Journal of Unconventional Parks, Tourism & Recreation Research Vol. 6, No. 1, pp. 2-12 ISSN 1942-6879

look and behave, what subcultural choices and affiliations they make, [and] what forms of control they take over their lives – for example against formal bureaucracies or sports associations” (p. 2). It is this resistance to formal organization that is a hallmark of a sport being considered lifestyle rather than mainstream. Juxtaposed against classic definitions of sport that emphasize institutionalization and regulation (Coakley, 1998), the difference between mainstream and lifestyle sports is especially evident. Despite resistance by many lifestyle Climbing as a competition sport is rapidly expanding in both participation and sport participants and patrons, many of popularity; however, little to no research has been conducted regarding its these sports are moving towards a formalization as a lifestyle sport. This study provides a brief review of the literature commercial or mainstream model. This relating to lifestyle sport, explores the development of indoor competition climbing, may be due in part to reduced participation discusses competition climbing as a lifestyle sport, and explores climbers’ of youth in mainstream sports (e.g., perceptions of climbing as a lifestyle sport through a content analysis of qualitative basketball, football, and baseball) and the survey responses. Analysis of data collected from 607 USA Climbing members in increase in non-traditional sport participation (e.g., skateboarding, surfing, late summer 2014 identified themes related to both the culture and long-term and BMX) (Active Marketing Group, 2009). outcomes of the growing sport including governance, education and training, public These sports, both through voluntary awareness, and access. Implications for lifestyle sport management and future media portrayals (i.e., solicited TV ads or research are explored. event coverage) and coercive mainstreamization (i.e., unwanted attention by the media or aggressive marketing by Throughout the past few decades, such as ‘action’, ‘wizz’ and ‘panic’ sponsors), are increasingly brought out of recreational pursuits and sports that sports); [and] ‘extreme’ (a label given obscurity and into the limelight (Wheaton, diverge from the predominant, traditional to some aspects of practice associated 2004a). Sports such as skateboarding, sports models of football, soccer, with risk-taking; also associations with surfing, and park skiing are spotlighted on basketball, and baseball have emerged in branding and commodifying some prime time television while athletes like the United States. The literature refers to aspects of practice). (p. 16) Diana Nyad are featured on 60 Minutes. these non-traditional sports in a variety of As lifestyle sports have become more Indeed, the X Games broadcast rights were ways including informal (Gilchrist & prominent and gained acceptance within recently purchased for several million Wheaton, 2011), extreme (Donnelly, 2006), contemporary American culture, there is a dollars, evidence that these once avant- whiz (Midol, 1993), adventure (Breivik, need to better understand their garde activities are being packaged for 2010), risk (Fletcher, 2008), and post- development and evolution. mass production and consumption (Thorpe modern sports (Wheaton, 2004a). Despite This article presents one of the first & Wheaton, 2011). These sports have this differentiation in labels there seems to known works investigating the emergence transitioned from self-enriching leisure be a high level of similarity between the of indoor competition climbing as a lifestyle pursuits, inspired and nourished by a few terms (Van Bottenburg & Salome, 2010; sport. It provides a brief review of the passionate individuals, to commoditized Wheaton, 2004b). For the purposes of this literature relating to lifestyle sport, explores activities driven by governing organ- paper and based on the work of Tomlinson, the history and development of indoor izations. Elite athletes are often courted by Ravenscroft, Wheaton, and Gilchrist competition climbing, discusses the major sponsors to represent their brands (2005), we use the term “lifestyle sport” formalization of indoor competition climbing and entire film festivals have originated in which encompasses many of these non- as a lifestyle sport, and explores climbers’ response to the development of the unique traditional sports and consists of three perceptions of climbing as a lifestyle sport cultures associated with lifestyle sports central concepts: through a content analysis of qualitative (Banff Center, 2015). ‘alternative’ (practiced in different survey responses. The transformation of these sports has ways to conventional sports and necessitated the development of formal incorporating descriptions such as governing bodies that advocate on behalf ‘new’, ‘post-modern’ and ‘post- of the sports for access to facilities, industrial’); ‘lifestyle’ (meanings In an investigation of lifestyle sports, inclusion by the Olympics, and related to personal factors beyond Tomlinson et al. (2005) noted that these standardization of competition rules, success in competition – although not activities are “characterized by a relative certification processes, and team denying that competition can be an lack of regulation and a customary refusal structures (Sugden & Tomlinson, 2005). element of the practice of lifestyle by participants to follow regulatory codes” Organizing bodies also act as liaisons sports, and incorporating descriptions (p. 18) and are “associated with how people

