino, 1939), p. 1. what has been preserved, there are 20 Cf. Ephraim E. Urbach, The Sages—Their indications that a connection was Concepts and Beliefs I-II (Jerusalem: Magnes indeed made (within second Temple Press, 1975), pp. 198-202; 776-777. Judaism) between Wisdom and the 21 As mentioned in note 15, three metaphors Messiah. This is most clearly constantly recur in the Fathers when they want to describe the emergence of the Son out of the expressed in the so-called Similitudes Father: light from light, tree from root, and of the Ethiopic book of Enoch (1 En 37- river from source (giving rise to the ‘x from x’ 71). Here I must content myself with formulas and the ‘of the same substance’ for- this brief reference, the theme is fasci- mula). All three metaphors are used about Wis- dom’s relationship to, or going out from, God, in the Bible and the Apocrypha: Light from light: Wis. 7:26; tree from root: Prov. 3:18; age of Wisdom (Minneapolis: Fortress/Edin- flowing from God as source: Bar. 3:12. All burgh: T&T Clark, 1994); Martin Hengel, three metaphors are present in Sir. 24. ‘Jesus as Messianic Teacher of Wisdom and 22 The limitations of this paper don’t allow the Beginnings of Christology’, in the same me to enter the question of how Jesus himself author, Studies in Early Christology (Edin- acted and spoke in the role of Wisdom in per- burgh: T&T Clark, 1995), pp. 73-117. son. See my book Incarnation, pp. 33-38; Ben 23 See especially Raymond E. Brown’s com- Witherington III, Jesus the Sage: The Pilgrim- mentary on John in the Anchor Bible series. 236 Oskar Skarsaune nating and in need of further without alteration. Accordingly, research.24 God could not be capable of under- To those who perceive the Christol- going this change (rendered by ogy of the Nicene creed as very Hel- Origen, Contra Celsum, 4.14). lenistic or Greek, I have one basic chal- Either God really does change, as lenge: how do you then explain that all they [the Christians] say, into a Greek writers we know of, reacted with mortal body; and it has already an instinctive disgust to the most obvi- been said that this is an impossibil- ous implication of the Nicene Creed, ity. Or He does not change, but namely that it portrayed a God who suf- makes those who see Him think He fered in his Son, of one essence with does so, and leads them astray, and him? If there was one theological tells lies (Contra Celsum 4.18)! dogma shared by all educated Greek Jews and Christians: no God or men and women, it was the impassibil- child of God either has come down ity of God or the divine nature.25 Let us or would have come down [from listen for a while to an eloquent oppo- heaven] (Contra Celsum 5.2)!26 nent of Christianity, Celsus the philosopher, ca. AD 175, making this Not only did critics of Christianity specific point: react this way, but all the early Fathers of the church felt this difficulty them- God is good and beautiful and selves, because they were used to happy, and exists in the most beau- thinking about God in Greek terms.27 I tiful state. If then He comes down shall never forget how a modern Jew to men, He must undergo change, a saw this point very clearly, and turned change from good to bad, from it into an argument for the Jewishness beautiful to shameful, from happiness to misfortune, and from what is best to what is most wicked. Who would choose a change like this? It 26 These three quotes rendered according to the translation in Henry Chadwick, Origen: is the nature only of a mortal being Contra Celsum, Translated with an Introduction to undergo change and remolding, & Notes (Cambridge: Cambridge University whereas it is the nature of an Press, 1965), pp. 192f; 195 and 264. immortal being to remain the same 27 The best example, perhaps, is Tertullian. To him the suffering of God’s Son, consub- stantial with the Father, is so offensive that he can say: ‘Surely these things [human emotions 24 In addition to the litterature of the two and suffering] could not have been believed, preceeding notes, see also Gottfried Schi- even about the Son of God, had they not been manowski, Weisheit und Messias: Die jüdischen given us in Scripture; possibly they could not Voraussetzungen der urchristlichen Präexisten- have been believed of the Father, even if they zchristologie (WUNT 2, 17; Tübingen: J.C.B. had been given in Scripture!’ (Adv. Prax., Mohr, 1985); and William Horbury, Jewish 16.13, translation according to ANF 3: p. 612, Messianism and the Cult of Christ (London: SCM modified). Tertullian is able, however, to turn Press, 1998). this offensiveness of the incarnation into an 25 See Robert M. Grant, The Early Christian apologetic argument for its credibility: the Doctrine of God (Charlottesville: University incarnation is something so offensive we could Press of Virginia, 1966), esp. pp. 111-114. simply not have invented it. From the Jewish Messiah to the Creeds of the Church 237 of the Christian dogma of the incarna- I used to think that becoming incar- tion and suffering of God’s Son. In a nate was impossible to God. But televised interview on Norwegian recently I have come to the conclu- National Television Pinchas Lapide28 sion that it is unjewish to say that said the following: this is something the God of the Bible cannot do, that he cannot come that close. I have had second 28 Norwegian Television April 1978. thoughts about the incarnation…

NEW FROM PATERNOSTER Living the Dream – Joseph for Today: A Dramatic Exposition of Genesis 37-50 Pete Wilcox In a lively and gripping way Pete Wilcox opens up the story of Joseph in fourteen dramatic episodes. This is an informed guide to ‘Joseph’ but it is not an academic commentary. With a light touch and the sensitivity of one who has listened carefully to the biblical text Wilcox allows the narrative to unveil itself before us and to draw our own stories alongside its own. In this the way the ancient tale is made fresh for a modern western generation. The Joseph cycle is a story about coping with adversity and disunity which makes it the sort of text the church might usefully return to at present. Pete Wilcox is the Canon Chancellor at Lichfield Cathedral.

978-1-84227-555-9 / 216 x 140mm / 160pp (est.) / £7.99 Israel God’s Servant: God’s Key to the Redemption of the World David W. Torrance & George Taylor Historically anti-Semitism has been ingrained in much Christian theology and practise. Is this the result of NT teaching or an alien intrusion into Christianity? What is a Christian attitude towards the Jewish people and towards the State of Israel? What is currently going on in the Middle East and does Israel still play a role in God’s purposes for the redemption of the world? This book seeks to set out a biblical and theological case for the ongoing importance of the Jewish people in God’s plans for creation and to explain something of the complex and controversial situation in the modern day Israeli state. David W. Torrance studied theology with Karl Barth and is a Presbyterian Minister in the Church of Scotland; George Taylor is a pseudonym.

978-1-84227-554-2 / 216 x 140mm / 144pp (est.) / £9.99

Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2008) 32:3, 238-256 The Institutions of Hope

Christopher Fung

KEYWORDS: Sabbath, sabbatical less than sin’s cosmic reach. The Sab- year, Jubilee, Lord’s Supper, church, bath day together with its derivatives, kingdom, creation the Sabbatical Year and the Jubilee, are to induct the concerned entities into the overall redemption of God. All the THE SABBATH AS A concept and an insti- three concepts and corresponding tutional complex is uniquely forward institutions are founded on the same looking in the Bible, and the ministry of ideas, but applied to different aspects Jesus bears a unique and foundational of God’s creation. Given man’s unique relationship to the Sabbath. From all sentience among God’s creatures, he is biblical evidence, the fundamental rea- the first and only fitting recipient of son why Jesus’ opponents put him to God’s instructions regarding the Sab- 2 death is because of his deliberate and bath. Man is thus the leader of the persistent challenge of the prevalent Sabbath for the rest of creation and interpretation of the Sabbath through this is one sense in which the Sabbath words and deeds.1 is made for man rather than the other way around.3 The Sabbath for man is founded on I Act One God’s sovereign and creative acts. In When Adam and Eve fell, the effects of the beginning, God exercised his free- their transgression percolated and dom to create. Thereafter, God did not reverberated throughout the created remain indifferent towards his cre- order, necessitating a redemption no ation, but judged each individual part to be good and the synergistic totality very good—a qualitative leap. He takes pleasure in the works of his own 1 C. Fung, ‘Sabbath, The Alpha and Omega of God-Man Partnership’, Asia Journal of Theol- ogy, 20:2 (October 2006), p. 455, and 20:1, pp. 182-204 (or http://www.geocities.com/lay- 2 Jurgen Moltmann, God in Creation, An Eco- man_chrisfung/Hope as at February 2008); logical Doctrine of Creation (London: SCM, Hans Kung, On Being a Christian (New York: 1985), pp. 77-78, 224. Doubleday, 1976), pp. 207-208. 3 Mk. 2:27, 28.

Dr Fung, who holds a PhD in physics, and works for the Environmental Protection Department of Hong Kong, is a layman keenly interested in understanding the Bible and its application. In his spare time, he volunteers for relief and development and environmental work. (Email: [email protected]) The Institutions of Hope 239 hands. But he did not create a mecha- the Old Testament, the Sabbath is nistic clockwork which follows its own unique.6 First, all the other biblical laws to move towards a target with commemorations look to an event totally predictable exactness. Instead, within history for remembrance, yet he bestowed on one of his creature the Sabbath alone is super-historical types—humans—freedom of choice by its reference to the super-historical and action. act of God’s creation and by extension Not only does the mechanism of this also to a future which transcends his- freedom elude the exerciser, but the tory.7 Second, while all other festivals exercise of this freedom also causes are annual observance, thus pegged to God himself surprises, pleasant and nature’s rhythm, the Sabbath is super- otherwise. That is why God did not natural by imposing rhythms not found stop working after he celebrated his in the natural daily and yearly cycles.8 pleasure in his creation in his first Sab- Third, no other biblical festivals bath. He continues to work4 in demand man’s work but look to God’s response to the creative choices taken work for commemoration, but the Sab- by his free creatures—humans. Yet he bath is process-goal balanced through looks forward to a grand finale in insisting on man’s work first—the which the freedom of man exercised process—which is then to be punctu- with respect to God and to the rest of ated by a Sabbath of rest and plea- creation will be aligned with his own. sure—the goal.9 This will be the ultimate Sabbath Fourth, the other feasts and festi- which unites the Sabbath of God with vals look to a return to the past, but the the Sabbaths into which God has initi- Sabbath is purposeful through accus- ated humans and nature. toming man to and reminding him of The Sabbath for man and for God as that ultimate future pleasure in his a concept of creation is founded on own work as God had in his. Fifth, freedom, responsibility, work and ulti- while the other festivals all testify to mately the hope of pleasure in one’s the incompleteness of man’s repeated free and responsible creation. This annual observances, the Sabbath explains why the Sabbath was insti- heightens this sense of incompleteness tuted for the Israelites only after they through its much more frequent peri- had been freed from their slavery in odic reminder. Hence man’s Sabbath is Egypt, at a time when they could hope incomplete. Sixth, while all other festi- for a future of their own,5 be held vals invite only observance, the Sab- accountable for their actions and also bath invites meaningful participation work diligently and meaningfully towards that end without having the fruits of their own labour robbed from 6 Fung, Sabbath, pp. 188-191. them by their slave masters. 7 Ex. 20:9-11. Among all the festivals and feasts in 8 Abraham Joshua Heschel, The Sabbath: Its Meaning for Modern Man (HarperCollins Canada, 1979), p. 10; Moltmann, God in Cre- 4 Jn. 5:17. ation, p. 285. 5 Deut. 5:14-15. 9 Heschel, The Sabbath, p. 28; p. 22. 240 Christopher Fung through leaving room—without speci- longing for freedom which corresponds fying the details of observance—for to the central idea of the Sabbath day man to express his creativity. Finally, for man. This freedom of the children of the Sabbath is yet to be consummated God, within the context of Romans 8, is by God and humans together when the that the law of the Spirit would enable final Sabbath dawns, but all the other them to do joyfully what they have been festivals have already found fulfilment intended, but so far unable, to do to in Jesus Christ. serve the purpose of God. No more The Sabbath day is the spearhead in coercion, goading and disciplining are the Ten Commandments which are for necessary. With that goes the associ- the sentient being—the human. On the ated pain and suffering. Freedom, other hand, the Sabbatical year, being albeit only a foretaste and incomplete, modelled on the Sabbath day, is meant has finally arrived for these first fruits. for the land.10 On its own with its lack Nature’s longing and freedom are mod- of sentience, it may seem that the land elled on these first fruits. is to be laid idle11 by man only once in God has indisputably intended man every seven years so as to allow it to to be sustained physically by the recuperate from being overworked. land—nature. There are two ways this This seems to follow from the superfi- can be done: to dictate to the land what cial understanding of man’s Sabbath, man wants through agriculture or to namely to grant respite—something live off the land directly. The first can they did not have in Egypt—from their allay man’s insecurity about the future works through the newly initiated Sab- more if he has lost faith in the overall bath day, yet there is no record of the integrity of God’s creation and ulti- land being abused by its pre-Exodus mately God. But this, because of man’s inhabitants. On the contrary, the ignorance of himself and nature, would description of the land as flowing with gradually reduce him to an impover- milk and honey and its confirmation by ished and hardscrabble existence and spies12 suggest the very opposite. A further alienate him from nature14 deeper meaning must have been which in this process suffers man’s intended. harsh treatment exacerbated by wan- Romans 8:18-22 matter-of-factly13 ton greed. This goes against the inte- attributes to non-sentient creation a gral design of God. The Sabbatical year aims to undo this alienation and bring nature and 10 Lev. 25:2-7. man into confidence in each other. For 11 John Howard Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, six years, people can force the land to (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1994), p. produce what they think they need, but 60; Oswald T. Allis in the New Bible Commen- for one in seven, man is to give up this tary (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1970), pp. 164-165. prerogative and place himself at the 12 Num. 13:17-28. discretion of nature, over which he is 13 Frederick Fyvie Bruce, The Epistle of Paul charged to exercise stewardship, and to the Romans: An Introduction and Commentary (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1983), pp. 163-164. 14 Gen. 3:17-19. The Institutions of Hope 241 more importantly to place himself in unmistakable reference of the Jubilee the hands of the Creator. The Sabbati- is God: First, man must not take advan- cal year makes room for nature to come tage of others but fear God because he into its own when man’s ploughing and is YHWH; Second, the land must not be pruning—mutilating—stop. By living sold because it belongs to God and men off the land directly, man will have to are but aliens and tenants of God’s allow nature to show him what it has land. The services of man and nature been designed to produce which is also may be valued according to their utili- good for him. During the Sabbatical tarian worth, but man and nature per year, man takes from the land what se must not be so valued because they nature naturally produces to sustain belong to none other than God himself. himself. In case man’s faith is small, he That is why hiring servants is accept- can draw on God’s extra provision able, murdering is severely punished; before the Sabbatical year to tide him picking from nature is acceptable, over.15 destroying it incurs great divine But the goal remains though the wrath.18 steps are gradual. In this way, man and Hence, this is also the favourable nature are brought into a harmony year of the Lord and all the instructions which gives a foretaste of the mutual pertaining to this year must be seen as freedom of the final Sabbath. As in the the Lord bestowing favour on man and Sabbath for man, the Sabbatical year the land and in this act he brings both looks forward on nature’s behalf to the man and nature into the forward march finale when it will spontaneously sat- of the grand redemption of the Lord. isfy and enrich man in multitudinous Yet the goal of the Jubilee is not the aspects. Man and nature will have compartmentalized redemption of man entered into a redeemed mutuality and of nature separately, but redemp- while retaining their unique role and tion of the relationship between man identity. In this way, the Sabbatical and his fellow humans, between year draws nature into this hope of cos- humans and nature and ultimately mic redemption through the sentient between God and his entire creation. A man.16 Practising the Sabbatical year grand and all-encompassing harmony goes beyond abstract faith in God, but is the goal of this redemption. trustingly rests oneself in God and his The Jubilee is indeed the Lord’s creation. periodic Sabbath called by another The mutual trust built up through name, and it is distinguished from his seven Sabbaths of years would give original Sabbath celebrated only once man confidence in celebrating the upon the inauguration of his first cre- Jubilee. The Jubilee consummates17 ation. This periodic Sabbath of the both the Sabbath day for man and the Lord goes with the paces of man and Sabbatical year for the land but the nature to bring both into his redemptive rhythm which looks forward to the future. The seven Sabbatical attributes 15 Lev. 25:20-22. 16 Moltmann, God in Creation, p. 68. 17 Lev. 25:8-17. 18 Gen. 9:5; Rev. 11:18. 242 Christopher Fung identified before for man’s Sabbath creation and God looks forward to the also hold for the Jubilee: First, God the complete redemption of his creation. creator initiated history and will bring These Old Testament institutions are history to a close in a super-historical thus intended to march man and nature redemptive act; Second, God—the ulti- inexorably forward in perfect unison to mate super-natural being—pulsates the final tryst with God himself. The with the rhythm of nature by taking a Sabbath day, Sabbatical year and year as the unit of counting time and Jubilee are thus the institutions of hope then super-imposes a super-natural in the Old Testament because individu- reference on both man and nature. ally and collectively, they uniquely Third, without God’s intervention point towards a bright and inspiring and redemptive work, there can be no future rather than looking backward to Jubilee and without the Jubilee, the what has already taken place in his- Sabbatical year has no direction, hence tory. God’s periodic Sabbath balances the goal with the process. Fourth, God looks purposefully to the ultimate Sab- II Concluding Act One bath when he can take pleasure in a In bestowing free-will, hence also par- harmonious creation through the tial freedom of choice and action, on freely-given submission of man and one of his creature types—man, God man’s tutorship and leadership of has willingly denied himself the right nature; Fifth, the Jubilee is still peri- to exercise direct and absolute control odic, testifying to its incompleteness, over man and the consequential areas looking for completion through the of influence to allow man to find him- continual work of God. Sixth, God self in God and his creation. This is a seeks the willing participation of sen- process necessitated by the creative tient man to bring about the Jubilee, image of God in man which prompts but has also fittingly included sub-sen- him to go beyond the dictates of his tient nature as a necessary partner and surroundings19 to discover and to cre- a foundation of his grand creation. Sev- ate for himself. enth, God’s final Sabbath will be con- The process is not complete, if it summated with the totality of his ever will be, until the creative potter— entire creation and himself—the Cre- man—has fully impressed upon the ator and his creation, the covenantor clay of God’s first creation20 his own and the covenantee—in consummated creativity-driven idiosyncrasies. unison. Knowing and understanding the cre- The individual looks forward to the ation in which he is placed would be the pleasure in his own work in the Sab- pre-requisite in this process. Yet he bath day. Under the tutorship by man in the Sabbatical year, the land— nature—looks forward to its freedom. 19 Hans Schwarz, Eschatology (Grand In the Jubilee of God, every aspect and Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 2000), p. 206; individual part of God’s entire creation Moltmann, God in Creation, p. 46. looks forward to its respective plea- 20 Daniel Joseph Boorstin, The Creators (New sure in each and every part of God’s York: Vintage Books, 1993), p. 43. The Institutions of Hope 243 was not handed this knowledge when erate sense of sentient man, but it is he made his debut in God’s creation. prodigious, prolific, dynamic and abun- He still had to learn and to carve out dant in its material creativity. It con- his as-yet-undefined but dynamic and stantly shows off its mind-boggling interactive niche therein.21 intricacy and pours forth its awesome Naming God’s creatures is the first power to the utter amazement of the step towards this discovery and is just humbled man.23 Man’s only proper the way man shows God how he wants reaction is to say to nature’s Creator: to order things creatively. Then God ‘How great Thou art!’ listens and accepts provisionally: ‘and The process of self-emptying is now whatever the man called a living crea- complete with the Sabbatical year. The ture, that was its name’.22 The process all-knowing God has instituted for man continues in the cycles of the Sabbati- what he himself practised—to limit the cal Year which bring nature directly exercise of his power to leave room for into this onward journey of mutual dis- his creation to tell him what is good for covery. Since man is made to be the man’s sake and for nature’s sake.24 Yet steward of God’s creation and this this freedom for man created through steward cannot act against his basic the self-limitation of God is not without nature of creativity, his stewardship limits. must be creative and open-ended, to be In nature, physical laws are made guided only by a future vision born out known to all and they deal mercilessly of a partnership between God and man, and swiftly with those who trifle with after fully appreciating the wholesome them. But in the moral realm, there is integrity of nature. by necessity a delay between actions This self-emptying has been taken and reward. This delay is but the tem- one step further in the Sabbatical year poral aspect of God’s self-limitation, to relate man to nature. After man has yet it can mislead transient sentient re-constituted nature—worked the beings into believing that there is no land for six years, he is to reverse the moral consequence to their actions, be order of the communication and let they good- or ill-intentioned. Instruc- nature talk back in the seventh, allow- tions, encouragements, warnings and ing his creation to show him its good- goalposts will thus have to be given to ness. God did this in his first cre- guide them to their destiny. Following ation—after declaring his creation the powerful redemption of the very good, he rested on the seventh. Israelites from their slavery in Egypt, The major dissimilarity with God’s God gave the Decalogue for their self-emptying is that man has fallen instructions together with encourage- and nature is cursed because of man, ments and warnings.25 He then set the but the goal of God remains: let cre- Sabbath day, Sabbatical year and the ation speak to its steward. Nature is not creative in the conscious and delib- 23 Jacques Ellul, The Technological Society (Toronto: Vintage Books, 1964), p. 88. 21 Kung, On Being a Christian, p. 393. 24 Moltmann, God in Creation, p. 77; p. 258. 22 Gen. 2:19. 25 For example Ex. 20; Deut. 27-28. 244 Christopher Fung

