YECXXX10.1177/1096250618783994Young Exceptional ChildrenMotor Activities / Yang et al. research-article7839942018
Embedding Motor Activities Into Inclusive Preschools
tephanie, a half-day preschool third, and fourth years of life as teacher, observes that Tiffany, a young children navigate their Shappyy albeit shy child, oftene environmentc by pulling up to stand, The National“ Association plays alone during outdoor time. cruising around furniture, walking, While Tiffany has strong verbal and ultimately running. Through play abilities, Stephanie notes that her use and physical activities (PAs), children for Sport and Physical of a walker for mobility limits her have many opportunities to develop socialization and independent play on gross motor skills that require the use Education (NASPE; 2002, the slide, trikes, or climbing structures. of large muscles for movement and During circle time and motor control. Young children use gross 2010) recommends activities, Stephanie also keeps an eye motor skills as they engage in daily on Max, a child with autism. Max tasks such as sitting upright, that preschoolers enjoys active motor play and playing maintaining control and balance with race cars but often has difficulty while seated, walking down the engage in at least 120 imitating actions, following directions, hallway, moving forward and and balancing. He benefits from visual backward using a variety of min of structured and supports to stay focused and engaged. locomotion strategies (i.e., tiptoe, Both Tiffany’s and Max’s parents have gallop, and march), and manipulating unstructured PAs each expressed concerns about their objects (i.e., playing with balls, and children’s school readiness skills carrying books and backpacks). As including their gross motor 3-, 4-, and 5-year-olds, children day. competence. Although Stephanie develop even more sophisticated skills understands that gross motor such as kicking, climbing, and development provides a foundation jumping. The acquisition of motor ” for other developmental domains (e.g., skills is cumulative and sequential, social, communication, and cognitive), and depends on multiple she does not know how to create opportunities for PA (Clark, 2005). Hsiu-Wen Yang, MS enough engaging opportunities for The National Association for University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign children with and without disabilities Sport and Physical Education (NASPE; to work on these skills within the brief 2002, 2010) recommends that Michaelene M. Ostrosky, PhD 2½-hr time period that her students preschoolers engage in at least 120 min University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign are with her each day. of structured and unstructured PAs Paddy C. Favazza, PhD The early years (birth to age 5) in each day, recognizing that motor children’s lives are a crucial time of development occurs when children are Stonehill College growth and physical development. Melissa V. Stalega, MEd Infants learn how to lift and turn DOI:https://doi.org/
Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 177 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
provided with multiple opportunities How Can Teachers for PA. These recommendations are consistent with the Division for Early Support Gross Motor Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children’s (DEC; 2014) Skills? Recommended Practices that Preschool teachers play an emphasize the need for practitioners to important role in supporting provide ample opportunities to children’s participation in PAs and maintain or improve young children’s motor development during the school health-related fitness and development. day (Brown, Googe, McIver, & The development of competence Rathel, 2009; Trost, Fees, & in gross motor and early fine motor Dzewaltowki, 2008). However, early skills has been demonstrated to have childhood educators, just like an impact on later motor skills as Stephanie in our opening vignette, well as other domains of may not know how to plan for gross development (i.e., social, language, motor opportunities during the and cognitive; Favazza & Siperstein, preschool day which are appropriate 2016). For example, consider all of to the activity context and occur the social, communication, and with enough frequency to support cognitive skills a child can master as children’s gross motor skill he rides a tricycle along a path with a development. Thus, our purpose is to peer, negotiating obstacles that provide early education practitioners present themselves while chatting with strategies for creating more about the birds, squirrels, and opportunities for children to engage butterflies visible around the in gross motor activities within their playgrounds. Young children with already busy preschool day. disabilities, however, may experience Specifically, we describe strategies for delays in motor abilities (Emck, creating brief gross motor Bosscher, Beek, & Doreleijers, 2009), opportunities by inserting physical and may have fewer opportunities to activity breaks throughout the day participate in PAs compared with and enhancing the gross motor their typically developing peers opportunities inherent in regularly (Carlon, Shields, Dodd, & Taylor, occurring transitions. First, however, 