Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

DO THE IDENTITIES DISAPPEAR OR, ARE STILL MAINTAINED?:MINORITY ETHNIC GROUPS’ IDENTITIES IN CHIANGRAI PROVINCE

Assistant Professor Dr. Sornchai Mungthaisong Faculty of Humanities, Rajabhat University, .

ABSTRACT system, together with the cease of Chiangrai is the home of a Lanna writing scripts, the lessening variety of ethnicities which presently and damage of cultures and local are about 30 minority groups traditions, and the provision of (Boonchuay Srisawat, 1997). These central economic and social development strategies (Tanet ethnic groups reside in different areas of the province with their long Charoenmuang, 2000). With these histories. Each of the groups impacts, Lanna people and maintains their own identities in neighboring ethnic groups have terms of cultural practices, festivals, gradually lose their cultural identities and inherited values which are and agricultural production. The groups have been developing their actually required the maintenance and histories and societies under the conservation for the next generations environmental circumstances and who might be proud of their own they have systematically relied on the histories, languages of both spoken and written forms, and local natural resources for their survival. With these varieties of ethnicities, wisdoms. Another important factor Chiangrai has become rich not just which caused the loose of identities is only cultural artifacts and practices, education. The development in every but also languages. Economically, aspect by the governmental sectors Chiangrai Province which is located has overlooked the community in the northernmost part of the dimensions focusing on more country has been impacted by the centralized development policy. The development of the economic ethnic communities have to adjust quadrangle scheme. The area has themselves to serve the central changed it environment politically, policies. As a result, they had to economically, socially and inter- change their life styles economically, nationally. This change considerably socially, culturally and contextually. affects the people’s ways of life, for With these enforcements, the ways of example, to especially educational life and inherited cultures in these 24 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 areas are ignored and endangered to groups maintains their own identities extinct. Thus, in terms of heritage in terms of cultural practices, languages and cultural heritages festivals, and agricultural production. which have been long used as the The groups have been developing important means for communication their histories and societies under the and relationship among the members environmental circumstances and of the communities has been changed they have systematically relied on the gradually. As a consequence, the natural resources for their survival. local identities of these communities The areas of Chiangrai Province are have gradually disappeared and the populated by the diversely ethnic later generations will not be able to groups settling down their identify who they are and who their communities in different areas of the ancestors were. Thus, they are unable province. These groups are presented to differentiate themselves from other as follows. uniquely ethnic groups in the The major groups which neighboring areas since language is reside in lower and the plain land of the main source for identifying Chiangrai. These include: Yuan or people rooted culture. Lanna people who dominate most of Therefore, this study aimed at the provincial areas. These residents scrutinizing whether the identities of have been called “Khon Muang, Tai the ethnic communities located in Yuan, Tai Nuea or Tai Yon” as other Chiangrai Province have disappeared names for peoples of Lanna and the or still maintained. The results are original Tai settlers of Yonok. Other used as guidelines for the related groups include: Tai Yai or Thai Long organizations to be aware of ethnic (Tai Luang), Tai Khoen (Tai Khun), identity maintenance and the Tai Lue, Tai Plang, Lao, and Chinese. promotion of new ethnic generations The other groups live on the to appreciate on their rooted and high mountainous areas are hill- inherited cultures, particularly the tribes which add to Chiangrai’s heritage language and cultural wonderfully diverse ethnic mix. practices. Approximately 12.5% of the popu- lation of Chiangrai province belongs to the various hill-tribe groups, a INTRODUCTION colorful minority in northern Chiangrai is the home of a Thailand. Scattered through the variety of ethnic groups which mountains and valleys of northern presently are about 30 