Jubilee as distinctive goalposts for with the call and purpose of God. Free- them to measure progress towards the dom in the fullest possible sense for us final Sabbath. In this consummation creatures will arrive. Redemption is when all creatures would rejoice in the now full and wholesome. Self-limita- wholesome goodness of God’s cre- tion will have achieved its goal of free- ation, the self-limitation of God would dom for all. Harmony and freedom are have gained the voluntary adoration one and the same.28 The morning stars and praise of his handiwork thus mak- will once again sing together and all ing God’s self-limitation obsolete. the sons of God shout for joy. All the transient self-limitations, Impressive as this plan to bring man through God’s patient tutorship of man and nature into God’s forward march and man’s patient tutorship of nature, and continual creation is, it has not would now be replaced by the sponta- achieved its purpose. The instructions neous alignment of the three wills— to guide man—the lynch pin in the God’s, man’s and nature’s (with the process—on his way have not been last being an expression of its own nat- heeded and in the end, man has failed ural potentials). Yet this voluntary miserably through flouting what God alignment would not bring about the explicitly taught. Man fell off the elimination of one’s will.26 On the con- intended track. As opposed to finding trary, it would lead to a mutual self- sustenance in nature, man finds him- expansion into the will of each other.27 self struggling against nature. As God will have reclaimed more than opposed to finding love within the what he has given up in the Sabbath human community, he finds himself and man will also have reclaimed more fighting against other members of the than what he gave up in the Sabbatical community. As opposed to finding hope year. Though creatures are still crea- in the pleasure in his work, he finds tures and the Creator is still the Cre- himself enslaved to phantoms. As ator, this self-expansion would elimi- opposed to finding his destiny in a lov- nate many of the limitations that cre- ing God, he finds himself under God’s ation has experienced, be it self- wrath. As opposed to finding harmony imposed or through it being creation in existence, he finds discord and dis- per se. sonance everywhere. The higher the Creation, in its multi-facetted mani- goal set for man, the more spectacular festation as we know it now, will be set was his fall. free into the freedom of the children of But God did not give up. He chose God which in turn would be set free individuals, a family, a tribe and even- into the freedom of God. The sponta- tually a nation to carry on his plan. neous yearning of creation and the Along the way, he gave detailed spontaneous longings of the children of instructions and instituted reminders God would reverberate and resonate to help his people. Yet, these also

26 Moltmann, God in Creation, p. 190. 28 St. Augustine, City of God (New York: Dou- 27 Jurgen Moltmann, Theology of Hope (Lon- bleday, translated by Walsh et al., abridged don: SCM, 2002), p. 123. version, 1958), pp. 540-545. The Institutions of Hope 245 failed. The basic institutional struggle for the hope encapsulated in reminders of his goal, the Sabbath day, the Sabbath-Jubilee complex. the Sabbatical year and the Jubilee It is clear from the biblical record have been flouted with no attempt, no that the fundamental earthly reason matter how feeble, to implement the for putting Jesus to death was his last two.29 unyielding position on the Sabbath:33 The Sabbath day was originally his claim to be the Lord of the Sabbath, observed, but the underlying intent his repeated provocations of the people became so twisted that it became an on the Sabbath, allowing almost no abomination.30 The delayed retribution neutral bystanders on the issue and his finally kicked in31 with the land enjoy- unique statement on why the people ing freedom from man, but without the were putting him to death.34 intended reciprocation of man learning The apparent loser in this struggle from nature. Meting out the promised for the Sabbath was Jesus because, punishment for not practising the Sab- instead of the people grasping the true batical Year brings to a close the first meaning of the Sabbath, he died a con- experiment. No further warnings demned criminal. But God considered against repeated offences were issued. him worthy to be resurrected, thus Instead, Ezekiel looked towards a new turning this apparent failure—a lost- era in which individual and moment-by- sacrifice—into a success such as cre- moment responsibility is the rule, and ation has never seen. Jeremiah, a time when the laws of God Jesus’ engagement on the Sabbath are internalised like Ezekiel’s swal- must at least be part of the reason for lowing of the scrolls. These are the this reversal.35 Under the Jews, the first stirrings of a new episode.32 Sabbath had been turned into a stric- ture and a burden to the people, the very opposite of the freedom, responsi- III Act Two bility, labour and pleasure of which it The new approach entails God going was intended to remind the people. beyond self-limitation to self-sacrifice. Jesus wrested this cosmic pointer of But this sacrifice is not any sacrifice hope—the Sabbath—from the custodi- just to impress upon the beholder how ans of the Jewish laws so that it could much pain God has suffered. It entails once again be the universal pointer of a specific engagement with the people hope for all and sundry as intended. on the very institutions that God has On the earthly level, Jesus lost his placed for man’s instructions—a life in the struggle, apparently going down with the very cause for which he fought. But God had a better plan. In 29 Moltmann, God in Creation, p. 289; Yoder, Jesus, willingly and unflinchingly pay- Politics, p. 73, quoting D.W. Blosser, Jesus and the Jubilee: The Year of Jubilee and Its Signifi- cance in the Gospel of Luke. 33 Fung, Sabbath, pp. 185-187; Kung, On 30 Is. 1:13; Amos 8:5. Being a Christian, p. 335. 31 2 Chr. 36:21. 34 Yoder, The Politics of Jesus, p. 129. 32 Is. 40; Jer. 31:31-34; Ezek. 3, 33. 35 Kung, On Being a Christian, pp. 382-383. 246 Christopher Fung ing with his life for challenging his ation, looks forward to a grand har- opponents on the Sabbath, the founda- vest. tion of the institutions of hope, the With this reversal of events in the hope of the whole creation, has irrevo- resurrection, what was understood to cably, inseparably and uniquely been be a static set of laws for perpetual and identified with and vested upon Jesus. unchanging observance has now been When God resurrected Jesus from the transformed into a life, personally dead, this cosmic hope in the Sabbath- leading forward to a future consumma- Jubilee complex was resurrected tion. The first three commandments together with its bearer, not to the old relating man to God and the last six form of the letters of the law, but to the commandments relating man to other newness of a life in the resurrected humans are now led by the personified Jesus Christ, never to be destroyed and embodied hope—the living Sab- again. bath—based on the transformed fourth With the Sabbath vested in the ever commandment in relating man to him- living person of the resurrected Lord, self and his future. These are then this cause became a living hope for all. summarised in the often-repeated Only in the resurrection does hope virtues—faith, hope and love of the remain possible. If God cannot fail, New Testament with hope38 being the then the cosmic hope vested in Jesus dynamic and living pointer.39 The res- cannot be snuffed out and, as such, urrection has brought about more than Jesus must resurrect to become Jesus a name change—a fundamental trans- Christ. The unity of the cause and its formation has been wrought to the bearer in death has issued in a person- institutions of hope themselves. ified and embodied vision in the resur- On the night when Jesus was rection.36 Jesus’ seemingly blasphe- betrayed, he established the Lord’s mous claim to be the Lord of the Sab- Supper so that as often as his followers bath in the previous earthly struggle gather together, they will remember has now been concretely validated in him through the breaking of the bread the cosmic Lord of the Sabbath.37 The and sharing of the wine. Accordingly, supra-physical material attributes of after Jesus died and then resurrected the resurrected Jesus—not con- on the third day, his disciples gathered strained by walls, doors and space, but to re-enact the Lord’s Supper as fully interacting with the physical in instructed. Here the disciples had a acts such as eating and touching—has choice in interpreting the frequency now become embodied in the hope of (‘as often as’) of this remembrance this new Sabbath. Jesus Christ since Jesus, unlike God in his instruc- becomes the first fruit and his children tions in the Old Testament, did not are another type of first fruits awaiting specify it. To Jesus, man must be left the redemption of their bodies. And the room to fill in the ‘as often as’ for them- cosmos, having tasted this new cre- selves.

36 Kung, On Being a Christian, p 383. 38 Schwarz, Eschatology, p. 368. 37 Moltmann, Theology of Hope, pp. 123-125. 39 Heb. 11:1. The Institutions of Hope 247

The first obvious choice would be to Lord’s Day celebration,41 the sacrifice peg this remembrance to the Passover of Jesus and the hope from the ensuing as this forms the unmistakable and resurrection are united in the celebra- most significant background for under- tion. The remembrance of what hap- standing Jesus as the Messiah and he pened on the night of the betrayal and has indeed been called the Passover the looking forward to the Lord’s Lamb.40 This would be a yearly obser- return are now inseparable. The shed- vance and would be how most people ding of blood remembered in the cup is would be or would want to be remem- now transformed into the wine of cele- bered. But instead, the disciples have bration when Jesus Christ will drink it spontaneously opted for an extraordi- anew in the Kingdom. nary choice: as often as the creation of Though one cannot say that this God is to be remembered in the weekly weekly observance is not intended by cycle of the Sabbath. By pegging the God, we do not see God dictating it in remembrance of Jesus’ death to God’s the way it eventually took shape. But creation, the disciples have grasped believers under the guidance of the the undeniable cosmic import of Jesus’ Holy Spirit have joyfully institutional- resurrection. ized this Lord’s Day celebration which The first day of the week recalls the is then accepted by God as his own beginning of God’s creation process. In when Jesus appeared on that day to this first-day-of-the-week choice, the guide his new creation forward.42 By its disciples have spontaneously pro- spontaneous weekly observance, claimed that in the death and resurrec- redeemed man, that new creature in tion of Jesus, the Christ, he has started Christ,43 is telling God that he too a new creation, the like of which is at wants to sign on to be part of the for- least on par with the original creation ward march of God’s new creation. It is of God. This means not just one indi- as if man is demanding to be enlisted in vidual resurrecting, even though only this cosmic cause rather than God Jesus Christ has resurrected so far. If it recruiting him. were just one individual, the event What a contrast it is to the would be appropriately celebrated Israelites’ reception of the erstwhile yearly as birthdays (in this case re- prophets! While the Sabbath is to cele- birth) are celebrated. But now the brate the completion of one’s work, the entire creation will be made anew in a first-day-of-the-week-turned Lord’s way similar to how God has created ex Day is to celebrate the newness of nihilo in his first creation and this cre- God’s creation and the excitement of ative process will transcend the being a partner in this on-going march, rhythm of nature itself just as the Sab- looking forward to the final consum- bath is super-historical and super-nat- mation. In the shift from the Sabbath to ural. the Lord’s Day, man is picking up his With the Lord’s Supper embedded in and forming the essential core of the 41 Acts 20:7; 1Cor. 16:2. 42 Rev. 1:10. 40 1 Cor. 5:7. 43 2 Cor. 5:17. 248 Christopher Fung hoe all over again for that future. O name from the ‘church’ which Jesus what a cosmic future this is and the founded after Peter recognized him as excitement44 has just begun for God’s the Christ.46 Jesus did not found this children! church on any royal lineage, sacred In the Lord’s Supper set against the rites, organizational principles or tal- Passover celebration, God’s children ent pool,47 but on the simple identifica- remember Jesus’ suffering. Bread and tion of himself—apparently a mere wine rather than the cross are used as man born of a human mother—with the symbols. The cross symbolizes the suf- Christ, the son of the living God,48 the fering of mankind, but bread and wine creator of the universe. given for our sustenance represent the If this impossible-sounding claim is wholesome integrity of creation. substantiated, then the redemption of Through the breaking of the bread, the God has broken into the created order brokenness of the universe and the bro- in a tangible and recognizable form. kenness of the relationships therein What has hitherto been the call of God are being taken up in the broken body through the Sabbatical Year to bring of Jesus. Through the wine symbolizing God’s own creation into his redemption blood, the life being given up to mend has now been set on a clear foundation the brokenness of creation is now in this matter-of-fact recognition: Jesus shared among his children. Christ is none other than the creator of But it does not and must not end the universe and is continuing to work here. Jesus Christ resurrected, gives with man to bring about full redemp- tangible proof that the brokenness of tion, not only of humans, but as appro- creation leading to his death, is indeed priate for the Christ, of the entire cre- done away with. The all-pervading bro- ation. No matter how fierce the opposi- kenness induced by man’s rebellion is tion to God may be, this truth of Jesus, now on the mend. The process of the the man, being the Messiah, the super- healing of the cosmos has started. This natural Christ, the redeemer of God’s new beginning is also shared among entire creation, will never be snuffed his children who henceforth will look out. The gates of Hades, first to foil 45 forward to the day when Jesus will redemption, then to limit redemption’s drink the wine anew in his Kingdom. A scope49 will not prevail. new hope, an engaged hope for all cre- Redemption is either cosmic or ation, is born on the Lord’s Day. nothing. Jesus Christ is either the cos- Out of the expectant communities mic redeemer or he is nought. There formed by Jesus’ followers scattered to can be no partial redeemer and this different parts of the then-known truth founds his church. world arose many organizations called churches identified in the Bible by their geographical locations. These took the 46 Mt. 16:15-18. 47 Kung, Christian, pp. 285-86. 48 Hans Kung, The Catholic Church, A Short 44 Harvey Cox, The Secular City (New York: History (New York: Random House, 2003), pp. Macmillan, 1966), p. 232. 4-5. 45 Moltmann, Theology of Hope, p. 310. 49 Mt. 16:21-23. The Institutions of Hope 249

The reason Jesus shunned the pop- of raw super-human power, just as the ulace’s demand for him to be their wanton use of force bespeaks moral leader was definitely not because he bankruptcy rather than godliness, but understood his Messiahship as only must be the right work. To claim to be spiritual—which it cannot be if God is the Christ, the Son of the living God, is creator—and not because he espoused a theological proposition demanding non-violence—which in fact he did.50 verification by the right work. That He did not accede to this popular work is the series of pitched battles request because he could not allow his which Jesus fought with the Jews on cosmic redemption to be hijacked and the Sabbath issue. In doing this, Jesus limited by politics or any other causes vested upon himself the cosmic cause. less than cosmic in dimension. Conse- The less confrontational alternative— quently he rebuked Satan who was to die as just a sinless and benign behind Peter for suggesting a toned- human being—would not have him liv- down redemption, one not involving his ing up to whom he really is52 and claims death, and therefore also without his to be: the creator of all that has come resurrection to usher in the new and into existence. Also, the need of a one- living hope of the God-man-creation and-only cosmic Messiah because of Sabbath. man’s all-pervading sin would not be Jesus could not and did not settle for met. He would just be the saviour of a reform when the prize is a new cre- mankind, in a pitifully compartmental- ation. The role of the Sabbatical Year, ized redemption. sandwiched between the hope of the The redemption of the cosmos will Sabbath day for humans and the uni- have to be left to another saviour spe- versal hope of the Jubilee, has now cially assigned for that job. Jesus been taken up into the church that would be just an amoral sacrifice Jesus founded. What nature has been whose only job is to cancel out man’s unable to ‘observe’ because man has moral debt, thus rounding the bottom failed it is now being championed by line of the divine accounting of guilt. the community of the eager, founded He would be powerless for anything on the simple truth that Jesus is Christ. else. But as the biblical facts show The creator of the universe is now clearly, Jesus uniquely considered his inducting and engaging his full cosmic Sabbath challenge to be the basis of his creation through his church. opponents’ murderous motive,53 yet he But unlike some megalomaniacs, persisted in his Sabbath provocations Jesus never made claims about his regardless. When he made clear to his divinity without commensurate verifi- disciples, immediately after he able action as he challenged sceptics to revealed himself to be the Messiah, believe him on the basis of his works.51 that this son of the living God must suf- Yet this work cannot be just the display fer many things and die at the hands of