2013). Thus, given the impact of we briefly address the important motor skills on other areas of topic of promoting children’s access development, and the need to ensure to and participation in learning that young children engage in high experiences, including gross motor levels of PA, it is critical that teachers activities, through the use of consider ways to intentionally embed universal design for learning (UDL) opportunities to engage in and and differentiation (Horn, Palmer, practice motor skills into the Butera, & Lieber, 2016). preschool day for all young children and particularly for those who may be experiencing delays. Promoting Access and Participation Before beginning any programming within preschool classrooms, including gross motor development, practitioners need to
178 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
consider how to design the learning UDL includes three principles: environment to ensure that all young multiple means of representation children including those with (i.e., instruction and learning developmental delays and disabilities activities include various formats and are able to access, participate, and differences in task complexity and/or make meaningful progress (DEC, expectations in response to different 2014). In this context, access and ability levels), multiple means of participation refer to being an active engagement (i.e., employing a variety part of regular activities and routines of ways to obtain and maintain in the natural environment or, said children’s attention and motivate another way, the environment in them given differences in learning which the children spend their time styles, interests, and preferences), and (DEC, 2007). Providing instructional multiple means of expression (i.e., support within a multitiered model allowing a variety of response modes of support, the two primary for children to demonstrate their strategies used to address access and knowledge or skills in response to participation are UDL and different ability levels) (CAST, 2010; differentiation (Horn et al., 2016). Horn et al., 2016; Orkwis, 2003). Specifically, UDL has teachers For example, during a large group designing learning environments gross motor activity, Stephanie plans from the beginning to support the to simultaneously model bowling widest diversity of learners. Then movements while giving verbal having accomplished this “step,” the directions to her students (multiple educator moves to differentiation to means of representation). In addition, maximize individual children’s active to spark and maintain interest, participation and learning within the Stephanie has taught her students to curricular activities. give “gentle high fives” to one another each time they go down the slide (multiple means of engagement). As UDL Stephanie keeps a watchful eye on In creating a universally designed children as they play on the slide, she learning environment, teachers are provides specific constructive guided by UDL principles to ensure feedback on each child’s motor that all learning opportunities and performance by saying things such as environments are available for every “Wow, I like the way you straighten child. That is, all children are offered your legs to move your body up the a variety of ways to have access to stairs” or “You are getting there, two and process the content, acquire new more steps to the top of the slide!” to skills, and demonstrate learning. sustain children’s effort and interest (multiple means of engagement). Finally, at the end of motor play, Stephanie asks children to reflect on their motor play by having each child tell or show her what they liked best (multiple means of expression).
Differentiation After ensuring that all children have access to motor learning
Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 179 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
opportunities, teachers can begin to balancing skills improve. Table 1 address individual learning needs. provides additional examples of When selecting or planning activities differentiation strategies developed for preschoolers, it is important to for Tiffany and Max. remember that children are unique and that they have different abilities Creating Brief Motor Activities One strategy“ for and interests. Children can be motivated by creating or adapting an Children’s learning, including the embedding motor activity to match their interests, or by development of gross motor skills, building upon previous learning can occur anywhere and at any time opportunities into the experiences. This point is especially throughout the day. Thus, practice important when considering children opportunities need not be limited to preschool day is to with disabilities, who may be more scheduled play times such as gym likely to develop skills in modified and recess. Teachers can intentionally environments and with adapted take motor breaks throughout the integrate PA breaks materials (Horn et al., 2016). For day and use frequently occurring example, to ensure that children are transitions as motor opportunities. whereby children engage fully engaged in motor activities, teachers can modify the learning PA breaks in brief motor activities environment (e.g., change the