minority Thailand are ethnic minorities that groups (Boonchuay Srisawat, 1997). include; Dara-ang, Akha, Lua, Lisu, These ethnic groups reside in Lahu, Kachin, Mien, Mlabri, Kamu, different areas of the province with Karen, Palong, Padong, Pa-O, Bisu, their long histories. Each of the Lawa, and smaller group Blang, and Wa. Each tribe is distinctly different, 25 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 having its own culture, religion, by the development of the economic language, art, and forms of costume. quadrangle scheme. The area has With these varieties of changed in its environment politically, ethnicities, Chiangrai has become economically, socially and inter- rich not just only in cultural artifacts nationally. This change considerably and practices, but also languages. The affects the people’s ways of life, for language is very often held to be one example, to especially educational of the most important indicators of system, together with the cease of belonging to a special . It Lanna writing scripts, the lessening is the main characteristic of and damage of cultures and local representing ethnic identity and traditions, and the provision of ethnic affiliations towards the group central economic and social in which the person is a member and development strategies (Tanet it is a symbolic border marker Charoenmuang, 2000). With these differentiating between the "we" impacts, Lanna people and group and the "others" (van den neighboring ethnic groups have Berghe, 1976; Chun, 1982; De Vos gradually lose their cultural identities and Romanucci-Ross 1982; 1995; and inherited values which are Horowitz, 1975). In his theory on actually required the maintenance and ethnicity, Fishman (1965) argues that conservation for the next generations language is not a conscious factor who might be proud of their own unless it has a border marking histories, languages of both spoken function between groups. In everyday and written forms, and local interactions, language is a means of wisdoms. Another important factor communication and is not an which caused the loose of identities is ideologically-based, loved or valued education. The development in every thing. Language is not only the main aspect by the governmental sectors dimension of maintaining and has overlooked the community strengthening the cohesion of dimension focusing on more different ethnic minority groups, but centralized development policy. This at the same time it is the core point of claim witnesses by the educational belonging to a nation and manifesting policy running the same educational national feelings, too. Members of a system with all schools in different nation form the majority; the ethnic areas and enforcing them to utilize minority groups of all kinds, central curricula for teaching and however, are foreigners being learning. The community residents wedged into the body of the nation tend to become bilingual speakers and are considered by the majority instead of monolingual speakers who not to belong to it. prefer one language over another. Economically, Chiangrai Province With the enforcement, the ways of which is located in the northernmost life and inherited cultures in these part of the country has been impacted areas are ignored and endangered to 26 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 extinct. Thus, in terms of heritage used as guidelines for the related language which has been long used as organizations to be aware of ethnic an important mean for commu- identity maintenance and the nication in the communities has been promotion of new ethnic generations changed gradually. to appreciate on their rooted and inherited cultures, particularly the heritage language. THE RESEARCH PROBLEMS It is relevant that the afore- mentioned problems were caused by RESEARCH METHODOLOGY the past developmental policy This study was conducted management of the country, using ethnographic research method especially education and techno- drawing data through participatory logical innovation which mostly observations, in-depth interviews, impacted the local ways of life, and focus group conversations. The cultures and especially language. The research sites included 10 different community residents have more ethnic communities comprising: 1 Tai language choices to communicate Yai community in Mae Sai District among the same ethnic group of and another is in Chiangsaen District, people and with different ethnic 2 Tai Lue communities in Chiang- neighbors. Some of them prefer the saen District, and another is in educated language to the native one. Chiangkham District, 1 community As a consequence, the local identities of Mien in Muang District, 