50 Yoder, Politics, p. 94-97. 52 Jn. 1:3; Col. 1:15-17. 51 Jn. 10:37; 14:11. 53 Jn. 7:19-24. 250 Christopher Fung his opponents,54 he was appropriately field are sustained and beautified by vesting upon himself the cosmic cause the creator57 and in so doing updated of the Sabbath and taking it to the the intention of the Sabbatical Year for cross. a new beginning. What started out as an identifica- When Jesus inaugurated his min- tion of Jesus being Christ, followed by istry, he read from Isaiah 61:1-2a, the the proclamation of the founding of the personalized poetic version of the church, is now progressing to its tangi- Jubilee, and announced that this has ble manifestation as Jesus Christ set been fulfilled among his listeners. He his face towards Jerusalem to bring to went on to preach the Kingdom, completion his long-running conflict on impressing upon his audience that the the Sabbath.55 Of all the causes Jesus favourable year of the Lord—the took up, only the Sabbath has the cos- Jubilee—is now fulfilled in the King- mic dimension to link the flesh-and- dom of God or of Heaven. While the blood Jesus to the super-natural Christ sum total of the aspiration of man and to enable him, upon his resurrection, to nature in the Old Testament is the become the indivisible Jesus Christ as Jubilee, Jesus started outlining the he has so adamantly and forcefully Kingdom in the Beatitudes58 as a future claimed must be the foundation of his for man before which one would feel church. The truth of Jesus being Christ totally inadequate. is proclaimed not only in words, but While the realization of the Jubilee now in the earth-shattering validation was bogged down in man’s wayward- of the resurrection. ness and was never even attempted In this series of events, the role of collectively, the aspirants to the King- the Sabbatical Year to bring nature into dom—humans—would consider them- God’s redemption has been assimilated selves blessed when persecuted for the into the church founded on Jesus the Kingdom’s sake. While those in the Old Christ. The church is not the New Tes- Testament who mourn because their tament counterpart of the Sabbatical meekness has disadvantaged them year. The church is more. But any (resulting in their hungering and entity worthy of the name church can thirsting for justice) can look forward no longer shirk this responsibility of to the Jubilee, and if they relapse and cosmic redemption. Humans and the live long enough, even the next Jubilee, entire creation of God must be initiated those in the Kingdom will be blessed by into a grand harmony under God being comforted, inheriting the earth through the church which must give a and being satisfied, respectively. foretaste of the freedom and bliss in Unlike the Jubilee, the blessings in the the Kingdom.56 Jesus initiated this Kingdom are now final, no longer sub- process when he pointed to how even jecting the aspirants to relapsing into the birds of the sky and lilies of the another round of longing. The Jubilee seems to administer jus-

54 Mt. 16:21. 55 Fung, Sabbath, pp. 192-194. 57 Mt. 7:26-32. 56 Kung, Christian, pp. 478-484. 58 Mt. 5:3-10. The Institutions of Hope 251 tice more on the side of the oppressed, direct pronouncement from God. From restraining the rich and powerful in now on, Jesus is the only figure to be their ambitions, but the Kingdom has a followed. God gave the Law through place even for these earthly winners if Moses and enforced the Law through they are merciful, pure in heart and Elijah, among others. The institutional peace loving. The Kingdom transcends aim of the Law is the Jubilee in which socio-economic boundaries and goes all would obey God, resulting in the right to the heart of the matter—the planters of vineyard enjoying their heart of man. The Jubilee is imposed grapes, the builders their houses and from above, though no less to the the fiercest creatures commingling in rejoicing of many, the Kingdom is what the land with the most defenceless and all people of good faith, regardless of a little boy leading them all. their walks of life, would naturally But both Moses and Elijah failed to aspire to without prompting, even at deliver God’s promises by not measur- the cost of being persecuted. The ing up to the Law and being disheart- Jubilee has God as the ultimate arbiter ened in work, respectively.60 In time, between humans and between man and the Law with the dynamic pointer of nature, but the Kingdom sees God as the Sabbath in its core has been mis- the ultimate of all that his children understood as static and turned into aspire to with the deep longings of the the very opposite of liberation—a sti- cosmos being satisfied therein. fling burden. In conferring with Jesus Like the taking up of the Sabbatical on how he would suffer and die in Year into the church, Jesus has backed Jerusalem, these two Old Testament up his transmutation of the Jubilee into giants have passed their torches to the Kingdom with dramatic actions at Jesus with an admission of their own the height of his career. Right after failures to reach the Jubilee.61 In Jesus’ founding his church, he stated factu- struggle on the Sabbath, he has really that those around him would see invested the proper dynamism into the the Son of Man coming in his Kingdom. Law so that it is the pointer to the This puzzling foretelling came to pass transformed Jubilee once more.62 in the only pre-resurrection ‘supernat- Henceforth Jesus would transmute ural’ event of Jesus recorded outside of the Jubilee into the Kingdom to com- 59 the Gospels—the Transfiguration. plete what Moses and Elijah had A week after founding his church, started but failed to complete. Yet the Jesus went up on a mountain and was promised Son of Man coming in his transfigured before the eyes of three of Kingdom, with the wonderful pro- his apostles, then Moses and Elijah nouncement among divine brilliance, appeared. Yet at Peter’s very sugges- speaks of a mission not of unbroken tion that Jesus, Moses and Elijah might glory, but first of sacrifice to the point be sheltered in human tents, the latter two were immediately removed from the scene in favour of Jesus with a 60 Ex. 2:12 vs. Ex. 20:13; 1Ki 18-19, cf. 19:1- 3. 61 Lk. 9:31. 59 Mt. 17:1-8; 2 Pet. 1:17-18. 62 Kung, On Being a Christian, p. 216. 252 Christopher Fung of death. Just as for the church, the bril- comes into better focus, one sees a liance of the Kingdom leads not city, a river and a tree constituting the through gradual improvements of new heaven and new earth.64 man’s work first, but the death and res- Like the aspired Jubilee, the city65 is urrection of the one who proclaimed where man’s patience and labour are the fulfilment of the Jubilee in the King- consummately rewarded, where God dom. accepts the decidedly human-centred When Jesus had drunk his last vine measure of man as his own and where on earth, he looked forward to drinking God welcomes the glory kings and it anew in his Father’s Kingdom. The nations are bringing in.66 Man has been old institutions—the Sabbath day, placed on an esteemed pedestal67 Sabbatical year and Jubilee complex— despite his former rebellion. God had passed away and were buried with claimed sovereignty over the land in Jesus upon his death, but have risen the Jubilee, but nature is now nour- with the resurrected Christ in the cele- ished directly from God through the bration of the Lord’s Day, the procla- river in the Kingdom. The tree of life mation of the church and the hope of thriving by the river will produce spon- 63 the Kingdom. Henceforth, every per- taneously for the sustenance and heal- son who calls upon Jesus Christ as ing of the nations without having to Lord has been united with him in his suffer the pains of hoeing and pruning death, has been resurrected with him by man. and has been ineluctably inducted into Explicitly mentioned is the absence the new institutions of hope. of tears, pains and deaths in this future, but just as conspicuous is the IV Act Three absence of the groaning of creation under its own decay and through bat- This Kingdom is new wine in an old tling man with thorns and thistles.68 wineskin. Starting from the appetizing The curse on the land is no more. The description in the Beatitudes, its power to burst old constraints would issue mutuality and justice that the Jubilee forth in all directions to achieve what could see realized only in rigid institu- the Jubilee could not do. It grows tions are now fulfilled in the Kingdom silently from the smallest seed into a in spontaneous harmony. This loving big tree, but is hardly recognized by mutuality is all encompassing, extend- people because of the tares that grow ing to every nook and cranny, warp and up to obscure it, until the discriminat- ing harvest reveals its presence. Unlike the Jubilee, it has no institu- 64 Rev. 21, 22. tional structure to be reckoned with, 65 Rev. 21:17, 24, 26. yet it is the ultimate destiny where 66 Jacques Ellul, The Meaning of the City (Cambria: Paternoster, 1997), p. 162; Jesus Christ will be drinking the vine Schwarz, Eschatology, p. 284. anew. When the image of this Kingdom 67 Karl Barth, Church Dogmatics (Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark, 1958), p. 89-90; Ellul, City, p. 177. 63 Schwarz, Eschatology, p. 321. 68 Gen. 3:17-19. The Institutions of Hope 253 woof of the cosmos. The tabernacle of the city, the measures of man are God has now covered that of man and nonetheless angelic and the handiwork the cosmos. of kings and nations nonetheless glori- The space that God has created for ous. Starting from the simple act of man in the Sabbath through limiting naming living creatures, God’s chosen himself and further emptying himself have now fulfilled the role of stewards and the space that man has created for of God’s creation and are embraced by nature in the Sabbatical year has now both the Creator and his creation. been filled with the rejoicing of the universe in the Jubilee-transfigured King- dom. The prime mover of the emptying V Between Acts Two and process, the Lamb—Elohim and Three YHWH69—has now carried the Sabbath In the first creative acts of God in the cause of creation to its Omega point. first chapter of the Bible, two of his And the community of the eager is his attributes are apparent: freedom of will partner. and action and a desire for purposeful In bringing Jeremiah’s prophecy70 to consummation of his creation.72 pass, God established a new covenant Humans are made in God’s image and with his people by writing his Law into consequently share these two attrib- their hearts so that no one needs tell utes in creaturely form: they have par- his brothers to know the Lord since tial freedom of will and action, and they they all know him. When the disciples desire their work to be consummated exercise their freedom to institution- in the grand mosaic of the creator. To alise the Lord’s Day and the ‘church,’ grant partial freedom to humans, God they fulfil this prophecy. Whatever his has limited his direct action in human children decide within this covenant in affairs. To consummate his creation, the Spirit, God accepts, not reluc- God seeks partners in humankind. But tantly, but indeed as his own just as he after the Fall of man from God’s grace accepted each part of his original cre- with the consequential disharmony ation as good. that percolated throughout the created Showing his acceptance, Jesus order, both the partial freedom of man appeared to John, not on the anniver- and his role in God’s grand mosaic sary of his resurrection, but on a man- have been thrown out of kilter. instituted Lord’s Day, and he To remedy the situation by once addressed individual churches as if again giving man a clear vision and set- they were directly founded by him. ting him on a path to the future, God These churches are not structured instituted hope among his chosen peo- according to divine proportion like the ple through the Sabbath Day, Sabbati- Temple71 but according to the needs of cal Year and the Year of the Jubilee. Yet the situation of man and his world. In these top-down institutions never caught on and were even distorted by

69 Moltmann, Theology of Hope, p. 15. 70 Jer. 31:31-34; cf. Heb. 8:8-12. 72 Gen 1, compares the ‘good’ and ‘very 71 Ex. 35-39. good’ usage. 254 Christopher Fung man’s ungodly genius into the very to every situation as the world changes opposite of what they were intended to in response to creatively dynamic be.73 The institutions imposed on the humanity; second, a participating people demonstrated that God’s self- rather than a passive hope, though limitation did not elicit the intended founded indisputably on Jesus’ death response. and resurrection, which was institu- God has not changed, but deepened tionalized by man who is to shape a his commitment to his creation: to take future that God will accept and in his self-emptying, of which self-limita- which he will take pride; third, it is a tion is the first form, one step further harmonizing rather than a compart- to self-sacrifice in having his own son mentalized hope, so that each partici- die on a cross. By vesting upon himself pant in shaping this hope will find and the first institutions of hope and resur- be excited by his role in the beautiful recting, a new hope has henceforth and intelligent mosaic of God in fulfil- been born. The resurrection so excited ment of the longing of all creation; God’s people that they spontaneously Fourth, it is a self-emptying rather initiated new institutions which unwit- than an assertive hope so as to wel- tingly fulfilled and transcended the old come the future through constructive institutions to radiate a contagious sacrifice and not destructive coercion; cosmic hope. fifth, it is a present-transforming These new institutions start with rather than a distant hope through the the Lord’s Supper as the core of the redeemed first fruits acting out their creative Lord’s Day which is then cele- anticipation in the here and now and in brated within the hopeful communities the process bringing the present closer that confess Jesus as Christ, the cre- to the substance of the hope; sixth, it is ator and redeemer of God’s creation, to a tension-filled74 rather than a lopsided look forward to the Kingdom. The hope hope so as to balance man’s present- that was misdirected and short- transforming element with the element changed in the Fall is now restored: of sheer anticipation. The former may God’s children have properly exercised foreclose the latter with misguided their freedom in building and sharing human power (e.g. military power) in the institutions of hope and through while the latter may lapse into disen- the same institutions, they have also gagement from reality if the tension is seen much more clearly the real con- not properly maintained. Seventh, it is tent of this hope, the hope of universal a godly rather than a human hope redemption which must reach to every which sees the beginning and end of corner which sin has once touched. this hope in none other than God him- The hope hinted at in the Old Testa- self, despite man’s participation. ment is now given fuller dimensions in The centrality of this hope in the that it is first, a living rather than a life- Bible is best summed up by the Epistle less irresponsive hope, led by a risen to the Hebrews which contends that all and ever-living Lord who can respond Old Testament types and regulations

73 Mk. 2:23-28. 74 Schwarz, Eschatology, p. 128 (footnotes). The Institutions of Hope 255 have either been made obsolete or ful- dynamic stewardship guided by the filled, but one goal still remains—the future of a God-man-creation ren- Sabbath rest of the new covenant— dezvous. and one leader to follow to that goal— The institution of the Jubilee- Jesus Christ, the author and perfector turned-Kingdom has now become a of our faith. The original and only man- vision, a goal and ultimately a hope. It date of man—to steward God’s cre- is what all the institutions of hope are ation—has not changed throughout pointing towards. In itself, it is not the eons even after the Fall of man. exactly an institution, but rather what Indeed, the need of faithful steward- energises and leads forward the insti- ship has been made more urgent, given tutions. It cannot be bound by any insti- man’s destructiveness and ignorance tutions, but will give rise to institutions resulting from his Fall. dedicated to moving creation towards With man voluntarily enlisting in it. It is a super-institution, transcend- the New Testament’s institutions of ing the more tangible and formal insti- hope, the real journey to full steward- tutions that man is used to. ship of creation has made a solid and The arithmetic of the Sabbatical irreversible start. Man’s debut in Year and Jubilee offers an interesting nature was the task that God initiated ambiguity75 with rich theological over- with him, to name the animals. This tone in elucidating the link between contains two parts—to gain an appre- the Kingdom and the church. The ques- ciation of nature and to manage it for tion is: is a Jubilee fixed in time in rela- man’s own good. Correspondingly, this tion to the closest Sabbatical Year? task was split into two for the The Bible allows no definite interpre- Israelites: the working years and the tation, but however one understands intervening Sabbatical years. The goal the relative timing, the Sabbatical year is that these two seemingly separate does not exactly coincide with the tasks—work the land and appreciate Jubilee. In fact, the Sabbatical year ini- creation—would so complement each tiated for the land is never meant to be other that they would merge back into the Jubilee of the Lord. As later clari- the one intended task to be completed fied by Isaiah, the Jubilee is the with the redemption of the cosmos. favourable year ‘of the Lord’ rather This will happen in the Kingdom. than of man. God is the actor, bestow- The goal of this stewardship is not ing favour on his creation rather than to move backward to ‘pristine’ condi- man creating a utopia, despite his tions, if such existed at all in the past, efforts in the Sabbatical year. but to go forward to a dynamic future In the same way, the Kingdom, which will again usher in a harmony being the goal of the church, remains that has been lost since Adam fell. paradoxical. Every redeemed mortal Man’s continual creativity in the insti- must seek earnestly the Kingdom, but tutions of hope should not throw this no mortal has the right to proclaim a future out of kilter, but will be fully nurtured and accommodated in the grand harmony of the Kingdom. The 75 Compare Yoder, Politics, p. 71 (footnotes) hope of creation lies in the redeemed’s with Allis, Commentary, p. 164-165. 256 Christopher Fung human entity to be the Kingdom of God. Sabbatical year and finally the Jubilee Any time this is proclaimed, no matter to be realized. This promise is not a how godly the entity may seem to be, divine transfer of some externalities to the announcer is completely wrong and man, but a joint venture of God and the steps to straying further from the man79 with nature being as much a goal of the Kingdom have already partner as an enabling condition. begun. The church will remain that Throughout the long journey of the 76 entity constantly struggling against church towards the Kingdom since her the gate of Hades and aspects of the foundation on Jesus being Christ, she Kingdom will break out within the has, under the guidance of God, created church from time to time to varying many more enabling conditions for her degrees, but the Kingdom per se is ever forward movement. These come in the out of reach of the provisional church. Political, economical or even Christian form of the full enterprise of human- Messianism must always be a heresy.77 ity—socio-economic-political-techno- Yet the tension between these institu- cultural—and the challenge for the tions78—Lord’s Day, church and King- church is to submit these to the draw of dom—will keep our hope blazing until the Kingdom through remembering her the end. Lord in the bread and wine. In the recent The Promised Land is not the struggle for stewardship of creation, Israelites’ final destination. Rather, it human greed80 usually has the upper is the land which enables the progres- hand. The institutions of hope should sive promises of the Sabbath, then the redeem us from this losing streak.