size, weight, texture, or color of objects One strategy for embedding (10 min) before returning such as balls or beanbags; highlight motor opportunities into the the boundaries; or designate a space preschool day is to integrate PA to an ongoing lesson. to use), content (e.g., break down the breaks whereby children engage in activities; integrate a child’s favorite brief motor activities (10 min) before song or object into a motor activity returning to an ongoing lesson such as musical chairs or an obstacle (Wadsworth, Robinson, Becjham, & ” course), and process (e.g., use Webster, 2012). Wadsworth and his different types of prompts such as colleagues suggest that teachers lead visual, gestural, or signs). PA breaks at least twice a day and Considering that Max is very divide each PA break into three active and has difficulty following components: warm-up (2 min), PA (6 direction, Stephanie uses visual min), and cool-down (2 min), all supports to help Max identify the with children standing an arm’s play area for a bowling game. At the length away from one another. same time, Stephanie attaches a small Just as with any activity, PA bucket of race cars to the railing at breaks need to be carefully planned to the top of the slide (i.e., use of child support all children. Thus, in preference). While all of her students planning, educators should consider enjoy sending cars down the slide, that some children may experience this strategy is particularly appealing challenges during PA breaks if they do to Max, who sometimes carries a car not know what to expect, have with him down the slide or pushes a difficulty shifting from an active to a car down before he descends to calm state, or, like Max, generally retrieve it. For some children, have difficulty changing from one Stephanie provides invisible supports, activity to the next. Several strategies such as standing nearby as they go can be employed such as up or down the slide, while for other incorporating visual cues (e.g., children like Max, she gradually photographs), or verbal warnings decreases physical support as his (“1-minute left”) before a PA break
180 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
Table 1 Differentiated Ideas for Max and Tiffany
Characteristics Differentiated ideas Tiffany Happy disposition, easily Provide verbal directions paired with gestures motivated with praise/ (adult support) prompts, high verbal Introduce verbal cues: toss, target, high fives abilities using cue cards (material adaptation) Shy, frequently engaged in Have a peer demonstrate “gentle high fives” as solitary play they toss the beanbag (peer support) Gross motor delays Divide class in half with half going to slide and present challenges with other half to beanbag toss ensuring that independent play on Tiffany is in beanbag toss (invisible support) climbing structures and With group of peers review high fives and trikes phrases such as “Great toss!” or cheers “Go Tiffany, Go!” allowing Tiffany to use peer responses as model (peer support) Ask Tiffany what color beanbag she would like; who she would like to be in “line next to” (child preference) Max Enjoys active motor play Model directions paired with visual cue cards and cars (simplification) Easily follows visual Provide picture cards (visual support) for verbal supports cues: climb, car, slide, high fives (material Experiences challenges adaptation) with balance, following Use colored nylon rope to provide visual directions, transitions cues of boundaries for motor play area (environmental adaptation) Use picture cards to break down activities into smaller steps (simplification) Use a visual schedule to remind Max what will happen next (material adaptation) Attach picture cards at the bottom of the stairs to illustrate sequence: climb, cars, slide, high five (material adaptation) Attach a bucket of cars to the top of the slide that he gets to have go down the slide with him (child preference) begins or ends for this can minimize applying UDL and differentiation children’s challenging behaviors. strategies before designing and Other children may experience implementing PA breaks. Answering difficulties during PA breaks related the following questions can be useful to their developmental delay or in the planning process: (a) What are specific disability. For example, the concerns? (b) Why do challenging children with motor delays might behaviors occur? and (c) How can I become frustrated if they only have a address the concerns and prevent short amount of time to do the motor problems? (Hemmeter, Ostrosky, task, a child with a visual impairment Artman, & Kinder, 2008). After might have a difficult time following careful planning of the physical the visual cues, and children with breaks to ensure adherence to hearing impairments might not be universal design strategies and able to hear a 1-min auditory warning addressing individual child signal. Thus, teachers need to consider modification needs through
Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 181 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