1 Akha of these communities have gradually community in Mae Sai District, 1 disappeared and the later generations Hmong community in Mae Fah will not be able to identify who they Luang District, 1 (Northeastern are and who their ancestors were. ethnic group) in Wieng Chiangroong Thus, they are unable to differentiate District, and 1 Chinese community in themselves from other uniquely Mae Salong Sub-district, Mae Fah ethnic groups in the neighboring Luang District. areas since language is the main source for identifying people rooted Identities of different ethnic groups culture. in Chiangrai Ethnic identity is conceptual- lized as that part of a person’s self- OBJECTIVES OF THE knowledge defined by membership RESEARCH in, and emotional connection to, an Therefore, this study aimed at ethnic group (Phinney, 1992; Tajfel, scrutinizing bilingual identities of the 1981). The importance of developing ethnic communities located in a defined sense of ethnic identity is Chiangrai Province. The results are supported by a body of literature 27 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 linking ethnic identity development language, language maintenance and and self-esteem, self-concept, use of preservation. proactive styles to disprove The populations of the study stereotypes, and positive social were the 10 ethnic communities interactions with others, although located in different areas of Chiangrai results vary across studies (see Province, Thailand. 20 families from Phinney, 1990, and Phinney & each community were selected as Kohatsu, 1997, for reviews). A sampling units. The data were number of questions relating to the collected through in-depth interviews, development of ethnic identity together with the observation notes remain. These include when ethnic and video-recordings. The data were identity formation is completed, then analyzed and interpreted factors linked to individual qualitatively and descriptively in differences in strength of ethnic accordance with ethno-linguistics identity, and the identification of theories. factors influencing ethnic identity The findings provided that the formation. In this study, the ethnic groups in Chiangrai Province examination of ethnic identities have their own ethnic identities covers the wide range of these which are mainly primordial ones. concepts: indigenous identity, ethnic The contact with outside social identity, linguistic identity, cultural groups and the entry of technological identity, and social identity. and globalization processes caused The term "ethnic", in this their identities to shift. The ethnic study, is commonly used to refer to a people have gradually begun to adopt group that differs from others in a new diasporic identity as a result of terms of culture, nationality, race or their mobility into the imagined even religion. The term “ethnic” is worlds and cultural flows caused by thus retained for specific reference to globalization. Identity shift can be ethnic minority cultural groups observed in the change of language residing in Chiangrai Province of and cultural practices, for example Thailand. The paper considers ethnic dressing style, occupation, housing, self-identity, ethnic salience, sym- religious beliefs. One among the bolic ethnicity, social preference, causes of change in ethnic identities social meaning as well as social is tourism which leads people of significance. The study also included these ethnic groups to transform their material on ethnic origin or heritage, ethnic identity in various aspects, traditional culture, value orientations, especially way of life. Generally, ethnic norms and ethnic subculture. tourism have changed people The examination also covers economic, political, social and linguistic identity, ethnic language cultural life on the whole. Tourism retention and status of native leads to various changes in people ethnic identity, but the consciousness 28 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 of ethnic origin does not change. TAI YAI COMMUNITIES Social interaction among ethnic The study was based on two groups on the one hand makes clear communities, Tai Yai at Sob Ruak, ethnic identity of each groups, i.e. we Chiangsaen District, and Tai Yai in know who is Karen, Akha or Hmong, Mae Sai District. The two commu- on the other hand it also paves the nities are similar in terms of ethnic way to assimilation. The following identity and cultural identity. details provide the perspectives of However, their social identity and ethnic identities in different angles language identity are different from reflected by the ethnic community each other. The following table people. illustrate some summaries of their