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research and/or buffers between athletes and key indirectly involved with sport (e.g., hotels lifestyle sport participants often relying on stakeholders such as spectators, sponsors, that accommodate athletes or car rental newly formed governing bodies to do so and media providers (Breivik. 2010). The companies that transport members of the (Tomlinson et al., 2005). In spite of the growth of these governing bodies has organization). Third, it is goal-oriented and known challenges facing governing bodies aligned with other trends in lifestyle sport addresses issues that are more readily (e.g., social and systemic resistance), they development, including what is sometimes achieved through collective effort than may also perform an important educative referred to as “indoorisation.” Indoorisation through individual action. Fourth, sport role by increasing professionalism, of a sport occurs when an outdoor pursuit organizations are intentional and maintaining and disseminating sport and (e.g., skiing, sky diving, rock climbing) consciously structure activities or tasks safety practices, and providing moves from its traditional outdoor platform within the organizational system. Lastly, accreditation opportunities for individuals, where many factors are uncontrollable to these organizations have an "identifiable coaches, programs, and facilities (Gilchrist an indoor, artificial environment where boundary" such that organizational & Wheaton, 2011). various levels of control may be applied membership and its benefits are (Van Bottenburg & Salome, 2010). This identifiable and differentiated from non- parallel growth likely reflects the perception membership. Among their many roles, Education within lifestyle sports is a that indoor renderings of lifestyle sports are lifestyle sport organizations are responsible deeply social process occurring through easier to oversee, especially as it pertains for governing or directing the institutional the establishment of mentored to risk and resource management (Van components of the sport, educating and relationships where sport skills, values, and Bottenburg & Salome, 2010). The certifying existing and new members, norms are transferred from veteran to indoorisation of some outdoor pursuits, enhancing public awareness, and novice participants (Tomlinson et al., coupled with the support of sport increasing participation by reducing 2005). Little is known about the informal, organizations, also has the benefit of constraints to participation (Hoye, Smith, unregulated mentoring relationships making those sports more accessible to Nicholson, & Stewart, 2015). developed within lifestyle sports, including users through reduced financial costs, how they are formed, how they operate, or fewer barriers to entry, clearer structures in even what values, ethics, or norms they terms of necessary training and equipment, At its core, sport governance is “the function to transmit. The lack of formal and lower geographic distances to facilities responsibility for the functioning and overall socialization processes is reflective of the when compared to outdoor venues direction of the organization and is a anti-institutionalization attitudes (Ghimire, Green, Poudyal, & Cordell, 2014; necessary and institutionalized component characteristic of lifestyle sport participants. Salome & Van Bottenburg, 2011). of all sport codes from club level to national However, the need to establish and A number of sports and sport bodies, government agencies, sport communicate clear safety procedures and organizations have emerged as a result of service organizations and professional sport practices to fledgling participants has or in conjunction with the indoorisation of teams around the world” (Ferkins, Shilbury, resulted in increased acceptance of sport outdoor sports. For example, indoor surfing & McDonald, 2009, p. 245). When a organizations by lifestyle sport athletes. originated in the early 1980s with governing body for a particular sport is well Consequently, risk management, mechanical wave machines and evolved managed and functional it provides especially as it pertains to oversight and into “flow-boarding” which has a world legitimacy, structure, and continuity. This is education of new or novice athletes, has championship event, governing body, and especially pertinent for many lifestyle been identified as a primary function of official rules and standards (Flow Tour, sports given their marginalized status when many lifestyle sport organizations 2015). Another example is indoor climbing, compared to more traditional sports (Hoye (Tomlinson et al., 2005). The provision of which originated as a way to train for & Doherty, 2011; Tomlinson et al., 2005). safety protocols and standardized outdoor climbing during the off season One notable distinction between traditional education opportunities is one way that (Attarian, 1989; March & Toft, 1979) and sport models and lifestyle sports is the sport organizations demonstrate their value has since evolved into a sport in its own resistance of many participants to to lifestyle sports participants. For example, right (Breivik, 2010) with a formal regulation and standardization often due to in an assessment of the perceived success organizational body to manage and ideological opposition to the commercial- of parkour in the United Kingdom, sports develop facilities, host and judge ization of their particular lifestyle sport organizers' ability to provide "managed competitions, provide education and (Thorpe & Wheaton, 2011; Tomlinson et risk" allegedly enhanced the value of, training, and to advocate for the sport (USA al., 2005). In spite of this resistance to appreciation for, and youth involvement in Climbing, 2014). organization, many lifestyle sports have the sport (Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011). formed governing bodies and/or Certification structures and training established partnerships with mainstream modules are another area where governing organizations or outlets (e.g., media bodies add value and legitimacy to lifestyle networks, government agencies). For sports (Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011).

example, snowboarding, once a symbol of There are many components that resistance to traditional sport, is now contribute to lifestyle sport organizations prominently featured in the Olympics, Sport organizations provide and how they manage and advocate for signifying conformance to conventional mechanisms for proactively and participants. Slack and Parent (2006, p. 5) ideals through participation in a highly intentionally increasing public awareness, outlined five elements that characterize popularized event (Van Bottenburg & while controlling the sport's image/ sport organizations. First, a sport Salome, 2010). Additionally, growth and message and protecting members of the organization is a social entity, meaning it subsequent commercialization of some lifestyle sports they represent. These deals with people and interactions between lifestyle sports demands that rules, governing bodies are also responsible for people. Second, it is directly involved with regulations, or bylaws be established to increasing the sport's participation base the sport industry unlike other monitor and manage that growth with through targeted advertising and active organizations that are peripherally or

