Εvent Structure: an Instantiation with Από

Katifenia Zafeiriadou BA., School of English Language and Literature, Aristotle University MA., School of English Language and Literature, Aristotle University

School of English Language and Literature Faculty of Philosophy Aristotle University

Thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in the School of English Language and Literature, Aristotle University, January 2010, under the supervision of Professor Eliza Kitis, Professor Ianthi Tsimpli, School of English Language and Literature, Professor Savas Tsohadzidis, School of Philology, Faculty of Philosophy, Aristotle University

Στους Γονείς μου Τo my Parents

ABSTRACT In this study, we are concerned with the preposition apo of Modern Greek in relation to event-structure. It was considered crucial to move in two separate directions: first, to trace the semantic profile of apo historically and second, to proceed to the analysis of the semantics of apo on the basis of a Motion event. In the first part, the semantic pattern of apo is traced from Sanskrit to Modern Greek. Analytic reference is made to Ancient Greek (ch. 2), Byzantine Greek (ch. 3) and finally Modern Greek (ch. 4). All citations offered by lexicographers were cross-checked by direct reference to the literary works referred to and their authoritative translations. An additional corpus of Modern Greek newspaper discourse was employed for the purposes of the analysis. Since Greek forms part of the Indo-European family, it was considered useful to see how apo presents in other languages of the Indo-European family in order to obtain a holistic view. The findings in this first part can be summarized as follows: the meanings of root in Sanskrit that gain semantic relevance today are “path” and “away”. Apo can be traced in most Indo-European languages. In Ancient Greek, it functioned as a preposition and selected mainly genitive and secondarily dative. In Byzantine Greek it functioned as a preposition and selected primarily accusative and secondarily genitive. In Modern Greek, apo functions as a preposition and selects accusative, genitive and nominative. Apo has been traditionally treated as an instance of unacknowledged or unprincipled polysemy. More than forty-two meanings were attributed to apo (in free or bound form) by lexicographers mainly because they shed the verb meaning onto the preposition. This is an unwelcome situation as the term polysemy reflects a central semantic core that seemed to be missing from this vast range of recorded meanings in the literature. The thesis was geared towards remedying this situation, and a unitary model was proposed to this end. The main contribution of this thesis, therefore, is that these diverse semantic functions be subsumed and, actually epitomized, into just one: that of dislocation . Dislocation can occur, concretely, in physical space and can metaphorically expand in time and in a causal chain. When expanded in a causal chain the outcome of this dislocation can be a product, a construct or a change of state in the same entity. All these cases of dislocation, perceived in cognitive

terms, were exemplified and shown to obtain both in former uses of the preposition (Ancient Greek, Sanskrit) and in Modern Greek. The proposed model accrues substantial gains in elegance, economy and analytical depth. It also lays claims in cognitive efficacy.

Furthermore, it is the claim of this study that all these semantic functions can be expressed with a mathematical function. Namely:

f (x, y)

Where x and y are the arguments of apo, one of which can be unarticulated, and x is the argument sub-categorized with apo. The restrictions of this function are that x and y must be elements of the same domain and y>x. It has also been found, in this thesis, that these semantic functions of apo are expressed in a Motion event. It has become evident after research that apo functions in a binary way: either internally signaling the point of initiation of the dislocation, or externally signaling the cause of the dislocation. It was the aspiration of this study -and it is believed that it was fulfilled- to unite diverse meanings identified in the literature, over a long period of time, within a more formal and theoretically sound nuclear function that would serve as the core meaning of apo, informing all other meanings and functions. If this enterprise is successful, then it can be meaningfully claimed that the vast range of meanings and functions attributed to apo can indeed be subsumed in a core meaning in a principled way, so that we can justifiably claim the term ‘polysemy’ in the case at issue.

Table of Contents 1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION ...... 1 2. APO IN INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES ...... 6 Introduction ...... 6 2.1. FORMS AND MEANINGS ...... 6 Αpo in Sanskrit ...... 6 Αpo in Latin ...... 8 Αpo in Umbric ...... 9 Αpo in Oscan ...... 9 Αpo in Celtic ...... 9 Αpo in Gothic ...... 9 Αpo in German ...... 9 Αpo in Old Frisian ...... 9 Αpo in Dutch ...... 9 Αpo in Old Icelandic ...... 10 Αpo in English ...... 10 Αpo in Lithuanian ...... 10 Αpo in Albanian ...... 10 3. APO IN ANCIENT GREEK ...... 13 3.1. INTRODUCTION ...... 13 3.2. FORMS ...... 13 Apo in Aeolian ...... 13 Apo in Arcadic-Cyprian ...... 13 Apo in Ionic and Attic ...... 13 Apo in Doric ...... 14 3.3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION ...... 14 3.4. MEANINGS ...... 17 Place ...... 18 Distancing ...... 18 Place from which someone acts ...... 21 Non definite distance ...... 22 Definite distance ...... 22 Absence ...... 23 Apo with static verbs implied prior motion ...... 23 Apo with an article ...... 24 Partition ...... 24 Deliverance ...... 25 Mathematical use ...... 25 Boundaries ...... 26 Dependence ...... 26 Time ...... 27 Onset ...... 27 Posterior ...... 29 Cause ...... 29 Compulsory Causation ...... 30 Agent ...... 31 Circumstances ...... 32 Descent...... 33 Alteration ...... 33 Geographical Origin ...... 34 Origin of a Product ...... 35

Matter ...... 36 Life resources ...... 37 Anaphora ...... 37 Instrument ...... 38 Intermediary ...... 39 Manner ...... 40 With pronouns ...... 41 With Adverbs ...... 42 With other prepositions ...... 42 With final -s ...... 44 Derivatives ...... 44 4. APO IN MEDIEVAL GREEK ...... 47 4.1. INTRODUCTION ...... 47 4.2. FORMS ...... 48 4.3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION ...... 49 4.4. MEANINGS ...... 50 Place ...... 50 Distancing ...... 50 Distance ...... 51 Partition ...... 52 Transit ...... 53 Privation ...... 54 Deliverance ...... 54 Calculation...... 55 Boundaries ...... 55 Dependence ...... 56 Comparison ...... 57 Content ...... 58 Time ...... 58 Onset ...... 58 Boundaries ...... 59 Posterior ...... 59 Cause ...... 60 Compulsory Causation ...... 60 Agent ...... 61 Descent...... 63 Geographic origin ...... 63 Alteration ...... 64 Matter ...... 64 Instrument ...... 65 Intermediary ...... 66 Manner ...... 66 Anaphora ...... 68 5. APO IN MODERN GREEK ...... 71 5.1. INTRODUCTION ...... 71 5.2. FORMS ...... 72 5.3. SYNTACTIC FUNCTION ...... 76 5.4. MEANINGS ...... 77 Apo with accusative ...... 78 Place ...... 78 Distancing ...... 78 Place from which someone acts ...... 78 Νon Definite Distance ...... 79 Definite Distance ...... 79 Absence ...... 79 Deliverance ...... 80 Transit ...... 80 Dependence ...... 81

Boundaries ...... 82 Comparison ...... 82 Partition ...... 83 Time ...... 83 Onset ...... 83 Boundaries ...... 83 Cause ...... 84 Compulsory causation ...... 84 Agent ...... 86 Motivating causation ...... 86 Instrument ...... 87 Intermediary ...... 87 Life Resources ...... 87 Alteration ...... 89 Geographical origin...... 89 Descent...... 89 Matter ...... 90 Content ...... 90 Manner ...... 91 Anaphora ...... 91 Apo with genitive...... 92 Place ...... 92 Point of Initiation ...... 92 Time ...... 93 Onset ...... 93 Posterior ...... 93 Cause ...... 94 Compulsory causation ...... 94 Agent ...... 94 Manner ...... 94 Anaphora ...... 95 Apo with nominative ...... 96 Place ...... 96 Partition ...... 96 Time ...... 96 Onset ...... 96 Cause ...... 96 Manner ...... 96 Alteration ...... 97 Apo with adverbs...... 97 6. APO AND EVENT STRUCTURE ...... 105 6.1. EVENTS , FRAMES AND SCHEMATA ...... 105 6.2. MINIMAL SEMANTIC MODEL FOR APO ...... 108 Dislocation in physical space ...... 112 Dislocation in time ...... 125 Dislocation in a Causal Chain ...... 127 7. APO AND A MOTION EVENT ...... 139 7.1. WHAT IS A MOTION EVENT ? ...... 139 7.2. SEMANTIC COMPONENTS OF A MOTION EVENT ...... 140 MOTION ...... 140 FIGURE AND GROUND ...... 142 PATH ...... 146 7.2. THE INTERNAL ROLE OF APO IN A MOTION EVENT ...... 151 Dislocation in Physical Space ...... 151 Dislocation in Time ...... 155 Dislocation in a Causal chain ...... 165 8. THE EXTERNAL ROLE OF APO TO A MOTION EVENT ...... 169

Inanimate Causation ...... 170 Animate Causation ...... 175 9. GENERAL REMARKS ON APO ...... 181 10. CONCLUSION ...... 190 As an aside: ...... 193 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 196 APPENDICES ...... 210 APPENDIX I ...... 211 APO IN ANCIENT GREEK ...... 211 APPENDIX II ...... 220 APO IN MODERN GREEK ...... 220 INDEX OF AUTHORS AND WORKS ...... 240

1. General Introduction

The aim of this thesis is to study the Greek preposition από (hence referred to as apo ) in relation to event structure. For the above purpose:

1. The forms, the syntax and the meanings of apo in the various phases of the Greek Language, namely: Ancient Greek, Medieval Greek, Modern Greek, as well as in other Indo-European languages, have been studied. 2. A basic framework for the definition of a Motion Event has been established. 3. Apo has been examined in relation to a Motion Event.

The current thesis is divided into two parts: in the first part, apo is examined in the various afore-mentioned languages or language phases. For that purpose several dictionaries were consulted. The reader will notice that this part is highly descriptive. Emphasis is given on the clarification of the semantic functions of apo through different ages and areas. This has been a very tedious task, mainly because lexicographers have shed verb meanings into apo. As a result, approximately forty meanings were registered for apo. References provided by lexicographers were matched against the original texts. Sixty-seven writers and ninety-two works have been used as reference, as is evident from the Index of Authors and Works and the Appendices. Indicatively: Αρχιμήδης, Όμηρος, Ηρόδοτος, Θουκυδίδης, Διόδωρος ο Σικελιώτης, Ξενοφών, Σαπφώ, Κορνάρος, Χορτάτσης, Σεφέρης, Καζαντζάκης, Καβάφης, Σολωμός, Δέλτα, as well as current Greek newspapers. When possible, authoritative translations were employed. One of the difficulties of the process was that at certain points of research seven different linguistic codes had to be dealt with: Modern Greek, Ancient Greek, Modern Formal Greek, English, Latin, French and German. In the second part of the thesis, a minimal semantic model is proposed for apo , which accounts for all its registered semantic functions and which is based on a mathematical function. In addition, a theoretical framework for the notion of a Motion Event is provided. Finally, the semantic function of apo is

1

correlated to that of a Motion Event and the role of apo , either internal or external to a Motion Event, is established. In the next chapters, we will examine the various forms of apo and its semantics as described in the literature, in Indo-European languages, Ancient Greek, Medieval Greek and Modern Greek.

2

Part Ι

3

Apo in Indo-European Languages

4

Καὶ ἦν πᾶσα γῆ χεῖλος ἕν, καὶ φωνὴ μία πᾶσι, Γέν. 11, 1. 1.

“and the whole earth was of one language and of one speech”, Gen. 11, 1. 1

5 Apo in Indo- European Languages

2. Apo in Indo-European Languages

Introduction Greek is a member of the Indo-European family of languages. Therefore, it was assumed necessary in order to fully comprehend the function of apo in Modern Greek, to see its forms and meanings in other Indo-European languages. It is a known fact that prepositions (like apo ) belong to the lexical units inherited from the Indo-European family, ( Ιστορία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας & Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη] 2001: 487). We proceed to examine how apo appears in various languages of the Indo-European family.

2.1. Forms and Meanings

Αpo in Sanskrit Apo correlates with Sanskrit ap- which has the following meanings in Vergleichendes Wörterbuch der Indogermanischen Sprachen (Pokorny, 1930):

ap- = “to achieve”

The Greek words ἅπτω (“to join” , “to connect”), ἁφή (“touch”) and probably the word ἅψος (“joint”) derive from here, despite the breathing, (ibid. ). The Latin words: apiscor (“to join”, “to get”, “to gain”, “to tie”), adipiscor (“to obtain”, “to get”), cœpère (“to start”), aptus (“attached closely”, “bound”, “adherered tightly”), apud (“close by”, “near”) derive from ap-. It is evident from the above that ap- has the meaning of “join”. This semantic function survives in the Greek apo , which links two points in space 1. In this vein, apo is a preposition par excellence since, following Priscian 2 a praepositio (“preposition”) denotes relation, (Grand Larousse 2001 , entry Linguistics ). As remarked in Taylor (1993: 153) “prepositions denote a relation involving two or

1 See section: Minimal Semantic Model for Apo 2 Priscianus Caesariensis (ca. 500 A. D.), Latin Grammarian who wrote the Institutiones Grammaticae , which was the standard textbook for the study of Latin during the middle Ages.

6 Apo in Indo- European Languages

more participant entities. The relation in that one participant is selected for fore- grounding […] while the other participant serves as […] a reference entity”. The second meaning of ap- is ( ibid. ):

ap-= “feeble”, “loss”

The Sanskrit words apva (“disease”, “demon of disease”), afsa (“loss”, “disaster”), afsman (“loss”, “disadvantage”), the Greek words ἠπεδανός (“feeble”) and ἤπιος (“weak”), the Lithuanian word opus (“weak”) all derive from here. Another form cited in Pokorny ( op. cit. ) is apa. The Ancient Greek words ἀπφά or ἄπφα or ἀπφῦς (“father”), as well as the Gothic word aba (“husband”) derive from here. The aforementioned Greek words derive from the verb ἔφυν, (”was born”) and apo : ἀπφά < ἀπό+ ἔφυν, (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. entry ἀπφά ). The sense of “descent” expressed with apo 3 in Greek is expressed here. The hypothetical forms * apo and *po, are also cited which are linked with the Greek preposition apo, (Pokorny, op. cit. ). The meanings attributed to them are: “path”, “road”, “way”, “away”, which link to the notion of Motion. Pokorny ( op. cit. ) also cites the hypothetical forms * apu and *pu linked with the Ancient Greek form ἀπύ. This piece of information is verified by Chantraine (1968, entry apo ). According to Pokorny ( op. cit. ) * apu and * pu mean “averted” and “back”. The Ancient Greek word πύννος “anus” and the Latin word puppis “stern” derive from here. Other derivatives of the same family are ( ibid.) :

• the Sanskrit adverb apataram (“further”) • the Greek adverb ἀπωτέρω (“further”) • the Sanskrit apara (“back, posterior”) • the Sankrit adverb aparam (“later”). I believe that the sense of posteriority attributed to Greek apo by lexicographers derives from here. 4

3 See section Meanings of Apo in Ancient and Modern Greek. 4 See section Meanings of Apo in Ancient Greek .

7 Apo in Indo- European Languages

The word apara also has the meaning (“strange”, “unusual”), ( ibid .). The Homeric word ἠπεροπεύς (“crook”) derives from here. This piece of information is verified by Curtius as he is quoted by Liddell & Scott, ( op. cit. entry ἠπεροπεύς ). The Sanskrit word apaka (“remote”, “distant”) derives from here. It leads to the English word awkward (meaning “in the wrong direction”, from awk “back- handed”, obsolete from 1600’s, from PIE * apu -ko, from base * apo meaning off, away meaning “clumsy” first recorded 1530) 5.

The Ancient Greek adjective ἄπιος, ἀπία, ἄπιον, ( “distant”) derives from here. This piece of information is also verified by (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. , entry apo ).

Αpo in Latin Apo in Latin takes the following forms ( Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1992, entry ab ): ab or ab-, abs , ā, aps, af, au-, as-, ap-. The form ab occurs in words beginning with a vowel or / h/ as well as in words beginning with liquid consonants, sibilants or nasals. Occasionally, this form precedes other consonants, as well, ( ibid ). The forms abs and aps are found in front of words beginning with the consonants: t, c, k, (ibid.). Ab, when composed with words beginning with an f, takes the form au-: ab +fero > aufero (”yield”, “obtain”) (cf. Λατινο-Ελληνικό Λεξικό, Κουμανούδης 1972, entry ab). When composed with verbs beginning with p it is transformed into as -, ( ibid. ). E.g.: ab+ pello> aspello (”drive away”), ab+ porto> asporto ( “carry off”, “take away”). In the afore-mentioned cases, -ab denotes distancing, a semantic function which is also observed in Ancient Greek. Ab in Latin expresses: movement away from something, regional distance, separation and abstention from an activity, absence, time distance, posterior time, the starting point on a time line , deliverance from something, comparison, difference, geographical origin, provenance, origin, Agent, (Oxford Latin Dictionary, 1992, entry ab ). It is evident that in all the above uses Latin ab coincides with the meanings of apo as they were

5 www.etymonline.com, retrieved: February 2009.

8 Apo in Indo- European Languages

registered by lexicographers. 6 However, in contrast with apo, ab is more flexible in the denotation of Agent, (Chantraine, op. cit, entry apo ).

Αpo in Umbric Here apo takes the forms: ap, ab. E.g.: ap-echtre = ab-extra (in Latin)“from outside” (Pokorny, op. cit., entry ap-; Liddell & Scott, op. cit., entry apo ).

Αpo in Oscan Apo takes the form: af (Pokorny, op, cit., entry ap-).

Αpo in Celtic Apo in Celtic appears as: ex, ab, de, (Pokorny, op. cit., entry ap ). Notice the similarity with the French preposition de .

Αpo in Gothic Apo in Gothic becomes af (Pokorny, op . cit., entry ap-). Derivatives of af are recorded , E.g.: aftra “back, again”, (Pokorny, op. cit., entry ap-).

Αpo in German In Old High German apo appears as: aba (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology , 1996, entry of ). In Middle High German apo appears as (ibid.) : ab(e). In Middle Low German apo appears as (ibid.) : ave, af. In Modern German, three German dictionaries ( Deutsches Wörterbuch, Paul, 1992, entry ab; Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutchen, Pfeiffer, 2000, entry ab; Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Deutschen Sprache, Kluge, 1995, entry ab ) state that ab derives from apo.

Αpo in Old Frisian In Old Frisian apo takes the following forms: af, of , (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology , 1996, entry of ; The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology , 1988, entry of; The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Mathews, 1997, entry Frisian ).

Αpo in Dutch In Middle Dutch apo takes the following forms: ave, af (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology , 1996, entry of ; The Barnhart Dictionary of

6See section Meanings of Apo in Ancient Greek

9 Apo in Indo- European Languages

Etymology , 1988, entry of ). A similarity with Middle German is observed. Today it takes the form: af (ibid. )

Αpo in Old Icelandic Apo takes the form af , ( The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology , 1988, entry of ).

Αpo in English Apo in Old English takes the forms: af, oef, of. Of appears in St Peterborough Chronicle around 1100 A.D. Later, around 1259 A.D., it took the form off (The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology , 1988, entry of ). This would be the unaccented form of aef , (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology , 1996, entry of ). In Modern English apo appears with the forms: (a) of (b) of-: This form results from the assimilation of ob- before /f/ in words of Latin origin, like the word offer (c) o ff , (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1996, entry of ).

Αpo in Lithuanian In Lithuanian apo is found as: apa, (The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, 1996, entry of; The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Linguistics, Mathews, 1997, entry Lithuanian )

Αpo in Albanian Here apo takes the forms, (Pokorny, op. cit., entry ap-): pa (+ accusative) “without” , prape “again”, mbrapa “back”. In this section, we traced the presence of apo (forms and meanings) in Indo-European languages. It became evident that apo is inherent in most languages of the Indo-European family. It needs to be noted that the Sanskrit meanings of apo that can be traced to the present function of apo are: “join”, “path”, and “feeble”. We proceed to examine apo in Ancient Greek.

10

Apo in Ancient Greek (800 B. C.- 330 A. D.)

11

ὀμμάτων τ’ ἄπο φόνου σταλαγμοὶ σὴν κατέσταζον γένυν, Ευρ. Εκάβ . 241 “while down your cheek [from your eyes] ran drops of blood”, E. Hec ., 241

12 Apo in Ancient Greek

3. Apo in Ancient Greek

3.1. Introduction

We proceed to examine how apo appears in different Ancient Greek dialects.

3.2. Forms

Apo in Aeolian In the Lesbian (as well as in the Thessalian dialect) apo takes the form of ἀπὺ:

Ἀφροδίτα καμ […] νέκταρ ἔχευ’ ἀπὺ χρυσίας, Σαπφ. 97 “Aphrodite poured […] nectar from a golden […]”, Sapph. 97

Moreover, in the Lesbian dialect there is recessive word stress that is we have ἄπο instead of ἀπό. This can be observed in other words, too, for example in πόταμος instead of ποταμός (ibid. p. 342). In the Thessalian dialect, elision of the final vowel of apo before the starting vowel of the following word occurs: ἀπ- instead of apo , e.g. ἀπέδωκε instead of ἀποέδωκε.

Apo in Arcadic-Cyprian Apo in the Arcadic- Cyprian dialect becomes ἄπυ (analogically to ἄλλο -ἄλλυ portraying a similarity with the Aeolian dialect. Moreover, in Arcadic-Cyprian, the ending –υ seems to be very popular as the 3 rd person singular and plural of the present middle voice is formed correspondingly in – τυ and -ντυ , ( Ιστορία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας & Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη] 2001: 310).

Apo in Ionic and Attic In the Attic and Ionic dialects apo gains its current form ἀπό, as well as ἀπαί :

13 Apo in Ancient Greek

ἐγγὺς δὲ γενομένων τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἐμάχοντο ἀπό τε τῶν νεῶν καὶ τῆς γῆς μέχρι οἱ Ἀθηναίοι ἀπέπλευσαν εἰς Μάδυτον πρὸς τὸ ἄλλο στρατόπεδον οὐδὲν πράξαντες, Ξεν. Ελλ. 1.1.3

“And when the Athenians came near, the men under Dorieus fought from their ships and from the shore, until the Athenians sailed away to Madytus, to the rest of their fleet, without having accomplished anything”, Xen. H. G., I i 3.

οὐ μὲν ἀπαὶ νώτοιο δύο κλάδοι αἴσσονται, Εμπεδ. Απ. 134 “from one surface not two branches will be created” , Emped Fr. 134

Apo (ἀπό) is transformed into ἀπ’ when preceding a vowel. Accordingly voiceless, stopped /p/ 7 is assimilated and turns into the voiceless, continuous /f/ (ἀφ’) before a δασεία (“rough breathing”).

ὁ δὲ ἔς τε τὴν Ταναγραίαν ἀπεβίβασεν αὐτοὺς καὶ ἁρπαγήν τινα ἐποιήσατο διὰ τάχους, καὶ ἐκ Χαλκίδος τῆς Εὐβοίας ἀφ’ ἑσπέρας διέπλευσε τὸν Εὔριπον καὶ ἀποβιβάσας ἐς τὴν Βοιωτίαν ἦγεν αὐτοὺς ἐπὶ Μυκαλησσόν, Θουκ. 7. 29, 2

“So he disembarked them in the territory of Tanagra and made a hasty raid; then he sailed immediately after nightfall [from the night onwards ] from Chalcis in Euboea across the Euripus and landing the Thracians in Boeotian territory led them against Mycalessus”, Th. VII. XXIX 2

Apo in Doric No special form of apo appears in these dialects. Therefore, it is concluded that it shares a common form with the Attic dialect.

3.3. Syntactic function

According to the lexicographers, apo in Ancient Greek functions as:

1. A preposition. 2. An adverb meaning “far”, ( Ομηρικό Λεξικό, Λορεντζάτος, 1968, entry apo; Frisk, op. cit. entry apo; Chantraine, op. cit. entry apo ). This view is

7 Traditional grammarians describe /p/ as ψιλό (“thin” ). Consonants are divided in: άφωνα “voiceless”, ημίφωνα “semivowels” and διπλά “double”. The voiceless consonants are divided into: ψιλά (κ, τ, π) “thin” (k, t, p), μέσα (γ, β, δ) “medium” (g, b, d) and in δασέα (χ, φ, θ) “aspirate” or παχιά (χ, φ, θ) “thick” (h, f, /θ/) (Τζάρτζανος 1946: 21).

14 Apo in Ancient Greek

further substantiated by the fact that all major prepositions in Ancient Greek functioned initially as adverbs (K őhner, x. x. p. 551). This is in line with Luraghi (2006: 487) who claims that “prepositions […] derived from local adverbs […]”. As a preposition, it is followed by: a) A noun in γενική 8 (“genitive”), (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. ). b) A noun in δοτική του τόπου , “dative denoting place”, (Chantraine, op. cit., entry apo ) c) A noun in other απαρχαιωμένες “out of date” cases , like the οργανική “Instrumental”, (Λορεντζάτος, op. cit. , entry apo )

It is reasonable for apo to be followed by genitive, since genitive is the case par excellence used to define distance, division, separation and discrimination, (Kühner, op. cit. , p. 406). This is in line with Fillmore (1968: 9, cf. Jespersen 1924: 186) who argue that the genitive case denotes “movement from” in Indo- European languages. Apo is a pre-position, i.e. it pre-cedes nouns. However, there are cases where the preposition follows the noun. This is called “preposition inversion”. It is quite a common phenomenon in poetic texts and co-occurs with a rise of the accent in the penultimate syllable. Therefore ἀπό becomes ἄπο as is obvious in the following two examples:

τὸν δὲ ἰδὼν γήθησεν ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν Ἀγαμέμνων, τόξου ἄπο κρατεροῦ Τρώων ὀλέκοντα φάλαγγας, Θ 278, 279

“And at the sight of him Agamemnon, king of men, waxed glad, as with [by] his mighty bow he made havoc of the battalions of the Trojans”, Hom. Il. 278, 279.