differentiation, teachers then evaluate movement opportunities into implementation effectiveness by transition, both universal design and monitoring children’s progress and differentiation strategies can be used outcomes. to enhance participation for all Returning to our opening vignette, children and to address specific we illustrate how Stephanie planned children’s needs. For example, a for and implemented physical breaks. variety of modes of communication Stephanie includes PA breaks 2 to 3 can be used to announce transition times a day in her classroom schedule. times, such as singing a brief song, She notices that all the children love ringing a bell, flicking the lights, or these brief motor breaks. She does giving a 1-min warning thus notice, however, that Max has providing all children access through difficulty when it is time to move from multiple means of representation. the PA to the next activity (e.g., he Multiple means of engagement cries, wrings his hands). Stephanie strategy could include having thinks the reason for these behaviors is different roles for children such as that Max is really enjoying the motor assisting in clean up, and designating activity and does not want them to a line leader, line caboose, or lead end. To address these concerns, singer. Multiple means of expression Integrating“ gross motor Stephanie makes a modification in the could involve asking each child to form of a visual schedule and demonstrate one motor movement activities into all aspects additional adult support to prepare or complete different numbers of him for the transition, before ending repetitions of the motor behavior of the curriculum, such the PA breaks. Moments before the PA and/or completing the motor ends, she gives him one last movement with different levels of as during regularly opportunity to do the motor activity proficiency. (jump over a hurdle, go down the Stephanie tried using multiple slide, etc.) and then provides praise as kinds of movement (i.e., walk scheduled literacy, he moves to the next activity. After a forward, march, walk backward, side week, Stephanie notices the frequency step, and take giant or small steps) numeracy, or science of Max’s problem behaviors decreases throughout each of the more lengthy and shares the good news with his out-of-class transitions. She found activities or planned parents who are pleased to try a that all of the children paid close similar approach for transitions at attention (and giggled) when the motor lessons (Favazza home. movement changed using a bell signal paired with visual support cards and verbal announcements & Ostrosky, 2015), is Maximizing transitions (multiple means of representation). a great way to improve Transitions occur often in early She thought to herself, “What fun for childhood settings as preschoolers me and my students!” motor skill outcomes and move from one activity to another or from one room to another impact other areas of throughout the day. This Embedding Gross Motor re-occurring routine provides a Opportunities Across the natural place to embed motor development. movements (e.g., swing arms, skip, Curriculum hop) as children transition to and Integrating gross motor activities from the bus, auditorium, library, into all aspects of the curriculum, music class, and restroom. Again, in such as during regularly scheduled ” planning for embedding motor literacy, numeracy, or science
182 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
activities or planned motor lessons also can be paired and then toss the (Favazza & Ostrosky, 2015), is a beanbags to a partner while counting. great way to improve motor skill outcomes and impact other areas of Science development (Mavilidi, Okely, Chandler, Cliff, & Paas, 2015). To Inquisitive preschoolers are often get children moving across the daily curious about the world and wonder curriculum, teachers can consider the how the world works. Therefore, this following ideas described under each is an ideal time to introduce science content area. concepts and it is an easy topic in which to embed a gross motor opportunity. For example, when Literacy talking about a unit on the weather, Storybook reading is a common Stephanie had all of her students way to support young children’s make paper plate art by cutting and emergent literacy skills. Using pasting pictures that represented interactive movement books is one three kinds of weather: rain, sun, and strategy to link literacy to motor skills, snow. When she brought them and develop school readiness skills together to do a science lesson, the (Ostrosky, Favazza, Yang, children brought their paper plates to McLaughlin, & Stalega, 2018). For respond to questions such as What is instance, as Stephanie reads the book the weather like today? When Going on a Bear Hunt to her class, she prompted, students demonstrated had the children demonstrate all of the weather-related activities with their movements, as each one emerged. bodies or held up their paper plates. For example, when asked What is the weather like when we go ice skating? Numeracy children showed their snow card. Integrating gross motor skills Stephanie then responded, Great, let’s into the numeracy aspects of a all pretend to glide on the ice! Next curriculum can be a fun way to Stephanie asked, What is the weather conduct mathematical explorations like when we go swimming at the and develop mathematical knowledge beach? and children held up their sun (Beck