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research recruitment, despite the reality that their status in and outside of the skating world. (Breivik, 2010; Eng, 2010; Gaines & Martin, values and practices often run counter to Governing bodies can help to eliminate real 2014; Selters, 2012). Table 1 summarizes the freeform, casual nature of the lifestyle or perceived ethnic barriers to participation the common sub-sports within the climbing sports they represent (Tomlinson et al., and may also reach out to new, ethnically world. It is also worth noting that in regard 2005). For example, sport organizations diverse market segments by increasing to climbing, as with many lifestyle sports, counter-intuitively advertise the sports they access to lifestyle sport resources and there is frequent debate as to what represent as extreme or risky while at the decreasing the material or economic costs constitutes a sub-sport versus a primary same time serving a critical risk of participation (Gilchrist, 2010; Beal & sport and disparities in how these management function. These organi- Wilson, 2004). subcategories are defined (Tomlinson et zations can facilitate community outreach Mastering the techniques of a lifestyle al., 2005). Of these multiple forms of and engagement initiatives aimed at sport can take years of practice and climbing, indoor competition climbing has diversifying participation and controlling participation. Likewise, appropriating the adopted characteristics that resemble more public perception of the sport (Gilchrist & culture of a particular lifestyle sport— traditional sport models (e.g., basketball, Wheaton, 2011). Where governing bodies including the equipment, clothing, football, and tennis). As a result, indoor recognize the utility of social media materials, and language—can require a competition climbing has experienced rapid networks (e.g., Facebook, Twitter, and significant investment on the part of sport expansion and acceptance as an Instagram) and contemporary media organizations (Wheaton, 2004b). Statuses organized sport compared to other outlets (e.g., YouTube and Vimeo), and use and norms created within lifestyle sports varieties of climbing and will, therefore, be them to manage their publicity campaigns, often result in implicit and sometimes the focus of this paper. they have the potential to expand the explicit exclusivity that can be difficult to Indoor competition climbing typically quantity and quality of participation at a penetrate or transcend. This was evident in takes places in purpose built facilities and rapid rate, as in the case of the parkour Wheaton's (2004b) investigation of consists of three primary sub-sports: movement (Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011). windsurfers where subcultures were bouldering, sport (or lead) climbing, and Parkour, a sport that encourages a unique created within and around the sport that speed climbing (USA Climbing, 2014). USA form of engagement with and acrobatics in elevated and encouraged certain athletes, Climbing (USAC), founded in 1998, serves urban environments, was almost unheard based on somewhat arbitrary competency as the governing body for all competition of less than two decades ago. Now, in criteria and class distinctions, and climbing in the United States and is response to a few online videos being discouraged participation by athletes or recognized as such by the International widely disseminated and a handful of prospective athletes of lower skill levels or Olympic Committee (IOC), International spotlights in major blockbuster films, the classes. In her investigation and Federation of Sport Climbing (IFSC), and sport has grown exponentially and development of the sport culture construct, the United States Olympic Committee developed a solid presence in areas such Wheaton (2007) also pointed out that many (USOC). USA Climbing serves in this as the United Kingdom and United States lifestyle sports have fluid subcultures and capacity for both youth (19 years old and (Gilchrist & Wheaton, 2011). that concerned groups (such as sport younger) and adult (20 years old and over) organizations) need to be cognizant of climbers (USA Climbing, 2014). In early these dynamic sport subcultures and more 2015 USAC absorbed the Collegiate intentional about constructing lifestyle sport Climbing Series (CCS) as well as the Traditionally, barriers to sport identities, cultures, and norms. American Bouldering Series (USA participation have been known to vary The broad roles of lifestyle sport Climbing, 2015) to create a more unified based on socio-demographic factors such organizations, from governance to system of competition climbing in the as life stage, race, gender, and socio- reducing constraints, are evidenced across United States. economic status and include constraints a variety of lifestyle sports. The next section USAC competitions take place at the like cost, distance, lack of awareness of the examines the growth of indoor competition local, regional, and national levels. sport, lack of time, physical inability or climbing through this lens of indoor Advancement to the next level (e.g., from disability, and general lack of interest (Lim competition climbing. the regional to the national level) requires a et al., 2011). One of the primary barriers to high placement at a competition; typically, entry or constraints to participation in the top five competitors in one or more sub- lifestyle sport is reflected in marketing sport advance. These competitors are then messages that reinforce sport hierarchies We can trace the evolution of climbing invited to participate in higher levels of the that exclude potential participants based on from its early form as a recreational and sport due to their success in prior race, gender, and class characteristics leisure pursuit with hemp ropes and wood- competitions both nationally and (Wheaton, 2004b). Kusz (2004) argued handled ice axes to its modern internationally. For USAC competitors to that the “White masculine ideal" (p. 205) configuration with purpose-built climbing win an event, they must complete the most promoted by lifestyle sports marketing gyms and ultra-light equipment. The difficult climbing problems in the most gives prominence to White, male athletes historic roots of climbing are intertwined efficient way possible (e.g., completing a despite the reality that most lifestyle sports with other lifestyle sports such as hiking bouldering route in only one try without are embedded in equally gendered, and mountaineering. As mentioned earlier falling off route) in comparison to their culturally diverse populations. Beal and lifestyle sports are known for their lack of fellow competitors. Wilson (2004) specifically delineate the organization, routine, and structure. Within There is limited evidence regarding racial disparities in lifestyle sport by this backdrop of unpredictability, climbing competition climbing and its transition from pointing to skateboarding where non-White has been differentiated into a variety of a leisure pursuit to a lifestyle sport. As participants have historically had to work sub-sports including bouldering, top- such, the purpose of this study was to harder or compete at higher levels than roping, sport climbing (also known as lead understand how the lifestyle sport of their White counterparts in order to climbing), traditional climbing, multi-pitch, competition climbing could be improved establish the same level of legitimacy or indoor speed climbing, and ice climbing

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research anonymized. These strategies resulted in 2114 unique viewings (Facebook) and Common Climbing Sub-Sport Descriptions openings (email). A total of 703