8 Following Luraghi (1988: 179): “the plain genitive is being likely to have an ablatival interpretation only under strict lexical constraints (e.g. with verbs indicating motion away from something […]”. Since prepositional phrases with apo conjoin with such verbs, we may be led to conclude that this is an instance of an ablative genitive. Furthermore, “the introduction of the prepositional genitive in Ancient Greek goes together with a reduction in the use of the prepositional dative”, ( ibid. ). This may accout for the fact that in the majority of textual evidence apo conjoins with genitive rather than dative.

15 Apo in Ancient Greek

There are cases where the preposition apo is omitted. For instance, when more than one nouns form a whole, the preposition comes only in front of the first noun:

ἐγγὺς δὲ γενομένων τῶν Ἀθηναίων ἐμάχοντο ἀπό τε τῶν νεῶν καὶ τῆς γῆς μέχρι οἱ Ἀθηναίοι ἀπέπλευσαν εἰς Μάδυτον πρὸς τὸ ἄλλο στρατόπεδον οὐδὲν πράξαντες, Ξεν. Ελλ. 1.1.3

“And when the Athenians came near, the men under Dorieus fought from their ships and from the shore , until the Athenians sailed away to Madytus, to the rest of their fleet, without having accomplished anything”, Xen. H. G., I i 3

In the above example, it is obvious that apo (“from”) is recurring in the English translation, whereas respectively the ancient text could have been: ἀπό τε τῶν νεῶν καὶ ἀπὸ τῆς γῆς ( “from the ships and from the shore”) Apo is also omitted when it precedes a relative pronoun that refers to an afore-mentioned noun with an article:

ἀπὸ τῆς [article] αὐτῆς ἀγνοίας [noun], ἧσπερ [relative pronoun] πολλὰ προΐεσθε τῶν κοινῶν, Δημ. π. στεφ. 18.134

“by a misapprehension such as has often been fatal to your public interests [i.e. by a misapprehension due to which you have suffered many losses in your public interests]”, Dem. De Cor. 134

The full sentence would be one where apo would recur, as follows:

ἀπὸ τῆς αὐτῆς ἀγνοίας, ἀφ’ ἧς περ πολλὰ προΐεσθε τῶν κοινῶν “from the same misapprehension that has been fatal to your common interests”

As part of this thesis, there has also been another case noted, where apo may be omitted, which was not mentioned by grammarians: when it collocates with a noun composite with prefix apo-, as is evident in the following example:

διόπερ οἶμαι καὶ εὔχονται μὲν ἀεὶ ὡς ἄθλιοι ὄντες ἀποθανεῖν, μυρίων δ’ οὐσῶν μηχανῶν ἀπαλλαγῆς τοῦ βίου οὐκ ἀπαλλάττονται, Ξεν. Κύρ. Παιδ. 5.1, 13

16 Apo in Ancient Greek

“I think they constantly pray that they may die, because they are so unhappy; but though there are ten thousand possible ways of getting rid of life, they do not get rid of it”, Xen. Cyr. V i 13

As aforementioned, apo is reported by lexicographers to function as an adverb (Λορεντζάτος, op. cit. entry από, Frisk, op. cit. entry από, Chantraine, op. cit. entry από ). This is evident in the phenomenon of tmesis , (Kühner, op. cit. p. 551). This phenomenon is evidenced mainly in Homer:

οὕς ποτ’ ἀπ’ Αἰνείαν ἑλόμην , μήστωρε φόβοιο, Θ108 “once I took them from Aeneas, devisers of rout”, Il. VIII 108

In the above example, the original verb was ἀφελόμην, which is the simple past (type b) of the verb ἀφαιροῦμαι which is a composite form of ἀπό and the verb αἱροῦμαι (meaning “take away”). It is evident that ἀπ’ turned into ἀφ’ due to the breathing of the initial /ε/ of the following verb. After the removal of apo from the verb, it restores its original form since no breathing follows and the word Αἰνείαν intervenes. The case of the intervening noun (in this case accusative) is determined by the verb αἱροῦμαι , which sub-categorizes with an accusative and is a direct object. If the case of the intervening noun had been determined by the preposition, it would have been in genitive. The fact that apo does not subcategorize the noun (which otherwise should have been in genitive) proves that here apo does not function as a preposition but as an adverb.

3.4. Meanings

As a preposition apo rapidly underwent various types of semantic extensions, it developed abstract meanings and high polysemy, (cf. Luraghi 2006: 487). This polysemy is evident in the lexicographers. The three basic conceptual axes along which all semantic functions of apo are categorized in this part of the thesis are based on the Greek and English version of A Greek English Lexicon (Liddell & Scott, 1940). These are: place, time, cause. However, it was not clear on what grounds lexicographers placed each semantic function along each axis. Therefore, a re-organization of the categories was assumed necessary. The marking in examples was done for the purposes of this dissertation. For the citations, authoritative translations

17 Apo in Ancient Greek

have been referred to. They are cited in the bibliography. For further examples of each semantic category one could consult the relevant appendix.

Place It is the primary domain in which apo operates. The functions of apo in this domain are the following:

Distancing This category expresses motion with distancing from a starting point. It is the semantic category where apo is widely used.

ἡμεῖς δὲ αὖ πολλήν δᾷδα ἔχομεν, ἥ ταχὺ πολὺ πῦρ τέξεται, πολλὴν δὲ πίτταν καὶ στυππεῖον, ἃ ταχὺ παρακαλεῖ πολλὴν φλόγα . ὥστε ἀνάγκην εἶναι ἢ φεύγειν ταχὺ τοὺς ἀπὸ τῶν οἰκιῶν ἢ ταχὺ κατακεκαῦσθαι , Ξεν. Κυρ . Π. 7.5, 23

“While we on our side have plenty of pine-wood for torches, which will quickly produce a mighty conflagration; we have also plenty of pitch and tow, which will quickly spread the flames everywhere, so that those upon the house-tops must either quickly leave [from] their posts or quickly be consumed”, X. Cyr. VII.V.23

In the above example, dislocation in physical space is expressed by the verb φεύγειν “to leave”. Apo portrays the initial point of motion: the roofs of the burning houses. Moreover, in this case of motion with distancing, apo metaphorically extends to express withdrawal from life:

«ἆνερ, ἀπ’ αἰῶνος νέος ὤλεο, κάδ δέ με χήρην λείπεις ἐν μεγάροισι», Ω 725

“Husband, perished from out of life art thou, yet in thy youth and leaves me a widow in thy halls”, Il. XXIV 725

In this case, of motion with distancing, apo may co-occur with nouns ending in -θεν, (Μέγα Λεξικό Όλης της Ελληνικής Γλώσσης , Δημητράκος, 1958, entry apo ). Apo in this case is redundant as suffix -θεν by itself denotes point of initiation of movement, same as apo:

18 Apo in Ancient Greek

ὄψεσθαι φίλον υἱὸν ἀπὸ Τροίη θεν ἰόντα , Ω 492 “that he shall see his dear son returning from Troy land” , Il . XXIV 492

In the above example, movement is denoted by the participle ἰόντα of the verb ἔρχομαι (“coming”, “going”) whereas the point of initiation of movement is expressed both by the preposition apo and the ending –θεν, in which case an apparent pleonastic occurrence of apo is observed. However, Luraghi (2003: 199) expresses the view that –θεν supports the semantic role of apo, since “the friend” comes out of the internal part of the city of Troy (and not from the surrounding area) and therefore ek should have been employed instead. Apo also co-occurs with adverbs ending in -θεν (like ἐκεῖθεν “from there”) , which function as adjectival modifiers to the noun that follows:

ἐπίστασθαι μὲν γὰρ ὡς βουκόλου τοῦ Ἀστυάγεος εἴη παῖς, ἀπὸ δὲ τῆς κεῖθεν ὁδοῦ τὸν πάντα λόγον τῶν πομπῶν πυθέσθαι, Ηροδ. 1 122

“for he had thought, he said, that Astyages’ cowherd was his father, but in his journey from the city his escort had told him all the tale”, Hdt. I 122

This use of apo with -θεν survived in Modern Greek, in which case, however, it is pleonastic and occurs due to lack of decomposition, e.g.:

Ἀπό ἀνέκα θεν “Since forever”

This phenomenon has been characterized by traditional grammarians as solecism (i.e. syntactic mistake )9. This phenomenon is in analogy with other cases:

προ -χωράω μπροστά (“move forward”) , where the concept of ahead expressed both in the adverb μπροστά and in προ- (“ahead”).

9 Following the dictionary of Ανδριώτης (1957/1983, entry Σολοικισμός) the term derives from Σόλοι an Athenian colony in the area of Kilikia [situated in the outmost south-eastern part of Asia Minor, opposite of today’s Cyprus] where “barbarisms” (language mistakes) were common. The dictionary by Τεγόπουλος & Φυτράκης ( 1995, entries σολοικισμός, Σόλοικος ) further specifies that σολοικισμός refers to syntactic mistakes.

19 Apo in Ancient Greek

αν εβαίνω ψηλά (go up) where the concept up is denoted either in ανά- (up ) or the adverb ψηλά (“up” ).
συνταξιδεύαμε μαζί (travel together with ), where the notion of “togetherness” is embodied both in συν- and the adverb μαζί (“together” ) .

In some cases, however, “redundant” use of apo is not observed. In the following example the omission of apo is evident and the initial point of movement is denoted only by the suffix -θεν :

oὓς Νέστωρ καὶ ἐγὼ λίπομεν Τροίηθεν ἰόντες , δ 488. “all those whom Nestor and I left as we set out of Troy” , Od. 4 488

In the above example, movement is denoted by the predicate ἰόντες (gone) whereas the point of initiation of movement is expressed with the ending -θεν. Notice that due to a lack of a similar ending in English, the equivalent to apo preposition of is employed. In this case (of “Motion with distancing”) occasionally instead of apo, ἐκ is employed and their opposition is neutralized. The difference between the two prepositions is that ἐκ primarily expresses withdrawal from the internal part of something, while apo expresses distancing from the periphery or the location of an object, (Kühner, op. cit., p. 475-478; Valtcheva 2001: 333). As a result, apo simply refers to the point or region from which motion begins and, therefore is more versatile than ek , (Luraghi 2003: 118). Chantraine ( op. cit., entry apo ) also states that ek means hors de or á l’ extérieur de thus implying withdrawal from the internal part of something. This leads to a sense of containment expressed by ek , a view expressed also in Luraghi (2003: 118):

ἐκ τῆς πόλεως ἀπῆλθεν “he left from the city”

ἐκ τῆς μάχης ἔφυγε “he left from the battle”

“The city” and “the battle” are viewed as containers . The meaning is that the person left from the centre of the city and the core of the battle respectively.

20 Apo in Ancient Greek

Frequently, however, the two prepositions ( apo and ek ) are used interchangeably without the meaning being altered (Kühner, op. cit. p. 475). This convergence started with Herodotus whereas in Homer the two prepositions were distinct, (Luraghi 2003: 130).

καὶ δεινὸν εἰ τοῖσδε μὲν ἀπό τε τῶν ἐνσπόνδων ἔσται πληροῦν τὰς ναῦς καὶ προσέτι καὶ ἐκ τῆς ἄλλης Ἑλλάδος καὶ οὐχ ἥκιστα ἀπὸ τῶν ὑμετέρων ὑπηκόων , Θουκ. 1, 35

“and it is monstrous if they are to be allowed to recruit their navy, not only from their own allies , but also from the rest of Hellas besides, and particularly from your subjects ”, Th. I XXXV

In the above example, we have double employment of apo and single employment of ek. Both prepositions are translated as from in English. Kühner (ibid. ) argues that the employment of these two prepositions is interchangeable. However, it becomes evident that in the case of animate entities (allies and subjects) apo is employed, whereas in the case of inanimate entities (Hellas) ek is employed. Therefore, one could argue that there is a human constraint. However, another interpretation could be that land is viewed as a container and therefore demands ek . We proceed to examine cases, where dislocation occurs but with no significant distancing.

Place from which someone acts This category expresses motion without distancing or else it portrays the place from which somebody acts (Δημητράκος, op. cit., entry apo ).

οἱ μὲν ἀφ’ ἵππων , οἱ δ’ ἀπὸ νηῶν ὕψι μελαινάων ἐπιβάντες (μάχοντο ) Ο 386 “Τhey in their cars but the Athenians [ from] high up on the decks of their black ships to which they had climbed fought ”, Il. ΧV 386

This is a clear example, where apo denotes the place from which someone acts (fights). Notice a sense of height that is conveyed with lexemes such as: ὕψι (“high up” ), ἐπιβάντες (“climbed” ). This is in line with (Δημητράκος, op. cit., entry apo ) who argues that in this case apo usually denotes an elevated place.

21 Apo in Ancient Greek

Non definite distance In this case, apo expresses non definite distance from something. On a first reading motion is absent:

καὶ γὰρ τίς θ’ ἕνα μῆνα μένων ἀπὸ ἧς ἀλόχοιο 10 , ἀσχαλάᾳ σὺν νηΐ πολυζύγῳ, ὅν περ ἄελλαι χειμέριαι εἰλέωσιν ὀρινομένη τε θάλασσα, Β 292-294

“For he that abideth but one single month far from his wife in his benched ship had vexation of heart, even he whom winter blasts and surging seas keep afar”, Il . II 292-294

Notice that in the above example, the participle μένων (abideth) is of a static verb thus implying lack of explicit motion, (cf. Kühner, op. cit. p. 475). However, it is worth noticing that prior movement is implied: knowledge of the world indicates that a husband’s “natural” place is next to his wife, (cf. Luraghi 2003: 120).

Definite distance In this category definite distance (i.e. measured geographic distance) is expressed, in contrast to the previous category, where distance is not metrically defined, (Δημητράκος, op. cit., entry apo ). Distance is defined with the presence of a numeral that either precedes or follows apo .

παραπλησίως δὲ τοῖς εἰρημένοις κατὰ μὲν τὴν Τυρρηνίαν ἀπὸ σταδίων ὀκτακοσίων τῆς Ρώμης ὀνομάσαι λιμένα Τελαμῶνα, κατὰ δὲ Φορμίας τῆς Ἰταλίας Αἰήτην τὸν νῦν Καιήτην προσαγορευόμενον, Διοδ. Σ. 4. 56. 6

“In like manner to what we have just narrated a harbour in Etruria eight hundred stades from Rome was named by them Telamon, and also at Phormia in Italy the harbour Aeëtes, which is now known as Caeëtes”, D. S. IV 56. 6

10 The word ἀλόχοιο is the genitive of the word ἄλοχος (“the one with which I lay down together”, “spouse” or “wife”). The word ἄλοχος derives from a- cumulative + lehos “bed”. It is interesting to note that the word λέχος derives from the verb λέγω (“ to lay down”). This genitive form occurs only in the Homeric dialect. In the Ancient Greek of the Classic period, it would be ἀλόχου.

22 Apo in Ancient Greek

We have seen that one of the Latin forms of apo is ab. It is worth noting that in Latin, too, ab (i.e. the equivalent of apo ) is a metric adjunct, (Kühner, op. cit. p. 475).

Hostes ad castra Caesaris contenderunt et ab milibus passuum minus duobus castra posuerunt , Caesar, De bello Gallico, 2, 7

“The enemies moved quickly towards the camp of Caesar and set their camp at a distance less than two thousand paces”, Caesar De bello Gallico, 2,7

Absence Apo in this case selects abstract concepts. Therefore it can be translated as without . Metaphorically, it denotes distance or non-agreement , (Δημητράκος, op. cit. entry apo ).

ὠ φιλτάτου μνημεῖον ἀνθρώπων ἐμοί ψυχῆς Ὀρέστου λοιπόν, ὥς σ’ ἀπ΄ ἐλπίδων οὐχ ὡνπερ ἐξέπεμπον είσεδεξάμην , Σοφ. Ηλ. 1126.

“Memorial of him whom I loved best on earth, sole remnant of Orestes’ vitality! How contrary to the hopes with which I sent you away do I receive you back”, S. El., 1126

The above example can be metaphorically interpreted in a locative way: away from your hopes therefore contrary to your hopes, (cf. Luraghi 2003: 122).

Apo with static verbs implied prior motion Here, following Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ) apo signals the starting point of an action, which point coincides with the point where a prior motion ended.

ἀνὰ δ’ ἐβόασεν λεὼς Τρῳάδος ἀπὸ πέτρας σταθείς , Ευρ. Τρω. 523 “And afar [standing on a rock] from the rock ’s sheer crest a shout did the Troy folk fling” , E. Tr . 523

The static verb σταθείς (“standing”) implies prior motion (the person who was moving before, now stood). However, it is evident that in this case, too, apo expresses the place from which someone acts. The above example in

23 Apo in Ancient Greek

full text would be: σταθείς ἐπὶ τῆς πέτρας , ἀπ΄ αὐτῆς ἀνεβόησε “having stood on the rock from it, he shouted”. Therefore this semantic category coincides with the “place from which someone acts”. Notice that the voice “moves” through space, therefore we have a dislocation of the voice.

Apo with an article

In this case, following lexicographers, apo preceded with an article functions as an adjectival modifier (Δημητράκος, op. cit. entry apo ).

καὶ ὅσον μὲν χρόνον προσφέροιτο ναῦς, οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν καταστρωμάτων τοῖς ἀκοντίοις καὶ τοξεύμασι καὶ λίθοις ἀφθόνοις ἐπ’ αὐτὴν ἐχρῶντο , Θουκ. 7. 70, 5

“And as long as a ship was bearing down, the men on [from] the decks of the opposing ship used against it javelins and arrows and stones without stint”, Th. VII LXX 5

In the above example, the full text would be: Οἱ ἐν τοῖς καταστρώμασι (ὄντες) ἀπὸ τῶν καταστρωμάτων ἐχρῶντο τοῖς ἀκοντίοις “the men being on the decks from the decks they used the javelins”). In other words the preposition ἐν (roughly “at”) and its conjoined noun are absorbed by the preposition ἀπό. This phenomenon is called efelxis (in free translation “attraction”), (Kühner, op. cit. p. 574), whereby a preposition is “attracted” and absorbed by another preposition. Following the lexicographers the utterance οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν καταστρωμάτων (“those on the decks”) functions as an adjectival modifier to the implied subject of the verb ἐχρῶντο “they used”: πολέμιοι (“the ones fighting at war” ). However, with a closer look, apo and its conjoined noun express the place from which someone acts.

Partition Ιn this case, apo selects a noun, which denotes the ὅλον (“whole”). In Ancient Greek, this “whole” was indicated with a genitive partitive: εἰς τῶν μαθητῶν “one of the students”, ἠμέρας μέρος “part of the day”.

εἴ περ ἀπήμων ἦλθε, λαχὼν ἀπὸ ληΐδος αἶσαν, ε 40

24 Apo in Ancient Greek

“if he had returned unsheathed [safe] with his due share of the spoil ”, Od. 5 40

In the above example, apo selects a mass noun, which expresses the “whole” (spoil ). The process of partition expresses that part of the whole, which is of the same substance as the whole, was taken away (i.e. dislocated). Luraghi (2003: 122) says that the above example “is important because it documents the antiquity of the partitive value of apό, through which the preposition could stand for the plain genitive”.

Deliverance In this category apo and its conjoined item denote deliverance from something objectively or subjectively negative. According to Kühner (op. cit., p. 475) under this category we can find verbs denoting λύτρωση (“redemption”).

Ἀπαλλαγὴ τῆς ψυχῆς ἀπὸ τοῦ σώματος , Πλ. Φαίδων 64 C “Releasing the soul from its body ” Pl. Faidon 64 C

In the above extract from Plato, the perception that the body is the prison of the soul is expressed. The soul freed from the body is removed by it. Notice that the body is the container of the soul and a dislocation of the latter is evident.

Mathematical use This constitutes a separate semantic category for lexicographers. However, in this case again, apo and its conjoined noun function as a point of initiation for a movement, which has as its aim the design of a mathematic pattern.

Ἒστω ἐν σφαίρᾳ μέγιστος κύκλος ὁ ΑΒΓΔ, καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ πολύγωνον ἐγγεγράφθω ἰσόπλευρον, οὗ αἱ πλευραὶ ὑπὸ τετράδος μετροῦνται, καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ πολυγώνου τοῦ ἐγγεγραμμένου νοείσθω τι εἰς τὴν σφαῖραν ἐγγραφὲν σχῆμα Αρχιμ. Σφ. Κυλ., κγ΄

“Let ABCD be the greatest circle in a sphere and in it let there be inscribed an equilateral polygon, the number of whose sides is divisible by far, and starting

25 Apo in Ancient Greek

from the inscribed polygon , let there be imagined a figure inscribed in the sphere”, Archim. Sph. Cyl., prop. 23.

Boundaries In this case, apo co-occurs with ἕως (“to”) and denotes delimitation. Binding co-occurrence of ἕως (“to”) implies that apo needs to be referred to in relation to another point.

Καὶ ἐλάλησε Κύριος πρὸς Μωυσῆν λέγων· πρόσταξον τοῖς υἱοῖς Ἰσραὴλ καὶ ἐξαποστειλάτωσαν ἐκ τῆς παρεμβολῆς πάντα λεπρὸν καὶ πάντα γονορρυῆ καὶ πάντα ἀκάθαρτον ἐπὶ ψυχῇ. Ἀπὸ ἀρσενικού ἕως θηλυκοῦ, ἐξαποστείλατε ἔξω τῆς παρεμβολῆς Παλ. Διαθ., Ἀριθμοί, 5, 1-4 (Επιμ. Φούντας 2006).

“And the Lord spοke unto Moses, saying, Command the children of Israel, that they put out of camp every leper, and every one that hath an issue, and whosoever is defiled by the dead: Both male and female (from male to female) shall ye put out, without the camp shall ye put them; that they defile not their camps, in the midst whereof I dwell”, Old Testament, Numbers, (5:1-4), (trans. Buttrick 1957: 165)

In this case, ἕως with genitive can be replaced with εἰς plus accusative (Δημητράκος, op. cit., entry apo ):

Ἀλκιβιάδης δ’ ἐπεὶ ἧκεν εἰς τὸ στρατόπεδον τήν τε λείαν ἔχων καὶ πίστεις πεποιημένος, ἀπετείχιζε τὴν Καλχηδόνα παντὶ τῷ στρατοπέδῳ ἀπὸ θαλάττης εἰς θάλατταν καὶ τοῦ ποταμοῦ ὅσον οἷόν τ’ ἦν ξυλίνῳ τείχει, Ξενοφ. Ελ. 1. 3. 4

“And when Alcibiades returned to his camp with the booty, after having concluded a treaty with the Bithynians, he proceeded with his whole army to invest Calchedon by building a wooden stockade which extended from sea to sea 11 , taking in the river also in so far as this was practicable”, Xenoph. H. G. I iii 4

Dependence Verbs reported in this category are: hang, make dependant, etc. They usually need two complements: one that denotes the dependent and another

11 Here the translator marks that Xenophon refers to the seas of Propontis and Bosporus, (X. H.G., I- V: p 27).

26 Apo in Ancient Greek

one (expressed with apo and genitive) denoting the entity which the first one depends on. Therefore apo, once more, correlates a point in physical space (the dependent) with another one (place on which the dependent steadies him/her/itself against).

ἁψαμένη βρόχoν αἰπὺν ἀφ’ ὑψηλοῖο12 μελάθρου ἔβη εἰς Ἅδην, λ 278 “making fast a deadly noose from the high ceiling (she went to Ades)”, Od. 11. 278

Time Having completed our report on the semantic functions of apo sub- categorized by lexicographers in the domain of place (i.e. physical space) we proceed to examine the metaphorical extensions of apo in the domain of time, which according to Luraghi (2003: 130) began to appear in Herodotus.

Onset Apo denotes a point of initiation on a time line, (Liddell & Scott op. cit., entry apo; Chantraine op. cit., entry apo ; Kühner, op. cit. p. 476) .

ὁ δὲ ἔς τε τὴν Ταναγραίαν ἀπεβίβασεν αὐτούς καὶ ἁρπαγήν τινα ἐποιήσατο διὰ τάχους, καὶ ἐκ Χaλκίδoς τῆς Εὐβοίας ἀφ’ ἑσπέρας διέπλευσε τον Εὔριπον καὶ ἀποβιβάσας ἐς τὴν Βοιωτίαν ἦγεν αὐτοὺς ἐπὶ Μυκαλησσόν, Θουκ. 7. 29, 2

“So, he disembarked them in the territory of Tanagra and made a hasty raid; then he sailed immediately after nightfall [from nightfall onwards] from Chalcis in Euboea across the Euripus and landing the Thracians in Boeotian territory led them against Mycalessus”, Th. VII. XXIX 2

In this category (of initiation), when apo combines with a noun and an adjectival modifier, the noun can be omitted, whereas the adjective remains, (Δημητράκος, op. cit. entry apo ):

Ἀπὸ παλαιοῦ χρόνου>ἀπὸ παλαιοῦ “From the old time”

12 In the Homeric language ὑψηλοῖο is the genitive case of ὑψηλός (/ipsilos/ = “high”, “tall”). In the Ancient Greek of the Classic period the afore-mentioned genitive case would have the more familiar to us form: ὑψηλοῦ /ipsilu/.

27 Apo in Ancient Greek

Ἀφ’ οὗ χρόνου> ἀφ’ οὗ> ἀφοῦ “Since”

In the above expression, οὗ is a relative pronoun functioning as an adjectival modifier. It is from this process that the conjunction αφού in Modern Greek derives (see Kitis 2000; Κουτούπη-Κητή 2001). A very interesting comment on the semantic expansion of αφού comes from Καλοκαιρινός (2001: 315) who claims that “ afu presents a proposition as a belief that never belongs exlusively to the speaker. It thus introduces a second order belief in the mutual cognitive environment of the speakers”. However, this is beyond the subject of this thesis. Kühner ( op. cit., p. 476) comments on the resemblance of the temporal function of apo with the temporal function of μετά (= “after” ) plus accusative. The difference between apo and μετά is that μετά expresses the ἀλλεπάλληλο (the “immediate occurrence”), while apo the iniation of an activity, ( ibid. p. 533):

ἔργῳ δ’ ἔργον ὄπαζε ταμὼν κρέα πίονα δημῷ· ὤπτα δ΄ ἀμφ΄ ὀβελοῖσι πεπαρμένα δουρατέοισιν, σάρκας ὁμοῦ καὶ νῶτα γεράσμια καὶ μέλαν αἷμα ἐργμένον ἐν χολάδεσσι· τὰ δ’ αὐτοῦ κεῖτ’ ἐπὶ χώρης. ῥινούς δ’ ἐξετάνυσσε καταστυφέλῳ ἐνὶ πέτρῃ, ὡς ἔτι νῦν τὰ μέτασσα πολυχρόνιοι πεφύασιν δηρόν δή μετά ταῦτα καί ἄκριτον, Ομ. Υμ. Εις Ερμ. 120-126

“Following one job with another, he cut up the meat, rich with fat, and roasted it, fixed on wooden spits, the flesh pieces together with the honorific chines 13 and the dark blood in sausages of tripe; the remaining parts lay there on the ground. The hides he spread out on a rugged rock, as even now in after time they remain long-lasting through the ages in a fused mass”, Hom. H. Merc., 120-126

In the above example, employment of μετά instead of apo ensures the immediacy of the acts (cutting the meat, roasting, fixing on spits, etc.).