76 Schwarz, Eschatology, p. 207. 79 Jacques Ellul, The Subversion of Christian- 77 Ernst Bloch, The Principle of Hope, vol. 3 ity (Grand Rapids: Wm. B. Eerdmans, 1986), (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1986), p. 1373. p. 146-7; p. 107. 78 Kung, On Being a Christian, p. 221. 80 Ellul, Subversion, p. 178. A Passion for God’s Story Discovering Your Place in God’s Strategic Plan Philip Greenslade Explore the overarching strategy of God. Understand the deep, underlying structure of the Bible. Recognise the significance of your life by seeing your personal story as part of God’s story. A Passion for God’s Story presents a vision of the Big Story of ‘what on earth God is doing’. This accessible survey introduces the Bible as a whole and shows how the important pieces of the biblical narrative fit together in their right context and perspective. The Bible tells the story in the broadest way of the implementing of God’s Kingdom rule in history through a series of covenantal arrangements – all in pursuit of a coherent redemptive plan – the ultimate goal of which is new creation. Philip Greenslade is a full time lecturer and tutor with CWR. 1-84227-094-X / 216x140mm / 285pp / £9.99 Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK ERT (2008) 32:3, 257-270 ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel: Reconsidering ‘Holistic’ (Integral) Mission

Jim Harries

KEYWORDS: Dependency, missiology, ment at Pattya, Thailand. Padilla cites mission, church, aid, development, the well known British theologian John partnership, spiritual, language, lin- Stott in his support. However, Glenn guistics Schwartz rings warning bells by pointing out that current mission activities create unhealthy dependency. He is I Transition to Holistic ‘working hard to encourage church Mission1 leaders, particularly in Africa and We ‘cannot properly help a person… America, to stand on their own two feet while disregarding his or her… mater- and to discover the joy of breaking out 3 ial or bodily needs…’ and ‘merely’ of the stranglehold of dependency’. preaching the Gospel is a ‘misunder- These two approaches are quite differ- standing of God’s purpose’ says Rene ent from each other and it must be Padilla2 as part of an occasional paper asked if these authors have realized of the 2004 Forum for World Evange- that their strategies are inadvertently lization, hosted by the Lausanne move-

tion. Held in Pattaya, Thailand from Septem- 1 The views expressed in this article are ber 29th to October 5th 2004. (2005) those of the author, and do not necessary accessed 14 Feb 2007 p. 15. sion which has raised some concerns with the 3 Glenn Schwartz, ‘A Voice for a New Empha- author. sis in Missions’ Revised February 2006. An 2 Rene, C. Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’, pp. 10- Interview with Glenn Schwartz. Lausanne committee for World Evangelisa- accessed 17 Feb 2007.

Dr Jim Harries, who has worked in Zambia and then Kenya since 1988, is a part-time lecturer at Kima International School of Theology, Maseno, Kenya, coordinator of the Yala Theological Centre and on the adjunct faculty of William Carey International University, California. He holds a PhD in Theology (Birmingham UK), and degrees in Education, Agriculture, Rural Development, missiology and Biblical Interpretation. He is a fluent speaker of Kiswahili and Dholuo and has published a number of articles on mission including ‘The Magical Worldview in the African Church: what is going on?’ (Missiology: An International Review, XXIV/4, 2000) (Email: [email protected]) 258 Jim Harries at loggerheads? Is there any resolution western nations relating to the non- to these differences and what is the west seem increasingly to fall on deaf way forward in mission? ears. Reasons for this include: First, Christopher Little explains how the increasing emphasis on short-term mis- parting of the ways in the evangelical sion, meaning shrinking opportunities Christian church occurred following for learning cultures and languages; disagreement between those who second, the end of the cold war and the advocated the ‘horizontal’ (relation- ever rising confidence of the West in its ships with men) as against the ‘verti- own capabilities has reduced the need cal’ (relationship with God) roles of the for cultural sensitivity; third, the rise of church.4 According to Little, the evan- the internet and global communication gelical wing of the church turned to fol- in general enables geographically iso- low a more horizontal direction in the lated communities to continue to relate early 1970s—represented especially closely to their societies of origin, thus by a ‘change of mind’ at the Lausanne reducing the need to identify with a for- convention in 1974.5 For Little, this eign (non-western) people even if a represents an abandoning of the legiti- westerner is living among them. mate role of the church in the world, Even if more experienced people because after all ‘… the deepest were to advise new missionaries to impoverished state a person can suffer learn the language and take a more is alienation from God and therefore accommodating and understanding the greatest demonstration of his com- approach to the culture they are meet- passion is the remedy for this plight’.6 ing, new workers often ignore this. Underlying this switch in emphasis, They are not looking at a clean-slate I suggest, is the current state of ideol- scenario of ‘untouched people’, but a ogy in western nations. Western Chris- legacy of repeated expressions of a tians are influenced by an academia lack of cultural knowledge by their pre- that has for centuries denied the role of decessors. Some African people, hav- God in human lives. Christians living in ing given up hope of being understood the west should be acutely aware that by westerners, are becoming less will- they see the world through tinted spec- ing to be open, if only to minimise dam- tacles, with blinkers barring from view age in the many sensitive areas of significant aspects of the nature of peo- church and community life.7 ple and the nature of God as under- The west’s perception of interna- stood in the majority world. tional concerns is narrowing as a Appeals for cultural sensitivity by result of its operating from an ever

4 Christopher Little, ‘What Makes Mission 7 Jim Harries, ‘Language in Education, Mis- Christian?’ Evangelical Missions Quarterly, sion and Development in Africa: Appeals for (January 2006) 42:1, pp. 78-87. Local Tongues and Local Contexts’, ‘Encoun- 5 Little, ‘What Makes Mission Christian?’ p. ters Mission Ezine.’ Issue 19 August 2007. 79. http://www.redcliffe.org/uploads/documents 6 Little, ‘What Makes Mission Christian?’ p. /Language_in_Education_19.pdf accessed 10 85. Oct. 2007. ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 259 shrinking pre-suppositional base.8 Mis- that the term ‘magic’ is very difficult to sion emphasis today is frequently oper- define or translate. Numerous anthro- ated on the basis of a short-term pological accounts of African people involvement providing technical assis- point to their dependence on ancestral tance. Those who consider these spirits, witchcraft, vital forces, mysti- issues to be neutral to broader theo- cal powers and so on, that I here refer logical or ecclesial issues in Africa are to as ‘magic’.9) One people’s science unfortunately misguided for at least becomes another’s magic.10 two reasons: first, African religion is rooted in a search for power, including financial power, so projects with out- II Biblical Background side funding become part of how Chris- We need to include reference to the bib- tianity (or other ‘religion’) is under- lical background because God’s Word stood in Africa. They are not seen as is not presented hand in hand with pro- ‘extras’ to the church, because there is jects, finance, aid or technology, a fact no extra space beyond the category of which western advocates of holistic ‘religion’ that can be occupied by ‘sec- mission seem to ignore. Instead, in the ularism’ as is the case in the West. Old Testament, God is shown revealing (This is a part of what it means to be his plan of salvation in a variety of ‘holistic’); second, relatively poor ways. Then in the Gospels, we see locally funded African church budgets Jesus presented as a teacher of God’s are often dwarfed by ambitious profound truths, and in particular as a schemes funded and administered miracle worker and one who had a from abroad. heart of love greater than any other Central to this article, is the under- man before or after him. This love was standing that word meanings, includ- demonstrated in the ways that he inter- ing the meaning of the term holistic acted with those around him, culmi- itself, arise from the context of their nating in his shameful (from a human use. In parts of the world where the point of view) death. dominant worldview is secular, it Never having risen to political fame means that the gospel is to be pre- or having vast quantities of earthly sented in hand with finance and tech- wealth, Jesus nevertheless acquired nology to improve people’s lives. In great renown because, as Christians parts of the world where the worldview is ‘magical’, it means that the gospel is accompanied by ‘magical’ powers to improve people’s lives. (I acknowledge 9 See Jim Harries, ‘The Magical Worldview in the African Church: what is going on?’ Missi- ology: An International Review, Vol. XXIV, No. 4 (October 2000), pp. 487-502. 8 One reason the ‘pre-suppositional base’ is 10 It should be clear that asking an African shrinking, I propose, is because inputs from person, ‘Do you believe in magic?’ is not a outside of the west are increasingly being pre- valid test for this thesis, because people will sented in western languages, so obviating the understand the term ‘magic’ in different ways, need for westerners to consider the loss of and they will respond in respect to particular detail incurred in the course of translation. agendas. 260 Jim Harries have believed up until today, he is God versities are not discussed or referred incarnate. His followers continued his to, pensions are not even alluded to, ministry after being filled with godly neither is formal insurance in case of power, resulting in the existence of theft, damage or death. The Scriptures bodies of believers around the world up rarely even mention countries outside to today, known as the ecclesia or the Eastern Mediterranean basin and church. Up to now those in the church, seem not to anticipate that one day colloquially known as ‘Christians’, there will be nuclear power, space continue to follow the example of Jesus travel or x-rays as a means of examin- and proclaim his teachings around the ing one’s teeth. Terms (and concepts) globe. such as bureaucracy, socialism, capi- Some years after the life and min- talism, development, AIDs and sus- istry of Christ and his disciples, Chris- tainability are not found in the Bible. tian writings were gathered together Every generation of Christians with what had become the Jewish looks to the Bible for answers to ques- canon of Scriptures to form the Bible as tions as to how they ought to live. They it is today. That Bible remains the writ- attempt to understand the Scriptures ten text that guides and inspires Chris- through the guidance of God the Holy tians. The words contained in it are Spirit. They want to do the will of God. considered uniquely inspired by God I am here trying to point out that know- himself to provide counsel in all areas ing the will of God is no straightfor- of life. Ever since, and even before the ward mechanical task. God has not left canon was closed, Christians have us with closely defined instructions in been challenged to know just how to a legal document. In the current glob- interpret the Bible. This has become a alising world, questions on what to do particularly critical issue since the and how to do it are more pressing than Reformation in 16th century Europe ever—as certain people in the globe resulted in the formation of the Protes- find themselves with the technological tant church whose numbers include means and powers to influence the the World Evangelical Alliance and lives of others on a hitherto unknown churches affiliated to it. scale. How are they to know the will of Even modern translations of the God in this circumstance? Bible do not mention many things that The practice of Jesus himself could have become a normal part of day to support diverse positions in this day life by many in the English speak- regard. How did he respond to people ing world—especially technological who he met? Does Jesus’ healing many things arising from science and from sick people justify western medical more recent thinking about society and projects as part of Christian mission the nature of humanity. There is no today? Does Jesus’ feeding 5,000 set overt mention of electricity, of vehi- an example for us to follow, or in the cles, of rockets or telescopes, even of light of the response of those whom he strategies, programmes or projects in fed (Jn. 6), is it teaching us not to feed the modern sense. The Bible does not people, as Jesus’ temptations strongly advocate hospital medicine or primary imply (Lu. 4:1-13)? The words that and secondary schooling, formal uni- people find on studying the Bible have ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 261 to come out of their own cultures.11 It is to say, because a leader’s refusal to has often been suggested that people accept assistance that has been offered read out of the Bible what they want to, will undermine his/her authority, s/he although that is not entirely true. I can be forced to accept an offer of help arrive at the positions that I do from in order to maintain popularity even in the context of what I believe to be a life the knowledge that the overall impact of commitment and sacrifice in God’s of the assistance will not be to the peo- service, guided by his Word and led by ple’s advantage. Thus a receiver, at his Spirit.12 least in Africa, generally cannot avoid putting him/herself into a position of dependence, even if they are aware III Power in the Church that this is ‘unhealthy’.14 Personal observation (in Kenya, Tan- zania and Zambia) has taught me that donors offering finance and material to IV Different Understandings the Third World (African) church of ‘Holistic’ thereby acquire power to influence the A basic, important but little considered church concerned. I have considered matter in the discussion of holistic mis- this in more detail elsewhere.13 An offer sion, is the implicature (what is implied of aid is like a trap that recipients usu- by the use) of the term holistic itself. ally cannot avoid. This is particularly Whereas it may be clear to westerners true in contexts of ‘poverty’ in which that the material side of holistic mis- the extended family is powerful, and in sion is achieved through rational which needs for finance are increas- means, others (certainly in Africa) are ingly being advocated (such as educa- busy bringing it about through what tion, health, the need to have things can loosely (given the weaknesses of and so on); this is increasingly the case English in this area) be called ‘magic’. as the ‘poor’ world is being incorpo- rated in the globalising process. That Many African people have traditionally understood that they prosper if they can please their ancestors. The same 11 See Jim Harries, ‘Pragmatic Linguistics reasoning can now be applied to the applied to Translation, Projects and Inter-cul- acquisition of wealth and prosperity in tural Relationships for Frontier Missionaries the modern world. So Balcomb tells us (not only for Bible translators): an African that for African people; ‘the goods… focus’, http://www.jim-mission.org.uk/arti- could be accessed by pre-modern cles/pragmatic-linguistics.html accessed 12th 15 Jan 2008. means’. People debating the advan- 12 Jim Harries, ‘Biblical Hermeneutics in Relation to Conventions of Language Use in Africa: pragmatics applied to interpretation in 14 David Maranz, African Friends and Money cross cultural context’, Evangelical Review of Matters (Dallas: SIL International, 2001). Theology, 30:1, January 2006, pp. 49-59. 15 Anthony O. Balcomb, ‘Modernity and the 13 Jim Harries, ‘Power and Ignorance on the African Experience’, Bulletin for Contextual Mission Field or “The Hazards of Feeding Theology African Theology Volume Three, Crowds”’, http://WWW.geocities.com/mis- No.2, 1996, http://WWW.hs.unp.ac.za/theol- sionalia/harries.htm accessed 15 Jan. 2003. ogy/mod.htm accessed 29 Sep 2004. 262 Jim Harries tages of holistic mission are under- of their own cultures. How felt-needs standing the term ‘holistic’ in pro- are to be met—through western ratio- foundly and importantly different nality, or through combating untoward ways! spiritual forces—is an important ques- Examples of the ‘magical’ approach tion. abound in Africa. The classic one is Designers of formal holistic mission perhaps the African funeral and death- strategies are typically westerners. (If rites, that are increasingly being incor- they are non-westerners, then they will porated into churches in some parts of be imitating western blueprints.) Non- the Continent (including Western westerners are consumers of such Kenya that is my home). Some African ‘mission’. Holistic mission designed by people will use massive amounts of the non-west will be a combining of the time and resources in funerals and bur- gospel with ‘magic’ (as defined ial programmes. Additional cere- above17) and not western rationality. monies often occur again months and The west assumes that physical years after burial. An important orien- needs should be met through donated tation of all these activities is ensuring contributions. This is clearly not the that the ghost of the departed be not pattern given by the Scriptures. The troublesome, that is that s/he does not classic instances in which Jesus fed interfere with people’s acquisition of thousands as recorded in the scrip- important basic needs. The same orien- tures are given as ‘miracles’ (Greek tation is reflected in a pre-occupation semeion—signs). That is, Jesus did not in African churches with cleansing; raise funds and purchase bread in that is a rallying of spiritual forces order to feed the 5000, but instead he aimed at the removal or de-activation multiplied a few loaves so as to satisfy of troublesome ghosts or spirits of the thousands of people (Jn. 6:5-13). Simi- dead (driving out evil spirits). The dif- larly, Jesus did not heal people through ference between Africa and the West is the use of bio-medicines, but by pray- not in the desire to meet needs, but in ing for them and on the basis of their how they are to be met.16 faith.18 Jesus was a healer and ‘miracle African people who deeply and worker’, and not a project coordinator, implicitly believe in magic cannot highly trained scientist or fundraiser. (from a westerner’s point of view) get It is non-western societies and not the their act together to run projects on the rationally oriented West who are in basis of western rationality. Western- this respect more closely in line with ers who assume their rational route to the Scriptures. be correct get frustrated, de-motivated The difference between these is and even give up when they realize that important. ‘Spiritual healing’ (for want those being ‘targeted’ are the very peo- of a better term) and miracle working ple damaging the structures that they are not dependent on foreign links and so carefully set up, because they are a distant economy. They do not create interpreting them from the perspective

17 Jim Harries, ‘The Magical Worldview’. 16 See also Maranz, African Friends, p. 135. 18 For example see Mark 2:5. ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 263 dependency. Their operation is not V Holistic Mission Gone restricted to a particular people of a Wrong particular culture and a particular eco- Whether or not he was himself antici- nomic and social class. Spiritual gifts pating this, Padilla’s words,20 once val- of healing and miracle making may be idated by people like John Stott at the given to anyone who genuinely Lausanne congress, have been inter- believes in Christ. preted by others as ecclesial license for Those who understand holistic mis- relief and development work. Padilla sion as being the utilization of western categorically states that ‘… holistic reason from the platform of the global mission is mission oriented towards economy together with biblical teach- the satisfaction of basic human needs, ing are not following a biblical model. including the need of God, but also the The economic rationality that under- need of food, love, housing, clothes, lies today’s globalisation was not there physical and mental health and a sense at the time of Jesus. It is surely wrong of human dignity’.21 Hence ‘the atmos- to assume that, because Jesus fed peo- phere generated by the (1974) Lau- ple by miracles (on very few occasions) sanne Congress has been described as and healed people (rather more often), “euphoric”, particularly for relief and western Christians now have a man- development workers who “could now date to create material dependence of appeal to the evangelical constituency the rest of the globe on them by imitat- as family, without the fear of either ing his actions using alternative ratio- being rebuked for preaching the ‘social nal means. An extra-rational justifica- gospel’ or being charged of compro- tion and foundation for rationality is a mising on evangelism.”’22 19 questionable mixing of categories. Did Padilla realize that his legit- Modern technology and foreign funded imizing of the idea that provision of projects are not neutral mediums of mutual assistance should be a part of action, but have numerous implica- gospel preaching in the Third World tions for the society to which they are would result in a class-segregated being applied. These have been out- church leadership—that is, that pro- lined in brief above. Making peoples claiming the importance of the and societies dependent on technolo- church’s role in meeting physical gies that they cannot understand, con- needs can illegitimise the evangelistic trol or perpetuate from within their efforts of those not privileged to have own worldview and so creating a high access to a material surplus (or tech- level of vulnerability to foreigners, is nological know-how)? Given that the immoral. church is now multi-cultural and multi-