respondents started the survey and 607 Sport (or Sub- completed the entire 27 question survey, Sport) Description indicating a 28.7% response rate. An Bouldering Both indoor and outdoor climbing where the climber does not use incentive to complete the survey was ropes or harnesses to protect themselves from a fall. These routes provided in the form of entry in a raffle to are often no longer than 10 meters. Climbers often use padding to win free climbing equipment. The survey protect themselves in the event of a fall. collected information concerning demographics, climbing equipment Ice Climbing A form of climbing (primarily outdoor, except in the case of sponsors and brands, and short answer simulated ice and holds) where the climber can be top roped, lead questions relating to climbing behavior and climbing, and/or traditional climbing (with the use of ice screws) on culture. This study is mostly concerned with ice that may have been formed artificially or naturally. responses to a single question: “What is missing from the sport of climbing?" Other Indoor Speed Primarily indoor climbing taking place on a standardized purpose data points were excluded due to Climbing built wall where climbers (top-rope belayed) race each other to the ambiguous question wording, poor fit with top with the goal being the fastest climber. the research question, or because they did not reveal information that would Multi-Pitch A form of climbing (primarily outdoors, except in the case of meaningfully contribute to the body of Climbing simulated environments and situations) where the climbing is more scientific research. Respondents’ ages than one length of a typical climbing rope (also known as pitch, spanned from 8 to 66 years old (M = 31.42 typically 50 – 70 meters). This style of climbing may include both years of age, SD = 14.68 years) with a fairly traditional and sport climbing, and in certain cases multiple days even split between genders (48.5% where the climbing party uses portable shelters. female). Respondents reported an average of 3.6 persons per household (SD = 1.46, Top Roping Both indoor and outdoor climbing where the rope is pre-established range = 1 – 11). Twenty-eight percent of from anchors at the top of a climb. One end of the rope is attached respondents reported an annual household to the climber, while the other end goes down to a partner who is income of $50,000 – $99,999, with the attached through a piece of belay equipment. ranges of $49,999 or less (22.9%) and $100,000 – $149,999 (22.7%) representing Traditional Primarily outdoor climbing often considered more challenging than the next largest groups. Climbing sport and top roped climbing, where the climber pulls the rope Respondents were asked questions behind them as they ascend the wall/pitch and places equipment about their level of climbing involvement. (typically non-permanent) to protect themselves from a fall. This Respondents who identified themselves as style of climbing may also incorporate fixed pieces of equipment if climbers reported an average of 3.47 years a climber’s safety dictates it. climbing experience (SD = 1.48, range 1 – 5+ years) and reported climbing an Sport (Lead) A form of climbing (both indoor and outdoor) more challenging than average of 2.95 days per week (SD = 1.23). Climbing top roped climbing where the climber pulls the rope behind them as Climbers were more likely to report they ascend the wall/pitch and protect themselves from a fall by climbing indoors (74%), with 4.5% climbing clipping to fixed pieces of equipment (often referred to as hangers mainly outdoors and 21.4% climbing both or bolts). indoors and outside. Climbers reported an average of 1.82 (SD = 1.01, range = 1 - 5) Note: This list does not include aiding, outdoor speed, mixed, soloing, free base climbing, etc. For climbers per household who climb at least a further explanation of these and related terms see Eng, 2010; Gaines & Martin, 2014; Selters, weekly. 2012. and what strengths – at an organizational consisted of independent data collection and participant level – could further grow carried out by USAC during the summer of the sport and enhance the participant 2014, and phase two consisted of data This study investigated 607 short experience. analysis conducted by the research team in answer responses to the question, “What is the fall of 2014. Consequently, the study the sport of climbing missing?” Using was commissioned by an emergent constant comparative analysis and a climbing organization concerned with phenomenological approach, the In late summer 2014, USA Climbing developing its brand and understanding its researchers independently coded the conducted an online survey to better membership and organizational interests, qualitative responses on two occasions, understand its growing membership. while the role of handling and describing using highlights to tag keywords and Following the completion of data collection, the data was filled by the non-affiliate develop separate themes from the data the research team approached USAC with research team. (Buzan & Buzan, 1995). Independent, open an interest in conducting a study that would and axial coding was conducted to identify both serve the interests of USAC and initial themes followed by collaborative contribute to the current body of climbing Respondents were recruited via social coding to identify patterns or trends. This research. The research agenda was media (Facebook) and email (through allowed the researchers to arrive at four executed in two phases: phase one USAC’s member list) and responses main themes with two to four subthemes

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Finally, the investigators who were involved in the some bias. We sought to minimize bias researchers compared the final, agreed study design and analysis. In order to be through sound methodological upon themes with the original data to verify reflexive or transparent, Lincoln & Guba approaches, checks within the research the representativeness of the final themes (1985) recommended that researchers fully team, and transparency and reflexivity (Strauss & Corbin, 1997). Responses that disclose biases held and decisions made (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Thus, while bias were not of sufficient quality to warrant throughout the interpretive process. Data exists, themes were uncovered and coding were dropped after agreement credibility was established using an interpreted according to a between the raters, examples of dropped informal type of member checking: themes, phenomenological approach that responses included those that were subthemes, and preliminary interpretations acknowledged and embraced bias as part unreadable, incomplete, or grammatically of the themes and subthemes were of the research process. difficult to follow or interpret. Data was not presented to leaders of USAC to verify that coded by frequency of response (i.e. language, meanings, and patterns were divided by percentages) due to many interpreted correctly (Lincoln & Guba, responses falling under multiple themes. 1985). Qualitative coding procedures and A number of trustworthiness confirmatory content analysis were utilized procedures were followed. Confirmability to develop four primary themes relating to was established using an audit trail (see Bias is inherent in any study. The very (1) governance, (2) education, (3) public Table 2), indicating the transition between nature of research questions lend awareness, and (4) constraints. Major open, axial, and selective themes and their themselves to bias. For example, by asking findings supporting the emergence of these relation to the research questions (Creswell what is missing from climbing, there is a themes are identified and discussed in the & Miller, 2000). NVivo (version 10.0) was bias or assumption that something is following sections. Each theme is defined used to conduct content analysis and missing, with which some respondents using representative respondent quotes validate the selected themes. Resultant disagreed. The research team was and discussed utilizing relevant literature. word counts indicated the themes identified comprised of climbers experienced in both through independent, open coding were indoor and outdoor climbing environments. the most frequently cited, thereby justifying This experience facilitated the team’s Respondents seemed especially their selection. Confirmability was understanding of climbing culture and aware of and interested in the transition of established through reflexivity among the terminology and may have allowed for