13 The back of the animal was considered to be the best part to be offered to a guest of honor.

28 Apo in Ancient Greek

Posterior Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ) pose another semantic category under the heading “time”, that of “posterior” which is evident in the translation with the word μετά (“after”).

ἀπικομένους δὲ τῆ ὑστεραίῃ τοὺς Πέρσας κατακλίνας ἐς λειμῶνα εὐώχεε. ἐπείτε δὲ ἀπὸ δείπνου ἦσαν, εἴρετο σφέας ὁ Κῦρος κότερα τὰ τῇ προτεραίῃ εἶχον ἢ τὰ παρεόντα σφι εἴη αἱρετώτερα, Ηροδ. 1. 126

“When the Persians came on the next day he made them sit and feast in a meadow. After dinner he asked them which pleased them best, their task of yesterday or their present state”, Hdt. I. 126

In the above example, there are actually two events: event A (of the dinner) and event B (of someone talking). Event A (of the dinner) acts as apoint of reference on the time line for event B. It is important to state that event A (with apo ) occurs before event B on the time line and acts as a point of initiation for the activity expressed in event B (the talking).

Cause In the domain cause lexicographers sub-categorized several headings of traditional terminology, without specifying what each heading refers to. It is evident that the boundaries between semantic categories presented were fuzzy. This complexity is portrayed here to stress the need for a more minimalist semantic model for apo, which is presented in part two of this thesis. At this point we should add a very interesting comment by Luraghi (2003: 123) that cause can also be expressed with ek, which expresses the ultimate cause. This is why an Agent, who is the ultimate controller of a state of affairs and is conceived as its origin, is expressed in Homer by ek indicating that no other effector can be traced further back, ( ibid. ). ”Cause expressions with ek are formed [mainly] with abstract nouns […]” . In the case, however, where ek conjoins with concrete elements ( ἐκ σπέρματος ) then it expresses the most immediate cause (in this case of generation). Apo can also be found in contexts where the ultimate origin is expressed “but in cases where this relation must be highlighted then ek is preferred”, ( ibid. p. 130).

29 Apo in Ancient Greek

Compulsory Causation By the term “compulsory causation” reference is made, in my opinion, to an inanimate, external cause. It should be noted that no definition of the notion is provided by dictionaries or grammar books.

καὶ ὁ μὲν Θηραμένης ἐλθὼν ἐς τὸν Πειραιᾶ (ἦν δὲ καὶ αὐτός στρατηγός), ὅσον ἀπὸ βοῆς ἕνεκα , ὠργίζετο τοῖς ὁπλίταις Θουκ. 8. 92

“Αs for Theramenes, he went to the Piraeus (he was himself one of the generals) and, so far as shouting was concerned [because of the shouting] , showed anger at the hoplites”, Th. VIII xcii

In the above example, the translation of the Ancient Greek extract into English is not precise. In Ancient Greek, though, the causal function of apo is intensified by the pleonastic use of ἕνεκα (also expressing cause) in analogy to the German von Recht wegen “in right cause”, (cf. Kühner, op. cit., p. 555). In its causal function apo resembles with Latin propter + accusative (because of ), (Kühner, op. cit. p. 477) (Κουμανούδης, op. cit., entry propter ), e. g.: propter metum= “because of fear”. It is also worth mentioning that in the translated version of the Holy Bible in Greek, the verbs αἰσχύνομαι “be ashamed of”, φοβοῦμαι “be afraid of” etc. are followed by apo to denote the cause of the sentiments (Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας & Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη] Ιστορία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας, 2001: 476). According to traditional grammarians, however, a phenomenon of σολοικισμός “solecism” (= “syntactic error”) is observed here: These verbs, instead of being followed by the accusative of a direct object αἰσχύνομαι τι “be ashamed *something”, φοβοῦμαι τί (“be ashamed * something” ), are followed by apo . The same phenomenon is observed with Modern Greek. We can say:

Φοβήθηκα (από) τις αστραπές. “I got scared by the lightnings”.

It should be noted that there is an animacy constraint, i.e. we can say:

Φοβήθηκα (από) τις αστραπές [inanimate].

30 Apo in Ancient Greek

“I got scared by the lightnings”.

But rarely will we say:

Φοβήθηκα από το Γιάννη, “I got scared by Giannis”

unless we imply: “ I got scared by Giannis’ shade [inananimate]”.

When it comes to cause, alternative use of ὑπὸ instead of apo is observed:

Ὁ δὲ Κάδμος οὗτος πρότερον τούτων παραδεξάμενος παρὰ πατρὸς τυραννίδα Κῴων εὖ βεβηκυῖαν, ἑκών τε εἶναι καὶ δεινοῦ ἐπιόντος οὐδενὸς ἀλλὰ ὑπὸ δικαιοσύνης ἐς μέσον Κῴοισι καταθεὶς τὴν ἀρχὴν οἴχετο ἐς Σικελίην, Ηροδ. 7.164

“This Cadmus had ere now inherited from his father the despotism of Cos; and albeit it was strong and well established, yet of his own will and under no constraint of danger, but of mere justice, he gave over the government to the whole body of Coans and betook himself to Sicily”, Hdt. VII 164

In the above example ὑπὸ appears instead of apo (varia lectio ). However, it is reported by the translator that in the Oxford publications, apo is employed. The structure with ὑπὸ functions causally to the participle καταθείς (“having given”). However, the same example could be categorized as an instance of “motivating causation” (conceptual category referred to in Δημητράκος, op. cit. entry apo ). Agent It should be noted that typically ὑπὸ with genitive in passive voice denotes Agent 14 . This passivization is from the point of view of verbal valency a reduction strategy, (Luraghi 2000). In nominative-accusative languages, in active voice, the Agent expressed with ὑπὸ with genitive would be assigned the nominative case and become subject, ( ibid. ). It is possible though for apo to denote Agency as well. Kühner (op. cit. p. 476), however, reports that this use is

14 For discussion of the notion “Agent” see section Apo and its External Role to a Motion Event (Animate Causation).

31 Apo in Ancient Greek

less common; similarly, Chantraine ( op. cit., entry apo ) reports that apo does not serve for stating the Agent in contrast to the Latin ab. Following Luraghi (2003: 129) an Agent expressed by apo is presented as unimportant. This is an instance where apo denotes the Agent:

Tύραννοί τε ὅσοι ἦσαν ἐν ταῖς Ἑλληνικαῖς πόλεσι, τὸ ἐφ’ ἑαυτῶν μόνον προορώμενοι ἔς τε τὸ σῶμα καὶ ἐς τὸ τὸν ἴδιον οἶκον αὔξειν δι’ ἀσφαλείας ὅσον ἐδύναντο μάλιστα τὰς πόλεις ᾤκουν, ἐπράχθη τε οὐδὲν ἀπ’ αὐτῶν ἔργον ἀξιόλογον, εἰ μὴ εἴ τι πρὸς περιοίκους τοὺς αὐτῶν ἑκάστοις. οὕτω πανταχόθεν ἡ Ἑλλάς ἐπὶ πολὺν χρόνον κατείχετο μήτε κοινῇ φανερὸν μηδὲν κατεργάζεσθαι, κατὰ πόλεις τε ἀτολμοτέρα εἶναι, Θουκ. 1. 17

“The tyrants, moreover- whenever there were tyrants in the Hellenic cities- since they had regard for their own interests only, both as to the safety of their own persons and as to the aggrandizement of their own families, in the administration of their cities made security, so far as they possibly could, their chief aim, and so no achievement worthy of mention was accomplished by them, except perchance by individuals in conflict with their own neighbors. So, on all sides Hellas was for a long time kept from carrying out in common any notable undertaking, and also its several states from being more enterprising”, Th. I xvii

Circumstances Circumstances are the conditions which lead to therefore induce something. In the following example the whole situation referred to led to the depiction of Zeus as a ram.

Ἡρακλέα θελῆσαι πάντως ἰδέσθαι τὸν Δία, καὶ τὸν οὐκ ἐθέλειν ὀφθῆναι ὑπ’ αὐτοῦ· τέλος δέ, ἐπείτε λιπαρέειν τὸν Ἡρακλέα, τὸν Δία μηχανήσασθαι τάδε· κριὸν ἐκδείραντα προσχέσθαι τε τὴν κεφαλὴν ἀποταμόντα τοῦ κριοῦ καὶ ἐνδύντα τὸ νάκος οὕτω οἱ ἑωυτὸν ἐπιδέξαι. ἀπὸ τούτου κριοπρόσωπον τοῦ Διὸς τὤγαλμα ποιεῦσι Αἰγύπτιοι, Ηροδ. ΙΙ 42

“Heracles would by all means look upon Zeus, and Zeus would not be seen by him. At last, being earnestly entreated by Heracles, Zeus contrived a device, whereby he showed himself displaying the head and wearing the fleece of a ram which he had flayed and beheaded. It is from this that the Egyptian images of Zeus have a ram’s head [that the Egyptians do that ]”, Hdt. Book II 42

32 Apo in Ancient Greek

Descent In this case apo is reported as to denote descent. Descent is a “link” between parent and off-spring. Therefore this semantic function of apo correlates with the meaning of the Sanskrit root ap- (“achieve”), which is also evidenced in the Greek words ἅπτω (“to join” , “to connect”), ἁφή (“touch”) and ἅψος (“joint”) 15 . Even in this case of descent, two points are observed: the parent (expressed with apo ) and the offspring.

χαῖρ’, ὦ Διὸς παῖ Περσέως τ’ ἀφ’ αἵματος , Ευρ. Άλκ. 509 “Ι wish you joy, son of Zeus and child of Perseus’ blood ”, E. Alc. 509

Complementary use of apo with ἔκ (“from”) is observed. Δημητράκος

(op. cit., entry apo ) states that apo expresses indirect (distant) origin, while έκ direct origin, something which is in line with Luraghi (2003: 125). However,

ἔκ and ἀπό are often used interchangeably as in the following example:

γίγνονται δ΄ ἄρα ταί γ΄ ἔκ τε κρηνέων ἀπό τ’ ἀλσέων, ἔκ θ’ ἱερῶν ποταμῶν, οἵ τ’ εἰς ἅλαδε προρέουσι, κ 350

“Children are they of the springs and groves , and of the sacred rivers that flow forth to the sea”, Hom. Od. 10, 350

Alteration In this case, apo expresses the initial point of transition from a state to a different state.

τὺ μὲν ἀθανάταν ἀπὸ θνατᾶς […] ἐποίησας Βερενίκαν, Θεοκ. 15. 106 “of thee annealed our queen that was born of woman is e’en immortal made”, Theoc. 15. 106

The above example is one of the very few cases reported by dictionaries as an instance of “alteration”. Here apo expresses a dynamic process, a transition, which is a metaphoric dislocation. This presupposes two points: an initial point (expressed by apo ) and an ending point, which lexicalizes the final form of

15 See section “ Apo in Sanskrit”

33 Apo in Ancient Greek

transformation. If the ending point is not explicitly referred to or implied in context then the process is invalid. It is not possible to say από αθάνατη (“from being immortal” ) with the rest of the utterance hanging in the air. This further substantiates the hypothesis that apo cannot function solely in discourse without the implication of another point.

Geographical Origin This semantic category was encompassed by Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. , entry apo ) in the domain of “cause”. On a first reading, geographic origin belongs in the domain of physical space. On a second reading, however, the relation between the place of origin and the person is a relation of cause in the sense that the person is formulated by the place of origin 16 .

Ἐν δὲ τούτῳ τῷ χρόνῳ, ἐν τῷ Μαρδόνιός τε τὴν στρατιὴν διέκρινε καὶ Ξέρξης ἦν περὶ Θεσσαλίην, χρηστήριον ἐληλύθεε ἐκ Δελφῶν Λακεδαιμονίοισι, Ξέρξην αἰτέειν δίκας τοῦ Λεωνίδεω φόνου καὶ τὸ διδόμενον ἐξ ἐκείνου δέκεσθαι. πέμπουσι δὴ κήρυκα τὴν ταχίστην Σπαρτιῆται, ὃς ἐπειδὴ κατέλαβε ἐοῦσαν ἔτι πᾶσαν τὴν στρατιὴν ἐν Θεσσαλίῃ, ἐλθὼν ἐς ὄψιν τὴν Ξέρξεω ἔλεγε τάδε. «Ὦ βασιλεῦ Μήδων, Λακεδαιμόνιοί τέ σε καὶ Ἡρακλεῖδαι οἱ ἀπὸ Σπάρτης αἰτέουσι φόνου δίκας, ὅτι σφέων τὸν βασιλέα ἀπέκτεινας ῥυόμενον τὴν Ἑλλάδα», ὃ δὲ γελάσας τε… Ηροδ. 8 114

“Now while Mardonius was making choice of his army and Xerxes was in Thessaly, there came an oracle from Delphi to the Lacedaemonians that they should demand justice of Xerxes for the slaying of Leonidas, and take what answer he should give them. The Spartans then sent a herald with all speed; who finding the army yet undivided in Thessaly, came into Xerxes’ presence and thus spoke: “The Lacedaemonians and the Heraclidae of Sparta demand of you, king of the Medes that you pay the penalty for the death of their king, whom you slew while he defended Hellas””. At that Xerxes laughed, Hdt. VIII 114

In the above example the characterization “of Sparta” is not used in a purely descriptive way (yes, it was a well established fact that the Heraclidae were from Sparta). It is employed in a causal way to stress the fact that they were very brave. Notice, also, the presence of the article ( οἱ the), which would confine the same example under the heading “ apo with an article”. This

16 See section Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

34 Apo in Ancient Greek

describes first the fuzziness of semantic boundaries and second further proves the hypothesis that this latter category might be redundant.

Origin of a Product In this case, apo selects an entity which expresses the origin of a product. Apo links two points: the original entity and the product.

ὅταν δὲ τεύχῃ Ζεὺς ἀπ’ ὄμφακος πικρᾶς οἶνον , τότ’ ἤδη ψῦχος ἐν δόμοις πέλει, ἀνδρὸς τελείου δῶμ’ ἐπιστρωφωμένου, Αισχ. Αγ. 970-972

“and when Zeus maketh wine from the bitter grape , then forthwith there is coolness in the house when its rightful lord ranges through his halls”, A., Ag. 970-972

The above example is another instance of derivation of a product where “grape” is the point of initiation and “wine” is the final point. As a metaphoric extension to this category comes the semantic category of a “brain child” imposed by lexicographers:

πὰρ δὲ (Ναυσικάᾳ) δύ’ ἀμφίπολοι, Χαρίτων ἄπo κάλλος ἔχουσαι , σταθμοῖιν ἑκάτερθε· θύραι δ’ ἐπέκειντο φαειναί, ζ 18

“by her (Nausicaa) slept two handmaids, gifted with beauty by the Graces, one on either side of the doorposts, and the bright doors were shut”, Od . 6 18

Kάλλος “beauty” is viewed as a “product” of the Graces. Notice the inversion of the preposition for metrical reasons. 17 . In this category, Liddell & Scott (op. cit. entry apo ) also encompass the case where apo refers to the chief or founder of a School . Δημητράκος ( op. cit. entry apo ) refers to this case as well and argues that apo expresses an intellectual domain.

Μάλα πολλοί- Περιπατητικοὶ καὶ Ἐπικούρειοι καὶ οἱ τὸν Πλάτωνα ἐπιγραφόμενοι, καὶ αὖ Διογένους ἄλλοι τινὲς καὶ Ἀντισθένους ζηλωταὶ καὶ οἱ ἀπὸ Πυθαγόρου καὶ ἔτι πλείους, Λουκ. Ερμ. 14

17 See section Syntactic functions of apo in Ancient Greek

35 Apo in Ancient Greek

“Very many -the Peripatetics, Epicureans, those who take Plato as their patron, others also, the devotees of Diogenes and Antisthenes, Pythagoreans [those originating from the School of Pythagoras”] , and more besides”, Luc. Herm. 14

Matter Matter constitutes the generative cause for the creation of an entity.

Interpreting Luraghi (2003: 124) Matter (in a generic sense e.g. “wood”) is a

“whole” part of which constitutes an entity (e.g. “table”). The matter out of which an object is made can explained through a metaphor: following Lakoff and Johnson (1980: 73-74) THE OBJECT COMES OUT OF A SUBSTANCE.

This metaphoric dislocation further supports the minimalistic model proposed in part II of the thesis.

Ἰνδοὶ δὲ εἵματα μὲν ἐνδεδυκότες ἀπὸ ξύλων πεποιημένα, τόξα δὲ καλάμινα εἶχον καὶ ὀιστοὺς καλαμίνους· ἐπὶ δὲ σίδηρος ἦν. ἐσταλμένοι μὲν δὴ ἦσαν οὕτω Ἰνδοί, προσετετάχατο δὲ συστρατευόμενοι Φαρναζάθρη τῷ Ἀρταβάτεω, Ηροδ. 7. 65

“The Indians wore garments of tree-wool , and carried bows of reed and iron- tipped arrows of the same. Such was their equipment; they were appointed to march under the command of Pharnazathres son of Artabates”, Hdt. VII 65

In this category (“matter”) Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ) encompass examples, as is the following one, where apo denotes the value of something. In my view, the point where the two categories intersect is the “value” of “matter”:

ΨΗΦΙΣΜΑ ΧΕΡΡΟΝΗΣΙΤΩΝ Χερρονησιτῶν οἱ κατοικοῦντες Σηστόν, Ἐλαιοῦντα, Μάδυτον, Ἀλωπεκὸννησον, στεφανοῦσιν Ἀθηναίων τὴν βουλὴν καὶ τὸν δῆμον χρυσῷ στεφάνῳ ἀπὸ ταλάντων ἑξήκοντα , Δημ. 256. 24

Decree of Chersonesites. The peoples of the Chersonesus inhabiting Sestus, Elaeus, Madytus, and Alopeconnesus, do crown the Council and People of Athens with a golden crown of sixty talents’ value , Decr. Ap. D. 18. 92

36 Apo in Ancient Greek

Note that the word “talent” derives from the Latin talentum meaning pound, talent, endowment, aptitude. An alternative interpretation of the above example could be one of partition: from the whole of talents sixty are referred to.

Life resources Under the heading "cause" (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. ) include the case where apo denotes life resources. Life resources constitute the “cause of life” as is evident in the following examples:

σπείρουσι δὲ οὐδέν, ἀλλ΄ ἀπὸ κτηνέων ζώουσι καὶ ἰχθύων · οἵ δὲ ἄφθονοί σφι ἐκ τοῦ Ἀράξεω ποταμοῦ παραγίνονται· γαλακτοπόται δ’ εἰσί. Θεῶν δὲ μοῦνον ἥλιον σέβονται, τῷ θύουσι ἵππους. νόος δὲ οὗτος τῆς θυσίης· τῶν θεῶν τῷ ταχίστῳ πάντων τῶν θνητῶν τὸ τάχιστον δατέονται, Ηροδ. Ι 216.

“They never sow; their fare is their live-stock [they live from their live stock ] and the fish which they have in abundance from the Araxes. Their drink is milk. The sun is the only god whom they worship; to him they sacrifice horses; the reason of it is that he is the swiftest of the gods and therefore they give hime the swiftest of mortal things”, Hdt. I. 216.

Liddell & Scott classify the following example in the category "instrument" maybe because money is viewed as the “instrument” for survival. In my view, this example is best accounted for in the category "resources of life".

ᾔδε Σωκράτην ἀπ’ ἐλαχίστων μὲν χρημάτων αὐταρκέστατα ζῶντα, τῶν ἡδονῶν δὲ πασῶν ἐγκρατέστατον ὄντα, τοῖς δὲ διαλεγομένοις αὐτῷ πᾶσι χρώμενον ἐν τοῖς λόγοις ὅπως βούλοιτο, Ξεν. Απομν . 1.2, 14

“They knew that Socrates was living on very little [living from little money] , and yet was wholly independent; that he was strictly moderate in all his pleasures; and that in argument he could do what he liked with any disputant”, X., Mem., I ii 14

Anaphora This is registered by lexicographers as a distinct semantic sub-category under the heading “cause”. However, no anaphoric function is evident in the examples cited, which would substantiate the use of the term “anaphoric”:

37 Apo in Ancient Greek

τίς δ’ ἂν […] πότε θῆλυν ἀπὸ χροιᾶς Κύκνον ἔγνω , Θεοκ. 16. 49 “Who would ever call Cycnus a woman from the texture of his complexion”, Theoc. 16.49

In my view, apo and its conjoined noun in the above example function causally: it is because of the feminine voice that Cycnus could be characterized as a woman.

οὕτω ὦν καὶ τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς νήσου τῆς ἐπὶ Λιβύῃ κειμένης οἰκότα ἐστὶ ἀληθείη , Ηροδ. 4. 195

“Τhus then the story coming from the island off the Libyan coast is like the truth”, Hdt. 4. 195

In the above example apo and its conjoined noun denote “geographic origin”: the news coming from the island (dislocation), which is therefore about the island.

Instrument Another semantic function of apo registered by lexicographers is the one of “Instrument”. “Instrument is the function which is assigned to an entity, most often inanimate, which is used by a controller to cause a certain

State of Affairs”, (Luraghi 1989: 295). In other words, it is “ manipulated” , ( ibid. p. 304). Animacy plays a prominent role for the definition of Instrument: “the occurrence of animate referents as Instruments is unexpected”, ( ibid. p. 296).

Body organs, however, “are typically Instruments”, ( ibid. p. 303). For the

expression of Instuments, the Channel metaphor is frequently employed,

(Luraghi 2000).

“Cause and Instrument […] have different characteristics, in as much

as in the function of Instrument one typically finds concrete nouns, whereas as

causes one finds […] abstract nouns, […] natural forces or […] States of

Affairs”, (Luraghi 1989: 296). This is evidenced by the fact that one can easily

name an Instrument, for example “knife”, but one cannot easily name a cause,

(ibid. ).

38 Apo in Ancient Greek

According to Luraghi again (2003: 123) “ apό phrase denotes an

Instrument rather than the ultimate cause of an event: the event has its origin somewhere else, in an entity, the Agent that precedes it”.

ἀπαντῶντες δὲ τοῖς ἐφιππεύουσιν ἐν τοῖς πολέμοις σαυνιάζουσι τοὺς ἐναντίους, καὶ καταβάντες τὴν ἀπὸ τοῦ ξίφους συνίστανται μάχην, Διοδ. 5 29

“and when they encounter cavalry in the fighting they 1st hurl their javelins at the enemy and then step down from their chariots and join the battle with [by] their swords ”, D. S. V 29

Kühner ( op. cit. p. 477) cites under this category the verbs: ὠφελείσθαι ἀπό τινός “benefit from a person or thing” , βλάπτεσθαι ἀπό τινός “be hurt by a person or thing”, διδάσκεσθαι ἀπό τινός “be taught from a person or thing, κερδαίνειν και λαμβάνειν ἀπό τινός “to earn and receive from a person or thing”. Perhaps because these verbs need an instrument in order to induce what they denote:

Ἡμᾶς δὲ καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ χωρίου δεῖ διδάσκεσθαι ὅτι οὐκ ἔστί σωτηρία, Ξεν. Κυρ. Αν . 6.5, 18

“As for ourselves, we ought to learn from the very ground before us that there is no safety for us”, Xen. An. 6.5, 18

Intermediary The difference between an “Instrument” and an “Intermediary” is that an Instrument refers to something mechanical whereas an “Intermediary” to an abstract notion. Αn “Intermediary” generally expresses cause because it functions as the point of initiation for the accomplishment of an action. Interpreting Luraghi (1989: 301) an Intermediary enables an inanimate entity [for example “voice”] to communicate a message to animate entities. It should be noted however that behind this apparently inanimate entity (“voice”) an animate entity can be traced and this is the difference between an Instrument and an Intermediary. For example, we cannot have “voice” without a person but we can have a “knife” by itself:

39 Apo in Ancient Greek

ἠπίσταντο γὰρ ὅτι τοῖς καλοῖς κἀγαθοῖς τῶν ἀνθρώπων οὐδὲν δεήσει πολλῶν γραμμάτων, ἀλλ΄ ἀπ’ ὀλίγων συνθημάτων ῥᾳδίως καὶ περὶ τῶν ἰδίων καὶ περὶ τῶν κοινῶν ὁμονοήσουσιν , Ισοκρ. Πανηγυρικός, 78

“for they understood that for good and true men there would be no need for many written laws, but that if they started with a few principles of agreement they would readily be of one mind as to both private and public affairs”, Isoc. Panegyricus, 78

In the above example the ἀπ’ ὀλίγων συνθημάτων (apparently inanimate entity) functions as the “Intermediary”, through which accordance (among animate entities) will be achieved.

Manner According to the lexicographers, apo and its conjoined noun express “manner” often amount to an adverb of manner. This semantic function of apo was encompassed under the heading of “cause” by Liddell & Scott (op. cit., entry apo ) for no clearly stated reasons.

ἣν οὐ δίκαιον, ἀλλ’ ἢ κἀκείνων κωλύειν τοὺς ἐκ τῆς ὑμετέρας μισθοφόρους ἢ καὶ ἡμῖν πέμπειν καθ’ ὅ τι ἂν πεισθῆτε ὠφελίαν, μάλιστα δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ προφανοῦς δεξαμένους βοηθεῖν, Θουκ. 1. 35

“but it is right that you should either prevent them from raising mercenaries in places under your control, or else send aid to us also, on whatever terms you may be induced to make; but it would be best of all for you to openly receive and help us”, Th. 1. XΧΧV

In the above example, the expression, ἀπὸ τοῦ προφανοῦς refers to an open point in space, from which help will come.