et al., 2016). For example, to cards. She replied, Excellent, let’s all simultaneously address number pretend to swim! Finally, Stephanie recognition and create an opportunity replied, Oh no! When we woke up for gross motor skill practice, this morning, we saw puddles of the following game could be water! What is that from? Let’s go implemented. The children stand in a jumping over the puddles! circle with a bucket in the center, and each child is prompted to look at Motor activities with their numbered beanbags, and when embedded curricular content the teacher calls a number, children with that number toss their bag into In addition to embedding gross the bucket. The teacher might add motor skills practice into content high fives and cheers as a way to activities, teachers also can use gross include social and language elements. motor activities or games to embed Another example is to have children important curricular content. For toss their beanbags in the air and example, during the game Red Light, count as they catch them. Children Green Light, children can not only
Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 183 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
Table 2 Motor Activities With Embedded Curricular Content Activity Description Student challenges Differentiation strategies Red Light, Green The stoplight (teacher/leader) stands at Mobility Instead of moving toward the leader, student Light one end of open area, students stand at can just stop moving (freeze) or his or her the other. The leader calls a signal and starting line can be closer to the leader movement (Green light—jump!). Students Vision Do the activity with partners so one peer can jump toward leader until leader says Red guide the other Light-Stop! Variations: Add “yellow light” for slow. Hearing Use visual supports (colored paper, symbols) Add other movements (walk backward, swim, crawl, leap). Dual Language Make announcements using English and home Have students take turns being the leader Learners language along with visual supports Skills Addressed Color recognition, motor movements, basic concepts (fast/slow, go/stop, forward/ backward) Balloon toss Toss balloons back and forth, standing at Mobility Underinflate balloon so it slows down the varying distances to make it easy/difficult. movement and is easier to grasp. Toss own balloon, catching with different Using a string or tie the balloon to an anchor so body parts (hands, elbows, heads), it does not float away too far. counting each time student touches Use a large ball instead of a balloon, or make balloon before it falls to the ground the balloon larger than the rest. Hearing Use visual supports to announce which body part to use. Social-Emotional Each child plays with their own balloon first before moving to partners. Partners child with adult or offer invisible support (proximity to peer dyad). Skills addressed Body awareness, visual tracking, eye-hand coordination, counting Obstacle course Create a series of lines on floor using tape. Mobility Walk the lines with additional support or a Lines can be straight, zig-zag, diagonal, partner, do not need to do the additional etc. actions. Have the students move like a rabbit, mouse, Vision Walk the lines with a partner. Make the lines duck, horse, crab, horse, and kangaroo. wider, textured or colorful so they are easier to see or feel. Variation: Balance beanbag on head while walking, side Attention Use visual supports to indicate when and where stepping. to go. Skills addressed Literacy, concepts Tunnel Crawling Create a tunnel using the cardboard box Mobility Go into tunnel on their own so they have more and tape (short, long, straight, curved) room to maneuver, do not need to do the depending on number of boxes. Have the additional actions or speeds. students crawl through the tunnel, using Attention and Place visuals in the tunnel to show which way to different ways/speeds. following directions go, use visuals to show what actions to do. Variation: Each child wears a flashlight hat to explore Vision Place auditory signal (bell, beanbag with sound the tunnel source) or tactile features (ribbons hanging down) at the beginning, middle, and end of tunnel to support spatial orientation. Skills addressed Link to science concepts (e.g., crawling caves, different crawling animals)
184 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
work on gross motor skills such as gross motor activities, recognizing running and skipping but they can that children need multiple also focus on concepts such as slow/ opportunities to engage in PA to fast and forward/backward and other develop gross motor skills. And, types of movement (see Table 2). while gross motor activities may not be a common feature in a preschool teacher’s lesson plans, gross motor Conclusion development can be thoughtfully added when a teacher is equipped Increasing numbers of children with basic knowledge about gross with disabilities, many of who have motor play, creates a safe accessible motor delays, are enrolled in learning environment, and inclusive classrooms. Therefore, undertakes a little preplanning to teachers and parents need to find embed gross motor activities into the times throughout the day to integrate daily schedule.