identities.

Table 1. Tai Yai ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Tai Yai Most Tai Yai The main The main There are some people know language is Tai traditional changes in their history, Yai and the practices and terms of way of appreciate their second activities are life since the religious language is Tai preserved communities practices, and Lue Ritual language are located in retain their is mainly on the economic language Most of the Tai Yai for zones. Some of alphabets and native speakers the language letters through can use more activities with features are the instructions than 2 the getting lost due organized by languages in combination of to the rare use the community their way of Tai Lue and by new committee. life. Khammuang generations who leave the They still The language The regularly communities socialize and is basically practice in for their work with the used for cultural education and same racial ceremonial ceremonial occupational group in daily activities activities, for purposes. activities. together with example, Shan language. sermon in the The blends of They prefer to The ceremonial story of the new speak their own language is great past lfie environment, language for taught of the Buddha tourism daily officially but Lord promotion, communication, transferred (ThetMaha education, and

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Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity except the from Chart), technological contact with generations to Songkran application outsiders. generations Festival. force the native through oral people to adjust They are proud transfer. themselves into of their own the mainstream language and societal culture and they characteristics. really want the governmental sectors to help revitalize the language for new generations.

Overall, Tai Yai identities are TAI LUE COMMUNITIES still maintained and preserved even Tai Lue communities in this though there were found some study, are located in Chiang Kham changes in ways of life, cultural District, in which practices, and new globalization the location is closed to Chiangrai process force. However, there were Province and Tai Lue in Wang Lao also discovered that some identity Village, and Ban Saew Village in aspects, especially, language identity Chiangsaen District, Chiangrai and social identity are likely to Province. The two communities share change soon, due to the assimilation similarity in their identities. The into new environment, education, following details demonstrate their economic situation and tourism. identity details.

Table 2. Tai Lue ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Tai Lue Other linguistic The main The identity is speakers accept language used still practice likely to be Tai Lue people in both their cultural lost, especially when they have communities is activities, for in language interactions Tai Lue, and example, the use. The new together. the second and promotion of generation third language elderly to group trend not Tai Lue way of are preserve to use their

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Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity life is Khammuang, occupational own dialect. transferred and Central practices, for The revitalizing from Tai. example, program was generations to weaving Tai set, for generations The Central Lue textile and example, “Tai through the Thai is used design Lue family domain. officially when traditional Conversation the community dressing style. Program, or Most of Tai leader Tai Lue still “Sewana Tai Lue people are announces preserve Lue Program” proud of being about the cultural was established Lue ethnic governmental practices, for at Bansaew in group, affairs. instance, Chiangsaen in especially in religious arts, order to make their beautiful Ritual and Tai Lue songs people language and ceremonial and ritual recognize the culture. languages are ceremonies. culture. native language The The Some new since the governmental communities generations feel community sectors try to have tried to frustrated to people maintain and preserve and practice their understand and preserve Tai revise the Lue culture and appreciate in its Lue culture by status of the use their own use. organizing the ethnic group by language in World Tai Lue encouraging public. Festival in people to learn Phayao and their own Chiangrai cultural Province. practices and ways of life, especially traditional weaving, Tai Lue songs, and Tai Lue languages. Tai Lue is still used among the family members.

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ISAN ETHNIC IDENTITIES communities in Chiangrai area for Isan ethnic group is the over 50 years old. The study was migrated people from the northeast of based on a big community with its Thailand. The previous generations long history of settlement –Ban San hat, Chiangsaen District, Chiangrai had moved to seek for more fertile T Province. The following details and abundant lands for their farming reflect its identities. activities. The Isan ethnic people have settled their families and

Table 3. Isan ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Identity Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Isan try Isan dialect is Ethnic people Isan people feel to preserve their used in daily still preserve proud of own language communication and practice themselves at and culture by, among the ritual and the elderly for instance, ethnic cultural generation not in setting radio community activities the young program using residents. especially the adults. These the native ceremonies new generations language as a The essence of representing mostly work medium. the language indigenous and outside their seems to original communities The cultural disappear when culture. and identify performances the ethnic People still themselves as and arts of Isan people get prefer their mainstream are popular contact with traditional arts local people. among the mainstream and cultures, The language ethnic groups local people. especially in and cultural way and other ethnic the forms of of life have populations, due Isan dialect has songs, become to the reputation been taught in performance, diglossia, and of the artists, for officially not and some kind cultural change example, only for the of textile and when country song native people clothe patterns. communicating singers. but also non- with outsiders native speakers The traditional living near the culture of Isan, communities. however, retain their identities.

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It is relevant that Isan ethnic AKHA ETHNIC IDENTITIES identities are under the situation of The study was based mainly uncertain in Chiangrai Province. The on one community located in the involved sectors, especially those are marginal zone between Thailand and governmental sectors which put much . The community has rarely attempt to maintain people’s identity. contacted with outsiders who have One among many activities is the different backgrounds from them, festival known as “Boon Bung Fai” except the schooling system in which (Rocket Shooting Festival) held they are required to join. This annually during the rainy season. The community reflected very interesting main purposes are to ask the rain god results which are detailed as follows. to provide some rain for agriculture, but the hidden meaning is to make

Isan people to reunite together and to preserve an inherited good culture.