Εἰ δ’ ἐτεὸν δὴ τοῦτον ἀπὸ σπουδῆς ἀγορεύεις, Η 359 But if thou verily speakest this in earnest , Il . VII 359

In the above example, ἀπὸ σπουδῆς is the cause for the oratorical delivery.

40 Apo in Ancient Greek

ἦσαν δέ πως καὶ ἄλλως οἱ Ἀθηναῖοι οὐκέτι ὁμοίως ἐν ἡδονῇ ἄρχοντες, καὶ οὔτε ξυνεστράτευον ἀπὸ τοῦ ἴσου ῥᾴδιόν τε προσάγεσθαι ἦν αὐτοῖς τοὺς ἀφισταμένους· ὧν αὐτοὶ αἴτιοι ἐγένοντο οἱ ξύμμαχοι, Θουκ. 1.99, 2

“And in some other respects, too, the Athenians were no longer equally agreeable as leaders; they would not take part in expeditions on terms of equality [on an equal basis] , and they found it easy to reduce those who revolted”, Th. I XCIX 2

Here, the Athenians did not have as a point of initiation of their actions equality.

ὅτι δὲ αὐτὴν (=ἀρετήν) οὐ φύσει ἡγοῦνται εἶναι οὐδ’ ἀπὸ τοῦ αὐτομάτου, ἀλλὰ διδακτόν τε καὶ ἐξ ἐπιμελείας παραγίγνεσθαι ᾧ ἂν παραγίγνηται, τοῦτό σοι μετὰ τοῦτο πειράσομαι ἀποδεῖξαι, Πλατ. Πρωτ. 323 C

“and next, that they do not regard it [virtue] as natural or spontaneous , but as something taught and acquired after careful preparation by those who acquire it, of this I will now endeavor to convince you”, Pl. Prt . 323 C

Here, the point of initiation (or cause) of virtue is not nature, therefore virtue needs to be taught (acquired).

With pronouns 1. ἀπό +οὗ (genitive of the masculine pronoun ὅς)> ἀφ’οὗ18 . E.g.: ἀφ’ οὗ χρόνου “since the time”

2. ἀπό+οὗπερ (genitive of the singular, masculine relative pronoun ὅσπερ ). E. g.: ἀφ’οὗπερ (χρόνου) “since the time when”

3. ἀπό+ἕθεν (=οὗ) (old type genitive of the masculine, singular relative pronoun ὅς). E.g.: ἄπωθε(ν). This is an old Attic and Mykenaen type, frequently occurred in writers of tragedies, for reasons of meter, as pointed out by Chantraine, ( op. cit., entry apo ). Later, it became ἄποθεν. These forms ἄπωθε(ν) or ἄποθεν function as a preposition + genitive, meaning “far from somebody (person /thing)”. E.g.: (a) ἄποθεν τοῦ τείχους, Αισχιν. 14. 12 “ far from these walls”, Aeschin. 14. 12, (b) νεώς ἄπωθεν “far from the boat”. In addition, the form ἄπωθεν may function as a noun, when preceded by an

18 This is where the Modern Greek conjunction αφού (“since” or “after”) derives from (see section Onset in Ancient Greek ).

41 Apo in Ancient Greek

article. E.g.: οἱ ἄπωθεν Αριστ. Ρητ. Α 11. 1371 α 12 “those from far away”, Arist. Rh . A11. 1371a12. In this example, we have as varia lectio the form ἄποθεν . These forms (ἄπωθε(ν) or ἄποθεν may also function as adjectival modifiers. E.g.: οἱ ἄπωθεν σύμμαχοι, Αριστ. Πολ . Γ 9, 1280 β 9 “the allies from far away”, “the distant allies” Arist. Pol. III IX, 1280 b 9 (varia lectio: ἄποθεν ). The form ἄπωθεν has as comparative the forms ἀπωτέρω, ἀπωτάτω, analogically to πόρρω, (Chantraine, op. cit. entry apo) . According to Etymologisches Wörterbuch des Griechischen (Hofmann, 1950 , entry apo) ἀπωτέρω means πορρωτέρω “in greater distance from something”. Chantraine ( op. cit., entry apo ) also reports the form ἄπυθεν. The comparative forms ἀπωτέρω, ἀπωτάτω are also reported by Kühner & Blass (1892: 305).

With Adverbs As aforementioned apo may combine with adverbs, e.g.:

(a) ἀπεντεῦθεν. It derives from ἀπό+ἐντεῦθεν and means “from here”. E.g.: Ὃτι Αὖλος Ποστόμιος ἄξιος γέγονεν ἐπισημασίας ἀπεντεῦθεν , Πολυβ. 39. 1. 1 “Aulus Postumius was a man deserving of mention [praise] for this reason ”, Plb. 39. Ι. 1. (b) ἀπεκεῖθεν.It derives from ἀπό +ἐκεῖθεν. It means “from there”. An alternative form is ἀπεκεῖσε . See also, Byzantine ἀπέκει (cf. Kühner, op. cit. p. 567). (c) ἀποκάτωθεν. It derives from ἀπό +κάτωθεν. It means “from beneath”. See also, ἀποκάτω (Κühner, op. cit. p. 567).

With other prepositions Apo may combine with another preposition. This following Kühner (op. cit. p. 553-555) is a common phenomenon and the derived preposition combines both meanings. E.g.: ἀπό +ἐκ > ἀπ’ ἐκ> ἀπέκ “outside”, “out of”, “far away”, as in:

ὁ γὰρ ἧσι περὶ φρεσὶ γύθεε θυμῷ. τοὺς δὲ μέγ’ ἀσθμαίνοντας ἀφὰρ θεράποντες ἔλυσαν ζεύγλης· οἱ δὲ καὶ αὐτοὶ ἀελλόποδας λύον ἵππους πάντες, ὅσοις ἐν ἀγῶνι δρόμου πέρι δῆρις ἐτύχθη. ἀντίθεον δὲ Θόαντα καὶ Εὐρύπυλον μενεχάρμην ἠκέστ’ ἐσσυμένως Ποδαλείριος ἕλκεα πάντα, ὅσσα περιδρύφθησαν ἀπὲκ δίφροιο πεσόντες, Κοϊν. Σμ. 4, 534-540

42 Apo in Ancient Greek

“And filled with joy was Menelaus’ soul. Straightway his henchmen from the yoke-band loosed The panting team, and all those chariot-lords, Who in the race had striven, now unyoked Their tempest-footed steeds, Podaleirius then Hasted to spread salves over all the wounds Of Thoas and Eurypylus, gashes scored Upon their frames when from the cars they fell”, Q. S. 4, 534-540

In the above example the Ancient Greek compound ἀπὲκ bears the meanings of its constituent parts . As noted in the sub-section Distancing of Meanings in Ancient Greek, ἐκ means withdrawal from the internal part of something. In our example, the coach is viewed as a container [from] out of which people fell out. This new compound form ἀπὲκ may in its turn combine with verbs: (a)ἀπό+ἐκ+πέμπω>ἀπεκπέμπω “dismiss”, “send away” (b) ἀπό + ἐκ + λανθάνομαι > ἀπεκλανθάνομαι “take something completely out of my memory”. E.g.:

«ὦ γὲρον, ἵζ’ ἐπὶ δεῖπνον, ἀπεκλελάθεσθε δὲ θάμβευς· δηρὸν γὰρ σίτῳ ἐπιχειρήσειν μεμαῶτες μίμνομεν ἐν μεγάροις, ὑμέας ποτιδέγμενοι αἰεί », ω 395

“Old man, sit down to dinner, and the rest of you wholly forget your wonder, for long have we waited in the halls, though eager set hands to the food, continually expecting your coming”, Od . 24 395

Apart from ἐκ apo may also combine with πρό : ἀποπρό <ἀπό +πρό “from the frontal part”. E.g.:

ἀτὰρ κατακήομεν αὐτούς τυτθὸν ἀπο πρὸ νεῶν, ὥς κ΄ ὀστέα παισὶν ἕκαστος οἴκαδ’ ἄγῃ, Η 333

“and we will burn them a little way from the ships [ a little further from the frontal part of the ships] that each man may bear their bones home to their children”, Il. VII, 333

εἰ δ’ ἄγε νῦν, φίλε Φοῖβε, κελαινεφὲς αἷμα κάθηρον ἐλθὼν ἐκ βελέων Σαρπηδόνα, καί μιν ἔπειτα πολλὸν ἀποπρὸ φέρων λοῦσον ποταμοῖο ῥοῇσι , Π 669

43 Apo in Ancient Greek

“Up now, dear Phoebus, go cleanse from Sarpedon the dark blood, when thou hast taken him forth from out the range of darts, and thereafter bear thou him far away, and bathe him in the streams of the river”, Il. XVI 669.

With final -s Finally, apo combines with final –s. Simultaneous omission of the final (o) of apo gives rise to the form ἄψ in analogy to the forms ἀμφί+ς>ἀμφίς and Latin abs (Hofmann , op. cit., entry apo ).

Derivatives The preposition apo also has derivative words, like the adjective ἄπιος , ἀπίη, ἄπιον “distant”. This is analogical to ἀντίος, ἀντία, ἀντίον “the one opposing” , (Chantraine, op. cit., entry apo ; Hofmann, op. cit., entry apo ). E.g’s:

καὶ μὲν τοῖσιν ἐγὼ μεθομίλεον ἐκ Πύλου ἐλθών, τηλόθεν ἐξ ἀπίης γαίης · καλέσαντο γὰρ αὐτοί, Α 270

“With these men I had fellowship, when I had come from Pylos, from afar from a distant land ; for of themselves they called me”, Il. I 270

μιχθεὶς ἀλλοδαποῖσι γυναῖκ’ εὐειδέ’ ἀνῆγες ἐξ ἀπίης γαίης , νυὸν ἀνδρῶν αἰχμητάων, Γ 48

“coming to an alien folk didst bring back a comely woman from a distant land , even a daughter of warriors who wield the spear”, Il . III 48

In the two above examples, the substitution of ek with apo (as a preposition) is remarkable , since apo occurs in the form of the adjective ἀπίης and the land is conceived as container. In this section, we examined apo in Ancient Greek. We saw its forms in various dialects: the Aeolian, the Arcadic-Cyprian, the Ionic and Attic and the Doric. Then we examined the syntactic functions of apo in Ancient Greek. Apo functioned as a preposition, an adverb and selected primarily genitive. Then we saw the meanings attributed to apo by lexicographers. It is important to notice that apo has been treated as an instance of polysemy. More than 36 meanings were attributed to it by lexicographers. We proceed to examine apo in Byzantine Greek.

44

Apo in Medieval Greek 19 (330 A. D. - 1669 A. D.)

19 The boundaries of the Byzantine period in the history of language are hard to define and are a matter of dispute. In this thesis we took as a beginning the date of transfer of the capital of the Roman Empire from Rome to Constantinople and as an end the year of the Turkish occupation of Crete from the Venetians. It should be noted that Κριαράς in his dictionary Λεξικό της Μεσαιωνικής Ελληνικής Δημώδους Γραμματείας , where we were mostly based, focuses his study on the period between 1100- 1669 A. D., when the most important works of the Byzantine period appeared.

45

Ἀπ’ ὅ, τι κάλλ’ ἔχει ἄθρωπος τά λόγια ἔχουν τή χάρη Νά κάμουσι κάθε καρδιά παρηγοριά νά πάρη Βιτσέντζος Κορνάρος, Ερωτόκριτος, A 927-928 (17 ος αι. μ. Χ.)

“Of all the gracious things upon this earth It is fair words that have the greatest worth”, Kornaros, V. (1984). Erotocritos. (Th. Stephanides, Trans.)

46 Apo in Medieval Greek

4. Apo in Medieval Greek

4.1. Introduction

When in the fourth century A. D. the capital of the Roman Empire was transferred from Rome to Constantinople (the Νew Rome), Latin continued to be the formal language of the state. In all the eastern part of the empire, however, the language of the people, as well as the language of the church and education was Greek. The Roman emperors, realizing that Greek was the predominant language, established it as the formal language of the state. The cultural center had now moved from Athens to Constantinople and secondarily to Alexandria. Bilingualism began to be institutionalized. Οn the one hand, η γραπτή κοινή (ο αττικίζων γραπτός λόγος) (“the Atticizing language”), very close to Ancient Greek. It was the language of the Holy Fathers of Church (since the 4 th century onwards), of the Historian Προκόπιος 20 o Καισαρεύς (Prokopius of Caesaria), of Άννα Κομνηνή 21 (Anna Komnene) and others. Οn the other hand η προφορική/πολίτικη κοινή or δημώδης (the vernacular language). This bilingualism survived up until the 20 th century and led to the γλωσσικό ζήτημα (“the question of language”), Ανδριώτης (1992: 73-92). In examining apo in Medieval (Byzantine) Greek this linguistic complexity had to be taken in consideration. Therefore, forms and meanings of apo will be referred to in both formal and vernacular language. Information for apo in this language was mainly drawn from Λεξικό της Μεσαιωνικής Ελληνικής Δημώδους Γραμματείας (Κριαράς, 1973 to today), as well as from Επιτομή του Λεξικού της Μεσαιωνικής Ελληνικής Δημώδους Γραμματείας (Καζάζης & Καραναστάσης, 2001). Citations were taken from the texts: Απόκοπος (Μπεργαδής, 2005, P. Vejleskov, Ed.) Βέλθανδρος και Χρυσάντσα (Ανωνύμου, x.x. A. Παπαγεωργίου, Ε. Παπαγεωργίου, Επιμ.), Ερωφίλη (Χορτάτσης, 1961), Ερωφίλη (Χορτάτσης, 1988), Διγενής Ακρίτας (Ανωνύμου, 1985, Σ. Αλεξίου, Επιμ.). Ερωτόκριτος

20 (c. 500-565 A. D.) He was the major historian of the 6 th century writing the Wars of Justinian, the Buildings of Justinian and the celebrated Secret History. He is commonly held to be the last major historian of the ancient world. 21 (c. 1080-1143 A. D.) A Byzantine princess and scholar, daughter of the Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. She wrote the Alexias, making herself one of the first female historians.

47 Apo in Medieval Greek

(Κορνάρος, 1985), Η Θυσία του Αβραάμ (Ανωνύμου, 1996, W. F. Bakker, A. F. Gemert, Eds.) Τα Κατά Λίβιστρον και Ροδάμνη (Ανωνύμου, 1991, Ν. Μουζάκη, Επιμ.), Κρητικός Πόλεμος (Μπουνιαλής, 1995, Σ. Αλεξίου, Μ. Αποσκίτη, Επιμ.), Ζωής Μάταιον και προς Θεόν Επιστροφή, (Ανωνύμου, 1970, Θ. Ζώρα, Επιμ.), Πτωχοπροδρομικά (Πρόδρομος, 1968, D. C. Hesseling, H. Pernot, Eds.), Στίχοι του Γραμματικού κυρού Θόδωρου του Πτωχοπρόδρομου (Πρόδρομος, 1968, D. C. Hesseling, H. Pernot, Eds.), Το Ρεμπελιό των Ποπολάρων (Σουμάκης, 1983, Κ. Πορφύρη, Επιμ.), Σπανέας (Ανωνύμου, 1993, Γ. Αναγνωστοπούλου, Επιμ.), Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως (Ανωνύμου, x.x., Ρ. Η. Αποστολίδη, Π. Π. Καλονάρου, Επιμ.). The rest of citations were directly quoted from Κριαράς (op. cit.). The following translations of the works were referred to: Apokopos (Bergadis, 2005, M. Alexiou, Trans.), Crusaders as Conquerors: The Chronicle of Morea (1968, H. E. Lurdier, Trans., Ed.), Digenis Akritis (1998, E. Jeffreys, Trans.), Digenes Akrites (1956, J. Mavrokordatos, Trans.), Eroph íle (Hort átzis, F. H. Marshall, Trans.), Erotocritos (Kornaros, 1984, Th. Stephanides, Trans.). For the rest, translation was provided by me. When a translated work is referred to, it is an often observed fact that there is no direct correspondence between the numbers of lines in the Greek and the English text, despite the fact they refer to the same extract.

4.2. Forms

Apo in Byzantine language takes the following forms when it functions as a preposition:

Ἀπό
Ἀπ΄ before a vowel or the consonant (τ)
Ἀφ΄ 22 As well as the following forms in dialects:

΄πο
΄π΄

22 Following Βογιατζίδης (1918: 2) this form appeared in the 15 th century in precedence of an article.

48 Apo in Medieval Greek

Ἀπέ, ΄πε
Ἀπού
΄που
Ἀποτά

The forms ἀπό, ἀφ΄, ἀπ’, survive from Ancient Greek from the Ionic, the Attic and the Aeolian dialects 23 . Notice the form απαί of the Ionic and Attic dialects 24 becomes απέ in Byzantine Greek. The Ancient Greek form απύ of the Aeolian dialect 25 and the form άπυ in the Arcadic Cyprian dialect 26 became απού. The forms ΄που and ΄π΄ survive in Modern Greek in the dialect of the Greeks from Ανατολική Ρωμυλία (Eastern Rumelia) due to its geographic proximity to Constantinople 27 . The form ΄πο survives in Modern Greek, as well.

Αs an adverb it has the forms:

Ἀπό
Ἀπέ

Notice that in Ancient Greek, when apo functioned as an adverb (as the result of the phenomenon of tmesis ) it had only the form ἄπο.

4.3. Syntactic Function

Apo in Byzantine language, when functioning as a preposition, conjoins primarily with:

accusative and secondarily with:

genitive

23 See sections Forms in Ionic and Attic dialects and Forms in Aeolian Dialects 24 See section Forms in Ionic and Attic dialects 25 See section Forms in Aeolian dialects 26 See section Forms in Arcadic-Cyprian dialects 27 See section Forms in Modern Greek

49 Apo in Medieval Greek

Notice the shift in the employment of cases. In Ancient Greek the cases apo conjoined with: γενική (genitive), δοτική (dative), οργανική (Instrumental). In Byzantive Greek the role of genitive is secondary and accusative comes into foreground, a shift which is also mentioned in Valtcheva (2001: 334). This will eventually lead to the total elision of genitive in Modern Greek (apart from fossilized cases).

4.4. Meanings

As already noted, Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. entry apo ) sub-categorize the meanings of apo under three major conceptual headings: place, time, cause. Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ), on the other hand, does not sub-categorize the meanings of apo under these conceptual categories. Due to the importance of this classification and the similarity of meanings the same major conceptual categories will be posed here.

Place Under this heading notions that denote place either literally or metaphorically are encompassed.

Distancing Distancing refers to detachment from a place, a person, an inanimate entity or an action. In this case, apo co-occurs with the adverbs έξω, μακρά (“away from”) , παρέξω (“out of”) , πέρα (“further”). It should be noted that in Ancient Greek, the semantic function of “distancing” did not include in its scope the abstract notion of an action but referred to concrete entities (place or person).

Σηκώσου ἀπού τά πόδια μου , τίβοτας μή φοβᾶσαι, φίλος μου κι ὄχι σκλάβος μου πάντα μου θέλω νά ’σαι, Γεώργιος Χορτάτσης, Ερωφίλη, Ιντερμέδιο Δ’, στ. 109-110

“So raise thy body from my feet, cast aside every fear. I will that thou henceforth as a friend, and not as a foe appear”, Hort átzis, Eroph íle , Fourth Interlude, lines 109-110.

50 Apo in Medieval Greek

Notice in the above example the form ἀπού , instead of apo. In this example, distancing from a person through synecdoche, as legs are part of a person.

Νά τόν διώξουν ἀπέ τό Ρηγάτον , Ασσίζες 28 228 6 “To be sent away from the palace”

Notice in the above example, the form απέ instead of apo. Distancing from a place is evident.

Ἀπό πορνείαν φεύγε, ὦ ὑιέ, ὥσπερ ἀπό φαρμάκι , Αγνώστου, Σπανέας 29 Ο 53 “Keep away from prostitution as from poison”

In the above example, metaphoric distancing from an action (prostitution) and from an entity are evident. Notice the employment of accusative case πορνείαν.

Distance Τhe following example was cited under the heading “distance”, (Κριαράς op. cit ., entry apo ), which implies indefinite distance. However, definite distance is expressed.

Καί πῆρεν ὁ Φιλοπαππούς τά δύο παλληκάρια καί ἐκεῖθεν ἐπηγαίνασιν ὅθεν καί ὅπου ἦλθαν · καί τότε ἀπεξέβηκαν ὡς ἀπό μίλιν ἕνα κι οἱ τρεῖς ἀπομαζώχθησαν καί εἰς ἕναν τόπον στέκουν, Ανωνύμου, Διγενής Ακρίτας 30 1316

“And Philopappous took the two brave youths and they went back where they had come from. And then they went about a mile away, and the three huddled together and stood in one place”, Anonymous, Digenis Akritis, line 1314-1317 (Trans. E. Jeffreys)

Notice that, in the above example, there is pleonastic co-occurrence of apo .

28 It consists of the Greek version of the collection of laws of Cyprus and Jerusalem (14 th century). 29 Work of the 12 th century, a father teaches his son (a young Prince) how to behave in society. 30 It is the oldest text of Byzantine Vernacular Language

51 Apo in Medieval Greek

Partition In this case apo conjoins with a noun that denotes the whole from which a part is dislocated.

Πολύν φουσσάτο σύντριψαν οἱ Τοῦρκοι ἀπέ τούς Ούγγρους , Ζωτικός Παρασπόνδυλος 31 , Βάρνα C 423 “Much army did the Turcs destroy of the Hungarians”

Φουσσάτο is an army unit. The Turks devastated this unit from the whole army of the Hungarians.

Δέν δίδει τίποτες ἀπέ τό ἐδικόν του , Ασσίζες, 282 27 “He never gives away anything from his possessives”

Again, reference is made to a portion from a person’s belongings.

Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) poses another semantic category that of επιμερισμός (“apportionment”) which in my opinion is encompassed in the general category “partition”.

Μοιράζουσιν καί ἄλευρον ἀπό μισόν ποτήρι , Παΐσιου, Ιστορία του αγίου όρους Σινά 1307. “They distribute flour too, from half a glass each”.

In the above example, in the process of distribution, a portion of half a glass of flour is removed each time from the total quantity of flour.

Ὅλοι ἀπό μίαν γνώμην ἦσαν, Σοφιανός Παιδαγωγός 32 92 “They all were of one opinion”

Metaphorically, they all formed part of the same opinion.

Ἦσαν ὅλοι ἀπόκοτοι καί ἀπό καλήν καρδίαν , Ανωνύμου, Πόλεμος Τρωάδος 33 518

31 Παρασπόνδυλος (family name) Ζωτικός (Christian name) was a monk (15 th century) and wrote this poem which concerned the battle of Βάρνα (1444 A. D.). 32 It is the translation into vernacular Greek of the work of Ψευδοπλούταρχος Περί παίδων αγωγής (printed in 1544). 33 Written in the 13 th / 14 th century A. D., it is about 11. 000 verses.

52 Apo in Medieval Greek

“They were all a little mad and with a good heart”

In this example, as well, all shared the same “good heart”.

Transit In this case, apo denotes again the point of initiation, which, however, is the intermediary point in a course.

Ὅρισε γάρ τά πλευτικά νά ὑπάγουν τῆς θαλάσσου, κ’ ἡμεῖς ἄς ὑπαγαίνωμεν ὅλοι ἀπό τῆς στερέας , Ανωνύμου, Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως 34 , 1599

“So order the ships to go by sea and let us all go by land, The Chronicle of Morea, 1599

In the above example, the course begins at a point out of terra firma. The ending point of the course is beyond terra firma. The travelers pass from a third point in terra firma. This third, intermediary point, functions as a new point of initiation for the continuation of the course. Apo refers to both points of initiation: to the initial (out of terra firma) and the intermediary (in terra firma), which functions as a new point of initiation from another point of view.

Τά ἔστελναν […] εἰς τήν Κωνσταντινούπολιν ἀπό θαλάσσης, Ανωνύμου, Διήγησις περί της Αγίας Σοφίας, 148 11 “They sent them to Constantinople by the sea”

Alternatively, this apo functions as a point of reference to the implied adverb ανάμεσα “between”. The true point of initiation of the course is gapped. The example could be quoted in Modern Greek: τά ἔστειλαν ἀπό ἀνάμεσα ἀπό τή θάλασσα “they sent them by a point in the sea” where the first apo would refer to the real point of initiation (“from”), which would be placed either in or before the sea and the second apo would act as the point of reference for the implied adverb ἀνάμεσα “between” and would be quoted as “by” (the sea).

34 It is a 14 th century text, which narrates the events of the establishment of feudalism in Mainland Greece (the area of Peloponnesus) by West Crusaders.

53 Apo in Medieval Greek

Privation Deprivation presupposes distancing from something positive.

[…] ἐνώπιον τοῦ Κυρίου μου, πολλά μέ ἐφάνη βαρετόν ἡ κρίσις ὅπου ἐδόθη, καί ‘κληρήθη ἡ ἀρχόντισσα ἡ ντάμα Μαργαρίτα ἀπό τό κάστρον κι ἀφεντίαν, τήν περιοχήν Ἀκόβης Ανωνύμου, Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως 7621-7625

“in the presence of my Lord, it seems grievous to me, this judgment that was handed down, and that the archontess, the lady Marguerite has been disinherited of the castle and domain and the environs of Akova”, The Chronicle of Morea, lines 7621-7625

Notice that the castle and the power are advantages for the person owing them therefore their taking away is an act of deprivation.

Οἱ Τοῦρκοι ὡσάν εἴδασι κ’ ἤτονε νικημένοι κι ἀπού τά τείχη ἔρημοι , Τζάνες 35 , Κρητικός πόλεμος, 287 14

“When the Turcs saw that they were beaten and deprived of their castle”

In the above example, the Turks are deprived of the castle (a symbol of power and medium of protection) in an act of defeat.

Deliverance Deliverance presupposes distancing from something negative and has a sense of redemption.