Coding, Content Analysis, and Research Questions by Research Phase

Stage 1: Initial Open Coding and Content Analysis 1A. Certification & Training 2A. Culture 3A. Olympics 4A. Money 1A. Leadership 2A. Outdoors & Crags 3B. Visibility 4A. Expensive 1A. Organization 2A. Competitive 3B. Exposure 4A. Financial Support 1A. Professional 2A. Dirt-bag 3B. Publicity 4A. Affordability 1B. Routes 2B. Stewardship 3B. News 4A. Cost 1B. Events 2B. Responsibility 3B. Media& Coverage 4B. Location 1B. Competitions 2B. Safety & Accidents 3B. Promotion 4B. Time 1B. Bouldering 2B. Respect 3B. Awareness 4B. Travel 1C. Consistency 2C. Mentorship 3C. Recognition 4B. Far 1C. Rules 2C. Beginners & Newbies 3C. Popularity 4B. Facilities/Gyms 1C. Official 2C. Coaches 3C. Mainstream 4C. Dangerous 1C. Judges 2C. Education & Instruction 3C. Spectators 4C. Extreme 1D. Brands 2D. Teams 3C. Legitimacy 4D. Access/Accessibility 1D. Funding 2D. Scouts 3C. Acknowledgement 4D. Diversity 1D. Sponsorship & Advertising 2D. High School/College 4D. Disabilities 1D. Business 2D. Scholarships

Stage 2: Secondary Axial Coding and Theme Development 1A. Governance: Professionalism 2A. Education: Acculturation 3A. Public Awareness: 4A. Access: Cost and Certification 2B. Education: Stewardship Olympics 4B. Access: Location 1B. Governance: Competition 2C. Education: Mentorship 3B. Public Awareness: 4C. Access: Perceived Risk Fidelity 2D. Education: Supportive Visibility 4D. Access: Demographics 1C. Governance: Standardization Academic Structures 3C. Public Awareness: 1D. Governance: Funding Recognition

Stage 3: Research Questions RQ1: Role and structure of RQ 2: How is RQ 3: How to facilitate the RQ 4: What are the governing bodies? knowledge/culture transmitted transition from fringe to constraints to sport in the organization? mainstream? participation?

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research the sport of climbing from a fringe, lifestyle nice if you knew what to expect when potential for growth. Respondents also sport to a mainstream sport with travelling to a new gym. indicated a lack of professionalism institutional structures. Moreover, they surrounding the number and quality of were aware of the role of governance in Ultimately respondents were coaches. To them, the sport still feels like a making that transition successful. Coerver concerned with fairness and consistency in parent or volunteer run organization lacking and Beyers (2013) indicated that for an rules and regulations between gyms and the certification process and staff support organization to remain viable it needed to competitions. Rules and regulations that that are typical of mainstream sports. The consistently evaluate and improve its lack clarity, change, or whose following respondent statements capture governance structure and capabilities. implementation is variable at best, create this idea: Governance refers to the system that ambiguity within sport organizations that guides how an organization is steered and can be a source of dissatisfaction and There is a paucity of quality coaches regulated, and describes both structure conflict. Additionally, lack of for the kids, especially in the eastern and strategies for governing (Hoye et al., standardization can become an issue of half of the country. 2015). Governance becomes increasingly risk management as described by the important as sport organizations transition following respondent: As a coach, we need more coaching from volunteer driven entities to development. Both in terms of professional, incorporated institutions that Many people climbing learn gym providing coaches training and serve a more informed clientele and climbing and learn how to climb certification as well as trying to make operate in a more urbane marketplace outside from a guy who learned it from research into climbing specific training (Ferkins et al., 2009). Despite lifestyle a guy and there are so many bad happen and more. athletes' general reluctance to embrace practices/accidents waiting to happen. mainstreamization, respondents in this There are more than one way to do Finally, some respondents called for study specifically called for sport many climbing tasks but there is adjustments in the governance structure of organizations to take a more active role in always a proper way. Even simple stuff the organization recommending improve- governing standardization practices, like belaying is done dangerously. ments to communication, clarity in professionalization and certification, and leadership, and a shift towards a business fidelity at competitions. This suggests that Streamlining and standardizing rules, model of running the organization. These as lifestyle sports grow there may need to regulations, training procedures, and even recommendations run counter to many be give-and-take on the part of athletes to promotion models are indicators of lifestyle sports principles but support the sacrifice some elements of their sport governance that assist sport organizations organizational leadership literature. As identity to preserve other aspects and to in establishing legitimacy and reducing organizations evolve, staff need to adopt ensure that sport culture and competition ambiguity. skills requisite to run the organization or maintain their integrity. Professionalism and Certification. new staff need to be hired to fill changing Standardization. Part of the transition Organizational culture improves when roles (Colquitt et al., 2014). from a lifestyle sport to a mainstream sport negative member experiences are reduced is the establishment and formalization of and positive member experiences are standards of practice with a shift from fostered. Professionalism not only affects The need for acculturation pathways, inexperienced volunteers to certified an organization’s culture and brand, but stewardship education, mentorship, and judges, referees, or coaches (Larkin, also impacts member experiences supportive academic structures emerged Cottingham, & Pate, 2014). While (Colquitt, LePine, & Wesson, 2014). as key subthemes under the global theme competition exists and is a key component Survey respondent experiences were of education. From an organizational in lifestyle sports, it is often individually specifically impacted by a lack of culture standpoint, education refers to how driven. As the sport of climbing grows and professionalism at competitions and values, culture, and knowledge are the number of competitors increases it will events. Concerns usually surrounded transferred between the organization and become more difficult for individual athletes event offerings (e.g. food options, its members, between members within the to regulate and agree upon competition sponsorship, and alternate activities) or the organization, and between the organization structures and standards. The desire for quality and scope of broadcasting. This and outsiders. Specifically, from an external or organizational regulation was respondent statement parallels these ideational perspective, education reflects apparent as one climber expressed the findings: the development and meanings associated need for the following: with organizational stories, myths, and Professionalism in broadcasting – the traditions (Frontiera, 2010). Control and regulation to make things competitions that I've watched online Acculturation. The effort by consistent. I don't like judges that are are typically covered by a couple of organizational leaders and the majority of parents and do things differently guys who talk like climbers talking to members to legitimize and grow the sport between them. climbers, not broadcasters talking to of climbing has not been fully embraced by average people. They also seem to be all climbers. Some, who cling to climbing's Other respondents wanted to see lacking in overall sports broadcasting historical position as a lifestyle sport, argue similar forms of standardization extend into skills. that by making the sport more mainstream, their local gyms, indicating again and again it will lose the inherent qualities that make the need for consistency. One respondent The lack of professionalism and it great. A few respondents passionately recommended the following change: experience of broadcasters and likely other declared their feelings about the change in staff increases negative member climbing culture: Consistent methods and practices experiences that discourage potential from one gym to the next. It would be market entrants and continued Climbing is becoming too mainstream. membership, decreasing the organization's Some argue that it is a good thing.