Table 4. Akha ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Akha Akha people Akha people Most of Akha use their own use their are strict to people are dialect as the language in follow their proud of their main medium both spoken ritual and language and for and written cultural culture since communication languages in practices. they thought in the their Some of both that their community. community. governmental heritage culture and non- is still They are strict The community governmental continually in following created their organizations preserved. their cultural own teaching projected the They are way of life and materials and cultural and accepted respect their share with language worldwide, for ancestors’ other Akha revitalization in example, the instructions. communities in the community. famous Akha order to singer and Their identities preserve their performances. show in language. They regularly different forms, join with the dressing, The language , food, has changed at communities ways of life a low level. from other and culture. parts of the world, for 33 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity example, from to organize Akha culture together in order to transfer their heritage cultures to young Akha generations.

It is apparent that Akha ethnic MIEN ETHNIC IDENTITIES identities are still strongly preserved In this study, Mien in comparison with other ethnic community located in Huay Mae Sai, groups. The remarkable level of Huay Mae Yao Sub-district, Muang preservation is at a high level, District, Chiangrai Province was especially in linguistic and cultural selected. The community is situated identities. However, there appears among other ethnic groups: Akha, some changes among the new Lawa, and Karen. However, the generations who have experienced community residents still preserve themselves with outsiders and their culture and way of life as in the societal communities. following details.

Table 5. Mien ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Community Identity Identity Identity Identity Mien Mien people The community The Some of Mien can identify residents use community people are themselves Mien to people follow proud of their from the communicate their own culture language, way with one another ancestors in and language. of life, and at a high level. ritually Most of young dressing Some of them ceremonial people have culture. are bilingual – activities. enculturated speaking both of They use into Thai The language Central Thai and Mien when mainstream is highly used Mien dialect. joining in culture. among the They prefer Mien Adult adult using Central to ceremonies generations generations communicate and ritual want to

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Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Community Identity Identity Identity Identity and elderly with non-native situations. preserve and people. speakers. However, continue their There is no Mien Central Thai own language, Their written language, is used when ritual practices identities are therefore it is they share and cultural not really likely to face their cultural way of life. recognized language practices with since they endangerment. other ethnic have to absorb groups. the mainstream culture and adapt themselves into the neighboring cultural groups.

The Mien ethnic identities HMONG ETHNIC IDENTITIES seem to be lost due to many factors. The selected site for this study The most important factor is the was in Kiewkarn Village where location in which many other ethnic people are Hmong ethnic group. This groups, especially, the mainstream group is White Hmong who still cultural groups of people dominate preserve their identities. The details societal activities. These Mien people are presented as follow. have to harmonize themselves into their neighbors. Therefore, it is risky that they have to enculturate themselves and adopt other ethnic cultural practices into theirs.

Table 6. Hmong ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Hmong Most of They use their Mien people They are proud own language follow their of their own speak two only with the cultural way of language and languages: same ethnic life strictly, culture. White Hmong group people. except among They are rarely and the new accepted by 35 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015

Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Khammuang Their language generation majority (Lanna Dialect) in terms of people. people, but the sound, word They adapt governmental They preserve and structure, is their inherited sectors put their identities different from ritual practices much attempt by teaching other ethnic to suit the to preserve this their young group situation since ethnic group. children to languages. the community appreciate on is located their own Their alphabets among other culture and and letters are ethnic groups. practice the not widely They also adapt activities as used, except their way of guided by spoken life to them. language. appropriate themselves into Some identities the mainstream are going to societal disappear since activities. young generations mostly stay outside the community.

It appears that Mien ethnic LAO ETHNIC IDENTITIES identities are in danger since there is The study site was mainly no obvious revitalization and based in a small community located maintenance project to preserve in the heart of Chiangsaen them. Moreover, it also affects by the Municipality. This ethnic group ways in which new generation of the migrated from Lao to Chiangrai long group lack their appreciation in their time ago. The identities are now in heritage culture. endangerment. The following details are presented.