Εἰς εἶντα μόδον νά γλιτώσουν ἀπέ τούτην (τήν) ταραχήν , Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς 36 , Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου , 10 20 “In which way could they be saved from this tumult”

Νotice the presence of a Latin loan, μόδον>modus (“mode”), as was noted in the introduction. In the above example, people break free from turmoil and war.

35 Βεντράμος Τζάνες: writer of the 16 th century A. D. He wrote Ιστορία των γυναικών των καλών και των κακών (“History of Women Good and Bad”) and Ιστορία φιλαργυρίας μετά της περηφάνιας (“History of Miserliness and Pride”). 36 Writer of the 14 th -15 th century.

54 Apo in Medieval Greek

Κ’ εἶσαι ‘π’ τήν περηφάνεση μακρά τοῦ κόσμου κείνη, τή σκοτεινή, πού δέ γεννᾱ λάβρα οὐδέ φῶς χαρίζει, Γεώργιος Χορτάτσης, Ερωφίλη , Αφιέρωσις, στ. 49-50

“And of the haughtiness of men in thee no trace I’ ve found- That haughtiness in darkness set, which gives no warmth nor light” Hort átzis, Eroph íle , Dedication, lines 49-50

The meaning is “be delivered from the pride of the world”.

Xάρε, […] ἀπού τά τόσα πάθη , λύτρωσέ με, Ανωνύμου, Κυπριακά Ερωτικά Ποιήματα, 57 8 “Death, deliver me from all my sufferings”

Notice the presence of a verb of deliverance: λυτρώνω “deliver from”.

Calculation In this case, apo functions as the point of initiation in a calculation.

Ἀπέ ἕνα μάρκον ἀσήμι καί ἄνων, Ασσίζες 423 4 “Over a pound of silver”

In the above example, apo functions as the point of initiation for the calculation of matter. Μάρκον is a unit for the calculation of weight. This example was sub-categorized under place because matter occupies space.

Boundaries In this case, apo denotes the initial limit of a category and co-occurs with the prepositions like έως, μέχρι that signal the last limit.

Ὅτι τό διάστημα ὅπου ἔνι ἀπό τό Νίκλι, μέχρι τήν Λακεδαιμονία, ἔνι δασώδης τόπος, Ανωνύμου, Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως , 6687

“that the stretch of land from Nikli to Lakedaemonia was a wooded area”, The Chronicle of Morea, line 6687

In this case we have an instance of geographical boundaries.

55 Apo in Medieval Greek

Τά κάγκελα ἐξηλώθησαν ἀπ’ ἄκρας ἕως ἄκραν , Πρόδρομος Θεόδωρος (Πτωχοπρόδρομος), Πτωχοπροδρομικά 37 , Ι 82 “The rail was destroyed from one edge to the other”

The above expression survived in vernacular Modern Greek ( ἀπ’ ἄκρη σ’ ἄκρη “from one edge to the other”, where apo conjoins with accusative) as well as in καθαρεύουσα (official Modern Greek) where it took the form: ἀπ’ ἄκρου εἰς ἄκρον “from one edge to the other” where apo conjoins with genitive similar to Byzantine Greek. In this semantic category Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) encompasses the expressions ἀποκάτω ἀπό τόν πάτον “from down the bottom (lit.), completely (fig.)” with verbs like κατεδαφίζω “demolish”, ἀφανίζω “devastate”, which signals the point of initiation of the act. The final point is implied with the end of the building.

Κατηδάφισαν […] καί τό τοῦ Ἁγίου Δημητρίου μοναστήριον ἀπό τά θεμέλια , Ανωνύμου, Ηπειρωτικά , 251 16 “They demolished the Monastery of St Demetrius from the foundation”

Τήν χώραν τήν ἀφάνισεν ΄που κάτω ΄που τόν πάτο, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου 70 1 “He devastated the country from the basis”

He (ibid. ) also cites the expression απού γής “from the earth i.e. from the foundations” but with verbs like ποιώ “make” , χτίζω “build”, i.e. with verbs that have the opposite meaning from the verbs above.

Ὅρισε καί ἐποίκαν ἐκκλησίαν ἀπού γῆς, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 38 26 “He ordered and they made a church from the foundations”

Dependence In this category, dependence is defined in locative terms and apo denotes the point of initiation of a movement, which is the point of dependence.

37 Satyrical poem of the 12 th century, whereby the poet describes the miserly condition of intellectuals and asks the Emperor Ioannis Komnenos financial aid.

56 Apo in Medieval Greek

Ἀπέ τό χέριν τόν κρατεῖ, Ανωνύμου, Φλώριος και Πλάτζια Φλώρα 38 , 1454 “He holds him by the hand”

In the above example, the point of dependence is the hand. From there an action of holding begins.

Βοηθᾶτε μου νά σηκωθῶ· κράτει με ἀπού τό νῶμο , [Βιντσέντζος Κορνάρος], Η Θυσία του Αβραάμ 39 , 1079 “Help me to stand up, hold me by the shoulder”

In the above example, a sense of dependence is evident.

Comparison In Ancient Greek comparison was not expressed with the presence of apo but only with the genitive case of a nominal as is obvious in the following example:

μητρός τε καὶ πατρὸς καὶ τῶν ἄλλων προγόνων ἁπάντων τιμιώτερόν ἐστί ἡ πατρὶς καὶ σεμνότερον καὶ ἁγιώτερον καὶ ἐν μείζονι μοίρᾳ καὶ παρὰ θεοῖς καὶ παρ’ ἀνθρώποις τοῖς νοῦν ἔχουσι, Πλάτωνος, Κρίτων 51α

“Your country is more precious and more to be revered and is holier an in higher esteem among the gods and among men of understanding than your mother and your father and al your ancestors”. Pl. Cr. 12 B In the above example of Ancient Greek notice the absence of apo. In Byzantine Greek the presence of apo conjoined with a noun in genitive is obvious:

Σοφώτερη καμιά δέ βρίσκεται ἀπ’ ἐκείνης , Αντωνίου Μπουπούλη , Θρήνος της περιφήου πόλεως Αθήνης δια τον θάνατον Μιχαήλ Λίπονα 40 68 “There is no-one wiser than her”

The following example is closer to Modern Greek as apo conjoins with a noun in accusative:

38 Fiction in verse of the 14 th century. 39 Written in 1635. Nowadays it is attributed to Kornaros 40 Written in 1681

57 Apo in Medieval Greek

Τούς Ἀλαμάνους εἴχασιν κάλλιον ἀπέ τούς Φράγκους , Ανωνύμου, Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως, 6808 “they preferred the Germans to the Franks”, The Chronicle of Morea, 6808

Similarly, in the following example, apo conjoins with an accusative and refers to point of initiation for the process of comparison.

Καί θέλει τόν καλύτερον ἀπού τσί δυό νά γνώσει, Γεωργίου Χορτάτση, Ερωφίλη, Πράξις 2 η , στ. 254

“And he would know which of the two is fitter for this state” Hort átzis, Eroph íle , Act Two, line 254

Content Apo with genitive in this era is the continuation of γενική περιεχομένου (genitive of content) of Ancient Greek. In Modern Greek apo conjoins with accusative to denote content.

τό ἕνα της χέρι νά κρατῆ κλαδίν ἀπό μυρσίνην, καί τό ἄλλον της εὐάσταζεν χαρτίν ἀπό γραμμάτων, Ανωνύμου, Λίβιστρος και Ροδάμνη 41 , Ν 838

“In her one hand she holds a branch of mersina [kind of plant] and in her other hand she helds a written paper”

The example could be metaphorically quoted as “a paper full of letters”.

Time Apart from place apo functions in the domain of time.

Onset Ἀπού τήν πρώτ ΄ ἀργατινή πού ΄παιξε τό λαγοῦτο, ἐλόγιασά το κ’ εἶπα το: γιά μέναν ἦτο τοῦτο, Βιντσέντζος Κορνάρος, Ερωτόκριτος Μέρος Πρώτο, στ. 877-878

“From the first night I heard him ministrely I knew that every stave was sung for me”, Kornaros, Erotocritos, lines 877-878

41 Fiction in verse (ca. 14 th century), preserved in the manuscripts of Escorial, Naples, Paris.

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It is evident that in the above example apo conjoins with a temporal point and denotes initiation. Αργατινή means “late at night”. It derives from the adverb αργά “late” and the ending –τινός in analogy to πάντα “always” from which the adjective παντοτινός “who lasts for ever”.

Ἀπέ κείνην τήν ἡμέραν εὑρίσκουνταν καβαλλάρηδες εἰς τήν Κύπρον, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 558 15 “From that day onward the horse-riders were on Cyprus”

That day functions as a point of initiation for the existence of horse riders on Cyprus.

Boundaries This function of apo is evident both in the space and in the time domain.

καί μίαν ἡμέρα κάλεσμα ἤκαμε στό παλάτι, ξεφάντωσ’ ἀπού τό ταχύ ὡς τό βραδύν ἐκράτει, Βιτσέντζος Κορνάρος, Ερωτόκριτος , Μέρος Πρώτο, στ. 472

“Then King then made a pronouncement in his Hall That on the morrow [from morning to night] he would give a ball”, Kornaros, Erotocritos, line 471-472

It is evident that in the above example apo sets the time of initiation of an activity. Notice the shift in meaning of the word ταχύ . In Byzantine Greek it meant “morning”, whereas in Modern Greek it functions as an adjective and means “quick”.

Posterior Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo), misguided by the fact that temporal apo quotes as μετά “after” in Modern Greek, posed the semantic category of “posterior”.

Ἀπό θανάτου τοῦ ρέ Πιέρ ἀρμάσθη μέ τόν ὑιόν τοῦ πρίντζη , Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 578 22

“Following King Pier’s death she got engaged with the son of the prince”, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 578 22

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The above example is quoted in Greek as μετά το θάνατο “after death” thus leading the lexicographers into registering the semantic category of “posterior”. However, with careful observation, it becomes evident that the event of “death” conjoined with apo functions as a point of initiation on the time axis. In this conceptual category Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) encompasses the expression ἀπέ τοῦτον “after this, afterwards”:

Παρακαλεῖ σας νά πιάσετε τήν ἐζήτηση του, ἄν φανῆ τῆς αὐλῆς. Καί ἀπέ τοῦτον ἐμπαίνει εἰς τήν αὐλήν, Λεόντιος Μαχαίρας, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 306 26

“He is asking us to deal with his matter, if he comes to the court. And after that he enters the court”.

Cause As previously noted, in Κριαράς (op. cit. , entry apo ) the general semantic category of cause is not posed. Only conceptual sub-categories are mentioned.

Compulsory Causation As aforementioned, in my view, the term “compulsory causation” refers to inanimate, external cause. The following example was cited as an instance of compulsory causation by Κριαράς (op. cit. ) maybe because tiredness is induced by something external to the person:

Μιάν ἀπό κόπου ἐνύσταξα, νά κοιμηθῶ ἐθυμήθην, Μπεργαδής, Απόκοπος 42 , στ. 3 “Worn out with toil, I once longed for repose”, Bergadis, Apokopos, line 3

Μίαν σκλάβαν ὁπού πέφτει ἀπού κακήν ἀρρωστίαν , Ασσίζες 41 31 “A slave that falls ill from a malicious illness”

Notice in the above example the form ἀπού instead of ἀπό and the inanimate and external cause of illness. Illness is initially “external” to the patient and by “hitting” him or her becomes internal.

42 Poem of the 15 th (beginning of the 16 th ) century

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Ἀπού την πείνα τήν πολλή, συχνιά τό νοῦ μου χάνω, Μάρκος Αντώνιος Φώσκολος, Φορτουνάτος 43 , Γ΄57 “From extreme hunger, I often lose my mind”

Hunger is an inanimate cause of madness. In this semantic category of compulsory causation pleonastic co- occurrence of apo with the causal connector ως is observed:

Ὡς ἀπό ὁμαλότητος καί τοῦ πολλοῦ τοῦ κάλλους, Ανωνύμου, Διγενής Ακρίτας , Ζ 3912 (as quoted by Κριαράς , op. cit. ) “Due to its gloss and extreme beauty”

Notice that both ως and από function causally.

Agent Similarly to Ancient Greek, the semantic category of Agent 44 is posed in Byzantine Greek:

Ἀπέ τούς ἀρχιερείς Λατίνων νά χειροτονοῦνται διάκονοι, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 26 22 “From Latin priests to be consecrated deacons”

Ἀφ τῶν θεῶν καί ἀφ τούς ἁγιούς τέλεια εὐλογημένος , Εμμανουήλ Γεωργηλάς, Το θανατικόν της Ρόδου 45 , 493 “From priests and saints perfectly blessed”

Gods and saints act as Agents in the above example.

Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) also pose the semantic categories of: “order” or “authorization” and “origin from a person”, which, in my opinion, are better encompassed under the heading “Agent”.

Ἐπήρεν ὁρισμόν ἡ ἁγία δέσποινα Ἑλένη […] ἀπέ τόν ὑιόν της , Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 48 “St Helen was ordered by her son”

43 Comedy, written in 1669 A. D. 44 For discussion of the notion “Agent” see section Apo and its External Role to a Motion Event (Animate Causation) 45 Written in 1498

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The above example is cited under the heading “origin from a person” (but it could have been categorized under the heading “order” or “authorization”). However, in my opinion, it is an instance of Agency: the person giving the order is an Agent.

Ἀφέντη, ἐγώ λαλῶ σου ἀπό τόν Ρήγαν ὅτι ἐσού ἤσουν ἡ ἀφορμή […], Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 320 1 “Master, I tell you on the part of the king that you were the excuse”

The above example could be quoted as: “I am talking to you with authorization from the King”.

«Ἀφκράσου, καταγνώρισε, Βέλθανδρε, ἅ σέ λέγω · οὐ λέγω ἐξ ἐμού, ἀλλ’, ἀπό τῆς κυρᾶς μου, δεσποινιδούλας τῆς λαμπρᾶς, Χρυσάντζας τῆς ὡραίας, Ανωνύμου, Βέλθανδρος και Χρυσάντζα 46 914

“Listen and beware Velthandros of what I am telling you ‘cause they are not on my part but on the part of my lady beautiful Misses Hrisantza”

The above example is an instance of authorization as the lady authorizes the person to speak.

Under the heading “Origin from a person” Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) cites the following fossilized cases:

Ἀπό λόγου μου “with my initiative” or “from me”, Κωνσταντίνος Ερμονιακός, Ιλιάδος Ραψωδίαι κδ’

Ὅποιος δουλεύει τσῆ φιλιᾶς κ’ ἔχει καημό μεγάλο, Ἄς τό λογιάση ἴντα’ λεγεν ὁ ἕνας μέ τόν ἄλλο · ἄς τό λογιάσει κι ἄς τό δῆ κι ἀπό δικοῦ του ἄς κρίνη , ἴντ’ ἀποχαιρετίσματα ἦσαν τήν ὥρα κείνη κ’ ἴντα καληνυκτίσματα πρικιά, φαρμακεμένα, λόγια μέ λουχτουκίσματα καί δάκρυα ζυμωμένα, Βιτσέντσος Κορνάρος, Ερωτόκριτος , Μέρος Τρίτο, 1500-1505

46 Long poem of 1348 verses, written in the 15 th century, manuscript found in Codex Parisinus Graecus 2909ff

62 Apo in Medieval Greek

“Let him who loves and is to passion wed, Let him imagine what the lovers said; Let him conceive, as his own heart can tell, Each sorrowful adieu and each farewell, Each bitter parting-word and each good-bye, Each tender whisper and each sob and sigh”, Kornaros, Erotocritos, lines 1500- 1505

In my opinion, the two above fossilized expressions are an instance of Agency. The following fossilized expression is categorized by Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) under the heading “origin from a person”. In my opinion, origin here has a locative sense. It means “take something away from my inner self”. The sense of “away” is expressed by apo whereas the sense of the inner self is expressed by εξ .

Ἀπό ΄ξαυτοῦ μου<ἀπό ἐξ ἑαυτοῦ μου “from me” or “on my part”, Kυπριακά Ερωτικά ποιήματα 47 , 77 1, 15 13

Descent This semantic category refers to genetic relations.

Ἄν ἔνι γνήσιες καί ἀπό ἑνοῦ πατρός καί ἀπέ μιᾶς μητρός , Ασσίζες 421 17 “If they are indeed of one father and mother”

Notice the presence of both forms από and απέ in the above example. It is an instance of parental relation.

Ψουμάτους καβαλάρηδες ἀπού μεγάλην γενιάν, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου , 340 4 “Well fed horse riders of a noble race”

The descent of the horse riders is evident in the above example.

Geographic origin Evident is the employment of the genitive case instead of the accusative in this semantic category, maybe because the genitive case depicts a sense of

47 Θ. Σιαπκαρά-Πιτσιλλίδη, (εκδόσεις), Αθήνα, 1952.

63 Apo in Medieval Greek

possession and the relation of a “product” (either animate or inanimate) with its place of origin is one of possession.

Οἱ ἀπό ξένης [χώρας], Ανωνύμου, Λίβιστρος και Ροδάμνη , 2213 (as quoted by Κριαράς , op. cit. ) “Those from a foreign country”

This is clear instance of geographic origin.

Βάλε καί καβούρους ἀπό ποταμοῦ, Ιωάννης Σταφίδας, Ιατροσόφιον 48 249 “Add some crabs from the river”

In this case geographical origin mingles with a sense of “product”. Crabs live in the river but are also a product of the life of the river.

Alteration In this case a change of state is denoted:

Δύνεσαι ἀπού νεκρόν νά μ’ ἀναστήσεις , Ανωνύμου, Κυπριακά Ερωτικά Ποιήματα 49 58 “You have the ability to raise me from the dead”

The semantic similarity of the Byzantine with the Ancient Greek extract is impressive maybe because the desire for immortality is eternal:

τὺ μὲν ἀθανάταν ἀπὸ θνατᾶς […] ἐποίησας Βερενίκαν, Θεοκρ. 15. 106 “of thee annealed our queen that was born of woman is e’en immortal made”, Theocr. 15. 106

Matter The present conceptual category of “matter” was encompassed under the general heading “cause” with the rationale that matter is the point of initiation in the creation of an entity therefore its generative cause.

ἠμφιεσμένους περσικήν στολήν ἀπό βλαττίου ,

48 Written in the 14 th century 49 It is a collection of 156 poems written in the Cyprian dialect in the 16 th century. Some of these poems are attributed to Petrarch.

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καί χρυσομάνικα καλά εἰς τούς αὐτῶν τραχήλους, Ανωνύμου, Διγενής Ακρίτας , 925-927

“Clothed in a Persian dress of silken cloth With fine and golden sleeves about their necks”, Digenes Akrites 50 , lines 2005-2006

Βλάττιον “laver” is a substance (“matter”) derived from shells by which Byzantine emperors died tissues ( πορφύρα ).

Ἦτον τό τρικλινόκτισμα ἀπό ζαφείρου λίθων , Ανωνύμου, Βέλθανδρος και Χρυσάντζα 328 “The building was made of sapphire stones”

The building was from sapphire, a kind of “matter”. Notice that both the uniform (in the first example) and the building (in the above example) are “constructs”, i.e. the Agentive role is primary. In the following example, there is an instance of “product” (oil) where the Agentive role is secondary:

Ἔλαιον παλαιόν ἀπό καρύων μετά βουτύρου συμμίξας τόν οὐρανίσκον τοῦ ἱέρακος τρίβε, Ανωνύμου, Ορνεοσόφιον αγροικότερον , 539 2 “Mix mature walnut oil with butter and rub softly the roof of the falcon’s mouth”

Instrument As noted before this semantic category refers to the mechanical means by which an action is achieved.

Ἀπό σπαθίου τήν ἔπιασαν τῆς Βενετιάς τήν δίδουν, ἐπλήρωσαν τόν ὄρκον τους καί τήν ὑπόσχεσιν τους, Ανωνύμου, Το Χρονικόν του Μορέως 439

“Captured it by sword, gave it to Venice, and redeemed their oath and pledge”, Crusaders as Conquerors, line 439

In the above example the expression παίρνω χώρα means “conquer a country” having as “instrument” the sword.

50 Unless otherwise stated, the citations of the translated work, Digenes Akrites, are of J. Mavrokordatus, (Trans.)

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Intermediary As aforementioned 51 “Intermediary” shows the “means” (not mechanical) by which a message communicated. Therefore Intermediary can be encompassed under cause. The following examples have been sub-categorized by lexicographers under “Intermediary”:

Προσέχω, ἰχνεύω, κυνηγῶ, πουλιά κρατῶ ἀπό τέχνης , Ανωνύμου, Λίβιστρος και Ροδάμνη, Ν 933 “I pay attention, I trace, I hunt, birds I keep in my hands, skillfully”

“Skillfulness” is the means for keeping the birds.

ὀφρύδια κατάμαυρα ἐφύσησεν ἡ τέχνη, γιοφύρια κατεσκεύασε ἀπό πολλῆς σοφίας , Ανωνύμου, Βέλθανδρος και Χρυσάντζα 700

“black eyebrows the art made Bridges made out of wisdom”

The medium for the construction of bridges is “wisdom”. Notice the proximity of this semantic category to “cause”.

Manner Κριαράς (op. cit. entry apo ) encompasses under this semantic category, expressions where apo conjoins with genitive, like ἀπό καρδιάς “from the heart”, ἀπό βάθους “from the bottom of the heart”, etc. These co-occur with verbs like ἀγαπῶ “love” , ἀναστενάζω “sigh” , θρηνῶ “mourn” , προσεύχομαι “pray”. If seen carefully, apo and its conjoined noun express a point of initiation either in space or cause (which is the point of initiation for the act denoted by the verb).

Τήν προξενιά σάν τοῦ τήν πῆ, λογιάζω νά τ’ ἀρέση, γιατ’ ἤκουσά του ἀπό καρδιάς πολλά νά σέ παινέση, Βιτσέντζος Κορνάρος, Ερωτόκριτος , Μέρος Τρίτο, στ. 696

“Our match, I hope, will from the first go right, Because you stand high in your Monarch’s sight”, Kornaros, Erotocritos, lines 696

51 See section “Intermediary” in Ancient Greek.

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The expression από καρδιάς means “intensely” and according to lexicographers functions as an adverb of manner. However, the heart is the point of initiation for the movement of feelings.

ὁ πόνος ἔθλιβεν αὐτόν, καί γνοῦσα τοῦτο ἡ κόρη, ἀπό βάθους στενάξασα «ὦ κύριέ μου» ἔφη, Ανωνύμου, Διγενής Ακρίτας , 42-43

“the pain oppressed him, knowing this the Girl Sighed from the depth and “O my lord” she said”, Digenes Akrites lines 3579- 3580 52

The above expression ἀπό βάθους is quoted as “intensely” and functions as an adverb of manner. It signals the point of initiation of the movement of feelings.

Οὐδ’ ἀπό προαιρέσεως ἀφήνεις τά κακά σου, Ανωνύμου, Πένθος θανάτου 53 Ν 344 “you do not voluntarily abandon your evil”

The above expression is quoted as “voluntarily” and functions as an adverb of manner. In this case also, apo and its conjoined noun denotes the point of initiation of the action (i.e. the cause) which is the προαίρεσις “the will”.

ψάλλε ἀπό ψυχής καί φώναζε μεγάλως, τί μουρμουρίζεις; Πρόσεχε, Θόδωρος Πρόδρομος, Στίχοι του Γραμματικού κυρού Θόδωρου του Πτωχοπρόδρομου, ΙΙΙ 45

“Chant from your hear and shout loudly, what are you whispering? Be careful,”

The expression από ψυχής signifies “insistently, intensively”. In Modern Greek it surfaces as με την ψυχή μου with the same meaning. A metaphoric dislocation is expressed: the hymn derives from the heart.

52 Unless otherwise marked the translation is by J. Mavrokordatus. 53 Written in 15 th -16 th century

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Anaphora Ἄν ἐθυμάται [κάτι] ἀπό γονιούς τίποτες ρώτηξέ τη, Ασσίζες 106 18 “If she remembers anything of her parents, ask her”

The above expresses dislocation: the memories come from the domain of parents in the sub-conscious and move towards the level of consciousness.

Ἐπῆγε νά τόν ἰδεῖ καί ἐρωτήσαντο ἀπέ τούς δικούς του , Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 468 35 “He went to see him and asked him about his parents”

The above example is an instance of partition because from all the scope of questions, the person was asked about his parents.

In this section, we have examined apo in Byzantine Greek. In this period, bilingualism appears to be institutionalized. On the one hand, we have the Atticizing language (very close to Ancient Greek) and on the other hand vernacular Greek. Formal changes take place: and new forms of apo that will later appear in dialects occur. Syntactically, apo preserves the same syntactic functions. But it sub-categorizes mainly with accusative and less with genitive. Semantically, apo still carries the same semantic pattern of polysemy. It is evident that transience to Modern Greek language has started. In the next section, we will examine apo in Modern Greek.

68

Apo in Modern Greek (1669 A. D. – Today)

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Απ’ τα κόκαλα βγαλμένη των Ελλήνων τα ιερά

Διονύσιος Σολωμός «Ύμνος εις την Ελευθερία» (1823)

Twas the Greeks of old whose dying Brought to birth our spirit free From the graves of our slain

Translation by Rudyard Kipling in 1918

70 Apo in Modern Greek

5. Apo in Modern Greek

5.1. Introduction

Modern Greek is a continuation of the Ελληνιστική Κοινή (Hellenistic Koiné) of the Hellenistic and the Roman period. During the Ottoman Empire, the Greek language spread over populations that used various languages, like: Slavic, Albanian, Vlach, Turkish, Jewish, Persian, etc. However, being the language of the Church, the intellectuals, the press, the commerce and the common people, Greek didn’t disappear. As a result of all these linguistic interactions, Hellenistic Koiné split into various dialects. These dialects, however, never gained the status of a “language”. This happened because the distant areas of Greek speaking world lost their linguistic identity whereas the people of mainland gained a strong linguistic identity under the influence of Church. Through a turbulent history and a large number of dialects, we end up to the scheme of Παπαρρηγόπουλος : Αρχαιότης, Βυζάντιο, Νέος Ελληνισμός (Antiquity-Byzantium-Modern Hellenism), which portrays the continuation of the Greek nation, ( Ιστορία της Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (Κέντρο Ελληνικής Γλώσσας & Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη] 2001: 958 ff); Ανδριώτης (1992: 95 ff). To extensively portray the linguistic portrait of apo, forms of it in various dialects will be cited.