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research More mainstream brings more embracing aspects of mainstreamization. the gym. The mentoring that happens sponsors, more money, more flash. Regardless of the language used or in other sports is not as present in the But this is NOT climbing. Nothing underlying motive, this sentiment that sport of climbing. compares to the feeling of being in a stewardship education is imperative is Other respondents suggested that boulder field working a project. Out embodied in the following respondent mentoring would provide a way to connect there, there are no big name sponsors perspective: new climbers to local outdoor resources, to flashing their stuff. Only climbing. socially supportive climbing networks, and With the growth of mega-gyms and would help facilitate a responsible shift from As to ethics, too much emphasis is growing number of people entering the the gym to the outdoors. The theme of placed on numbers and seeming cool sport, stewardship education for youth shifting from gym to crag (where crag refers by climbing hard numbers. More climbers is lacking. USAC could have to outdoor or natural climbing edifices), was emphasis should be placed on a big impact on youth to become good recurring and embodied well in these enjoying the sport and nature. Having ambassadors of the sport to promote respondent's perspectives on mentoring: non climbers understand that climbing responsible climbing practices. is not just an activity, but a life style A better network of connecting people and can be shared with the entire This idea was echoed by others who to climb outdoor areas. Entry into family and friends for many years. feel the new generation of climbers’ need finding and exploring outdoor areas is education about their role as stewards of hard, connecting people as "peer While most respondents called for the sport and its culture: guides" would really bridge that gap. increases in corporate sponsorship and organizational structural models that mirror So many advocates are immature Proper safety instruction and risk other mainstream sports, a few questioned substance abusers who just want to management (such as an intro to whether or not the sport has strayed too far escape society. I think we should be climbing class) for those that have from its roots and wondered how this shift trying to reshape society, educating never climbed. Some sort of gym to could change the quality of the climbing them to the value of outdoors time. crag intro class as an example. I've experience. These disparate views And new areas need to be thoughtfully heard too many stories of newbies regarding the sport’s competition focus, developed to be user friendly and so getting hurt and injured because they parental involvement, and awareness of land owners/managers see that we went outside, but didn't have proper and attitudes towards climbing’s roots aren't just going to make a mess. instruction. reflect cultural ambiguities highlighted in the organizational culture and lifestyle sport This respondent also draws attention Some respondents were especially literature (Meyerson & Martin, 1987; to the challenge faced by growing sport concerned that "newbies" (i.e., new Wheaton, 2007). Organizational leaders organizations who are managing new entrants) to the sport do not practice safe need to be aware of these conflicting stakeholders. As the sport of climbing climbing, imposing risks on themselves and ideologies and ensure a unified message grows and outdoors use increases, sending a message to prospective climbers about the sport is being disseminated to the organizational leaders will have to further that the sport is dangerous or poorly public, their members, and future market navigate relationships with land managers, managed. From a risk management segments. Of great importance is the community leaders, and other new perspective, governing bodies should take organization's ability to understand, shape, stakeholders. Also implied in the comments great care to ensure that safe climbing and transmit its cultural myths, stories, and above are issues of sustainability, rooted in principles are being taught and transmitted message to the rising generation of the sport of climbing’s connection to nature through multiple channels such as climbers (Frontiera, 2010). based settings. Sustainability, a sport and mentors, coaches, members, and Stewardship. Respondents indicated tourism buzzword, is a growing concern for organizational messages. How risk is that respect and stewardship needs to be a organizational leaders who are increasingly perceived and managed is a large part of part of USA Climbing’s acculturation scrutinized as to how they manage not only an organization's culture and reflective of process moving forward. As the sport has their people and profits, but the planet as its leadership. increased in popularity, it has attracted new well (Barker, Barker-Ruchti, Wals, & Supportive Academic Structures. participants who are disconnected from the Tinning, 2014; Schubring & Thiel, 2014). Many respondents indicated the need for sport's origin and mission. Missing in the Mentorship. Mentoring is an important greater organizational involvement within sport is a consistent, clearly communicated dimension of many member-based sport the public education system in the form of message, especially to youth, regarding organizations (Reade, Rodgers, & Spriggs, climbing scholarships, high school level respect for other climbers, the history and 2008). As respondents in this study and collegiate climbing teams, and culture of climbing, and appropriate discussed their feelings about organized climbing competitions hosted by treatment of the outdoor climbing organizational culture, safety, stewardship the National Collegiate Athletic Association environment often referred to in other and skill building, they consistently (NCAA). Here, respondents regularly sports as the etiquette of the sport. The discussed the need for and importance of compared the sport of climbing to divergence in terminology here may be mentors in transmitting those values. With mainstream sports that have a deep and indicative of the emergent state of indoor so many new entrants to the sport, long term presence in the U.S. school competition climbing in that it has yet to including both youth and adults, system: fully adopt traditional sport vernacular and respondents perceived a need for strong instead retains language associated with mentors to guide each other. One I think it should have scholarships like outdoor climbing. The retained interest in respondent shared: traditional college sports. environmental stewardship and sport etiquette may reflect respondents' desire to It's missing a lot of interaction between It’s missing scholarship opportunities maintain certain lifestyle sport traits while beginners and veterans – especially in with colleges.