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Table 7.Lao ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Lao The identities The language is Cultural Many of the are relevant rarely used in practices are residents are recognized. the community similar to those fearful that since there are of Lanna their original The language not many people or local language and and cultural Laotian residents. culture are practices are families in the Their original going to not different area. cultural disappear. from the local practices are They try to people of the Most of the not conducted preserve their area. people from since they are cultural this ethnic not a large practices by They tend to community use residential transferring the use the main Khammuang as group. way of life and stream a medium for linguistic language for communication. knowledge to communication their children. even with the Their social family status is not members. highly recognized.

It is relevant that the Laotian CHINESE ETHNIC IDENTITIES group living in Chiangrai cannot This study was mainly based protect their identities from on the big community of Chinese disappearance. They have to adjust ethnic group locate in Mae Salong themselves into the main stream District, Chiangrai Province. The societal groups in order to community residents have their own harmoniously live together happily. unique characteristics with harmo-

nious culture and way of life. Their

identities are highly preserved. The

details are presented as follows.

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Table 8. Chinese ethnic identities. Ethnic Ethnic Linguistic Cultural Social Identity Community Identity Identity Identity Chinese The Chinese The dominant The original General people identities are language is ritual accept their highly Chinese while ceremonies are identities. recognized and Thai, still in practice, They are very preserved Khammuang for example, proud of their because the and other third Chinese New culture, majority of the languages, such Year, language and community as English and Qingming way of life. residents are French are used Festival, Full They promote Chinese. due to Moon Festival, their language economic and Tea as a dominant They follow reason. Festival. language in ancestor’s way However, since business like of life and the the area is activities. preservation located in the and economic maintenance of developmental their inherited zone, culture is at a especially in high level. tourism and agriculture, the They have people have Chinese adjusted language themselves into schools the situation. teaching young This may affect generations to their identity appreciate on preservation. their own rooted language.

It appears that Chinese ethnic It can be summarized that identities are in the interplay between each community has their own preserved situation and adapted unique cultural practices, festivals situation. Some of the identities, and ways of life. The community especially, cultural and ethnic residents harmonize among one identities are maintained at a high another through the practices of level while linguistic and social cultural ceremonies and traditional identities are likely to be adapted. festivals. The remarkable example of this can be seen in the Isan