20 Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’. 21 Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’. 19 That is, justifying the spread of depen- 22 Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’. This quote is dency-creating ‘rational’ technologies by taken from Vinay Samuel and Chris Sugden, Christ’s command to minister to people spiri- (eds.), The Church in Response to Human Need tually. (Grand Rapids, MI: Wm. B. Eerdmans 2003), ix. 264 Jim Harries national, that is a slap in the face to Why then are modern day prophets two-thirds or more of the world’s Chris- insisting on being prophets of profit? tians. Western domination of the world Padilla tells us that: church occurs because it is the west All too often, the stumbling block that has the economic powers to pro- and the foolishness that prevent vide for the ‘basic human needs’ men- non-Christians to turn to Christ is tioned, and this provision buys power. not really the stumbling block and This suggests that a church not linked the foolishness of the gospel cen- to benevolent western donors cannot tered in ‘Christ crucified’ (1 Cor. be preaching the true gospel. Is this a 1:23), but the self-righteous atti- view that should be encouraged? tude and the indifference to basic The ancient message deeply rooted human needs on the part of in scripture and church tradition Christians. The first condition for encouraging persistence in Christian the church to break down the barri- faith and service even in a context of poverty, suffering and trials (never ers with its neighborhood is to mind persecution) is nowadays all too engage with it, without ulterior often replaced by materialist con- motives, in the search for solutions sumer-driven Christianity. That is say- to felt needs. Such an engagement ing in effect that non-western Chris- requires a humble recognition that tians are given official (foreign) eccle- the reality that counts for the large sial approval to move to churches that majority of people is not the reality have the most generous donors. of the Kingdom of God but the real- Surely choosing a church according ity of daily-life problems that make to the possibility of socio-economic them feel powerless, helpless, and advance through donor contributions terribly vulnerable.24 is ignoring the biblical mandate? Christ Have the financial donor/depen- called his disciples to leave their dency implications of the way this can worldly society in order to be his fol- be heard by a western audience been lowers (Jn. 15:19). 1 Kings 17 tells how sufficiently thought through? It seems God sent a famine (and not food-aid) in to say that ‘those with money must give response to the sin of Ahab. The apos- it to those without it’. Have Christians tle Paul endured much affliction in the always sought to resolve other peo- course of his preaching. With the pos- ple’s ‘problems’ in this way? The fool- sible exception of the collection for ishness of the gospel and offence of the Jerusalem, he initiated no ‘compas- cross (Gal. 5:11) include that someone sionate ministries’ in the modern should give up worldly prestige or sense. (I believe that the collection for advantage on entering the Kingdom of Jerusalem was not assistance for the God. God’s Kingdom is like a treasure materially-deprived, but the making of hidden in a field (Mt. 13:44), promising 23 an ecclesial/prophetic statement. ) a deep heartfelt peace and eternal reward to those ravaged by the storms 23 Dieter Georgi, Remembering the Poor: the history of Paul’s collection for Jerusalem (Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1992). 24 Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’, pp. 19-20. ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 265 of life. The insistence that the cross be of mistrust, hatred and suspicion accompanied by material reward is an • a unified and purposeful view of offence to the gospel. The quote above life, that arises from belief in the bypasses the possibility, implicitly power of a single, concerned and believed by millions of people around influential God the world, that felt needs are met These are extremely powerful fac- through the gospel itself. It is their faith tors contributing to improvements and in God that helps people to overcome changes in people’s circumstances. the ‘powerlessness and helplessness’ Associating the gospel strongly with described by Padilla. It is through westernisation, which holistic mission trusting in God that demons of poverty, seems to imply, may by orienting peo- disease and helplessness are driven ple primarily to a search for material away. What do we say to people who wealth, deny them access to the above. believe this? Remember that Christ ‘Striving’ in life comes to mean looking himself was himself heavily engaged in for money and relationship with removing demons. donors, instead of for productivity, per- It is widely understood that a gen- sonal holiness, and morality. uine Christian life will raise someone’s ‘The message of salvation implies economic standing. That is, someone also a message of judgment upon every will be better off as a result of becom- form of alienation, oppression and dis- ing a Christian, without the church crimination, and we should not be being actively involved in ‘social afraid to denounce evil and injustice action’. Many reasons often given for wherever they exist’, shares Stott.25 this include: But is it always easy to identify and dis- •stable monogamist Christian cern ‘evil’ and injustice? Once identi- marriages rooted in true love and fied, how is it to be tackled? Depending mutual respect between husband as it does on the desirability of ultimate and wife ends, identifying evil is a theological • avoiding excesses of alcohol and process. The Bible is replete with drugs. examples of redemptive suffering. Is it • in the classic Protestant sense— better for someone to live with plea- expressing one’s Christian com- sure and joy for seventy years and then mitment through diligence in go to hell, or is it better to struggle and one’s worldly calling suffer for sixty years and then spend •mutual support from a wide eternity in heaven? Definitions of evil Christian family that ignore such questions make •overcoming fear of ancestral implicit theological assumptions. On spirits and thereby avoiding what basis are these assumptions expensive and time consuming funeral rituals otherwise necessitated 25 John Stott, Christian Mission in the Modern • undercutting the fear of witch- World (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, craft that dominates many soci- 1975), p. 24. cited in Padilla, ‘Holistic Mis- eties and binds them to relations sion’, p. 12. 266 Jim Harries made if not faith? Surely this points to standings of good and bad.26 Do we now the foundational importance of faith have the solution? Is it good to allow and theology, i.e. ‘preaching’ to bring your child to enjoy eating chocolates about social change. from morning to night if he/she wants What should be done to someone to, even though the long term effect is whose actions we find to be evil? Are an early death through a heart attack they to be punished? Is change to be caused by obesity? Is it good to assist forced? Or is the primary role of a African populations to mushroom if Christian to point out where they are there is no visible way for them to sus- wrong? The former is tempting, but tain their increased population density, inter-culturally often paternalistic and such that people end up engaging in arousing of (justified?) opposition, mass homicides such as occurred in even if this is underground. The latter, Rwanda in the 1990s? When are while a demanding and complex task, actions evil, and when does ‘aid’ is part of the essence of traditional mis- become ‘interference’ in other people’s sionary work, classically carried out by lives? There are other similar exam- means of teaching and preaching that ples that could be given. ‘holistic mission’ proponents seem to Short-term mission is in these days be so unhappy with. Should the church much on the increase. So is the differ- join western governments in using its ential in wealth between the poor and economic, educational, social or even the rich parts of the world. So is the military might to forcefully extinguish degree to which the ‘poor’ world imi- evil whenever it is ‘spotted’, or is there tates and depends on the rich. Short- a valid alternative of ‘appealing’ to term workers from the west are greatly people through preaching? materially advantaged by comparison Even if we choose to leave aside the with most African people whom they ultimate questions regarding evil dis- come to meet. Is it helpful for them in cussed above, complexities still addition to be told that they have divine abound. Is it wrong to steal, if theft is authority to condemn the evil that they the only way to avoid death through find? That is, that which appears to starvation? Is wife beating to be con- them to be evil, given their (frequently demned out of hand if it happens in a very limited) life experience and con- community in which the alternative is textual training? An ecclesial stamp of prostitution that results in AIDS? Is approval on what can easily be a nar- dictatorship to be outlawed if it is the row bigoted perspective is not, it seems only way to maintain peace between to me, doing anyone any favours. It is warring factions? Family disputes are much better to concentrate on ‘merely’ notoriously difficult for outsiders to preaching the gospel’ (see above) than handle. Who will identify the ‘evil’ in to blunder forcefully, blindly and the actions of husband and wife to one destructively into other people’s another, or that occur within a foreign affairs. community? Ethicists have for centuries argued the relative advantages 26 Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: alternatives and of deontological (norm based) as issues (Michigan: Zondervan Publishing House against teleological (end based) under- 1971), p. 13. ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 267

To say that ‘The church fulfills her The key to comprehending a people vocation as “light of the world” not has always and everywhere (except merely by preaching the Gospel, but by perhaps in the west in the last few cen- letting her light shine through ‘good turies or decades?) been to understand deeds’…’ (Matthew 5:16)27 is what they believe about God(s). The absolutely correct. I doubt whether any key to bringing lasting heart-rooted preachers would disagree. If some dis- change to a community is to enlighten agree, then let us pray for them to people on more of the great truths of change.28 The importance of the life who God is and what he is like. If the and work of preachers to the effective- West is to have a helpful message for ness of their message has long been the world then it should share what it known. Differences between the cur- knows about God, and not its confusion rent age in the west and New Testa- about ‘secularism’. For ‘social action’, ment times are that in the west, first of in the broad sense of the word, to be a all, preached words are themselves no part of the work of the church is nor- longer considered effective either in mal. But promoters of ‘integral gospel’ drawing blessing or driving away bad are unwittingly playing into the hands spirits, and second, that love is all too of people whose agenda can do more often these days interpreted as being harm than good by promoting expressed financially in monetary gen- unhealthy dependency because what erosity and gift giving, and not in they do is rooted in secularism.29 empathising, spending time with peo- The problems of holistic mission are ple, listening or understanding (except in its implementation. In reality peo- with rational or quantitative ends in ple’s problems are complex, so finding mind). solutions is complex. It is in giving Christians born and raised in the license to western people to force their west are facing a dilemma—secular solutions onto African (and other Third norms threaten to undermine their World) communities using western faith. Already historically Christian money and technology that holistic nations present a secular face to the mission has not been helpful. world. ‘Secularism’ is an example of a great non-translatability. It does not make sense in the ‘religious’ majority VI The Anti-Dependency of the world. I dare say that it does not Movement make sense to God either, or to those The growth in ‘holistic mission’ in who hold it in tension with some kind encouraging wealth transfers from the of ‘private religion’. This confusing west to the poor world’ has aggravated state of affairs should cease to be the dependency concerns. Schwartz is in front which the West presents to the my view correct to say that ‘depen- world.

29 See Jim Harries, ‘Is Secularism a Mystical 27 Padilla, ‘Holistic Mission’, p. 21. Religion? Questions of Translation in Relation 28 As suggested by the apostle Paul in Philip- to Millennium Goals and Mission in Africa’( pians 1:15-18. 2007 Unpublished document). 268 Jim Harries dency on outside funding’… is ‘one of Tanzania ‘fixation in the roles of “rich the most difficult problems facing the giver” and “poor receiver” has taken Christian movement at the beginning place’.35 ‘There cannot be a partnership of the 21st Century’.30 He is absolutely in a setting up of dependency and correct to say that modern missions patronage’36 say Helander and Niwag- methodologies result in ‘the Gospel ila. ‘The sharing of material resources itself [being] distorted’ and that peo- is perhaps one of the most difficult ple’s interest in the gospel for the sake matters in the history of partnership.’37 of material possessions means that Promotion of dependency may be ‘something goes terribly wrong in the inadvertent: ‘American missionaries in spread of the Gospel’.31 Schwartz has Zimbabwe almost automatically seem ‘stood in the gap’, filling that difficult to be preaching a prosperity gospel and apparently contradictory position even if this is not their intention… In of being the American who is telling such a situation, missionaries need a people to give (or in the case of Third strategy just to avoid adding to depen- World churches receive) less! dency…. yet Africans are embracing Robert R. Reese calls dependency them with zeal.’38 Such inadvertency ‘… a perversion of the Gospel’.32 He occurs because African people make points out that ‘under the title of part- an implicit link between the gospel and nership local churches or associations the wealth of foreign visitors; as if the have been able to circumvent estab- wealth has arisen directly as a result of lished missionary policy based on field the gospel. Western preachers may say experience’,33 thus agreeing with other things that are true in their own con- authors such as Rheenan that partner- text, but far from true in the African ship has simply ‘… frequently become context. For example, someone from a disguised form of paternalism’34 and America saying that they ‘trust com- Helander and Niwagila’s saying that in pletely in God’ is assumed to mean this as ‘in addition to their pension and medical insurance’. Such aspects not 30 Glenn Schwartz, ‘Is there a Cure for being picked up by African listeners Dependency amongst Mission Founded results in the prosperity gospel. Much Churches?’ (2000), accessed 17 Feb 2007) iting from the west claim to be ‘spread- 31 Schwartz, ‘Is there a Cure?’ 32 Robert Boyd Reese, ‘Dependency and its Impact on Churches Related to the Baptist Convention of Zimbabwe and the Zimbabwe 35 Eila Helander, and Wilson B. Niwagila, Christian Fellowship’, PhD Thesis, Mid-Amer- The Partnership and Power: a quest for recon- ica Baptist Theological Seminary, May 2005 struction in mission (Usa River, Tanzania: (Version that I read did not have the original Makumira Publications [number seven] page numbers), p. 64. 1996), p. 74. 33 Reese, ‘Dependency and its Impact’, p. 9. 36 Helander and Niwagila, The Partnership, p. 34 Gailyn Van Rheenen, ‘Money and Mis- 85. sions (revisited)’, MMR#13, 2001, 37 Helander and Niwagila, The Partnership, http://vlib.anthotech.com/bin/jump.cgi?ID=1 p.125. 077 accessed 20 March 2002. 38 Reese, ‘Dependency and its Impact’, p. 37. ‘Material Provision’ or Preaching the Gospel 269 ing the Gospel’ while being mostly needing to have a different character engaged in dispersing wealth. ‘Bring- from what is common today. Western ing the gospel’ can be like a cover for missionaries all too often use their con- handing out money and material. trol of the purse strings to ‘take The solutions that Schwartz advo- charge’ of or dictate (even if unwit- cates to resolve dependency issues tingly—see above) to churches. I pro- include: first, recognizing that non- pose that western missionaries not dependent churches are healthier; sec- subsidise their ministries. In much of ond, addressing the issue with serious Africa western missionary superiority determination; third, teaching local is almost guaranteed because official people of their obligation to give to languages used are European. I pro- their church; fourth, encouraging spir- pose that missionaries insist on minis- itual renewal; and fifth, ensuring that tering using local tongues. there is local ownership.39 Reese talks of the need for mission programmes 1. Missionary Poverty that do not create dependency, good training for missionaries, and mission Westerners are these days reluctant to take leadership in Africa through fear euthanasia.40 He advocates steps that Zimbabwean churches and the Ameri- of accusations of paternalism. This is can churches relating with them ought very different from the situation in the west itself, where different races of to take to resolve dependency issues.41 people are actively being integrated I stand with the above in the solu- into society. At the root of this differ- tions they advocate for resolving ence is the wealth of foreigners on the dependency. I add additional ones African scene that (combined with below. their failure to learn local languages— see below) keeps them aloof from and VII Additional Means for so ignorant of local people’s ways. This Overcoming Dependency ignorance, plus the ‘don’t bite the hand that feeds you’ mentality inhibits what I would like to make two suggestions could otherwise be helpful cross-cul- in addition to those above as aids to tural interchange. The church, as a resolving the . I do so dependency issue foundationally egalitarian body, should in order to encourage ‘missionary be leading the field in resolving this work’. I believe that the unity of the perpetuation of inter-racial barriers.42 church will be aided by having more I do not mean by this that western and not fewer people travelling missionaries should be too poor to between its branches and to the keep themselves and therefore go hun- unreached. But I see such work as

42 Jim Harries, ‘Issues of Race in Relating to 39 Schwartz, ‘Is there a Cure.’ Africa: Linguistic and Cultural Insights that 40 Reese, ‘Dependency and its Impact’, pp. Could Avoid Traps.’ http://www.jim-mis- 77-80. sion.org.uk/articles/issues-of-race-in-relat- 41 Reese, ‘Dependency and its Impact’, p. 76. ing-to-africa.html accessed 12th Jan 2008. 270 Jim Harries gry. Yes, it is good to have a ‘simple be building a foundation that local peo- lifestyle’, but most important is for ple will understand and can imitate. It missionaries not to use their western is a way of avoiding serious blunders in wealth to further their ministry. This is in communication. line with the biblical model of mission- Setting a foundation for people in aries making their living by receiving other than their own language will, from those whom they serve (1 Cor. especially in this day of global commu- 9:11). The absence of foreign funding nication and if the language is rooted in will force western missionaries to a very different culture, make them operate according to the contours of dependent on the owners of that lan- African culture. Not being preoccupied guage. This is currently happening in promoting their own culture will over much of Africa, and in such ren- result in opportunities of all sorts for dering people incompetent in their own missionaries to learn from locals. (This communities prevents what could have is not to say that missionaries should been helpful progressive thinking and stop people from benefiting from what activities from occurring. the west has to offer. They don’t need to stop them at all. Only, their own energies should not be spent in pro- VIII Conclusion moting ‘westernisation’ [which is what Implementation of 'holistic mission' ‘development often amounts to] but in strategies across Africa (and presum- interacting with people, using locally ably elsewhere) has inadvertently available means.) resulted in serious problems, especially unhealthy dependency of African churches and communities on the 2. Use of Local Languages west, and a serious impeding of local Operating one’s Christian ministry in African initiatives and ecclesial or the local language has numerous social/economic development. In addi- effects and benefits that are these days tion to anti-dependency measures pro- rarely considered. It results in moted by Schwartz, this author advo- ‘enforced humility’ as the missionary cates two mission strategies to be fol- begins as ‘learner’. Using someone’s lowed at least by some western mis- language, is boosting their self-worth sionaries to remedy this situation— and a sign of respect for them. Using a western missionaries ministering in European language tends to confine a indigenous languages and not using missionary to the upper classes, but outside resources to subsidise their using a local language enables min- ministry. These two strategies, istry across the economic spectrum. together known as 'vulnerable mis- Knowing and working in the local lan- sion', will enable a clear contextual guage will ensure a ‘fit’ between min- communication of the gospel and an istry and the local context. Knowing empowering of non-western Christian and working in the local language will communities. ERT (2008) 32:3, 271-288 Books Reviewed

Reviewed by David Parker Reviewed by Paul R Dekar David W. Torrance and George Taylor Jon Stock, Tim Otto, and Jonathan Wil- Israel, God’s Servant: God’s Key to the son-Hartgrove Redemption of the World Inhabiting the Church. Biblical Wisdom for a New Monasticism Reviewed by David Parker Donald G Bloesch Reviewed by Carl Brook Spirituality Old and New Recovering Peter R. Holmes Authentic Spiritual Life Trinity in Human Community: Explor- Reviewed by Jürg Buchegger ing Congregational Life in the Image of Wayne Grudem the Social Trinity Evangelical Feminism & Biblical Truth. Reviewed by W. Travis McMaken An Analysis of more than 100 Disputed Leonard J. Vander Zee Questions Christ, Baptism and the Lord’s Supper: George & Dora Winston Recovering the Sacraments for Evangeli- Recovering Biblical Ministry by Women. cal Worship An Exegetical Response to Traditional- ism and Feminism Reviewed by Mark L. Russell R. Paul Stevens Reviewed by David Parker Doing God’s Business: Meaning and Stephen R. Holmes Motivation for the Marketplace The Wondrous Cross: Atonement and Penal Substitution in the Bible and His- Reviewed by Matthew Cook tory Graeme Goldsworthy Gospel-Centered Hermeneutics: Biblical- Reviewed by Norman T. Barker theological Foundations and Principles Kelly M. Kapic and Justin Taylor (editors) Reviewed by David Parker Overcoming Sin And Temptation -Three Stephen Sizer works by John Owen Zion’s Christian Soldiers: The Bible, Israel and the Church The New International Dictionary of New Testament Theology Editor: Colin Brown A four volume set offering concise discussions of all the major theological terms in the New Testament against the background of classical and koine Greek, the Old Testament, Rabbinical thought and different usages in the New Testament.