Acknowledgments
Grant number R324A150074, from the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, made this article possible. The contents are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not represent the official views or an endorsement by the funding agency.
Authors’ Note You may reach Hsiu-wen Yang by e-mail at [email protected].
References
Beck, M. M., Lind, R. R., Geertsen, D. D., Ritz, C., Lundbye-Jensen, J., & Wienecke, J. (2016). Motor-enriched learning activities can improve mathematical performance in preadolescent children. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 10, Article 645. Brown, W. H., Googe, H. S., McIver, K. L., & Rathel, J. M. (2009). Effects of teacher-encouraged physical activity on preschools playgrounds. Journal of Early Intervention, 31, 126-145. Carlon, S., Shields, N., Dodd, K., & Taylor, N. (2013). Differences in habitual physical activity levels of young people with cerebral palsy and their typically developing peers: A systematic review. Disability Rehabilitation, 35, 647-655. CAST. (2010). What is universal design for learning? Retrieved from http:// www.cast.org Clark, J. E. (2005). From the beginning: A developmental perspective on movement and mobility. Quest, 57, 37-45. Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children. (2007). Promoting positive outcomes for children with disabilities: Recommendations for curriculum, assessment, and program evaluation. Retrieved from http://www.dec-sped.org/position-statements Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children. (2014). DEC recommended practices in early intervention/early childhood
Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN 185 Motor Activities / Yang et al.
special education 2014. Retrieved from http://www.dec-sped.org/ recommendedpractices Emck, C., Bosscher, R., Beek, P., & Doreleijers, T. (2009). Gross motor performance and self-perceived motor competence in children with emotional, behavioral, and pervasive developmental disorders: A review. Developmental Medicine & Child Neurology, 51, 501-517. Favazza, P. C., & Ostrosky, M. M. (2015). CHAMPPS (CHildren in Action: Motor Program For PreschoolerS) (Grant Application R324A150074 funded by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education). Favazza, P. C., & Siperstein, G. N. (2016). Motor skills acquisitions for young children with disabilities. In B. Reichow, B. Boyd, E. E. Barton, & S. L. Odom (Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 225-245). Cham, Switzerland: Springer International. Hemmeter, M. L., Ostrosky, M. M., Artman, K., & Kinder, K. (2008). Moving right along: Planning transitions to prevent challenging behavior. Young Children, 63, 18-22. Horn, E. M., Palmer, S. B., Butera, G. D., & Lieber, J. (2016). Six steps to inclusive preschool curriculum: A UDL-based framework for children’s school success. Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing. Mavilidi, M., Okely, A. D., Chandler, P., Cliff, D. P., & Paas, F. (2015). Effects of integrated physical exercise and gestures on preschool children’s foreign language vocabulary learning. Education Psychology Review, 27, 413-426. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2002). Active start: A statement of physical activity guidelines for children birth to five years. Oxon Hill, MD: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2010). Active start: A statement of physical activity guidelines for children birth to five years (2nd ed.). Oxon Hill, MD: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance. Orkwis, R. (2003). Universally designed instruction. ERIC/OSEP Digest. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov//PDFS/ED475386.pdf Ostrosky, M. M., Favazza, P. C., Yang, H.-W., McLaughlin, K., & Stalega, M. (2018). Let’s get moving: Using children’s literature to support physical activity and readiness skills. Palaestra, 32, 39-44. Trost, S. G., Fees, B., & Dzewaltowki, D. (2008). Feasibility and efficacy of a “move and learn” physical activity curriculum in preschool children. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 5, 88-103. Wadsworth, D. D., Robinson, L. E., Becjham, K., & Webster, K. (2012). Break for physical activity: Incorporating classroom-based physical activity breaks into preschools. Early Childhood Education Journal, 39, 391-395.
186 YOUNG EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN Vol. 22, No. 4, December 2019