38 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 community and Sobruak Tai Yai every Chiangrai ethic group has their community at Chiangsaen in which unique identities through set of the villagers organize Thet Maha identities classified as ethnicity, Chart (The great past life of the decent-based attributes, home Buddha Lord Sermon) in which the language and their cultural charac- cultural ceremony can draw huge teristics. crowds of people from different Most of the community villages to come and do the religious residents also provide that they are activities together. In this ritual really proud of their own native ceremony, the community residents languages and cultures. The gather together listen to the monks encouragement and support of their from different Buddhism temples children to learn their heritage chant and sermon in Pali and Sanskrit languages and cultures are crucial to about the past life of the Buddha developing a sense of self. For this, Lord. The ceremonial participants are Jones and Lorenzo-Hubert (2008) not just only the residents of the reassure that “language is a symbol of communities themselves, but also the cultural and personal identity”. If neighbors who are from and children do not learn and understand Myanmar. This phenomenon reflects their home language, they risk the statement provided by Hirschkop becoming alienated from their (2000:365) about the strong families and communities. Most of relationship between language and the respondents in this study express culture. that they use the home language to It also appears that the people communicate with family and of these ethnic communities have a community members since high pride level of their ethnic communication with the associated identity, especially linguistic and people is vital to their understanding cultural identities. Each ethnic of the native culture. With these, the community residents are eligible to ethnic community residents can be members of their own connect and associate themselves in communities who associate with all developing their own identities as in kinds of cultural activities NAEYC (1995) support “without the implemented and inherited by their crucial interaction, families and descendants. All generations of the communities begin to disconnect and communities in Chiangrai attribute destabilize, and this is detrimental to for membership of their ethnic a child’s developing identity”. communities since they are However, different ethnic genetically transmitted features of the communities have varied degree of language, religion, tribe, caste clan or their ethnic identities. The study race of their parents and ancestors presents that the Lao in Chaingsaen (Chandra, 2003). From the summary and Tai Yai in Mae Sai have no clear of the study, it can be evidence that explanation regarding the degree of 39 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 ethnic identity held by their people. It languages. Of all the language seems that these ethnic groups features, intergenerational transmis- participate is able to use their heritage sion of the ethnic mother tongue is language and to participate in cultural the most remarkable maintenance rituals such as ethnic activities, but factor. As stated by Fishman (1990, not to ethnic pride or core values of 1991, 2001), a threatened minority their groups since some of them do language stands a chance of survival not believe that maintaining their if intergenerational family trans- heritage language is important to mission is evident. In all the ten their ethnicity. As a consequence, ethnic communities, the members of they prefer using other language for society communities communicate communication among the social among one another in their heritage residents of their communities in languages, and the home languages stead of their home language. are evidently passed on from the Nonetheless, the ways in which the previous generations to the later ethnic community residents use at generations. With the protection of least two languages to illustrate their and the promotion for the language cultural and ethnic identities and cultural identities, it is likely that encourage outsiders to understand these ethic cultures and languages their unique identities since the can further survive. heritage language and the second Even though the inter- language are not sufficiently and generational transmission of the similarly used by them. For this, heritage languages is intensive, the Sapir (1929), posits that no two continuity of home languages may be languages are ever sufficiently interrupted in both family domain similar to be considered as and community domain. The effect of representing the same social reality. mass media processes oriented the Therefore, it appears that in some speakers to use code-switching. communities, the second language is Consequently, this causes the change used to identify their social and or shift of the language. Moreover, ethnic identities instead of linguistic the contact from outsiders for identity. business and commercial purposes As can be seen from the study also influence the home language on the identities of the ethnic group speakers to apply the majority communities in Chiangrai Province, languages, for instance Standard Thai there appears many interesting and Khammuang for communication. characteristics of identities. It is therefore, most of the It is obvious that the ways communities become compound people use and perceive their home bilinguality in which the two languages encourage the maintenance languages play equal roles for and remain their identity statuses in communication purposes: the their ethnicities, cultures and heritage language is used for religion 40 Volume 3 Number 1, January-June 2015 and family domains, while the second lingualism or bi-or multiculturalism language is used for education, trade, will be preserved and maintained and business domains. with the communities as long as A part for language use, possible. attitudes of the people toward their language is an important indication for either maintenance of shift of a BIBLIOGRAPHY language (Baker and Prys Jones, Baker, Mark C. (1996).The poly- 1998). In the case of the ten ethnic synthesis parameter. Oxford communities, the majority of the Studies in Comparative Syntax. ethnic minority people have positive New York: Oxford University attitudes towards their cultures, Press. 575 pages. ethnicities, and languages. They are Chandra, Amitabh. (2003). “Is the likely to maintain their ethnic Convergence of the Racial cultures and languages. Wage Gap Illusory?” National In the ten ethnic communities Bureau of Economic Research in Chiangrai Province, the ethnic Working Paper. identities are largely maintained. Charoenmuang, T. (2000).100 Years However, with the vast spread of the of Thai Local Government dominant of globalization and 1887-1997, Kobfai Publisher, technological process, the ethnic . identity maintenance may be short Chun, S.-y. 1982. Customs and lived. To guard against ethnic Manners in Korea. Seoul: Si- identities, the intervention is needed sa-yong-o-sa. by raising awareness among the De Vos and Lola Romanucci-Ross. ethnic community members any (1982). Ethnic identity: cultural strategy can be implemented. One of continuities and change. Papers the possibilities is for the cultural based on a conference spon- practitioners and local area sored by the Wenner-Gren development planners to strongly Foundation. assist and call for the involved parties De Vos and Lola Romanucci-Ross. to project the language and cultural (1995). Ethnic identity: cultural revitalization program to cultivate the continuities and change. ethnic people to be aware of the Horowitz, D. (1975). Ethnic identity. importance of their inheritance. Then, See Glaze & Moynihan. (1975), the support and promotion in pp. 111-40. protecting the home cultures and Fillipovic (1986). Cited in languages are needed as well as the Mecek.(1991). Bilingual situa- adherence of their pride in their tion. Bloomington: Indiana identities. 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