Αpo in Modern Greek Information for apo in Modern Greek was mainly drawn from, Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής (Ινστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη], 1997), as well as from: Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Νέας Ελληνικής, (Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 1939); Λεξικό της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσας (Μπαμπινιώτης, 2002); Δημητράκος (1958); Νεοελληνική Γραμματική της Δημοτικής (Ίνστιτούτο Νεοελληνικών Σπουδών [Ίδρυμα Μανόλη Τριανταφυλλίδη], 2002); Νεοελληνική Γραμματική (Τριανταφυλλίδης, x. x.); Νεοελληνική Συνταξις (Τζάρτζανος, 1946); Γραμματική της Νέας Ελληνικής Γλώσσης, (Τζάρτζανος, 1945); Συντακτικό της Νεοελληνικής Γλώσσας (Γιαννακόπουλος, 1991); Ελληνικό Λεξικό (Τεγόπουλος & Φυτράκης, x.x.); Ετυμολογικό Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής (Ανδριώτης, 1957/1983).

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Citations were taken from the following literary texts: Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου (Παλαμάς, x.x.); Ποιήματα (Καβάφης, 1973); Ποιήματα, (Καβάφης, 1985); Ποιήματα (Σεφέρης, 1977); Καπετάν Μιχάλης (Καζαντζάκης, 1964); Τ ον καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου (Δέλτα, 2007); Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος (Σολωμός, 1940); Άξιον Εστί (Ελύτης, 1978). Translations of the aforementioned literary works have been referred to: The Collected Poems (Cavafy, 2007, A. Barnstone, Trans.); In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium (Delta, 2006, R. Bobick, Trans.); Axion Esti (Elytis, 2007, E. Keeley, G. Savidis, Trans.); Freedom and Death (Kazantzakis, 1983, J. Griffin, B. Cassier, Trans.); Complete Poems (Seferis, 1995, E. Keeley, P. Sherrard, Trans.); The Woman of Zakynthos (Solomos, 2000, P. Thompson, R. Beaton, P. Colaclides, M. Green & D. Ricks, Trans.); The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy (Palamas, 1969). Citations were also taken from:

Τα Νέα , [“Ta Nea”], 12-13/04/2008
Καθημερινή , [“Kathimerini”], 13/04/2008
Το Βήμα της Κυριακής , [“To Vima tis Kiriakis”], 13/04/2008, 20-04-2008

5.2. Forms

• Από • Απ’: when preceding a vowel or the consonant / t/ with elision of (o):

Απ ’ όλα “from everything”
Aπ΄ το σπίτι “from the house”

• Αφ’ /, before an aspirated vowel (there is assimilation of voiceless stopped π to the following spiritus asper) and before /t/ :

E.g. ἄσε με, Χάρε, ἀφ’ τά μαλλιά καί πιάσε με ἀφ’ τά χέρια “leave Angel of death my hair and catch me by the hands”
Ἀφ΄ὅτου > ἀφότου, ἀφ’ ἐνός >ἀφενός , ἀφ’ ἑτέρου > ἀφετέρου

Apo also takes the following forms in dialects (Ακαδημία Αθηνών, 1939, entry apo; Άμαντος (1918). According to Βογιατζίδης (1918) most of the following dialectical forms of apo appear as prefixes, too.

• ἀπού, e.g.:

72 Apo in Modern Greek

ἐπήγαιναν ἀπού τόπου εἰς τόπον “they were going from place to place”
δέ φοβοῦνταν ἀπού κανέναν “he/she/it was afraid of nobody”
ἀπού ποιόν το ‘μαθις “from whom have you heard it?”
φύλλα ἀπού λάχανου “cabbage leaves”
τί ἔχετε ἀπού μεζέ; “what do you have for appetizer?”

• ΄πο /po/ , with removal of initial (a) in analogy to ακόμα>’κόμα. E.g.:

εἶμαι ‘πο τίς Σέρρες “I am from Serres”
ξέρεις τό ποια εἶμαι ἐγώ, ‘πο ποιά σειρά κρατιέμαι “do you know who I am, which is my family”
‘πο τήν ντροπή της γονατίζει “she is kneeling from shame”

• ‘που /pu/, e. g.:

εἶμι ‘που τού Πουλύκαστρου “I am from Polikastro” . Notice that in this case /u/ is not deleted before /t/
‘που τή λύπην τήν πολλήν “from extreme sorrow”

• ‘π’, /p/, e.g.:

φεύγα ‘π’ ἔκειν “move from there”
‘π’ αὐτού “from there”
‘π’ ὅλα “from everything”
τ’ράει τού κρίας ‘π’ ἁλάτ ι “she is tasting the meat for salt”

• ‘φ’, e.g.:

‘φ’ τά σουριχτά ‘φ’ τά χουγιαχτά τά δέντρα μαραθῆκαν “from the whistles and the cries the trees died”.

• ἀποτά (in analogy to μετά , e.g.:

ἔλα μετά μένα “come with me”
φύγε ἀποτά μένα “go away from me”

• ἀπέ. This form is the result of the juncture of από with the words εδώ or εκεί: απ’εδώ, απ’εκεί, e.g.:

ἀπέ τήν Βενετία “from Venice”
ἐσκοτώθην ἀπέ τούς Τούρκους “he was killed by the Turks”
ἀπέ τήν πόλιν ἔρσετον “he was coming from the city”

73 Apo in Modern Greek

• ‘πε, e.g.:

φέρτε ἕνα τσόφλι ‘πε τό ρόδι “bring me a peel from the pomegranate”
‘πε ποιόν σκοτώθ’κε “by whom was she/he killed?”
ἦρθα ‘πε τή βάρκα “I came from the boat”
ἐγώ ‘πε τώρα καί ‘πε τό ἑξῆς “from now on”

• ἀό

• ἀ’: with elision of πο in analogy to the forms κάτω >κά , (e.g. κά ’ς τον κάμπο “down on the plain”), απάνω>πά, (e.g. πα ’ς το βουνό “on the mountain”). E.g.:

πρέπει καί τσή κουμπάρισσας νέος ἀ’ τήν Εὐρώπην “our bestwoman deserves a man from Europe”
ἕναν πύργο πεό καλό ἀ’ τοῦ ἀδερφοῦ μου “ a tower better than the one of my brother’s”

• ἀπί, e.g.:

ἀπί ποῦ εἶσι; /apί pu ίsi/ “where are you from”?
τό πιδί π’λουγήθηκιν ἀπί τοῦ λύκ’ τό στόμα “the kid answered through the wolf’s mouth” (it must be a fairy tale)

• ἀπίν. E.g.:

νύφη ἀπίν τά ξένα/ “bride from a distant land”

• ἀσ’: According to the Λεξικόν της Ακαδημίας Αθηνών this form occurs only on the island of Chios in precedence of the definite article. Following Άμαντος (1918: 3), however it appears in the area of Pontus, as well. It derives from the form απ’. E.g.:

ἀσ’ τό φαεῖν ἐξέβεν ψή τ’ “from (because of) food his soul left his body”
ὁ Πέτρον ἀσ’ τόν Παῦλον ἔμορφος ἔν “Peter is more handsome than Paul”
τά ἐμά τά παιδία ἀσ’ ὅλα προκομμένα εἶναι “my kids are the most industrious”
ἀσ’ ὅλων τρανός “the greatest of all”

• ἀθ’ in the area of Cappadochia and Pontus deriving from απ’. • ἀτ’ with assimilation to the following /t/ : απ’ τα >ατ’τα.

74 Apo in Modern Greek

• ἀπ’ ντον, απ’ντην in assimilation to the following nasal. Despite the fact that this is registered as a form of apo (Ακαδημία Αθηνών 1939, entry από ) it constitutes a form of the following article and not of the preposition itself. E.g.:

ἀπ΄ ντήν καρδίαν “from the heart”
ἀπ’ ντού μά’ ὡς τά κιράσια “from May to the cherries (literally), in a very short time (figuratively)”.

• ἀπσέ or απσ’ by juncture of the form απ’ and the preposition εις . Ε.g.:

ἀπ’ ὅλους ἀγαπημένη καί σέ ὅλους ἀγαπημένη becomes απσέ όλους αγαπημένη
ἀπσέ φασούλι “from beans”
πόρτα ἀπσέ φούρρο “oven door”.

• ἀξ(έ) derives from ἀπσέ with transformation of πς into ξ in analogy to ψέμα>ξέμα. The form ἀξ’ derives from here.

• The forms ἀσ-σε, ἀτσέ, ἀφσέ derive from ἀξέ in analogy to έξω>έτσου>έφσου.

• Ἀπτσ(έ) derives from αξέ in analogy to οξεία >οπτσεία .

• Ἀτζ(έ), e.g.:
ἦτο τζιούβενο ἀτζέ δεκαφτά χρονῶ ‘It was a seventeen year old lad”

The aforementioned forms ἀξ(έ), ἀτζ(έ), ἀπτσ(έ), and ἀφσ(έ) are Italian types, (Άμαντος 1918: 2).

• Ἀποτά, e.g.:

ἀποτ’ ἐκείνη τή φορά δέ σ’ ἔχω ματασμίξει “I have not seen you since that time”

This form derived in analogy to μετά, (Άμαντος 1918: 3).

Other registered forms of apo as a preposition ( ibid. ) are: ‘τσε, ‘φσέ, αφσ’ , ἀν’, ἀμπί, ἀμέ, ἀπίς, ἀπός, ἀπ’, επ’, ἀπουτ’, ‘πουτ’, ἀπ’τ’, ‘πετά.

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As an adverb apo gains the following forms: απέ in the Tsakonian dialect , ‘πε on the island of Andros , επέ on the island of Andros and in Korinthos , απά on the island of Milos , απέν in Lykia, Lybisos , απί in Chios and more specifically in the village of Mesta , απέτα in Thrace, ‘πετά and ταπέ’ on the island of Lesbos (deriving from coarticulation of τ’ + απέ = ταπέ’), απόις on the island of Karpathos (through influence of Italian poi ), επόι on the island of Crete in the aerea o Sfakia , απέι in Peloponessus (deriving from απέκει>απέει ), the area of Mani , απιό and ταπιό in Thrace.

5.3. Syntactic Function

According to lexicographers, in Modern Greek apo functions as:

A preposition
An adverb.

As a preposition it conjoins with:

a. accusative

Genitive in Standard Modern Greek is replaced by apo with accusative. E.g.: Νερό από το ρυάκι “water from the creek” (not ?του ρυακιού ).

b. nominative

Από μικρό παιδί γυμνάζεται “He has been exercising since he was a kid .”

c. genitive

Απ’ του χρόνου “From next year ”

The adverbial use of apo derived from its co-occurrence with adverbs in expressions denoting time: από τότε “since then”, από χτες “since yesterday”. The meanings of apo as an adverb are:

76 Apo in Modern Greek

• “then”

Πήγαινε ἐκεῖ κι ἀπέ βλέπομε τί θά γίνη “Go this way and then we’ll see what happens”

Ἦρθε, ἀπέ μέ χτύπησε “He came and then hit me”

Πές μου σημάδια τοῦ κορμιοῦ κι ἀπέ νά σέ πιστέψω “Tell me some features of the body and then I’ll believe you”

• “So what” (as an expression to show indifference)

Ἔφερα νερό Κι ἀπέ ;

“I brought water” “So what?”

Κι ἀπέ ; Γέρος ἤτανε. “So what ? He was an old man”

• “But if ” (concession)

Ἀπέ ἄν εἶσαι κουτός τί νά σοῦ κάμω; “But if you are stupid, what can I do?”

Ἀπέ σά δέν ἔχ’ μυαλό “But if he is reckless”

• For intensification: “even”

Λείψανε τά σταφύλια τσ’ ἀπέ πρίν τά δοκιμάσουμε “The grapes were gone, even before we tasted them”

Ἀπέ γλυκά εἶναι τά λεφτά, γιατί τά ’χω κομποδέματα! “Money is even sweeter this is why I have savings”

5.4. Meanings

Apo maintains in Modern Greek the same categorization pattern as Ancient Greek. In my opinion, apart from semantic similarity of apo through the ages, the reason for that is that Modern Greek lexicographers were based on

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Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ) due to its extreme credit worthiness. In this language phase, as well, the meanings of apo will be categorized under three major headings: place, time, cause. We proceed to examine the meanings of apo in relation to the three cases (accusative, genitive, nominative) it conjoins with.

Apo with accusative Apo when conjoined with a noun in accusative has the following meanings:

Place As aforementioned, similarly to other phases of Greek language apo in Modern Greek functions in the domain of place. Distancing Apo combines with motion verbs and denotes the point of initiation of movement. Abundance of such examples (as evident in Appendix II) portrays its semantic primacy.

Ἀπό ποῦ ἔρχεσαι; Ἀπό τή Στρουμπίτζη , Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 5 ο, Στις όχθες του Αξιού, σελ. 68

“Where were you? I’ve been to Strumica (sic) [where have you come from? I have come from Strumpitzi] ”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chap. 5, At the Banks of the Axios River, p. 39

The following example:

Δάκρυα έτρεχαν από τα μάτια της. “Tears ran from her eyes ” has been cited in Ancient Greek ( ὀμμάτων τ’ ἄπο φόνου σταλαγμοὶ σὴν κατέσταζον γένυν , Ευρ. Εκαβ . 241 “while down your cheek ran drops of blood”, E. Hec., 241) and shows the continuity of the language. It denotes dislocation in physical space (in the sense that the tears start their journey from the eyes).

Place from which someone acts Lexicographers claim that apo denotes the place from which somebody acts, which, following Δημητράκος ( op. cit. entry apo ) is usually elevated.

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Κι ἀντιχτύπαγε κι ὁ ἥλιος ἀπό τά βουνά τά Βιθυνιώτικα σέ Μαγναῦρες 54 καί Βλαχέρνες 55 , Παλαμάς Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1 ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 4η, στ. 9-11

“From above the Bithynian mountains the sun beat down on the Magnavras and Vlahernas” , Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy, Canto I, The Arrival, 4th stanza, lines 6-7

The sun is conceptualized as an Agent, who acts from an elevated place (the mountains).

Νon Definite Distance According to the lexicographers, apo in Modern Greek expresses non- definite distance.

Δῶσε μας, ἔξω [away from] ἀπό τόν ὕπνο , τή γαλήνη, Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα ΙΕ΄, ο τελευταίος στ. “Give us, outside [away from] sleep , serenity”, Seferis, Mythistorema 15 , the last line

Definite Distance Following lexicographers, apo in Modern Greek denotes definite distance.

Η Μηχανιώνα απέχει από τη Θεσσαλονίκη είκοσι χιλιόμετρα. “Mihaniona is twenty kilometers away from Thessaloniki ”.

Absence The general title “absence” is employed here to refer to verbs that express “deprivation”, “exception”, “removal” and “subtraction” , which were registered

54 The word Magnaura derives from the Latin Magna Aula (Great Hall). It was a Senat House close to the Imperial palace and to Hagia Sophia. It was first built in 360 A. D. and reconstructed by Justinian I. Initially, it served as a reception hall. Later, (ca. 850 A. D.) it housed the School of Magnaura, where Leo the Mathematician and St Photius the Great taught. Leo the Mathematician was born in Thessaly (ca. 790) and is considered to have devised the manchinery that used lights in order to warn Constantinople of Arabic raids as well as the automata (“mechanical toys”). St Photius the Great was one of the most important Patricarchs of Constantinople. He served from 858 to 867 A. D. 55 The place name Vlahernas refers to Constantinople in the Byzantine period and specifically to its northern part towards the Golden Horn. There was a homonym district with a church dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Thus the church was named Virgin Mary of Vlahernes and was considered the patron saint of Constantinople. It was to the Virgin Mary of Vlahernes that the people of Constantinople addressed a thankful hymn standing ( the Akathyst Hymn ) in gratitude for the saving of the city from the Avars in 626 A.D.

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as separate conceptual categories in dictionaries . The static term “absence” was chosen to refer to the result of the aforementioned dynamic processes. It should be noted that Levin (1993: 123) claims that verbs that relate to the removal of an entity from a location have one of their argument expressed in a prepositional phrase headed by the preposition “from” [which in Greek is apo ].

Η Φιλική Εταιρία λόγου χάρη απουσιάζει από το μυθιστόρημα του ΄21, Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 6

“Philiki Etaireia for example is absent from the novel of ’21” , “Ta Nea”, 13- 14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 6

Deliverance Apo obtains this semantic function with verbs that express “release”, “precaution” . The general title “deliverance” is employed to refer to all these.

Ψυχή μου λυτρώσου ἀπ’ τόν κρίκο τοῦ σκότους, Σεφέρης, Τετράδιον Γυμνασμάτων (1928-1937), Δοσμένα, Παντού, στ. 3

“My soul free yourself from the link of darkness” , Seferis, Book of Exercises (1928- 1937), Poems Given, Pantou , lines 3-4

Transit This is posited as a separated semantic function of apo by lexicographers. Apo in this category has the meaning of the ancient preposition διά “through”. As part of this thesis, it was noticed that tt conjoines mainly with the verb περνώ “pass”. The verb derives from the Ancient Greek verb περῶ (διέρχομαι διά των πόρων 56 ) meaning “go through a hole”. Notice that the notion of “through” is inherent in the notion of the verb περνώ . Therefore, in my view, it is not apo that denotes transition but the implied adverb, to which apo functions as a point of reference.

Πέρασε την κλωστή (μέσα) από τη βελόνα 57 . “He passed the thread through the eye of the needle ”.

56 Πόρος meant “hole” or “passage” 57 The Ancient Greek work περόνη /perόni/ “needle” derives from the word πόρος “hole”, “passage”.

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Ένα ευρύ κύκλωμα, που ξεκινούσε από την Κίνα , περνούσε [μέσα] από τη Λάρισα και έπνιγε όλη την Ελλάδα, Το Βήμα της Κυριακής , 13-4-2008, σελ. 1

“A wide network starting from China , went through Larissa and strangled the whole of Greece”, “To Vima tis Kyriakis”, 13-4-2008, p.1

Frequently apo co-occurs with the verbs περνώ “pass” (quoted as “come”) , έρχομαι ”come” , πηγαίνω “go” , where it functions semantically like the preposition σε “to”. This led lexicographers to pose one more semantic category for apo , that of “direction”:

Έλα από το σπίτι . “Come by the house”.

However, in this case again, apo and its conjoined noun play the same role of denoting the point of initiation of a course. The above example could be interpreted as: come to the house, stay a little, and from there again continue your course having as a new point of initiation the house. While: Έλα στο σπίτι. “Come to the house” would be interpreted as: come and stay. The element of continuation of motion is lacking. An alternative interpretation could be that έλα από το σπίτι is the result of the combination of two expressions: πέρνα από το σπίτι “pass by the house” and έλα στο σπίτι “come to the house”.

Dependence This semantic category refers to verbs like hang, depend, catch e.t.c. It was entitled by lexicographers as “point from which something is hanging”. This semantic function of apo relates to the Sanskrit meaning of ap- “link” which relates to the ancient Greek words: ἀφή “touch” , ἄπτω “to touch” , ἄψος ”joint” 58 . Due to its locative (rather than its causal character) it was encompassed by lexicographers under the general heading “place”, a categorization pattern followed here, as well.

Νά μοῦ τόν πιάσεις ἀπό τόν ἀστράγαλο καί νά τόν κρεμάσεις [από τον αστράγαλο] ἀνάποδα στά δοκάρια σάν τουλούμι! , Καζαντζάκη Ν., Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 1, σελ. 7

58 See section Apo in Sanskrit.

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“To lift him by the ankles and hang him up head downstairs from the beam like a sack of seed”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chapt. 1, p. 7

Boundaries In this case apo co-occurs with the words έως ”until”, “to” , ως /os/ “until” , μέχρι “until” , ίσαμε or ίσιαμε “until” , σε “to” . Boundaries are set in the domain of place or time. Again, apo and its conjoined noun signal the starting point of the boundaries.

Από τον Chaucer μέχρι τον Shakespeare, από την Παλινόρθωση και τη Βικτωριανή εποχή ως τον 20 ο αιώνα, Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 4, στήλη 3

“From Chaucer to Shakespeare, from Restoration and the Victorian age up until the 20 th century”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.4, column 3

Απ’ το θέατρο στον κινηματογράφο, Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 2, στήλη 5 “From theatre to cinema”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 2, column 5

In this case, we could encompass morphologically the expressions: από καιρό σε καιρό “every now and then” , από ώρα σε ώρα “any time now” but, in fact, they don’t express boundaries.

Comparison In this case, having as a point of initiation apo and its conjoined item, comparison, which is actually a form of calculation, is established. Notice the comparative form of adjective.

Αλλιώτικος από τους άλλους “Different from the others ”

The adjective αλλιώτικος means “different (usually better)” and derives from the root άλλι- and the ending –ώτικος which assigns an attribute (like σαμιώτικος “the one from Samos” etc.). Occurrence of the adjective αλλιώτικος was common in comparison.

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Καί τά μάτια μου ἔριξαν τή σπορά γρηγορώτερα (sic) τρέχοντας κι ἀπό βροχή τά χιλιάδες ἀπάτητα στρέμματα, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, σελ. 17

“And my eyes sowed the seed racing faster than ram even over a thousand virgin acres” , Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Genesis, p.21

Partition In this process apo and its conjoined lexical item denote the “whole” from which a part is “dislocated” or exempted. In this sense, apo and its conjoined item denote the point of initiation of this dislocation.

Ἐσταμάτησα σέ ἕνα ἀπό τά τρία πηγάδια, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, σελ. 41 “I stopped at one of the three wells ”, Solomos, The woman of Zakythos, ch. 1, p. 59

In Τζάρτζανος ( 21946) the category διανομή “apportionment” is registered:

Καθένας έχει και από μία άποψη (ibid.) . “Each has a different opinion ”

In my view, this is an instance of partition, too.

Time Apo functions in the domain of time.

Onset Apo denotes the point of initiation of an act(ion) or a new state.

Καπνίζω χωρίς νά σταματήσω ἀπό τό πρωί , Σεφέρης, Ημερολόγια Καταστρώματος Α΄, «Ο Μαθιός Πασχάλης ανάμεσα στα τριαντάφυλλα» , στ. 1

“I’ve been smoking steadily [since morning ] all morning” , Seferis, Logbook I , “Mathios Paskalis Among the Roses”, line 1

Ἄκεφος ἦταν ἀπό προχθές τό βράδυ, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 3, σελ. 86 “He had been put out , ever since the evening before last”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chap. 3, p. 91

Boundaries Apo with έως, μέχρι expresses boundaries in time.

83 Apo in Modern Greek

Ταξίδευε από τις πέντε έως τις 8. “He was travelling from five to eight”.

Cause It is the third domain in which apo operates. Dictionaries have sub- categorized under this heading the terms αναγκαστικό αίτιο “compulsory causation”, προτρεπτικό αίτιο “motivating causation” and ποιητικό αίτιο “Agent” without specifying the distinctive features of each category and leaving aside the case of an Animate but non volitional actor. I have further included the traditional categories of ύλη “matter”, όργανο “instrument” and μέσο “Intermediary”.

Compulsory causation Dictionaries make frequent reference to two types of causation: “compulsory causation” and ποιητικό αίτιο “Agency”. Their difference is not explicitly stated. However, I was led to conclude that compulsory causation refers to non-human factors, whereas Agency to human. Lexicographers’ effort to define different types of causality is certainly unfruitful. In part II of this thesis a different organizational schema for causal relations is proposed based not on the causal but on the effect.

Δέ φώναζαν οὔτε ἀπό τόν κάματο , οὔτε ἀπό τή δίψα , οὔτε ἀπό τήν παγωνιά, Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα, Δ’, «Αργοναύτες», στ. 6-7

“They didn’t complain about the work or the thirst or the frost , Seferis, Mythistorema, 4, “Argonauts”, lines 6-7

In the category of “cause” the following idiomatic expressions could possibly be encompassed if given a specific interpretation:

την έκανε από κούπες “quick retreat”

The expression derives from the domain of card playing because κούπες “hearts” invoke a quick retreat in the game of poker. Metaphorically, the expression expands to denote “get out of a relationship”, (Triantafyllidis

84 Apo in Modern Greek

Institute, Λεξικό της Κοινής Νεοελληνικής (Dictionary of Standard Modern Greek ), entry κούπες ).

από σπόντα “by mistake”

Σπόντα is each of four interior parts of a billiard table which are covered with plastic. The expression από σπόντα derives from the domain of a billiard game and means “indirectly” i.e. “by mistake” thus denoting cause. It referred initially to the ball that got into the hole “indirectly” i.e. having hit first one the four sides of the table, which were covered in plastic, (Kriara, 1995, Λεξικό της Σύγχρονης Ελληνικής Δημοτικής Γλώσσας, λήμμα σπόντα ) εκδοτική Αθηνών. Pleonastic use of εξαιτίας “because of” or λόγω “due to” next to causal apo is often observed:

εξαιτίας από το μηχάνημα (< εξαιτίας του μηχανήματος + από το μηχάνημα) “Because of the machine”

λόγω απ’ το κρύο (<λόγω του κρύου + από το κρύο ) “Due to cold”

In other cases, omission of apo is observed:

Φοβάμαι (από) τις αστραπές. “I am scared of lightnings ”.

When apo is omitted the cause of fear (the “lightnings”) has an immediacy.

With employment of apo the cause of fear becomes indirect.

Apo may also occur in idiomatic phrases which involve the verbs παίρνω

“take”, έχω “have” and the noun φόβο “fear” to denote the cause of fear:

Παίρνω από φόβο.

“Be scared of”. Έχω από φόβο.

85 Apo in Modern Greek

“Face somebody or something with fear”.

With verbs that express profit, benefit, damage , apo still expresses cause, while in dictionaries these verbs constitute a separate category:

Ωφελήθηκε από τη δουλειά. “He benefited from work”.

Είχε μεγάλα κέρδη από το εμπόριο . “He made a big profit from commerce”.

Ζημιώθηκε από τις απεργίες. “He suffered losses because of the strikes ”.

Agent In this case apo with accusative succeeded ὑπό with genitive of the Ancient Greek. As aforementioned the Αgent 59 is animate and functions voluntarily.