0-85364-432-2 / 4 Volumes, total 3506pp / hb / 240x165mm / £119.99

Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK Book Reviews

ERT (2008) 32:3, 272-273 East today in a purely secular way’ and are therefore ‘deeply prejudiced in their Israel, God’s Servant: God’s Key judgements’ whereas ‘What we are wit- to the Redemption of the World nessing today is an immense spiritual David W. Torrance and George struggle… between Christ and all the evil Taylor powers of the world’. Edinburgh: Handsel Press and As the subtitle indicates, the church has Paternoster: Milton Keynes, 2007 not replaced Israel, but instead ‘Israel 978-1-84227-554-2 continues to be God’s servant and, Pb., pp 224, bibliog., index together with the Church, is God’s instru- ment, God’s key, for the redemption of Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, the world’. This does not mean that Israel Evangelical Review of Theology and the church are somehow lumped Using some material from earlier lectures together, but they have ‘under God, differ- and conferences, the authors (Torrance, a ent roles to play’. retired Church of Scotland minister and Furthermore, this unique and continuing Taylor is a pseudonym) present in this role for Israel does not rule out the call book a sustained argument against for them to believe in Jesus Christ as sav- ‘replacement theology’, the view that iour and Lord—in fact, quite the opposite: with the coming of Christ, God’s covenant it is ‘a matter of urgent priority’ for the and plan for the Jewish people in relation ‘church to take the gospel to them’ to ‘his purpose of love and salvation for because, ‘Without faith in Jesus Christ, humankind and for all creation’ came to the Jews cannot fulfil God’s calling in the an end. The argument is wide ranging but way that he wants’. So the authors take is focused especially on Paul’s ministry seriously the Pauline priority, ‘to the Jew and theology as seen most clearly in first’ in both chronological and theologi- Romans 9-11—in fact, chapter 11 of this cal-missional terms. God ‘grieves over book consists of an exposition of this pas- their sin, their rejection of himself and his sage. Heavy weight is also placed on the salvation… but he loves them and wants biblical witness to Jesus being the messi- all to repent to receive his salvation and ah of Israel and that the cross must be enjoy his love’. Chronologically of course, understood in this context. the church took the gospel to Jews first, Events in Middle East, especially since so ‘The Church’s attitude to the Jewish the formation of the state of Israel in people can be seen as a touchstone of its 1948, are regarded as being part of God’s attitude to God’, and ‘its attitude to plan, even though Israel is obviously not Jewish mission provides a measure of the (yet) believing. From this perspective, the Church’s keenness to accomplish God’s issues existing there today must be seen salvation project according to God’s as basically and emphatically religious, design’. Appropriately, there are two not merely political. The authors believe helpful appendices on ‘Messianic’ church- that many in the church have ‘yielded to es and mission activity in Israel today. the secular pressures of the world and According to the authors, one easily over- seek to interpret events in the Middle looked danger of replacement theology is Book Reviews 273 that it spiritualises the OT and the land, out our religious commitment’. This is a thus making it well nigh impossible to book which gives him the chance to draw deal with the issues in the Middle East; on many of his distinctive theological moreover, this approach has serious themes, especially Word and Spirit: ‘True implications for the rest of theology, ren- spirituality is based on the paradoxical dering it fundamentally anti-holistic. unity of Word and Spirit, and this unity is This well argued book gives considerable conveyed to us through earthen vessels— attention to difficult related issues such especially the preaching of the Word in as anti-semitism (treated in one of the the assembly of believers’ (p. 142). It also three major sections), relations with displays in a sustained manner his dis- other religions (Islam in particular, tinctive style of writing—the juxtaposi- including Jihad, the Intifada and the tion of contrasting views of the topic PLO), and the refugee problem. It com- under consideration. For example, in dif- bines a strong biblical theology with a fering systems of spirituality, the body is realistic understanding of the practical seen as ‘the vessel of the soul’, ‘the tomb issues, deep spiritual sensitivity and a of the soul’ or ‘the seed of the soul’, or passionate concern for the people of the they stress ‘eternity of God’, ‘the sover- Middle East. As such, its message should eignty of God’ or ‘the potential or future be considered carefully by all, including of God’. those who take a different view. It is par- This book lends itself well to this kind of ticularly important for those many treatment because more than half of it Christians and churches who have ceased consists of a delineation of three ideal to give attention to the evangelization of types of spirituality—mysticism, classic Jews (often with the flow-on effect of biblical personalism and ‘the new spiritu- lessening interest in mission or evange- ality’. The main focus of three systems lism of any kind), and those who ignore can be characterized distinctively from believing Jews and their churches. various perspectives. For example, ‘in mainstream mysticism life is a quest for happiness in union with God. In biblical ERT (2008) 32:3, 273-274 religion life is a witness to God’s gracious election brought to fulfillment in Jesus Spirituality Old and New Christ. In modern religion life is an invita- Recovering Authentic Spiritual tion to demonstrate heroic virtue. Or life Life is a transmutation of matter into spirit’ Donald G. Bloesch (p. 131). Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, After various introductory topics are con- 2007 sidered, Chapter 3 gives a brief outline of ISBN 978-0-8308-2838-8 these three types of spirituality, with the Pb., pp 192 Indexes following chapters devoted to extended Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, presentations of their features, but Evangelical Review of Theology always in reference to each other, com- paring and highlighting the contrasts. After completing his seven volume Chapter 7 continues the same method, ‘Theological Foundation’ series, Donald but by showing how each of the three Bloesch has turned to the topic of spiritu- types of spirituality relates to key ality, simply defined as ‘the way we live Christian doctrines and practices, such as 274 Book Reviews the person of God, Christology, ecclesiolo- very wide perspective on history and the gy, prayer and the like. Thus, ‘Faith in scope of Christian experience. Appendices biblical religion is trust in the under- throughout the book treat particular served mercy of God as revealed in Jesus issues—Gnosticism, the new age spiritu- Christ. In classical mysticism faith is a ality and Thérèse of Lisieux (who is pre- venture into the darkness of the unknown sented as one with significant evangelical culminating in the vision of God beyond sympathies); a final appendix highlights the boundary of death. In the new spiritu- one of the hymns of Pietism. However, it ality faith is power force that works mira- is only in the last chapter that there is cles’ (p. 132). any specific reference to the dominant This is a very helpful synthesis which Pentecostal or Charismatic spirituality cannot help but leave the reader com- which, according to the author, is ‘basi- pletely clear about the author’s views on cally evangelical in orientation’. But it the nature and values of biblical or evan- ‘reflects mystical motifs’ (due to its roots gelical spirituality, which is ‘centered in in mysticism and pietism) and has the the gospel of Jesus Christ and dedicated ‘danger’ of tending to ‘elevate the Spirit to the conversion of a lost humanity’ (p. over the written Word’ and, reflecting the 140) and is guided by ‘Holy Scripture as new spirituality, sees God as ‘erupting the infallible norm for faith and practice power rather than redeeming mercy’ (p. (p. 22). 146). It leads on to the final chapter which Another appendix reflects the main con- takes the author’s own personal views clusion of the work—the unresolved ten- further in terms of the Kingdom of God, sion between evangelical spirituality and showing how evangelical spirituality the other two streams selected for discus- involves fellowship, service and witness sion. While Bloesch is at pains to empha- arising out of a personal relationship of size repeatedly that individuals, whether trust in and worship of the personal God contemporary or from the past, may of the Bible. This chapter serves to rein- exhibit any of the three types of spirituali- force Bloesch’s concern that there is a ty in varying degrees and combinations, ‘crisis in spirituality’ caused by ‘theologi- the systems themselves are in principle cal erosion’ in which the church has been irreconcilable. This means that evangeli- ‘accommodated to new winds of doctrine’ cal Christianity cannot contemplate that contradict historic Christianity. This adopting either of the other two system if spirituality is without doctrinal sub- it wants to remain faithful to its sources. stance, and, he explains, can be seen in a With this clear message reinforced variety of forms including the electronic strongly and with a warm and passionate church, the New Age movement, some presentation, this is a book from a senior forms of Pentecostalism (including con- evangelical theologian that is important temporary worship, prosperity doctrine, reading for Christians today. the positive confession movement), feminist spirituality and the emerging church movement. Most of the treatment of spirituality in this book is general and theological (rather than oriented to spiritual practices) and, typically of the author, with a Book Reviews 275

ERT (2008) 32:3, 275-277 themes: (1) a biblical vision of manhood and womanhood as created by God and Evangelical Feminism and Biblical (2) in the church, (3) evangelical feminist Truth: An Analysis of more than claims from Genesis 1-3, (4) from the rest 100 Disputed Questions of the Old Testament and (5) the Gospels Wayne Grudem and Acts, (6) evangelical feminist claims about marriage and (7) about the church Sisters OR: Multnomah, 2004 from the New Testament epistles, (8) ISBN 978-1-57673-840-5 about the church from 1 Timothy 2, (9) Pb pp 856 appen., bibliog. Ind. about how to interpret the Bible, claims Recovering Biblical Ministry by (10) from theology and from ideas of fair- Women: An Exegetical Response ness and justice, (11) claims that the to Traditionalism and Feminism complementarian view is harmful. The book closes with chapters (13) ‘Is evan- George and Dora Winston gelical feminism the new path to liberal- n.p.: Xulon Press, 2003 ism? Some disturbing warning signs’ and [orig. Dutch ed. by Apeldoorn: (14) ‘The current state of evangelicalism Novapres, 1996; 2nd print 1999] regarding biblical manhood and woman- ISBN 978-1-59160-182-1 hood’. Pb, pp551, ind Grudem’s book leaves no stone unturned. Reviewed by Jürg Buchegger, Evangelical He deals with every question imaginable Free Church Buchs, Switzerland that is connected with the biblical texts on the topic from Genesis 1 to 1 Timothy Both of these two are impressive books— 2. The complementarian view itself is not only because of their number of nowhere explicitly expounded, but the pages, but because of their content. two introductory chapters explain the Grudem has been known for a long time position well: man and woman are equal as an advocate for the so-called comple- in value and dignity, they have different mentarian position on the Bible and gen- roles in marriage as part of the created der. He also is one of the editors of the order, both equality and differences standard defence of this view (Recovering reflect the differences and equality in the Biblical Manhood and Womanhood. A Trinity. The idea of headship and subordi- Response to Evangelical Feminism 1991). nation also stretches out into the realm of He has co-edited two other monographs the church. That becomes clear, when on the topic since then. texts dealing with leadership in the This new book is meant to be a supple- church are closely connected with ques- ment to the earlier, standard work. tions of family as in 1 Timothy 3:4-5. 1 According to the preface, the book wants Timothy 2:11-15 is the clearest state- to update the ongoing discussion, argument, restricting some governing and ments and research. After two introducto- teaching roles in the church to men. ry chapters, 118 ‘disputed questions’ are In all cases Grudem tries to argue in the dealt with in chapters 3-12, questions best way possible, taking into account the which set the egalitarian camp against most recent research and literature on the complementarian view. each topic. The appendices contain Each chapter groups a couple of ques- among other things the most updated ver- tions around one of the following key sion of earlier papers on kephale and 276 Book Reviews authenteo. The book is meant to be used not only in Eph. 5:22-33, but also in 1 as a reference book when looking for Cor. 11:3, 14:34 and 1Tim. 2:12. In these answers to a specific argument in the passages aner and gyne must be translat- debate. Extensive indices prove very helped by ‘husband’ and ‘wife’ and not by ful and a special website for future argu- ‘man’ and ‘woman’. This becomes the ments, additions and corrections has been main thesis of the book: No gender-based established (www.EFBT100.com; see also distinctions may be made outside of mar- www.cbwm.org). riage. While Grudem is clearly complementari- The next part of the book (pp.175-296) an, the Winstons’ book ‘proposes a third deals with gender-based distinctions and way’. George and Dora Winston have both concludes, that men and women are taught for more than 30 years at the equal, but (in their sexuality and connect- Belgian Bible Institute. According to the ed with it in some functional physical and authors, their book ‘is merely an attempt psychological differences) not identical. to determine what the Bible teaches’ and Ch. 9 is especially crucial, because it concerning the current gender-debate, answers the question, ‘Do gender-based they are convinced, ‘that inerrant distinctions apply outside of marriage?’ Scripture, interpreted according to with a blunt ‘no’. This then means that straightforward grammatical-historical gender-based distinctions do not apply in exegesis, provides a coherent total pic- the sphere of the church either. ture and common ground upon which Consequently, chaps. 10-11 try to answer open minded people from both camps can questions in connection with Gal. 3:28 meet’. They make it explicit, that their (its application is restricted to the most important dialogue partner is the church) and to show that 1 Cor. 11:11 above mentioned book, Recovering Biblical and Eph. 5:21-22 teach reciprocal submis- Manhood and Womanhood. sion. Starting with some methodological ques- The rest of the book (pp. 299-525) tions and rejecting the deculturizing and argues, that in the church women may traditionalist approaches as sidetracks, teach, be ministers of the Word according the first part of the book addresses the to their gifts (Part 4: Speaking for God) question of authority. According to the and that they can take every office (Part Winstons we find within the Bible five dif- 5: Church Office; yes, Junia was a woman ferent relationships in which God recog- Apostle and 1Tim. 5:2 is talking about nizes the authority of one person over women elders). There is an index of another: wife/husband, children/parents, names and scripture but no bibliography. citizens/magistrates, church Looking at the literature that has been members/church officers and cited, some will probably want to criticize employees/employers. The important a lack of interacting with newer research point: ‘… both males and females can be on the texts and issues involved. But this either in authority or in submission with is not the real weakness of the book. The respect to each other depending on the Winstons have done an admirable job in relationship in which they are placed to bringing into the ongoing discussion a one another…’. It is not gender which fresh viewpoint and an immense effort decides who has authority over whom, has been made in answering every possi- but ‘relationship’. Headship and submis- ble objection to their view. There is much sion are limited to the sphere of marriage, to gain for every reader in the exegetical Book Reviews 277 discussions and in some places the book important texts within their biblical con- is almost a compendium on biblical texts text. This is especially wanting in a book on one topic (e.g. on partnership in mar- that claims in its subtitle to give ‘an riage). The book and its main thesis sure- exegetical response’ to the pertinent ly deserve a closer look and answer from questions. both camps of the debate on women’s roles in church. ERT (2008) 32:3, 277-278 For this reviewer the Winston’s main argument is still open to question, not only because their view is unique and The Wondrous Cross: Atonement quite isolated (despite their reference to and Penal Substitution in the Luther and other older commentators, Bible and History who took aner and gyne in 1 Tim. 2 as Stephen R. Holmes referring to husband and wife, they can- London: Paternoster, 2007 not be counted as advocates of this view ISBN 978-1-84227-541-2 of the Winstons), but also because in Pb., pp130 their discussion of methodology, they Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, insist, for example, that induction is the Evangelical Review of Theology only way to argue a case, and deduction is always misleading (pp. 7f). Their treat- In this short book, the author, who lec- ment and exegesis of 1 Tim. 2:11-12 (pp. tures at the University of St Andrews, 106-115, 355-362) furthermore is not Scotland, defends the doctrine of penal convincing. According to the authors, in substitution (spelt wrongly on the title this passage Paul wants ‘to indicate to page!) as a valid way of talking about the married women who teach in church only atonement today. His discussion is set how they are to go about it: with unosten- against the background of considerable tatious dress (vv.9-10), after learning in a recent debate on the topic amongst evan- quiet spirit (v.11), and so as to avoid lord- gelicals. However, he qualifies this ing it over their husbands (v.12). But defence very strongly, arguing that penal when it has not been possible to prevent substitution must be seen as only one of a women’s teaching in church, ways have number of ways of telling the ‘story’ of been found to limit such teaching’ (362). the cross that are legitimated by I doubt that this is what the text is say- Scripture and history. Although it was ing. I think it is highly unlikely that by highly prominent in the western evangeli- using Adam and Eve (v.13) for his argu- cal world after its first full scale appear- ment, Paul is thinking of married women ance at the Reformation, Holmes believes and men only. In a text like this one, that it may come to be discarded in the where an unambiguous hint to marriage future when it no longer resonates with is lacking, the burden of proof lies with the cultural context of the day—in the those who want to read the narrower same way that earlier explanations of the meaning for the terms aner and gyne. As meaning of the Cross have done (such as so often in this debate (almost) every- Anselm’s satisfaction theory). Even now, thing comes down to 1 Tim. 2! Because a penal substitution can be presented badly question/answer or objection/answer for- by both supporters and critics, masking mat is used throughout the whole book, its true significance as a model which one misses in-depth studies of the most speaks strongly of God’s love, justice, 278 Book Reviews and the seriousness of sin. So it must be recognizing these claims and of seeking explained carefully and in the context of to be even-handed in his treatment, the the full story of God and his action in the author’s defence is rather muted until the world, including the Trinity, the closing stages of the book; furthermore, Incarnation and the transformation of the reasons for the dominance of the view people brought about by salvation. But no in the hey-day of evangelicalism are left one ‘story’ is satisfactory by itself more or less unexplained. because the biblical material and the But more questionable still for many nature of Christ’s death and resurrection readers will be the way the author consid- are too complex for such a simplistic ers penal substitution (and indeed, all the approach; each one of those discussed in models he reviews) to be simply another the book has its own distinctive value and way (albeit important) of explaining the cannot be dropped without loss. Thus meaning of the cross, but not one that is penal substitution stresses, inter alia, the part of the essential truth of Scripture objective nature of the atonement which itself. is perfectly proper, but not in isolation from the subjective elements found in other views. ERT (2008) 32:3, 278-280 This a popular level book (with no index or footnotes) which in the first half gives Overcoming Sin And Temptation: a simple overview of the biblical and his- Three Classic Works by John torical material, pointing out in particular Owen the variety of views that have been held, Edited by Kelly M. Kapic and although there is little recognition of the Justin Taylor dominance of ‘power theology’ in recent times. In the much more substantial sec- Wheaton, Ill. Crossway Books ISBN 978-1-58134-649-7 ond half, the author tackles key questions Pb, pp 462 Append., Indices relating to the meaning and significance of various approaches to the doctrine of Reviewed by Norman T. Barker, Brisbane the atonement, and examines more deeply Australia. penal substation itself. In an appendix he refers specifically to recent debates, espe- The editors have made available to the cially in the UK in which he has been modern church an attractively printed involved. In these circumstances, the new edition of three works by eminent author is particularly sensitive to criti- 17th century Puritan theologian, John cisms of penal substitution as the stereo- Owen (1616-1683). Under Oliver typical evangelical view, (especially by Cromwell, Owen was appointed Dean of those who might have been expected to Christ Church Cathedral, Oxford, in 1651, support it). Among those that he address- and Vice-Chancellor of Oxford University es are the claim that it is based on an in 1652, but displaced at the accession of injustice or a defective view of God while Charles II in 1660. He participated in at the same time it is promoted as the drawing up the Savoy Declaration of only view faithful to the teaching of Faith of 1658. Scripture, and also the problematic idea Of the Mortification of Sin in Believers that guilt can be transferred from one (1656), Of Temptation: the Nature and person to another. Yet in the process of Power of it (1658), and The Nature, Power, Book Reviews 279