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research USAC’s partnership with both the USOC challenge of affordability was captured in In my opinion, climbers have yet to be and IOC, this is an authentic and these respondents’ answers: taken seriously. I am a senior in high reasonable goal and in line with the desires school beginning the college search. I of competition climbing’s membership. I think the biggest hardship is the wish that I knew that colleges would financial cost of traveling. It would be begin to take climbing as a legitimate great if more companies sponsored sport. As organizational leaders think about the kids going to worlds to help offset growing their membership and diversifying the cost to parents. It is a huge How this model would look for climbers their markets, the issue of constraints that sacrifice for many. is yet to be determined. In an investigation may limit climbing participation becomes of another emerging sport, wheelchair pronounced. Climbing and outdoor All the comps are soooo expensive. basketball, Larkin et al. (2014) noted: adventure sports in the United States have Even though we have a good income Benefits for a sport to be recognized as traditionally and anecdotally been middle we have chosen not to attend certain an NCAA activity include increased class, White endeavors (White & Bustman, comps because of the cost. worldwide awareness and the potential for 2010). If an organization's goal is to make growth to become a mainstream sport. their brand image more inclusive and Perceived Risk. A few respondents Considering such advantages, it is no increase or diversify their membership, indicated that the public’s perception of risk wonder that athletic directors, participants, they need to identify and reduce constraints may be a barrier to entry into the sport. This promoters, marketers, and other to participation. When asked what was idea was conveyed in the following stakeholders of developing sports aspire missing from the sport of climbing, statement: earnestly for the coveted NCAA respondents identified a number of factors championship status or even emerging that impede climbing participation: location, I think we're missing a whole group of status. (p. 168) cost, perceptions of risk, and demographic people who are afraid of heights and factors. aren't aware of the amount of safety Location. Some respondents felt precautions taken when climbing. Current research indicates that public climbing teams, coaches, and facilities awareness is an important gauge of were too distant, especially in flatland areas Managing real and perceived risk and organizational legitimacy (McDougle, where natural climbing surfaces were maintaining safe spaces is a major issue 2014). In the context of sport, legitimacy either inaccessible or non-existent. Some facing adventure sport industries. has been defined as the popular respondents took this idea further Educating the public about the real versus acceptance of the sport (Halgin, 2006). In indicating that access to "quality" gyms was perceived risks may help the industry grow this study respondents indicated that even more limited. In addition to limited and transition. In doing so, organizational sponsorship and legitimacy were gym access, respondents expressed leaders need to be wary of excluding equivalent. Here a respondent professes concerns about the travel distance and existing or potential thrill seeking members the importance of a “big” sponsor: costs associated with attendance at who are drawn to the sport because of its regional, divisional, or national inherent, exhilarating, albeit risky Climbing is a widely unknown and competitions. The travel time created by properties. Controlling the narrative about misunderstood sport to the general the distance to competitions took time away levels of risk in the sport is especially public. Most people don't know from other life activities such as work and challenging when high-profile climbers are competitive climbing exists. It would be school. spotlighted performing technical free solo amazing for it to be on real TV, not just climbs or tragic accidents monopolize live streams. Funding for US team Most gyms are expensive and some media coverage. The dilemma here is that athlete would also encourage the hard to get to, so only those with these high-profile, exciting acts country's best to attend more world enough money and transportation can simultaneously invite and exclude cups. This requires bigger sponsors participate. participation depending on the which we don't have. demographic being targeted by the More rock gyms for better access to organization. Another respondent mentioned the indoor climbing more opportunities for Participant Homogeneity. One of the importance of establishing legitimacy outdoor climbing for youth whose primary issues of access that surfaced was through a corporate sponsorship blend that parents don't climb. the lack of diversity in the sport, despite the could lead to climbing’s inclusion as an location of many climbing gyms in urban, Olympic sport: Financial Cost. Respondents ethnically heterogeneous areas. This expressed that high competition and travel finding is congruent with many studies of More corporate sponsorships - an costs kept even the most experienced traditionally outdoor sports which indicate a official airline (that would help with climbers from competing. High costs were lack of ethnic minority representation in airfares to Divisional, National and associated with gyms as well. In order for these sports (see Floyd & Gramman, 1993; World/Pan Am comps); an official hotel climbing participation and legitimacy to Ghirmire, Green, Poudyal, & Cordell, chain (ditto with room rates); an official increase, then removing barriers to 2014). Respondents felt that rental car company (ditto). Major participation needs to be a key priority underprivileged or low income groups and corporate sponsorship might help with (Holt, Kingsley, Tink, & Scherer, 2011). a majority of racial groups were the bid to become an Olympic sport as Additionally sponsorship came up in underserved and underrepresented. The well. connection with a variety of different following three quotes articulate the themes but especially when discussed as a problem and opportunity well: Inclusion in the Olympics was a means to reduce costs of travel and prominent theme in this data set. Given participation for competition climbers. The