Ο Μ. Καραγάτσης, ένας από τους δημοφιλέστερους (συγγραφείς), κατεδαφίστηκε μέσα σε δύο μέρες από τους ειδικούς , Τα Νέα , 12-13/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 6

“Μ. Karagatsis, one of the most popular (writers), was demolished in two days by the experts ”, “Ta Nea”, 12/13-4-2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 6

Motivating causation In Δημητράκος (op. cit. entry apo ) another type of causation is referred to, that of “motivating causation”. As aforementioned, the difference among “Compulsory Causation”, “Agency” and “Motivating Causation” is not explicitly stated and is highly problematic. In my view, one distinctive feature could be that motivating causation “motivates” someone to act and is internal.

Καί ἀπό τή χαρά της ἐδάκρυσε , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 4, σελ. 47 “And tears of joy came to her eyes”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 4, p. 67

59 For discussion of the notion “Agent” see section Apo and its External Role to a Motion Event (Animate Causation)

86 Apo in Modern Greek

Instrument In Τζάρτζανος (1946) the notion of “Agent” is close to that of “Instrument”. An Instrument is a mechanical entity which helps someone to perform something. In this A “Intermediary” is any means by which something is performed not necessarily a mechanical entity. It was noticed as part of this thesis that in the case of Instrument apo can substitute with με (“with”) (for more examples see Appendix II “Instrument”).

Ἐσφάχτηκαν αγάδες από/με άδικο σπαθί . “Agas were slaughtered by an unfair sword ”.

This is an instance of frame metonymy. The sword stands for the whole Agent. This shows evidence of the proximity of the notions of Agent and Instrument, since an Instrument (being inanimate) cannot function on its own and demands an Agent.

Intermediary As aforementioned 60 , the Intermediary is not a mechanical entity, but an apparently inanimate entity (with an unbreakable relation to an Animate) through which communication is achieved. Usually it co-occurs with the verbs αναγνωρίζω ”recognize” , φαίνομαι “appear” .

Φαίνεται από τα λόγια του. “It is shown by his words” .

Η γυναίκα του τον γνώρισε από τη φωνή. “His wife recognized him by his voice” .

Notice in the two examples the employment of the verbs φαίνεται “appears” and γνώρισε “recognized”. His words and his voice function as the Intermediary by which he is recognized.

Life Resources This is registered as a separate category by lexicographers. Frequently, in this case, apo co-occurs with the verb ζω “live” or with verbs that have a meaning relative to that of “live”.

Ζει από τη σύνταξή του.

60 See section “Intermediary” in Ancient Greek.

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“He lives on his pension .”

Origin In this case apo expresses the source of a “product” either literally or metaphorically . It is worth noting that in Greek the word “product” προϊόν derives from the participle of the verb έρχομαι “come” ἰών, ἰοῦσα, ἰόν and the preposition προ- “in front”. Therefore the word “product” has inherent in it a sense of movement and it is the ending point of a “course” whose initiation is marked with apo.

Λικέρ από κράνα. “Liqueur from berries ”

Liqueur (derives from) is a product of berries.

Καί εἶμαι ὁ δαμαστής ὁ γύφτος, πού γεννάει ἀπό τή φλόγα κύκλους ἴσκιους , γρύπες, μάγια , Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 2 ος , Ο Δουλευτής, στροφή 13 η, στ.29-31

“I am the magician who stretches into the fire, to snatch from the flames serpents and monsters and shapes ”, Palamas, The twelve Lays of the Gipsy , Canto II, The Worker , stanza 13, line 8-9

Κι ἕνας γούμενος ἀπό τή μονή τοῦ Ἀφέντη Χριστοῦ, γαλαζομάτης καί ποταμογένης, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 9, σελ. 305

“An abbot from the Monastery of Christ the Lord with blue eyes and a flowing beard”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chapt. 9, p. 299

Τhe above example portrays “origin” because the monk is a “product” of the domain of the monastery. It reminds us of the category (cf. Liddell & Scott, op. cit. entry apo ) where apo refers to the chief or founder of a School . Δημητράκος ( op. cit. entry apo ) refers to this case as well and argues that apo denotes an intellectual domain. Finally, it should be added that in Modern Greek genitive tends to be replaced by apo with accusative for the expression of origin or possession:

Tα φύλλα των δέντρων =Τα φύλλα απ’ τα δέντρα

88 Apo in Modern Greek

Alteration Alteration shows a dynamic process of change where apo and its conjoined item once more signal the point of initiation of this process. “Alteration” is placed in proximity to the categories “basis” and “comparison” posed by lexicographers by the rationale that the procedure of alteration presupposes a basis and expresses a comparison between the prior condition and the new one.

Aπό δήμαρχος, έγινε κλητήρας . “F rom being a mayor, he became an office boy .

Ὅταν ὁ οὐρανός ἀπό βραχνάς τῆς ψυχῆς καί ἀπό φοβέρα ἄπειρο ἀδειανό καί ἀδιάφορο ξαναγίνει πέρα ὡς πέρα!, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, λόγος 4 ος , Ο Θάνατος των Θεών, στροφή 28, στ.1-4

“The day when the sky, no more a nightmare of the soul , becomes once more in all its depth a void, infinite, indifferent, a void (sic) ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto IV, The Death of the Gods , stanza 7, lines 14-16

Geographical origin This is registered by lexicographers as a seperate category.

Προκαλώντας έντονο επιχειρηματικό ενδιαφέρον [σε ανθρώπους] τόσο από την Ελλάδα όσο και από το εξωτερικό , Το Βήμα της Κυριακής , 20-4-2008, σελ. 4

“Causing intense business interest to people both from Greece and abroad ”, “To Vima tis Kyriakis”, 20-4-2008, p.4

Descent This semantic category expresses origin from a family.

Ἀπ’ τόν πατέρα του, [ήταν από ] παλιά γενιά Μακεδόνων, Καβάφης, Ευρίωνος τάφος, στ. 6 “His father was from an old line of Macedonians ”, Cavafy, The Tomb of Evrion , line 6

It is important to note that in this case apo and its conjoined noun function as an adjectival modifier:

89 Apo in Modern Greek

Είναι από το Λονδίνο= Είναι Λονδρέζος. “He is from London”= “He is a Londoner”

This portrays the fact that geographical origin attributes a permanent characteristic, i.e. has a causal function.

Matter In this case αpo and its conjoined noun denote the matter, by which something is made. They play the role of an adjectival modifier.

Κι ἦταν ἕνας πύργος ἀπό χρυσάφι , Σεφέρης, Ρουκέτα, στροφή 4η, στ.3-4 “There was a tower built of gold ”, Seferis, Rocket , stanza 4, lines 3-4

The above example can be quoted as χρυσαφένιος πύργος “golden tower”.

In this case, apo portrays the transition from not being to being . Matter is the basis, thus the presupposition for creation. In my view, this is the reason why “matter” is classified in the general category “cause” even by lexicographers.

Content In this function, apo conjoins with words that have the meaning of full, complete. Apo with accusative amounts to the Ancient Greek Genitive of Content. E.g. :ποτήριον (πλῆρες) ὕδατος =ποτήρι γεμάτο από νερό (in Modern Greek)“Glass full of water ” .The word ποτήριον “glass” expresses the container and the genitive form ὕδατος “of water” expresses the content . However, in Modern Greek genitive is replaced by accusative: Ένα ποτήρι νερό “A glass of water”. The employment of the genitive in Modern Greek alters the meaning and attributes a property: Ένα ποτήρι νερού= ένα νεροπότηρο “A glass for water” = “a water-glass” (in contrast, for example, to “a glass for wine”= “a wine glass”). Here is an example where apo (by the cateogorization of lexicographers) expresses content:

Ὅταν ἔρχεται τό ἀεράκι γεμάτο ἀπό τά μπάλσαμα πρωϊνά τῶν ὁλοπράσινων πευκώνων, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1 ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 2 η, στ.5-6

90 Apo in Modern Greek

“When it [the air] comes laden with the early morning balm of deep green pine forests”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , stanza 4, lines 9-12

In my interpretation, though, the above example is an instance of partition: the air (viewed as a container) is filled with part of the scent emanated by the trees. Αnother semantic category entitled “components” is posed by Δημητράκος (op. cit. entry από ). This refers to entities where the “container” is a collective entity made up of the contained parts:

Συλλογή από πιάτα “Collection of plates ”

Ενώ η επιτροπή, η οποία αποτελείται από πέντε ακαδημαϊκούς , Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ. 1 “While the committee , on which five academicians sit , “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p.1

In my view, the difference between the two semantic categories lies in the fact that in the case of content, as in ποτήρι γεμάτο από νερό “a glass full of water”, the container exists independently of the content. Whereas, in the second case of “components” the final result (the circle of dance, the committee of Academicians, etc.) would have existed if the component parts were removed.

Manner Here apo with a conjoined noun in accusative function according to lexicographers as an adverb of manner.

Με φωτογράφισε από το πλάι . “He photographed me on the side ”.

However, with a closer apo and its conjoined noun signal the point from which someone acts.

Anaphora Lexicographers posed this as a separate category:

91 Apo in Modern Greek

Από υγεία είμαστε καλά “As for health we are fine” because the above example can be rephrased as όσον αφορά στην υγεία “relatively to health”, something which shows anaphora. However, in my view this anaphoric function pertains to cause: because of our good health, we feel well.

Apo with genitive Apo with genitive appears mainly in καθαρεύουσα (the official language of Modern Greek).

Place Point of Initiation Apo conjoined with a noun in genitive expresses the point of initiation in a movement.

Από πελάγου φυσάει το αεράκι “The breeze comes from the open sea ”

However, the above example may be quoted as follows, where an accusative is implied:

Από τη μεριά του πελάγου φυσάει το αεράκι. “Out of the sea the breeze comes”.Same in the following example:

Έρχομαι από [το σπίτι ] του θείου μου “I’m coming from my uncle’s [ house] ”

Transit Apo with genitive also expresses “transit”.

Μπορούσε να πάει και από στεριάς . “He could also go by land ”.

As aforementioned, in this case again apo and its conjoined noun express a point of initiation, while the rest of the Path is gapped.

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Time Onset When selecting genitive, apo functions in the domain of time and denotes the point of initiation of an action.

Απ΄ αρχής “From the beginning”

This is a literary prepositional expression (usually followed by a noun in genitive, e.g. ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς τοῦ ἔτους “from the beginning of the year”) signifying the point of initiation:

Στό σημεῖο μηδέν ὅπου εὐωδιάζει ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς πάλι ἕνα πουλί, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Γένεσις, σελ. 14

“At its zero point where a bird gives forth its fragnance from the beginning again”, Elytis, The Axion Esti , The Genesis , p. 18

However, the two words may combine in one: ἀπ’ ἀρχῆς>απαρχής. Then an adverb derives, which more or less has the same meaning (see also ἐν τάξει “in order” >εντάξει “ok”): απαρχής συμφώνησα μαζί του “I agreed with him from the beginning”. Other instances where apo selects genitive to denote onset are the following:

Από κτίσεως κόσμου “Since the creation of the world”

Από γεννησιμιού του “From birth ”

Posterior Apo is registered as denoting the posterior:

Από βροχής δεν πρέπει να μπαίνης ‘ς τα στάρια “You should not enter a field of wheat after rainfall ”

Εφέτος έσπειρα το χωράφι μου κριθάρι, από καιρού θα το βάλω σιτάρι “This year I sowed barley in my field, next year I will sow wheat”

93 Apo in Modern Greek

In my view in all the above examples apo and its conjoined element denote the point of initiation of a period.

Cause Apo with genitive functions in the domain of cause, as well.

Compulsory causation Από σκοπού τα λες αυτά για να με πειράξεις; “Are you saying these things intentionally to hurt me?”

In the above example apo and its conjoined noun denote cause ( σκοπός means “purpose”).

Agent 61 Από Θεού να σας έρθη (το κακό)! “May you be punished by God!” [God is personified]

Από στραβού διαβόλου “?οwing to the devil” [devil is personified]

See also the expression: αφεαυτού <αφ’ εαυτού <από εαυτού του “with one’s own initiative” i.e. the person is the Agent of the act.

Manner According to lexicographers, apo with a conjoined noun in genitive denotes manner. With a closer look though all these cases may be re-interpreted:

Από φυσικού του “by nature”: his nature is the cause of him acting this way.

Από καρδιάς έκλαψα “genuinely I cried”: his heart is the point of initiation of his crying (motion from a place).

Από μνήμης “by heart” : memory is the point of initiation of his knowledge (place).

61 For discussion of the notion “Agent” see section Apo and its External Role to a Motion Event (Animate Causation)

94 Apo in Modern Greek

Από στήθους “by heart” : στήθος is the point of initiation of the movement of knowledge.

Από θέσεως ισχύος “from a position of power” : The place of power is the point from which someone acts and his or her actions “move”.

Αφ’ υψηλού “being snobbish”: this is the place from which someone acts. Same as: από καθέδρας “ex cathedra “.

Therefore the semantic category of manner belongs to other semantic categories.

Anaphora According to lexicographers apo with a noun in genitive expresses anaphora. However, with a closer look this semantic category belongs to that of a point of initiation in space. Let’s take the examples:

Από φιλοσοφικής απόψεως “From a philosophical point of view”

Από καλλιτεχνικής απόψεως “From an artistic point of view”

Από πολιτιστικής απόψεως “From the point of view of civilization”

The above three examples refer metaphorically to a point of view in space, from which someone views things (acts). Apo with a noun in genitive occurs in the fossilized expression, which is categorized by lexicographers as an instance of anaphora:

Αφ’ ενός μεν χάρηκα, αφ’ ετέρου δε λυπήθηκα . “On the one hand I was happy, but on the other hand I was sad.”

The above example is interpreted locatively: from one point of view (i.e. position) I was happy, from another point of view (i.e. position) I was sad.

95 Apo in Modern Greek

Apo with nominative Rarely, apo conjoins with a noun in nominative. This nominative is the result of omission of certain lexical items and the occurrence of an elliptical sentence.

Place Partition Partition is placed under the general heading “place” because it takes place in physical space. Apo with nominative may express partition. However, when conjoined with a nominative reference is made to the subject of the sentence and not the object, as in the case of apo with accusative:

Να μπαίνουν μέσα οι εργάτες [nominative-subject to the verb μπαίνουν “get in”] από ένας . “The workers [subject] should get in one by one .”

Καθένας έχει και από μία γυναίκα [accusative-object to the verb έχει “has”] . “Each has a single wife”

The two examples above are instances of the semantic category διανομή “apportionment” 62 .

Time Similar to apo with accusative, apo with nominative functions in the domain of time.

Onset Apo with nominative expresses the starting point on a time axis.

Τέτοια ζωή κάνει από (τότε που ήταν) νέος. “He has been living like this since (he was) young ”.

Cause Manner According to lexicographers, apo with a conjoined noun in nominative expresses manner. However, with a closer look it becomes evident that the function is causal, which may be the primary reason why the semantic category of “manner” was placed under the heading “cause” by lexicographers.

62 See sub-section Partition in Apo in Modern Greek (with accusative)

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Ἀπό μόνες τους ἄνοιξαν [οι πόρτες], Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, λόγος 5 ος , Ο Θάνατος των Αρχαίων, στροφή 1 η, στ.6

“Of themselves they opened wide [the Gates]”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto V, The Death of the Ancients , stanza 1, line 4

Το έφτιαξε από μόνος του. “He did it himself ”. [He was the Agent of the action]

Alteration Apo with nominative expresses alteration. The reason that the conjoined to apo noun is in the nominative case is that it refers to the subject.

Από σπίτι έγινε μνήμα . “From a house it became a tomb .”

Από δήμαρχος κλητήρας “He descended from being a Mayor to being an office boy”

In this case again apo expresses the starting point in the process of a transformation. The same function of alteration is also fulfilled by apo selecting an accusative, when it refers to the object of the sentence:

Τον έκαναν από δήμαρχο κλητήρα. “He was made an office boy from being a Mayor”.

Apo with adverbs Apo conjoins with adverbs. As part of this thesis, three cases were noticed:

(a) the prepositional phrase following the adverb, (b) preceding the adverb, (c) preceding and following the adverb. Let’s examine each case separately.

We start with the case where the adverb is followed by the prepositional

phrase. According to Holton e t al. (1997/2004: 370) this collocation is often called

“complex preposition” . In this case, the prepositional phrase acts as a point of

reference of the adverb. It specifies the point of initiation in the direction of

movement expressed by the adverb:

97 Apo in Modern Greek

Μετά από εσάς “After you”

Μετά “after” is a relational concept and is defined in relation to apo. After what? After the point expressed by apo and its conjoined item, as is evident in the following example as well:

Έπειτ ’ από μία πεντάμηνη περίοδο αδράνειας , Το Βήμα της Κυριακής 20-4- 2008, σελ. 4 “After a five-month period of idleness ”, “To Vima tis Kyriakis”, 20-4-2008, p.4

Let’s take another example;

Κάτω ἀπό τά βλέφαρα χίλιες ἁντένες, Σεφέρης, Ρουκέτα, στροφή 2η, στ.1-2 “Under the eyelids a thousand antennae”, Seferis, The Rocket , stanza 2, lines 1-2

In this case, also, the prepositional phrase functions as a point of reference for the specification of the relativist notion κάτω (“under”) in physical space. This use of apo is wide in language, as is evidenced by a large number of examples (see Appendix II). This happens because apo conjoins with nominals, which are an open class. Tachibana (1993: 428) mentions two semantic criteria in selecting apo instead of σε (se) when it comes to adverbs place, like πάνω . These are: (a) With or without contact betweent the located object and the reference point (ibid. ):

Μια λάμπα κρέμεται πάνω απ’ το τραπέζι (ibid.) [lack of contact, employment of apo ] “There is a lamp hanging over the table”.

Υπάρχει ένα βιβλίο πάνω στο τραπέζι (ibid.) [contact, employment of se ] “There is a book on the table”.

And (b) whether there is ““relative location” of the two objects in comparison with each other”, a parameter we discussed above:

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Φοράω παλτό πάνω από το πουλόβερ (ibid.) [the notion of πάνω needs to be specified in relation to apo ] “I am wearing a coat over the sweater”.

There are also cases, as aforementioned, where apo precedes the adverb. In this case, the adverb is “self-referential” (cf. Searle 1983: 224) that is evident from the context:

Καί ἐβγήκα ἀπό ἐκεί , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 6, σελ. 55 “And I came out”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 6, p. 75

This employment of apo is more restricted since it conjoins with adverbs, which are a closed class. For more examples, see Appendix II. There are, also, cases where apo apparently both precedes and follows the adverb. In this case, the first apo (the one preceding the adverbial phrase) refers to the whole adverbial phrase whose adverb is relational. The second apo (the one following the adverb) conjoins with a noun forming a prepositional phrase that acts as a point of reference to the preceding relational adverb, anchoring it in physical space. In this case again, there is a large number of examples because the nominals conjoined with the second apo form part of an open class (see Appendix II):

Πέταξε τη μπάλα από (πάνω από) το μπαλκόνι . “He threw the ball from (over the top of) the balcony”.

The first apo and its conjoined relational adverb signal the point of initiation of the motion expressed by the verb. The second apo and its conjoined noun act as a point of reference to the relational adverb πάνω . In the specific example, the expression πάνω από is optional because it is a known fact that a balcony is above the ground therefore the specification that the balcony is high is rendered pleonastic. Omission of the first apo, as in πέταξε τη μπάλα πάνω από το μπαλκόνι (“he threw the ball over the balcony”) would change the direction of motion. The balcony would not be the point of initiation of motion but would act as a point of reference for the specification of the relational adverb πάνω . The ball would go at any point over the balcony, e. g. on the roof by a person on the

99 Apo in Modern Greek

ground and would not be thrown from the balcony. However, in everyday speech, the two uses (with or without the first apo ) are interchangeable and convey the same meaning: motion either from the balcony downwards or from the balcony onwards by a person standing below the balcony.

(Από) πίσω από την πόρτα στέκεται. “She/he/it is standing behind the door .”

In the above example, the first apo could be omitted because the verb “stand” does not denote motion, something that apo pre-supposes , in contrast to an example of the type:

Από πίσω από την πόρτα βγήκε. “He came out from behind the door”

However, speakers employ the first apo, over-extensively. This phenomenon of repetition of apo is not observed with some adverbs like μετά , ύστερα , έπειτα, which always precede apo :

?Φέρ’ το από μετά από τις 5 “*Bring it from after five”

Pleonastic use of apo is observed next to adverbs ending in –θε (< ancient – θεν “(suffix) from”):

από μακριάθε “from afar”
από πέραθε “from far away”
από δώθε “from here”
από πρωίθεν “since morning”

Apo can also co-occur with two adverbs: πάνω από εδώ “above here” , έξω από εδώ “out of here” , πέρα από εκεί “away from there”, e.t.c. It becomes evident that the second adverb refers to a point in space, which functions as a point of reference for the definition of the first adverb:

Ἔξω , πόρνη, ἀπό ἐδῶ, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 6, σελ. 56. “Get out of here , you whore!” Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 7, p. 77

100 Apo in Modern Greek

In the case of introducing people, the stereotypical expressions with apo are witnessed:

Από (ε)δώ η κυρία τάδε…, από εκεί ο κύριος τάδε… “This is Mrs Doe…., and that is Mr Doe…”

Similar in the case, where apo is used with the adverbs: (ε)δώ “here”, (ε)κεί “there”. These stereotypical expressions refer to people and function as a demonstrative pronoun.

Να διαβάσει ο ηγούμενος από εδώ (αυτός εδώ) τη φυλλάδα του. “The abbot here please finish his sheet”.

Apo conjoined with an adverb frequently occurs pleonastically:

Kάθισε από πίσω = κάθισε πίσω “Sit in the back”

Kάτσε εσύ (από) δω κι εγώ (από ) εκεί =Κάθισε εσύ εδώ κι εγώ εκεί “You sit here and I (will sit) there ”

In this section, we have examined apo in Modern Greek. Apo takes a rich variety of forms mainly in dialects. Syntactically, it behaves as a preposition and no more as an adverb. It sub-categorizes with accusative and in fossilized cases with the genitive. It preserves the same semantic complexity as before. What is impressive is this unaltered continuation of meaning from Ancient to Modern Greek. Having traced the semantic portrait of apo historically we proceed to the analysis of the semantics of apo on the basis of a Motion event.

101

Part ΙΙ

102

Apo and Event Structure

103

We will argue that one level of semantic description involves an event based representation of a word or phrase, that is, the event structure mentioned above, Pustejovsky (1991:55)

104 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

6. Apo and Event Structure

6.1. Events, frames and schemata

In this chapter, we will propose a perspective on apo ’s configuration with events. To this end, we will briefly present an overview of what is an event in cognitive terms, and how it is bound in background knowledge represented in frames, scripts and schemata. “The human mind has a gift for bringing order to chaos”, (Zacks & Tversky 2001:3), that is to perceive and conceptually re-organize the outer world. Events are part of this continuum and are subjected to this organization. “Indeed, the world presents nothing but continuity and flux, yet we seem to perceive it as consisting of discrete entities that have some orderly relations,” (Zacks & Tversky, op. cit. ). According to Talmy, the ability of an observer to distinguish events in a continuum of action is linked to a cognitive function called “conceptual partitioning” or “ascription of entityhood”, (2003b: 215). Through perception and exposure to repeated experiences, human beings form “schemata”, Rumelhart & Ortony (1977); Rumelhart (1980), or “packets of knowledge that cut across content” (Van Dijk & Kintsch 1983: 47). Events can be defined in terms of these packets as “the central function of schemata is in the construction of an interpretation of an event”, (Rumelhart 1980: 37). Repeated exposure to an event category leads to the creation of a schema for that category. A schema theory is basically a theory about knowledge and how knowledge is represented to facilitate its use in particular ways, (Rumelhart 1980: 43). The term “schema” comes into psychology most directly from Bartlett (1932) and Kant (1787/1963) (as quoted by Rumelhart 1980: 33). A schema theory embodies a prototype theory of meaning, (Rumelhart 1980: 34). Schemata influence our perception of the world as well as our action through prediction and inference. They determine goals and roles in a perceived activity, as well as the partonomic and taxonomic structure of the activity, and allow for adaptive, probabilistic perception. There are four essential characteristics for schemata:

(a) they have variables (aspects to be filled in), (b) they are embedded in one another,

105 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

(c) they represent generic concepts which, taken all together, vary in their levels of abstraction, and (4) they represent knowledge rather than definitions, (Rumelhart & Ortony 1977: 101).

