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Broken Spirits: a History of Spiritual Fitness Training in the United States Army Since World War Ii

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Broken Spirits: a History of Spiritual Fitness Training in the United States Army Since World War Ii BROKEN SPIRITS: A HISTORY OF SPIRITUAL FITNESS TRAINING IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY SINCE WORLD WAR II Shenandoah Lia Nieuwsma A dissertation submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Religious Studies Department in the College of Arts and Sciences. Chapel Hill 2016 Approved by: Randall Styers Grant Wacker Todd Ochoa Laurie Maffly-Kipp Ronald Numbers © 2016 Shenandoah Lia Nieuwsma ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Shenandoah Lia Nieuwsma: Broken Spirits: A History of Spiritual Fitness Training in the United States Army since World War II (Under the direction of Randall Styers) In 2009, the United States military mandated the teaching and promotion of “spiritual fitness” training for all personnel--over one million people. This training was part of a force- wide initiative called Comprehensive Soldier & Family Fitness (CSF2), aimed at educating soldiers about physical, social, emotional, familial, and now, spiritual well-being. The CSF2 program demonstrated that spirituality’s purchase had extended beyond rubrics of alternative healing to those of mainstream medicine. While those responsible for the program framed spirituality as an “evidence-based” treatment, some viewed the implementation of medicalized spirituality as a form of religious tyranny. The concern that the US military had entered an era of religious coercion under the aegis of spiritually-based healthcare merits serious consideration. This dissertation offers a cultural history of the authoritative production of spiritual knowledge in wellbeing projects for large-population, non-religious institutions. By tracing a genealogy of mandatory spiritual education programs in the US Army since World War II, this project explores what “spirituality” has meant in various contexts and investigates what historical and contemporary conditions have made the “spiritual fitness” requirement possible in a secular space like the US military. Additionally, this dissertation addresses the pressing social and political challenges to the freedoms of secular publics that this reconfigured notion of non- religious spirituality presents. Although the term “spirituality” is often invoked axiomatically and commonly posited as subjective (by the public and scholars alike), this project demonstrates iii that there are complex politics at play in the production of “spiritual” education that must not be ignored. Far more lies beneath than the rhetoric of spirituality betrays. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It has been said that “it takes a village” to raise a child, and after raising two children while writing a dissertation, I have concluded that the process of undertaking such a large writing project is not unlike raising children in some ways. Children and dissertations demand a lot of time and energy and while only one of these dispenses hugs at night, the nurturing of both requires extensive social support. I could not have completed this project without the advice, encouragement, and help of hundreds of individuals. While I can neither list everyone I owe thanks to nor adequately convey the depth of gratitude I feel, what follows is a recognition of at least some who have been instrumental in the completion of this dissertation. I owe thanks to my long-suffering family: to my companion Jason, whose intelligent input and daily graces are unmatched; to my daughters Allie and Ava, who keep me laughing; and to my parents, Ed and Missy DeRegibus, and my in-laws, Gary and Cheri Nieuwsma, who have provided countless hours of childcare. I am also indebted to my committee and especially to my advisor, Randall Styers, whose encouragement and laborious editing have improved this dissertation a thousand-fold, and whose advice over the years always has proved sound. Thanks to Grant Wacker, who has consistently been a pillar of support, a wealth of information, and a fount of magnanimity. I am grateful to Todd Ochoa for the heartfelt care he has always shown me, and for his many theoretical insights that have enriched this project. I am thankful for Laurie Maffly-Kipp’s ability to prompt me to think about things I never before considered, and for her wise and empathic counsel. Finally, I v am indebted to Ron Numbers, whose depth of knowledge regarding my subject has been indispensable, and whose humor and wit has made this whole process more enjoyable. My gratitude extends to Jill Peterfeso, Stephanie Gaskill, John-Charles Duffy, Cynthia Hogan, and Carrie Duncan, who read portions of my dissertation and provided helpful feedback. Thank you to the Interlibrary Loan staff at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, who obtained hundreds of documents critical to this project. Thanks also to librarian Joseph Mitchem for his significant support and help over the years, and to librarian Renee Bosman, whose sleuthing skills are unparalleled. I want to express my gratitude to historians John Brinsfield, Anne Loveland, Mark Johnson, and Jacqueline Whitt for responding to my many questions with such care and intelligence. I am truly overwhelmed by both the compassion and the brilliance of everyone who has contributed to this project. I feel honored to have found such a “village.” Thank you, thank you, thank you! vi TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION: FREEDOM IS NOT FREE....................................................................1 Spiritual Rhetoric’s Sites of Contest ..........................................................................7 Perils and Progress in Studying Spirituality ..............................................................10 The Course Ahead......................................................................................................13 CHAPTER 1: MOBILIZING THE FULL MIGHT OF AMERICA IN THE CAMPAIGN FOR CONSCRIPTION: THE ARMY’S “MORAL AND SPIRITUAL” TRAINING EXPERIMENT .................................................................18 Marshall’s Perspective: National Security and the “Things of the Spirit” .........................................................................................................................21 Setting the Stage for the Fort Knox Experiment ........................................................34 The Fort Knox Experiment: Spiritual Training and Democracy’s Test ....................39 Conclusion .................................................................................................................53 CHAPTER 2: PROMOTING MORAL AND SPIRITUAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA’S FIGHT AGAINST GODLESS COMMUNISM: THE CHARACTER GUIDANCE PROGRAM .............................................................................61 Spirituality in a Culture of Theism ............................................................................66 Character Guidance Program Lectures: Spirituality and Theism in the New Army ............................................................................................................73 Deciphering Treason: Korean Defectors and the Crisis of Faith ...............................92 Conclusion .................................................................................................................100 CHAPTER 3: BREAKING TRUST: THE CHARACTER GUIDANCE PROGRAM CHALLENGED AFTER VIETNAM ...............................................................108 Vietnam: America’s War with Itself ..........................................................................111 vii Were Chaplains “Men of God” or “Men of War”? ....................................................119 The Character Guidance Program under Siege ..........................................................129 Conclusion .................................................................................................................174 CHAPTER 4: PUBLIC HEALTH CARE AND THE US MILITARY: THE ADVENT OF SPIRITUAL FITNESS TRAINING ......................................................181 Mainstream Health Care: Turning to Spirituality ......................................................182 Spiritual Fitness and Changes in Chaplaincy Culture................................................201 The Advent of Spiritual Fitness in the Military .........................................................218 Conclusion .................................................................................................................236 CHAPTER 5: THE NEW SCIENCE OF SPIRITUALITY: THE COMPREHENSIVE SOLDIER FITNESS PROGRAM.......................................................244 The Last Frontier: A Short History of the Religion, Spirituality and Health Field ................................................................................................................246 Comprehensive Soldier Fitness: Crafting Healthy Spiritual Selves in the Twenty-first Century ........................................................................................271 Making “Spiritual Fitness”: The Political Process of Cultivating and Implementing Knowledge about Existential Concerns .......................................297 Conclusion .................................................................................................................306 CHAPTER 6: THE RISE OF SECULAR MILITARY COMMUNITIES: THE REQUIREMENT OF SPIRITUAL FITNESS TRAINING CHALLENGED .....................................................................................................................312 Spiritual Fitness Initiatives and the Rise of Secular Groups in the Twenty-first Century
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