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research Where I climb, it is mostly upper- mainstreamization. Indoor competition natural progression to climbing outdoors middle class white people and very climbing provides an excellent opportunity (Eng, 2010). Given its rapid growth, along little of any other ethnicity. We to understand both the evolution of lifestyle with the growth of other adventure sports need to figure out how to make sports and the development of sport (Breivik, 2010), the potential for climbing available to everyone. organizations. USAC is encountering many environmental degradation around outdoor of the same organizational challenges that climbing areas is high. Environmental Diversity and representation of LGBT, emerging and developing lifestyle sport stewardship and education should be a race, disabilities, and other. I don't organizations typically encounter (Larkin et central focus of climbing organizations and know any famous transgendered or al., 2014). It is clear that enhanced may be a way of allowing subgroups within gay climbers. Even black climbers are organizational leadership and oversight the sport to maintain elements of their scarce within the professional has led to a higher level of recognition for lifestyle sport identity as other aspects of community. the sport of climbing. The path laid down by the sport become more mainstream. Other competition climbing’s organizing bodies member-based associations have been Accessibility to the underprivileged. has provided excellent role modeling for very successful in creating such Representation by various races. lifestyle sports including trail running, environmental stewardship and education mountain biking, and adventure racing to programs (Browne, Garst, & Bialeschki, While great strides toward diversity enhance both their organizations and user 2011). Furthermore, this progression from and equity are being made in other sports, experiences. As these sports seek or indoor to outdoor climbing carries the the climbing community still has a long way otherwise evolve toward formalization they potential for increased climbing-related to go. Almost 20 years ago Harris (1997) may experience issues similar to those injuries as indoor climbing facilities typically noted that outdoor, adventure recreation experienced by USAC. possess higher levels of control in the continued to be a predominately White A significant portion of respondents areas of risk management and monitoring. endeavor. Based on this study, one has to expressed a desire for competition climbing Simply put, climbers accustomed to wonder what has changed. Deeper to become recognized as a legitimate sport. climbing indoors may be ill-prepared for questions about ethnic and racial barriers Legitimacy was defined in a number of climbing on natural rock surfaces and to climbing need to be considered by ways but was most often characterized by routes. Levels of training required to researchers and organizational heads the presence of more and larger sponsors successfully climb indoors are substantially moving forward. While issues related to at competitions and the inclusion of the lower than those needed outdoors, thus cost and location can more easily be sport into the Olympics. The benefits to there is a need for transitional education for removed or reduced, barriers associated both sponsors and competition participants indoor climbers as they embark into with race are less clear and less easily are promising. With the quick growth of outdoor climbing. This should include addressed (Gómez, 2002). competition climbing, sponsors could safety, stewardship, and etiquette training. position themselves as “the” brand for A potential side effect of competition competition climbing. These sponsorships climbing’s growth is the subsequent strain could enhance their brand awareness in on indoor facilities. Survey respondents The primary limitation of the study was other adventure sports, influence user frequently mentioned the difficulty they the data format. The research team had preferences and emotional commitment or experienced traveling to climbing facilities. access to anonymous data only with no brand loyalty based on their partnership The sport of competition climbing, and its mechanism for follow up with survey with USAC, and enhance sales of the corresponding governing body USAC, is in respondents. Furthermore, establishing sponsor’s product (Chien, Cornwell, & position organizationally to make credibility and transferability of the data Pappu, 2011). Formalized competition recommendations to facility owners and was problematic as the data was derived climbing is already moving in this direction manufacturers on areas in need of gyms or from a secondary source. However, with with a few big-brand sponsors for larger gym capacity based off these responses. over 600 responses in a qualitative data regional and national competitions. The Given competition climbing’s youth format, the themes were well defined. legitimacy of having larger sponsors also centric roots, it is in excellent position to Another limitation of this study relates to the provides a promising mechanism for further contribute to positive youth nature of the data collection. Data were acceptance of competition climbing into development through participation and collected as part of a market analysis other formal sports governing bodies such potential competition. Sports organized conducted by USAC without academic as the NCAA and the Olympics (Larkin et with positive outcomes in mind provide a research in mind. Response choices for al., 2014). Enhanced primary school and variety of developmental benefits to youth, some questions were structured in a college/university partnerships will help to including increased physical health manner that made it difficult to analyze. For broaden both the appeal of competition (Merkel, 2013), enhanced self-esteem, and example, “How many years have you been climbing and expand USACs the development of prosocial behaviors climbing?” had response categories organizational footprint and clout much like (Fraser-Thomas, Cote, & Deakin, 2005). ranging from 1 year to 5 +. Clearly, more wheelchair basketball has been able to Sports have also been shown to enhance categories would have provided better accomplish through its university sport both academic and cognitive skills (Bailey, insight into climbing history. clubs and NCAA recognition. These 2006). partnerships have the potential additional An area highlighted by the survey benefit of building foundational climbing results indicated that at both the knowledge for a newer generation of organizational and volunteer level, training climbers and coaching are inconsistent. This result While not a major theme, this study parallels the findings of Larkin et al.’s This study examined the trans- alluded to the potential environmental costs (2014) study of the growth of wheelchair formation of climbing as a lifestyle sport of the growth of organized climbing. For basketball which identified similar and fringe activity to an organized and many climbers, climbing indoors has a inconsistencies regarding coaches and highly structured sport aimed at

Journal of Unconventional Parks, Volume 6 • Number 1 • 2016 Tourism & Recreation Research volunteers. Developing a blueprint of this study, considerations for future Chien, P. M., Cornwell, T. B., & Pappu, R. coaching and mentoring strategies in the research should include potential economic (2011). Sponsorship portfolio as a context of competition climbing is a and health benefits of competition climbing, brand-image creation strategy. promising area for future research and constraint negotiation within adventure Journal of Business Research, 64(2), should not neglect to pull from the wide sports, role of the family within adventure 142-149. body of existing sport research on the topic. sports, and governing organizational Coakley, J. (1998). Sport in society: Another area illuminated by this study influences on these constructs. 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