Deceit, and Prevalency of Indwelling Sin minds of men.’ (1667) are based on key texts (Rom. He displays fine insight into the moral 8.13; Mt. 26.11 and Rom. 7.21). Owen’s and spiritual significance of episodes in alleged heavy literary style has been biblical history. He warms the heart by made reader-friendly by editorial his insistence on renewal and the neces- overviews, footnoted archaic words, and sary work of the Holy Spirit. There is the addition of headings and italics to much, not only to dismay our half-heart- clarify the steps of his argument. edness, but also to delight earnest believ- Owen reaches across the centuries to ers with gospel truth. address the modern church. 20th century His works sparkle with memorable theologian, H. Richard Niebuhr, succinct- gems—‘Be killing sin, or it will be killing ly described Liberal theology—‘A God you.’ He observes the ineffectiveness of without wrath brought men without sin law preaching for conversion; men live into a kingdom without a cross.’ What of many years in congregations where the modern Evangelicalism? Is our concept of law is powerfully preached, but are not the grace and love of God devalued by our moved by it—‘they receive no more failure to understand the gravity of sin? impression from the stroke of it than Owen could be considered an exposition blows with a straw would give to an of Augustine’s famous dictum, Nondum adamant (diamond, hard substance).’ considerasti, quanti ponderis sit peccatum People can also continue to live under the (not yet have you considered of what dispensation of the gospel and word of weight is sin). God all their lives, and yet ‘continue as Don’t read Owen to be immediately uplift- senseless and stupid as the seats they sit ed, but to be deeply disturbed in our often upon’. For our era of rampant abortion too comfortable discipleship. His spiritual and homosexuality, he cries against mur- logic rolls inexorably onward to uncover der of children and all unnatural sins, for layer upon layer of indwelling sin and ‘herein sin turns the strong current of temptation. ‘Mortification’ or ‘putting to nature, darkens all the light of God in the death’ is never a once-for-all act, but a soul, controls all natural principles’. continuous struggle against sin. Evil His arguments abound with telling illus- remains present in believers, as ‘an trations. He reminds us that, when we inbred, working, impelling law’ fighting imagine sin’s tumults have been calmed, against the believer’s desire ‘to do good’ indwelling sin remains like a deep river, (Rom. 7.21), as a ‘contrary principle’ seemingly unruffled on the surface, but (Gal. 5.17; Rom. 8.23). with a powerful current still. When mind Appealing to 1 John 2.1, Owen argues and will consent to temptation, ‘the soul that the primary purpose of the gospel is goes into sin as a ship before the wind to keep God’s people from sin—‘that you with all its sails displayed’. Indwelling may not sin’. But we rush to the second sin is like a capped volcano or a plastered part, ‘If any one does sin, we have an ulcer that will erupt unless subdued con- advocate with the Father.’ So, he says, stantly by the Holy Spirit. Giving the lie ‘the deceit of sin… changes this method to a common view of the Puritans, he and order of the application of gospel warns that indwelling sin often erupts in truths… “If any man sin, there is a par- professing Christians as self-righteous- don provided” is all the gospel that sin ness or censoriousness of others. would willingly suffer to abide on the Sometimes he seems to dwell too long in 280 Book Reviews the dark mood of Romans 7, neglecting aproject.org/). A part-time nurse at a hos- its triumphal climax in v.25a. But against pital working with AIDS and cancer triumphalists who feel that the second patients, Tim Otto is part of the Church of part of this verse is misplaced, Owen, the Sojourners in San Francisco with Paul, recalls us to the life-long (www.churchofthesojourners.org). struggle against the ‘law of sin’ within. Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove is a member Owen would leave us no rest except in of Rutba House in Durham, North Christ and his cross—‘Labour to fill your Carolina (www.newmonasticism.org/). hearts with the cross of Christ’ for ‘there Jon Stock begins by exploring the legiti- is no death of sin without the death of macy of vows, foundational to an older Christ’. There is no victory without the monastic order, the Benedictines. Vows Holy Spirit—‘A man may easier see with- taken in each new monastic community out eyes, speak without a tongue, than differ, but generally they involve a com- truly mortify sin without the Spirit.’ mitment to deepen awareness of self and In his Foreword, John Piper, says that others; to use goods rightly; to share in Owen ‘speaks to leaders who should be Eucharist and in service. The key idea is helping the church to know and feel the this: God is a covenanting God. The self- seriousness of indwelling sin (Rom. 7.20) understanding of ancient Israel, Jesus, and how to fight it (Rom. 8.13).’ There is and modern Christians must be that of no doubt that Owen lays his finger on the promise keeping and fidelity to responsi- weak pulse, not only of the Christianity of bilities that arise out of the biblical wit- his age, but of ours. ness. Stock writes that ‘the language of covenant faithfulness, steadfast love, self- sacrifice, patience, long-suffering, vulner- ERT (2008) 32:3, 280-281 able, enduring, loyalty, and promise appears to justify vow making as an Inhabiting the Church: Biblical appropriate expression for the people of Wisdom for a New Monasticism God’. Jon Stock, Tim Otto, and Monasticism has always insisted that it is Jonathan Wilson-Hartgrove possible for ordinary people to live the ISBN 978-1-59752-990-7 way that Jesus taught and practised. This Eugene, Oregon: Cascade Books, is conversion, less a matter of changing 2007 one’s religion, and more about returning Pb ix+129 pp. bibliog to God (Hebrew, shuv) and changing one’s heart (Greek, metanoia). Christian monas- Reviewed by Paul R. Dekar, Memphis tics experience repentance, trust, and the Theological Seminary, Memphis, TN, USA transformation of one’s whole life most The evangelical heritage rejects justifica- directly in prayer, especially praying the tion by work, an idea that violates the pri- Scriptures, and in finding support by liv- ority of grace and perhaps a concern for ing in community. As Jonathan Wilson- readers of the Evangelical Review of Hartgrove summarizes, ‘Conversion is the Theology. Members of three communities work of a tribe, not of an individual’. that have adopted to varying degrees the Tim Otto explores obedience. The idea of label ‘new monasticism’ address the con- making life-long commitments under cern head-on. Jon Stock is part of Church authority of an abbot or abbess will be a of the Servant King (http://www.ekklesi- hard sell in a culture built upon the Book Reviews 281 autonomous self perfectly free to fulfil felt sions of authentic Christian faith and wit- needs immediately. Founders of new ness today. monastic communities have often been charismatic persons. Less authoritarian figures like Jim Jones and David Koresh, ERT (2008) 32:3, 281-283 the ‘abba’ and ‘amma’ to whom members of new monastic communities profess obe- Trinity in Human Community: dience are able to communicate the Exploring Congregational Life in shared vision for life together. the Image of the Social Trinity ‘Motherlike,’ they listen, nurture, and Peter R. Holmes share. ISBN 978-1-84227-470-5 Finally, Jon Stock explores stability, a Milton Keynes: Paternoster 2006 commitment to abiding. Those who wish Pb pp 230 bibliog Index to interiorize monastic values would be Reviewed by Carl Brook, South Coast Bible well warned that authentic community School, Republic of South Africa takes time. To maintain a commitment to stability is not to be taken lightly, most of It is refreshing to review a title that has a all because it is made before God and living community as its application! Peter renewed each year. Holmes is co-founder of Christ Church This book of essays gives a biblical per- Deal (CCD) in the UK, an ‘intentional spective on aspects of the new monasti- therapeutic faith community’. According cism: a gospel telos that sees the whole of to its web-site, CCD emphasizes ‘Christ- life under the lordship of Jesus Christ, likeness as a journey, our membership which has the effect of blurring any divi- with the Association of Therapeutic sion between sacred and secular; the Communities, and our being home to the priesthood of all believers, a mark of the Rapha Journey’. As we shall see, all of Protestant reformers who rejected the divi- these distinctives feature prominently in sion of the people of God into ‘religious’ Holmes’ book. and ‘secular’ vocations; balance of right Trinity in Human Community is a hybrid belief and right practice, or Lex orandi, lex work, an amalgam of theoretical reflec- credendi (law of prayer, law of belief); a tion and community input. Typically, a disciplined life. Writing not just for monks, chapter will consist of discourse along the authors address the challenge of being with two or three staggered interruptions, Christian today, and the good news Jesus blocks of verbatim quotations from CCD offers for our whole world. members interacting with the material. In contrast with the bad press Christians This approach makes for fascinating read- often get these days, legitimately at least ing as one attempts to reconcile commu- in North America, the new monastics nity observations with the author’s argu- have generated quite a stir. God-centred, ment. Holmes is concerned with relation- Shalom-seeking, and intentionally politi- ship and human maturity in the context of cal in all areas of life, the communities church life. Noting the mass exodus from offer a different face and fresh approach British congregations, the author offers to Christian life and practice. The authors ‘no new theologies or fairy-tale answers’ have provided a handbook for theolo- but the simple conviction that the church gians, seminary students, and mission exists to love and serve those willing to leaders seeking to discern core expres- receive it. 282 Book Reviews

Part of the problem in the contemporary like in Bible times? Recalling Israel’s church, argues Holmes, is embedded in Early Settlement period, Holmes explores western theology. Augustine, trained in ‘kinship’ sociologically and theologically. the Greek classics, elevated intellectual He identifies the Hebrew mishpachah, a knowledge about God over an experiential cluster of houses accommodating extend- knowledge of God. Neglected in particular ed families that made up small villages. was Jesus’ humanity, ‘God-in-man-in- ‘The formation of community seems to Christ-on-earth’. The resultant view was a have been Yahweh’s central act. From the God who is transcendent and unchanging, time of Exodus He emphasized theocentric removed from his creation and unrespon- community, that is, he himself as kinsman sive to human need. In contrast to this in their midst.’ western bias, the Cappadocian Fathers The rise of Israel’s monarchy and Temple understood the Trinity in communal weakened the notion of theocentricity, terms: ‘God has no ontological content, but Christ extended the idea by introduc- no true being, apart from communion’. ing the Kingdom. In Jesus, ‘community We may thus speak of a social Trinity— returned to a focus on Yahweh and kin- and of perichoresis: the persons of the ship relationship, though not centred on Trinity ‘pouring life into one another per- the mishpachah or the Temple, but on manently in divine loving harmony’. Such Christ Himself as Son of the Father’. The a trinitarian understanding has in view a Greek word koinonia is understood by the God who promotes relational life, not just author as encompassing both concepts: private faith. Hebrew theocentric community and On the basis of this theology Holmes Christ’s Kingdom community. The models probes modern humanity’s selfism and that Paul implemented exhibited several loss of community, noting philosophers distinctives: they focused on the exercis- such as John Macmurray who stood ing of spiritual gifts; they were ‘flat’ orga- against Enlightenment individualism. nizations (no hierarchy) with no full-time Each person in a local congregation is a workers; they existed as a living koinonia God-given ‘Other’ to be loved in mutual that honoured both men and women; they personhood. The measure of ‘success’ in expected and required positive, personal church maturity should be the capacity of change. members to give love to one another. The journey toward Christ-likeness Fundamental to the philosophy of min- encouraged by Holmes is nothing more or istry at CCD is the appropriation of less than biblical discipleship. To be Exodus 15:25—I am the Lord your physi- effective, however, the invitation to cian. The Hebrew word for ‘heal’, rapha, change should occur in community, in the suggests that Yahweh is able to restore context of relational healing. Through the us in the way a piece of torn cloth is Rapha principle, the social Trinity mended. Thus, the author translates the engages us on those issues which prevent Rapha promise as: ‘I am the mender, the us becoming more like Christ. More one who sews you together, into Christ.’ important is the idea and experience of a This principle undergirds the model of journey together, helping each other along relational healing at CCD: ‘being woven the way. back together within ourselves’. With so much buzz about the Emerging The author then turns to concrete appli- church these days, it is encouraging to cation: what did community actually look see a working alternative flourishing in Book Reviews 283 the UK. Trinity in Human Community will tion is parsed in chapter two where he be of help to pastors and lay-people seek- discusses figures such as Augustine and ing to be (or become) church in the post- Calvin, the relation of sign and thing sig- modern era. Counsellors in particular will nified, and how the sacramental signs appreciate the attention given to relation- ‘bestow what they symbolize’ (p. 33) al healing. One caveat: despite the book’s through the work of the Holy Spirit. Christocentric focus, evangelicals will be Chapter three offers a biblical overview of wary of the rather free interpretation of sacraments, and chapter four argues that the ways in which God speaks to us. Jesus Christ is the ‘quintessential sacrament’ (p. 45). ‘Christ is the one mediator between God and humanity’ (p. 48) and ERT (2008) 32:3, 283-284 ‘the sacraments are one of the ways God brings us into union with Christ’ (p. 45). Christ, Baptism and the Lord’s Chapter five offers a description of how Supper: Recovering the sacraments work, explicating the rela- Sacraments for Evangelical tionship between Christ and faith in the Worship sacraments. Vander Zee rightly affirms Leonard J. Vander Zee that ‘it is the Holy Spirit who makes ISBN 978-0-8308-2786-2 sacraments effective’ (p. 64) as the agent Downers Grove: InterVarsity Press, who enlivens our faith and, through faith, 2004. unites us with Christ in the sacraments. Pb, pp. 249. Indices Vander Zee’s treatment of Baptism begins Reviewed by W. Travis McMaken, in chapter six, discussing its biblical Princeton Theological Seminary, NJ, USA background, explicating Jesus’ own baptism, and ultimately affirming that ‘the Recognizing the preponderance of theo- Holy Spirit is the one who accomplishes logical studies in this area, Leonard in our hearts and souls those things that Vander Zee, pastor of South Bend baptism signifies’ (p. 94). Chapter seven Christian Reformed Church in South elucidates the relationship between water Bend, Indiana, poses the question, ‘Why and Spirit baptism. Vander Zee declares another book on the sacraments?’ (p. 10). that ‘baptism does not effect regenera- His reply is that few of these are written tion’ (p. 107) and, following T. F. from a more general evangelical perspec- Torrance, writes, ‘Baptism is not primari- tive, and Vander Zee hopes to address ly a response and follow-up to faith; faith this paucity by presenting an account of is our response to baptism’ (p. 114). In the sacraments ‘that is thoroughly bibli- chapter eight, Vander Zee rightly recog- cal, Reformed and evangelical’ (p. 11). nizes that infant and adult baptism must Chapter one attempts to rehabilitate the share the same meaning and basis. ‘sacramental universe’ (p. 13). Vander Because baptism is a sign of salvation Zee contends against iconoclasm, arguing and not the baptizand’s personal faith, instead that ‘Created things, by their very ‘faith may be present before baptism, or it being and nature, give praise to God’ (p. may come after baptism, but it always 18). The whole of creation is sacramental looks back on baptism as a sign and seal in this sense, but a sacrament is a ‘partic- of incorporation into Christ’s death and ular created thing to which God attaches resurrection’ (p. 130). a word of promise’ (p. 23). This distinc- Chapter nine introduces the Lord’s 284 Book Reviews

Supper by exploring its biblical back- Third, Vander Zee stumbles when he ground. An historical overview is present- describes the sacraments as ‘ways in ed in chapter ten. Vander Zee offers his which we appropriate God’s grace in proposal in chapter eleven, much of Christ’ (p. 189). Appropriation implies a which is reworked from the chapters on form of human activity in salvation that sacraments in general. One important falls outside the realm of Reformed sote- section is his analysis of how Protestants riology. To say that the Lord’s Supper might think about the Lord’s Supper as a ‘aids our appropriation of God’s promises’ sacrifice, arguing that ‘we offer ourselves (p. 191) suggests that the human person in and through the offering of Christ’ (p. is the primary agent in both the sacra- 208). The work concludes in chapter ments and salvation. However, Vander twelve by exploring the Lord’s Supper in Zee elsewhere rightly describes faith as broader terms, most notably engaging ‘the opening of the heart by the Holy with William T. Cavanaugh’s work on its Spirit’ which ‘plays no causal role what- political dimension. ever. It participates in salvation without Despite a wealth of insight, Vander Zee’s in any way displacing the primary work of volume contains weaknesses. First, the Holy Spirit’ (p. 63). beginning with an attempt at reclaiming a These shortcomings notwithstanding, worldview that renders the sacraments Vander Zee provides an instructive and intelligible endangers Vander Zee’s state- penetrating account of the sacraments ment, expressed in the preface, that ‘the that has emerged from Reformed soil, sacraments derive their meaning from hugs the biblical text, and is geared Christ’ (p. 11). Indeed, Vander Zee later toward a broadly evangelical audience. approvingly quotes Alasdair Heron, who Furthermore, Vander Zee’s relaxed writ- writes that ‘the bond between visible and ing style, peppered with pastoral reflec- invisible on which everything turns in tions and illustrations, ensures that this Christian theology is not that supplied by complicated but important subject will be a “sacramental universe,” but is rather accessible to the lay reader. Jesus Christ himself’ (p. 167). This con- tradiction might have been avoided by beginning with Christ as the quintessen- ERT (2008) 32:3, 284-286 tial sacrament (chapter four) or biblical material (chapter three). Doing God’s Business: Meaning and Motivation for the Second, Vander Zee affirms that there is Marketplace no difference in basis or meaning between adult and infant baptism. However, he R. Paul Stevens also maintains the propriety of liturgical ISBN 978-0-8028-3398-3. differences between them, like ‘the proxy Grand Rapids: Eerdmans Publishing confession of faith by parents or other Company, 2006 sponsors along with the congregation’ (p. Pb, pp 251 pp. 132) in infant baptism. Liturgical prac- Reviewed by Mark L. Russell, Asbury tices ought to clearly communicate theo- Theological Seminary, KY, USA logical meaning, and it is difficult to see how maintaining different liturgical prac- R. Paul Stevens, an emeritus professor of tices for adult and infant baptism corre- marketplace theology and leadership at sponds to their unitary basis and meaning. Regent College in Vancouver, British Book Reviews 285

Columbia, has written a scholarly yet pop- the Creator, who is still creating new ularly accessible book that amounts to a things; we partner with God the Redeemer theology of business. The book is littered by fixing, mending and transforming; with anecdotal case studies and all eleven finally we partner with God the chapters have discussion questions and Consummator by working to bring the resources for further reading. There is an human story to a beautiful end. He says extensive bibliography and a helpful all work that is mandated by God, syn- index. The first part of the book is devot- chronized with God’s purpose, and done ed to meaning and develops a marketplace in his virtuous way, matters to God. theology. The second part, motivation, is Stevens helpfully notes that the globaliza- an exploration of spirituality in the mar- tion of business has positive and negative ketplace. consequences and points out that capital- There have been many books that have ism has not benefited everyone (as some addressed the intersection of faith and have claimed). He says that Christians business. This book is different from need to understand the phenomenon, be some of these books in that it does not actively involved, and take the lead in look at business as having primarily caring for the poor. He says that the Old instrumental value, but rather as having and New Testaments generally see intrinsic value. An instrumental value wealth as a blessing from God but issue relates to the positive things that busi- many cautions and warnings against ness produces, such as financing for min- those who abuse it or use it for their own istry, opportunities to establish relation- benefit. While saying that globalization is ships, etc. Intrinsic value means that not the kingdom of God, he asserts that it while business does have instrumental offers great potential for the expansion of value, it is also inherently and fundamen- God’s kingdom. tally spiritual. The second half of the book gives some This book is a foundational work that pastoral guidance and practical sugges- articulates a marketplace theology. As it tions for how Christians can live in a spir- was written by a Christian graduate itually integrated way in pluralistic work- school professor who has worked in the places. This section will be especially marketplace, it is something of a helpful to pastors and other church lead- ‘crossover’ work, meaning that it will be ers who would like to help Christians live helpful for Christians in the marketplace meaningful lives in the marketplace, but as well as for those who minister to do not have much experience addressing Christians in the marketplace. the issues involved. Stevens argues that we are called by God Stevens’ book is truly a strong work and to develop creation’s potential in the cul- should merit serious attention and recog- tural mandate in Genesis 1. Business, as nition from those interested in these top- a corollary of the cultural mandate, is a ics. He has a unique way of sounding like ‘legitimate part of undertaking the stew- a businessperson, a theologian and a pas- ardship of creation to make a human tor all at the same time. This comes imprint on the earth’. He notes that the undoubtedly from his own work in the creation of wealth is an essential part of marketplace and significant time spent human well being and says that business personally mentoring marketplace leaders can partner with God to multiply the as well as his years as a professor of mar- earth’s resources. We partner with God ketplace theology. Perhaps the strongest 286 Book Reviews parts of the book are the more pastoral Wisdom, and The Gospel in Revelation (all sections in the second section. Frequently three in one volume, Paternoster, 2001), ministers do not know the issues that etc. Although officially retired, he contin- marketplace people face well enough to ues to teach at Moore Theological College give them effective guidance. Stevens in Sydney. He is well known and respect- does. However, the first part is theologi- ed in the theological world even if not cally strong and persuasive yet written in everyone agrees with his position. readable language that is free of jargon. The second reason why this book should It would be a good book for generating receive special attention is because it discussion in a classroom setting. The offers so very clearly a general hermeneu- case studies and discussion questions tics textbook from a well honed ‘gospel- would provide the substance for deep and centered’ approach. This ‘gospel-cen- meaningful conversations whether in the tered’ approach is well named because it classroom or the office. This is a recom- holds to the gospel as the organizing prin- mended book for people wanting to inte- ciple for interpreting the Bible. Although grate faith-work issues in theological and there are many implications of this, two practical ways. For anyone who has not strike me as central: first, the gospel is thought seriously on the theological preached in every verse of the Bible. nature of business, it is a must read. It Goldsworthy takes very seriously the would not require significant time to read position that the Old Testament, like the but would produce serious reflection. New Testament, is about Jesus. Second, only by accepting and living according to the gospel can one rightly interpret the ERT (2008) 32:3, 286-287 rest of the Bible. The gospel-centered approach is not new. A. B. Simpson, Gospel-Centered Hermeneutics: among others, was using it in a much less Biblical-theological Foundations refined manner over a hundred years ago. and Principles Goldsworthy’s contribution is to interact Graeme Goldsworthy clearly with contemporary hermeneutical Nottingham: Apollos, 2006 movements from the gospel-centered per- ISBN 978-1-84474-145-8 spective. For someone who adopts this Pb, pp 341 approach, Goldsworthy has offered a hermeneutics textbook of great value. Reviewed by Matthew Cook, Côte d’Ivoire. The plan of the book is to present the Amongst a spate of hermeneutics books, gospel-centered approach in the first sec- why should this one receive special con- tion. The second section is devoted to a sideration by readers interested in the historical review of hermeneutics. Each subject? The first reason is the author. chapter is quite commonplace. The real Graeme Goldsworthy has contributed gem is in the assessment, at the end of numerous years in the classroom and the chapter, which clarifies the difference multiple volumes in print to help the between what was happening historically world understand the Bible better. Among and the gospel-centered approach. The his books are the following: According to third section navigates the difficult ter- Plan (IVP, 2002), Preaching the whole rain through contemporary issues so as to Bible as Christian Scripture (Eerdmans, nuance the gospel-centered approach 2000), Gospel and Kingdom, Gospel and even more. For example, the Bible as lit- Book Reviews 287 erature and the Bible as history are both interpret the Bible. It is not merely letting evaluated even-handedly by saying that the Spirit guide. There are clear steps to the Bible is neither exclusively literature take (pp. 310-312) as well as errors to (which is the result of purposeful writing) avoid (most of sections 2 and 3). nor exclusively history. The Bible can Goldsworthy makes clear that he thinks still be literature or history while at the this position is the evangelical one. That same time being a literature or history of is all the more clear in the subtitle of the grace, a supernatural work, inspired by book as published by IVP in North the Spirit and available through the spirit. America, Gospel-Centered Hermeneutics: Also found in this section is the difficult Foundations and Principles of Evangelical topic (especially for this position) of the Biblical Interpretation. He makes clear relationship between the Old Testament that neither neo-orthodoxy nor the histor- and the New Testament. Here is where ical critical method is evangelical. While I the author denies sensus plenior while affirming typology. All meaning was in agree that every evangelical should be the divine author’s mind even though it able to agree that Jesus Christ in the can be worked out only in further revela- gospel is the central communication of tion (through Christ). Since every text is the Bible, I am not sure that every one about Christ, it is up to us to work out could agree that it is also the central how it speaks of him. ‘We certainly may norm for hermeneutics. The author may never exhaust the exegetical potential of conflate the two a bit too strongly in his a given text.’ form of presuppositionalism. Although I had interacted with this model I, nonetheless, heartily recommend a before, terms like hermeneutical conver- good reading of Goldsworthy’s text on sion, hermeneutical salvation, hermeneu- hermeneutics. If his presuppositions fit tic justification, hermeneutic sanctifica- your own it may be just the textbook for tion, and hermeneutic glorification felt which you have been looking for late col- odd. Essentially, they refer to the work of lege or seminary, or for a personal the Holy Spirit in the believer’s life so refresher that deals with contemporary that s/he is able to read ever more accu- issues. His bibliography reads like a rately the Word of God. It is a matter of ‘who’s who’ of hermeneutics in addition supernaturally overcoming the noetic to the names and scripture references affects of the fall. In spite of this position, indexes. His summaries, bullet points, Goldsworthy puts forth a great deal of and analyses make this quite a usable effort helping the reader to correctly text and a welcome contribution.

Stephen Sizer: Zion’s Christian Soldiers: The Bible, Israel and the Church (Nottingham: Inter-Varsity Press, 2007); ISBN 978 1 84474 214 1 Pb., pp 199, illus., index This popular level book is a sustained crusade against ‘Christian Zionism’ and similar beliefs which strongly support the state of Israel on the grounds tha this is the biblical position; such views also support US intervention in the Middle East and oppose the poli- cies of the UN and the European Union. This book is a follow up to an earlier volume by the same author and is based on a recent doctoral dissertation which claims fundamentally that the Christian Zionists completely misread the Bible, thereby wrongly under- 288 Book Reviews standing such basic issues as the identity of God’s ‘chosen people’, the ‘promised land’ and the place of Jerusalem and the temple in God’s scheme of history.

Sizer, a British Anglican vicar, maintains his strong polemic throughout the book, quoting numerous examples of the views he rejects (such as the Scofield Reference Bible), and giving outlines of his hermeneutical approach and understanding of world history and eschatology. He seeks further support with the inclusion of a sermon by John Stott on ‘The Place of Israel’. However where some of these topics are notoriously controverted (such as the interpretation of Romans 11:26), he is less than clear about his own positive solutions. Convinced that Christian Zionism is a view that is ‘not shaped by the Bible’ and that it ‘probably has a greater detrimental effect’ than many other well known forces on the Christian cause in Israel, he feels that he has won few friends in pressing his case; he believes his is a lonely and courageous path, challenging ‘the assumption that Bible- believing Christians will automatically support Israel’. The book is a passionate presentation of the theme and does not discuss other important topics such as the evangelization of Jews, the development of Christian life and witness in Israel, or relations between Christians in the Middle East. Reviewed by David Parker, Editor, Evangelical Review of Theology

NEW FROM PATERNOSTER The Wondrous Cross Atonement and Penal Substitution in the Bible and History Stephen R. Holmes Stephen Holmes has been described as one of the bright lights of the new generation of evangelical theologians. In this book he offers an accessible and enlightening account of the way the saving work of Jesus is presented in the Bible, and has been understood throughout Christian history. In particular, the book offers background to the current debates about penal substitutionary atonement by looking at that idea in biblical and historical perspective. Holmes argues that we can, and should, continue to talk of the cross in penal substitutionary terms, if we understand this as one of many complimentary descriptions of the salvation we find in Christ. Stephen R. Holmes is a Baptist Minister and Lecturer in Theology at the University of St Andrews, Scotland.

978-1-84227-541-2 / 216 x 140mm / 144pp (est.) / £9.99

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ABSTRACTS/INDEXING This journal is abstracted in Religious and Theological Abstracts, 121 South College Street (P.O. Box 215), Myerstown, PA 17067, USA, and in the Christian Periodical Index, P.O. NEW FROM PATERNOSTER Box 4, Cedarville, OH 45314, USA. Body, Soul and Human Life It is also indexed in the ATLA Religion Database, published by the American Theological Library Association, 300 S. Wacker Dr., Suite 2100, Chicago, IL 60606 USA, E-mail: The Nature of Humanity in the Bible [email protected], Web: www.atla.com/ Joel B. Green Are humans composed of two different substances – a material body and an immaterial soul? The view that they are is common amongst Christians yet it has been undermined MICROFORM by developments in brain science. But is the common Christian view actually a biblical This journal is available on Microform from UMI, 300 North Zeeb Road, P.O. Box 1346, view? Recent biblical studies have gravitated away from the idea that humans are Ann Arbor, MI 48106-1346, USA. Phone: (313)761-4700 composed of a distinct body and soul and towards more monist accounts. Exploring what Scripture and theology teach about being in the divine image, the importance of community, sin, freewill, salvation, and the afterlife, Green argues that the biblical Subscriptions 2008 teaching on being human is not in conflict with the discoveries of recent science. This is a wide-ranging discussion taking in the broad sweep of biblical theology, Institutions Individuals detailed examination of key biblical texts, theological and philosophical considerations, and the most recent work in brain science. It is sure to provoke much thought and Period USA & Elsewhere USA & Elsewhere UK UK discussion. Canada Overseas Canada Overseas Joel B. Green is Professor of New Testament Interpretation at Asbury Theological Seminary, One Year £33.20 $87.20 £34.80 £33.20 $56.40 £34.80 Kentucky. Two/Three Years, per year £29.90 $78.50 £31.30 £29.90 $50.80 £31.30 978-1-84227-539-9 / 216 x 140mm / 224pp (est.) / £12.99 2/3rds world, individuals and institutions: 50% discount on the overseas sterling (£) rates listed above. All subscriptions to: Paternoster Periodicals, PO Box 300, Carlisle, Cumbria CA3 0QS, UK A New Kind of Conversation Tel: UK 0800 195 7969; Fax: 01228 51 49 49 Tel Overseas: +44(0) 1228 611723; Fax +44(0) 1228 514949 Blogging Toward a Postmodern Evangelical Faith Email [email protected] Web Site: www.authenticmedia.co.uk/paternoster Myron Bradley Penner & Hunter Barnes (editors) Using the format of the weblog, A New Kind of Conversation is an experimental book that enters into a conversational theological exploration with five evangelical leaders Important Note to all Postal Subscribers and academics (Brian McLaren, Bruce Ellis Benson, Ellen Haroutunian, Mabiala When contacting our Subscription Office in Carlisle for any reason Kenzon, and Myron Bradley Penner), who are the primary bloggers. Originally posted always quote your Subscription Reference Number. on anewkindofconversation.com, people all over the world were invited to blog on the following topics: What is ‘Postmodernity’? What is a Postmodern Evangelical? This appears on the address label used to send your copies to you. Theology and (Non)(Post) Foundationalism; The Bible, Theology and Postmodernism; Evangelical Faith and (Postmodern) Others; Postmodern Apologetics; Postmodern Ministry; Spiritual Formation in a Postmodern Context. The book is a condensed version of that conversation. Photocopying Licensing Myron Bradley Penner is Professor of Philosophy and Theology, Prairie College, Canada; No part of the material in this journal may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, Hunter Barnes is Creative Arts Director for Zarephath Christian Church, in Zarephath, New or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, Jersey. recording or otherwise without the prior permission of Paternoster Periodicals, except where a licence is held to make photocopies. 978-1932805-58-1 / 229 x 152mm / 240pp / £11.99 Applications for such licences should be made to the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1P 9HE. Paternoster, 9 Holdom Avenue, Bletchley, Milton Keynes MK1 1QR, UK It is illegal to take multiple copies of copyright material.