“Schema,” as developed in later research, seems to be a specific elaboration of the “frame theory” proposed by Minsky (1975). “A frame is a data-structure for representing a stereotypic situation […]. Attached to each frame are several kinds of information. Some of this information is about how to use the frame. Some is about what one can expect to happen next. Some is about what to do if these expectations are not confirmed“(Minsky 1975: 212). Frame theory was taken on by Fillmore, among others. However, the terms “frame” and “schema” came to alternate in the literature (Fillmore 1977: 58; Van Dijk & Kintsch 1983: 47). The main idea is this: certain schemata, or frameworks of concepts, link together as a system, which imposes structure or coherence on some aspect of human experience, (Fillmore 1975: 123). For example, the frame for a commercial event (Fillmore 1977: 58) would include facets (scenes) of two people being active, each of them performing two acts (the buyer, that of taking goods and surrendering the money and the seller, that of taking the money and surrendering the goods). In other words, when it comes to conceptual organization of reality or ascription of entityhood to events, all events are assessed i.e. ascribed as such compared to frames, which act as event types. Schemata or frames figure prominently in “script theory” (Schank & Abelson 1977). According to this theory, part of our knowledge is organized around stereotypic situations with routine activities, such as taking a bus. The term script is employed to refer to these action stereotypes, which are formed by culture or idiosyncratic reasons. In other words, “scripts are an important part in story understanding, they leave out the boring details, when you are talking or writing, and fill them in when you are listening or reading” (Schank & Abelson 1977: 41). Let’s take the restaurant script. It has standard roles to be played, standard props, standard sequences of actions, and so on. It, also, has restrictions: the Server Role must be a human, dressed appropriately and so on. Now, a script is organized into major scenes. (There seems to be general agreement as to what constitutes a scene in an activity (Bower et al. 1979). For example, the basic

106 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo scenes in a restaurant script would be: entering, ordering, eating and exiting. Each scene is composed of a sequence of actions. Entering involves the customer entering the restaurant, looking for a table, going to a table, sitting down, etc.). At different levels of abstraction, events may coincide, either with scenes, or with basic actions. Again, there is considerable agreement on what is a “basic level action” (Rosch et al, 1976). For example, people would choose as a basic action “he ate his soup” rather than “he picked up his spoon, dipped it into the bowl of soup, lifted it out, blew on it to cool it, raised it to his lips, put the spoon in his mouth”. This correlates to Grice’s (1975: 46) principle that one ought to speak or write so as to be informative but not overly redundant. Since people know how to eat soup it is unnecessary for a speaker to describe the steps in such detail. Schemata are closely tied to “situation models” (Johnson & Laird 1983, Van Dijk & Kintsch 1983, Zwaan & Radvansky 1998). Situations are part of the world and include events, episodes, and states of affairs, (Higginbotham 1983: 104). A situation consists of a number of individuals that possess certain specific properties and are related in specific ways (Johnson & Laird 1983: 439). It is characterized as a spatial-temporal framework in which a set of entities stand in relation to each other (Radvansky, Zwaan, Federico & Franklin 1998: 1224). Situations are identified in at least five dimensions: time, space, causality, intentionality, and protagonist (Zwaan & Radvansky 1998: 167), and are described through language. People combine this information with prior knowledge to create situation models. A situation model of a football game for example involves a temporal sequence of events, causal relations, and the interaction of individuals, (Johnson-Laird 1983: 414). Therefore, it incorporates temporal, spatial, causal, motivational, as well as person and object related information (Zwaan & Radvansky 1998: 163) 63 . In a discussion of situation models, it is important to distinguish them from the better known concept of schemata, which was mentioned above . Schemata are mental representations of stereotypical situations . If we take the

63 One theory of situation models is the “event-indexing model”. According to the event indexing model, events are the focal points of situations conveyed in narratives. They are connected in memory along five dimensions: time, space, protagonist, causality and intentionality. During comprehension each incoming event is decomposed into these five indexes, each of which individually plays a role in comprehension, (Radvansky, Zwaan, Federico & Franklin 1998: 1224; Zwaan & Radvansky 1998: 179; Zwaan, Langston, Graesser 1995: 292).

107 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo well known example of the restaurant script (Schank and Abelson 1977), it represents the actors, the props, the entry and the exit conditions, as well as any sequence of actions typically encountered in a restaurant visit. In contrast, a situation model of a restaurant visit would be a mental representation of a specific restaurant visit (e.g. Thursday, October 4, 1907). On this view, the distinction between schemata and situation models can be conceptualized as one between types (schemata) and tokens (situation models) (Zwaan & Radvansky 1998: 162). Therefore, events gain entityhood by their constant assessment through schemata or frames. Even if one rejects the necessity of situation semantics for a proper understanding of perception (cf. Higginbotham 1983: 125), events still retain their ontological status.

6.2. Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

In chapters (2, 3, 4, 5) we reviewed all uses of apo and its proposed meanings in the literature to date. In the preceding section, we adumbrated notions such as event, frame and schema, which will be used in the proposed analysis of apo and, additionally, the construction of an account of its unified semantics . In this chapter, therefore, we will propose the semantics of apo within this framework of event structure . The overarching assumption is that the semantics of apo can be unified within a basic schema that extends from concrete domains of function to also more abstract conceptual domains. A further assumption is that the meaning of the item can only be supplied with the construction it contracts with various event types. Its meaning, therefore, is constructional. As shown already in Part One of the thesis, approximately 40 meanings have been given by lexicographers throughout the centuries for apo . This meaning variability is probably explained on the basis of meaning shedding; in other words, lexicographers projected the verb meaning onto the preposition. This is in line with Searle (1983: 147), who argued that literal meaning “is understood within a Network of Intentional states and against a background of capacities and social practices”. The examples cited ( ibid. 146) are: “The chairman opened the meeting”, “The artillery opened fire”, “Bill opened a restaurant”. Despite the fact, that “the semantic content contributed by the word open is the

108 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo same in each [example] the way the semantic content is understood is different” (ibid. ). In my view, the same happened with apo. Its semantic content was understood differently by lexicographers in different constructions and this led to this meaning variability. It is not clear whether apo was treated as homonymous or polysemous. In the latter case, it was not at all clear whether there was a basic meaning that could encompass all other meaning variations within a principled unified range, or if there was a core meaning expanding within a certain range. Polysemy is understood in a broad sense as variation in the construal of a word on different occasions of use, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 109). In fact, we will propose that this unconstrained multi-semanticity of apo is expressed by -and can be subsumed under- a single word “dislocation” in physical space, which is metaphorically projected into time and cause. The semantic complexity of apo is portrayed by the fact that at least twelve words are used in English to express the same meanings: since, from, of, off, than, by, out of (as in “out of fear” από φόβο ), (next) to, across (as in “across the field” μέσα από το χωράφι ) with (as in αγόρασε αυτοκίνητο από το μισθό του “he bought a car with his salary”), to (as in κρεμάστηκε από το κλαδί “he held on to a branch”), through (as in πέρασα από το Λονδίνο “I passed through London”) , on (as in ζει από την σύνταξή του “He lives on his pension”):

Greek English Από from out of of (next) to off across since with by to on through as for Ø Table 1: A po and its translational equivalents in Greek.

Very crudely, from denotes geographical origin, e.g. “I am from England”. Of is a relational predicate that designates an intrinsic relationship: it is found in part-whole relations, e.g. “a piece of bread”; it expresses the relation between a secondary material and the object made of it, e.g. “bottle made of glass” ( from on the other hand denotes the relation between a primary material and the object made from it, e.g. “glass made from sand”, (Doff & Jones 2002: 134); it expresses

109 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo the relation of a “whole” with its constitutive parts, e.g. “a bunch of flowers”; it expresses the relation one entity bears to another, e.g. “The Mayor of London”, (cf. Langacker 1999: 181; 1993: 218). S ince has a temporal function, e. g. “I have known him since 1979”. Out of is causal, e.g. “He ran out of fear”. By expresses the Agent, e. g. “He was killed by his brother”. I will argue that all meanings of apo, which we presented in part I of the thesis, can be epitomized into three categories:

• Dislocation in physical space • Dislocation in time • Dislocation in a causal chain

In their turn all these three categories can be epitomized into a major one: Motion. This metaphorical extension in the function of a preposition from the concrete domain (physical space) to the abstract domains of time and cause was noted by K őhner ( op. cit. p. 467-468) at the end of 19 th century and was recaptured by modern Linguists (K ıvecses 2005; Lakoff 1993; Lakoff & Turner 1989; Lakoff & Johnson 1980; Lakoff 1990, amongst others). These metaphorical mappings portray and ensure the economy in communication: the set of linguistics tools employed to describe the world around us is minimized. Humans employ the tangible to refer to the abstract. This view was beautifully expressed by an artist: The enchanted city…It is not Copenhagen, Rome, London or other cities; I meant it to be the enchanted city. But without Copenhagen, Rome, London, etc. – without experience and adaptation from reality, no city at all, (adapted from a text by Paul Nielsen, in the exhibition entitled Man, Dream and Fear, Orpheus and Eurydice, Cycladic Art Museum, Athens, duration: 22 September 2009- 25 October 2009). So apo can be represented as a more holistic construction to reflect its event structure:

f (x, y)

• x and y are the arguments of apo • x is the argument sub-categorized by apo

110 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Apo cannot stand without a second argument y, which may be unarticulated, as will be evident from all the following examples of this section. This reveals a vestige of the Sanskrit meaning “link”. The restrictions of this function are:

• x and y must take values from the same domain (physical space, time, causality)

For example, we cannot say:

#Από τις πέντε [time] έως την πλατεία Αριστοτέλους [physical space] #“From five to Aristotelous square ”

#Από μαύρο έγινε παγωτό #”It turned into ice-cream from black ”

In the above example, the same domain violation is exhibited: the result y (ice-cream) forms part of the domain “food” whereas the cause x (black) forms part of the domain “color” and the two domains are not naturally continuous. This relates to Fillmore’s notion of frames, (Fillmore 1977; 1985) that pose restrictions to co-occurrence of items.

• y must always be more than x (y>x)

We cannot say:

#Από τη Θεσσαλονίκη έως την πλατεία Αριστοτέλους #“From Thessalonica to Aristotelous square” because Thessalonica is the set (the whole) and πλατεία Αριστοτέλους (“Aristotelous square”) is the member (the part). Therefore, y>x is violated.

We cannot say:

#Θα σε συναντήσω από τις 5 έως τις 5 παρά τέταρτο # “I will meet you from 5 to a quarter to five”. because a quarter to five is less than 5 (it lies before on a time line) and so y>x restriction is violated.

111 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

We cannot say:

#Από το γιαούρτι έφτιαξε γάλα # “He made milk from yoghurt ”

Yoghurt (point y) follows milk (point x) in a causal chain. So, y>x restriction is violated. Even if we did acquire a kind of milk from yoghurt, this would be “sour milk”. We would never acquire the same milk again. We move on to explain how all meanings attributed to apo by lexicographers can be included in the three major semantic functions: dislocation in physical space, dislocation in time, dislocation in a causal chain.

Dislocation in physical space

This accounts for the following categories set by lexicographers:

Place from which someone acts

Έβγαζε λόγο από το μπαλκόνι. “He was giving a speech from the balcony”.

Speech moves in physical space and reaches a point y (the audience), which is beyond the point x (the balcony), therefore y>x.

Distancing

Η βάρκα έφευγε από την ακτή. “The boat was moving away from the shore”.

In this case a physical object moves away from a point x in physical space (the coast) towards a point y (which is in the sea). Therefore, y>x.

Non definite distance

Ζει μακριά από τη γυναίκα του. “He lives away from his wife”.

112 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

This implies that the person used to live with his wife (at a point x) and then moved away (to a point y), therefore y>x.

Definite distance

Η Θεσσαλονίκη είναι 500 χιλιόμετρα από την Αθήνα . “Thessalonica is 500 km away from Athens ”.

At a first reading motion is not evident; it is implied: the person who did the measurement moved from point x (Athens) to point y (Thessalonica) or vice- versa (profiling changes). Therefore y>x. We can argue that definite distance is a case of “extensive measure function”, which turns an empirical knowledge into a numerical relation, (cf. Krifka 1998: 200, 201). E.g.:

Η Θεσσαλονίκη είναι μακριά [empirical knowledge] (500 χιλιόμετρα ) [numerical relation] από την Αθήνα. “Thessalonica is (500 km.) [numerical knowledge] away [empirical knowledge] from Athens”.

Comparison

Ο Κώστας είναι πιο ψηλός από τον Γιάννη. “John is taller than John”.

Comparison presupposes proximity of the two entities compared (at point x) and then distancing of one of the two (to point y), whereby the difference is evident and is the distance from x to y. In this case again, y>x (within the same domain, that is, frame, schema or script structure).

Calculation

Το κούρεμα στοιχίζει από πέντε ευρώ και πάνω . “The haircut is over five euros”.

The process of calculation is movement from point x (five euros) to a point y, which is beyond x. Therefore, y>x. y in this example is undefined.

113 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Absence

Απουσιάζει από το μάθημα ο μαθητής. ‘The student is absent from the class”

This case again is an instance of distance. The student belongs (during the time of the lesson) in class (point x). When he is absent he has moved away from this point x to point y. Therefore y>x. Under the term “absence” the semantic categories of “exception”, “removal” and “subtraction” were encompassed. The static term “absence” refers to the result of the afore-mentioned dynamic processes.

Deliverance

Γλίτωσα από τον πόνο . “I was spared the pain ”.

Γλίτωσα την Κάτια από το θάνατο. “I saved Katia from death”.

It is an instance of metaphorical “distancing”. Deliverance presupposes prior proximity of the person to that he or she is relieved from (at point x) and then distancing of the person to another point y (which is beyond x). Therefore, y>x. It is remarkable that in this case the entity moved (the Figure, see section below) is the human and that “pain” or “death”are re-ified and considered as something stable (Ground, see section below) from which the human entity is removed (Figure). Pain allows for a double reading: in some cases it is objectified, as in here, and is visualized as the Ground, in other cases it is conceptualized as a Figure, as in:

Mου πέρασε ο πόνος . “The pain is gone”.

114 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Deprivation

Είναι στερημένος από αγάπη “He is deprived of love ”

It is an instance of “distancing”. In this case, the person is involuntarily moved away from the lexical item conjoined with apo (point x and which represents a desired state) to an indefinite point (y). In this case again, y>x. The desired state is considered given.

Στερώ από κάποιον την αγάπη. “I deprive someone of love”.

Notice that in this case, love is conceptualized as an intrinsic component of humans, from which a person is removed. Thinking in syntactic terms: the verb “deprive” means “take away” or “remove”, in this case remove the component of love (Figure, direct object) from the whole of human nature (Ground, indirect object)

Transit

Πέρασε από την πόλη . “He passed through the city”

In this case again, apo correlates with a verb of Motion and signals a new point of initiation (point x), new in the sense that motion had already began from another point x’ in space. From this second point x movement continues to point y. In this case, the restriction y>x>x’ holds. “Transit” is actually a case of distancing. The speaker does not mention the first point of initiation x’, which was before the city and emerges as a false start of the movement, the second point (x in the city).

Geographical Origin

Είμαι από τη Θεσσαλονίκη. “I am from Thessalonica ”.

115 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

This utterance can be interpreted in two ways: either that I was born in Thessalonica and I now live in another city (therefore dislocation has occurred) or that I was born and I now live in Thessalonica, in which case I am a “product” of this city. 64 When a dislocation has occurred then apo and its conjoined element signal a point [x] in space, which marks the point of initiation of the movement of the person, from their place of birth or origin (point x) to their place of residence or existence or habitat (point y). The place of residence or habitat is beyond the place of birth or origin, therefore the restriction holds: y>x.

With an adverb

This case could be encompassed under the title “dislocation in time”, given the fact that many adverbs function in a binary way, in physical space and in time.

Από εδώ [point x] φύγε “Go this way”

In this case, the adverb follows apo and refers to a specific point in space. Conjoined with apo signals the point of initiation of movement (point x) towards an undefined point y. In the following two examples, apo functions in a prepositional phrase following the adverb. In this case, the deictic adverb needs to be defined in relation to a point in space, which point is expressed by apo and its conjoined noun. In this case the adverb precedes apo .

Πάνω από το τραπέζι “Above/over the table”

The noun conjoined with apo (the table) acts as a point of initiation (point x) towards the direction expressed by the adverb. Point y is everywhere in the direction denoted by the adverb. In this case, the table conjoined with apo functions as the point of initiation for a movement semantically inherent in apo in the direction denoted by the

64 See section of “Product” in Minimal Semantic Model

116 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo adverb πάνω. Therefore the movement is going to start from the table “on- wards”. This movement becomes evident if we replace apo with σε as in :

Πάνω στο τραπέζι “On the table” where it conveys a sense of stability (lack of motion).

Taking the adverb κάτω “under” the reverse (but analogically the same) relation holds: downwards (starting from point x, which is the table).

Κάτω από το τραπέζι “Below/underneath the table”

Partition Partition, according to Talmy (2003a: 51) is a cognitive operation of “portion excerpting”. By this operation a portion of the specified unbounded quantity is demarcated and placed in the foreground of attention. This is what apo does: it demarcates an entity and places the demarcated portion in the foreground of attention. In partition, there is the model:

NP of NP

The second NP (which in our case is sub-categorized with apo ) specifies the identity of the whole, which is conceptualized as without intrinsic bounds. The first NP specifies the bounding, the portion excerpting per se of the quantity. Also, it may specify the form that the excerpted portion exhibits, (Talmy 2003a: 77):

Ένα κομμάτι από το ψωμί σου “A piece of your bread ”

The two NP’s code two levels of synthesis: the second NP (bread) specifies the unsynthesized multi-plexity, while the first NP (piece) specifies a particular Gestalt (= figure) synthesized out of that multi-plexity. These two levels can be

117 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo termed respectively, the “componential level” of synthesis and the “Gestalt level of synthesis”, (Talmy 2003a: 78). Apo refers to entities that are not quantized (calibrated) yet but that are going to be quantized through the process of partition. This happens by the use of containers (units) like, liter, kilogram , or hour , which have “extensive measuring functions”: counting of units, arises directly because the empirical relational structure contains a concatenation operation, (Krantz et al 1971: 34, ch. 3):

Three liters of water Τρία λίτρα από νερό

An hour of your time Μία ώρα από το χρόνο σου

Two kilograms of tomatoes Δύο κιλά (από) ντομάτες

Notice that quantification relates the parts with a whole, which whole may be a universe of individuals or of masses, (Krifka 1998: 203). In our last example, the parts (two kilograms) are taken from a universe or class or set of individual tomatoes and not from a universe of a “single tomato” mass. Apo can also conjoin with a singular noun, whose denotation has natural parts (Chierchia 1998: 78).

Πήρε τα κλαδιά απ’ το δέντρο . “He took the branches from the tree”

The branches are one of the natural parts of the tree (which is a natural kind). Therefore we have a meronymic relation. Meronymy is a relation between lexical units where the objects, etc., denoted by the one, are parts of the objects, etc., denoted by the other (Croft & Cruse 2004: 159; Mathews 1997, entry meronymy ). E.g., “finger” is a meronym of “hand”.

To δάχτυλο από το χέρι σου πληγώθηκε “The finger of your hand was hurt”

When it comes to partition, apo may refer to both types of parts, namely, “segmental” and “systemic”, (Cruse 1986).

118 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

“Segmental” parts are sequentially encountered when one traverses a whole along its major spatial axis (I believe that their function is portrayed by their name, which derives from the Latin secare “to cut”). For example, the segmental parts of a house are: the living room, the dining room, the kitchen etc, (Cruse 1986: 169). It is evident that apo correlates with such a type of parts:

Το σπίτι αποτελείται από κουζίνα, τραπεζαρία, μπάνιο , κλπ. “The house consists of a kitchen, a dining room, a bathroom , etc.”

“Systemic parts”, on the other hand, have greater functional unity, a greater consistency of internal constitution, they are spatially interpenetrating, but they are functionally distinct running along the major axis of the entity. They are less likely to be perceptually salient. (I believe that their function is portrayed by their name “systemic”, which derives from the Ancient Greek συν ἵσταμαι “hold together”). Typical examples in a house are: the bricks, the joinery, plasterwork, plumbing, wiring, etc., (Cruse 1986: 169). This again links to Fillmore’s frames since systemic parts are sub-frames of the original frame. It is evident that apo refers also to systemic parts:

Το σπίτι αποτελείται από τούβλα, τσιμέντο κλπ. “The house is formed by bricks, cement , etc.”

This leads to a question: when does segmenting stop? It is always possible to think of some portion smaller than the ultimate parts of something. The criterion is that there should always be “type-consistency”, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 155). There should be major discontinuity of the part with its surroundings coupled with internal cohesion of the part. The boundaries between the part and its surroundings are always identified on “the level of conceptual structure”, which is precisely the level that the visual system can provide information, (Jackendoff 1983: 51). A few more comments should be added with regard to partition. When apo correlates with a numerical NP as in the following utterance:

Ο καθένας πήρε από πέντε . “Each one took ( from ) five ”.

119 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

When one takes five, it is implied that he takes ≤ of five. He cannot take five without having taken... three. This is called “scalar implicature” and is part of compositional semantic structure, (Landman 1998: 242, 243). What is calculated is actually a comparative: in the specific context, no number is higher on that scale than the one reported, (Landman 1998:247). This is called the principle of “maximalization” (Landman 1998: 255). When apo correlates with an existential quantifier like o καθένας, η καθεμία, το καθένα (“each”), then a distributive reading is imposed. Each member of the “team” (of a given event e) is the Agent of a mini-event which forms part of the bigger event (plural event), (Lasersohn 1998: 275, 282, 290; Bach 1986: 9). E.g., in the occasion of a Ball (as an event):

Ο καθένας από εμάς πήρε από μία γυναίκα, για να χορέψει. “Each of us took a woman to dance”.

In this case, we can visualize each person separately taking a woman to a dance. The whole event of the dance actually consists of a series of mini-events, whereby each person takes a woman to dance. There is still another model of partition, where of (one of the English equivalents of apo ) fits, (Fauconnier & Turner 2002: 144):

X be Y of Z

“He (X) is the Kennedy (Y) of our times (Z)” Είναι ( X) ο Κένεντυ (Y) της εποχής μας (Z)

The whole structure is a case of conceptual blending. Notice that in Greek, apo is replaced with a genitive. As a final comment, it should be added here that presence or absence of apo influences the aspectual class of a sentence. The same happens with from in English, (Hovav & Levin 2002: 1, 4). The E.g.:

120 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

“Mary read the book” (telic 65 ) Η Μαρία διάβασε το βιβλίο .

“Mary read from the book” (atelic 66 ) Η Μαρία διάβασε από το βιβλίο .

What actually happens in this case is quantization of the direct object (in our example the book ) of a traditional “incremental theme” verb, like read, write and eat , (Hovav & Levin 2002: 5). The term “incremental theme verb” refers to something that increases.

Boundaries

Από τη Θεσσαλονίκη έως την Αθήνα “From Thessalonica to Athens”

In this case, spatial boundaries are expressed. There is a dislocation from one boundary x to the other boundary y, which is further than x.

Dependence

Κρεμάστηκε από το ταβάνι. “He hung from the ceiling”.

The ceiling conjoined with apo becomes the point of initiation (x) of the movement of the hung entity. The point y lies in the uttermost end of the hung object and is further beyond x.

Mathematical use This is a semantic category posed by lexicographers of Ancient Greek, and it became evident that it can still be accounted for in terms of dislocation in physical space.

65 For the definition of “telic” see section “Dislocation in Time” in the “Internal Role of Apo in a Motion Event’. 66 For definition of “telic” see section “Dislocation in Time” in the “Internal Role of Apo in a Motion Event’.

121 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Ἒστω ἐν σφαίρᾳ μέγιστος κύκλος ὁ ΑΒΓΔ, καὶ ἐν αὐτῷ πολύγωνον ἐγγεγράφθω ἰσόπλευρον, οὗ αἱ πλευραὶ ὑπὸ τετράδος μετροῦνται, καὶ ἀπὸ τοῦ πολυγώνου τοῦ ἐγγεγραμμένου νοείσθω τι εἰς τὴν σφαῖραν ἐγγραφὲν σχῆμα Αρχιμ. Περί σφαίρας καὶ κυλίνδρου, κγ΄

“Let ABCD be the greatest circle in a sphere and in it let there be inscribed an equilateral polygon, the number of whose sides is divisible by far, and starting from the inscribed polygon , let there be imagined a figure inscribed in the sphere”, Archi. Sph. Cyl., prop. 23.

This is registered only by Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ) as a separate semantic category of apo. However, it is evident that this case, too, is a case of dislocation in space: the polygon is the point of initiation (point x) for the designing of a geometrical pattern, which will osculate point y (the sphere). It is evident that in this case again y>x, in the sense that in order to reach y we move away from x.

Manner Manner is another semantic function presented by lexicographers as operable by apo described for all periods of the Greek language. Each example needs a different interpretation but are all set in the same framework: that of dislocation in physical space.

ἣν οὐ δίκαιον, ἀλλ’ ἢ κἀκείνων κωλύειν τοὺς ἐκ τῆς ὑμετέρας μισθοφόρους ἢ καὶ ἡμῖν πέμπειν καθ’ ὅ τι ἂν πεισθῆτε ὠφελίαν, μάλιστα δὲ ἀπὸ τοῦ προφανοῦς δεξαμένους βοηθεῖν, Θουκ. 1. 35

“but it is right that you should either prevent them from raising mercenaries in places under your control, or else send aid to us also, on whatever terms you may be induced to make; but it would be best of all for you openly to receive and help us”, Th. 1. XΧΧV

In the above example, the expression, ἀπὸ τοῦ προφανοῦς refers to an obvious point in space (point x), from which the help takes place. The help reaches point y (“us”). Dislocation of the help is evident from point x to point y and y>x. What led the lexicographers to posit the semantic category of “manner” is that the expression ἀπὸ τοῦ προφανοῦς can be translated as προφανώς “evidently” (adverb). Let’ take a similar example:

122 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Από βάθους στενάξασα, Ανωνύμου, Διγενής Ακρίτας , 43 “I sighed from the bottom of my heart”

The above example was cited as an instance of “manner” by Κριαράς (op. cit. ) because it was interpreted as “I sighed deeply” [adverb]. However, apo and its conjoined noun express the point of initiation (point x) of the movement of sighing. The sigh starts from the bottom of the existence and reaches the external world (point y). Therefore, y>x.

Με φωτογράφισε από το πλάι . “He photographed me on the side ”.

In the above example, apo and its conjoined noun in accusative signal the point from which someone acts (point x). The point y is the person photographed (the ending of the act), y>x.

Από καρδιάς έκλαψα “Genuinely [from my heart] I cried”

In the above example, apo and its conjoined noun in genitive denote the point of initiation of crying (point x, the heart). Crying reaches external world (his eyes, point y) along a trajectory from inner to outer space. Again y>x.

With Static verbs implied anterior motion

ἀνὰ δ’ ἐβόασεν λεὼς Τρῳάδος ἀπὸ πέτρας σταθείς, Ευρ. Τρω. 523 “And afar [standing on a rock] from the rock ’s sheer crest a shout did the Troy folk fling” , E. Tr . 523

This again was posed as a separate category by Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ). However, it is the semantic category: point from which someone acts. In this case again, apo and its conjoined noun express the point (point x) from which the dislocation of the voice starts. The voice moves beyond the subject along a trajectory to a point y, therefore y>x.

123 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Apo with an article

This case again, was cited as a special semantic category by lexicographers (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. ). However, as already discussed in section “ Apo with an article” (of Ancient Greek) this case pertains to other semantic functions.

Ἀκούοντες οὖν ταῦτα οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν πόλεων πρέσβεις , ἀπήγγελλον ἐπὶ τὰς ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστοι πόλεις, Ξεν. Ελ . 5. 1, 32

“Upon hearing these words the ambassadors frοm the various states reported to their own several states”, Xenoph. H. G. VI 32

In this case again, apo and its conjoined noun express the point of initiation of the movement of the ambassadors (point x), which were the cities they came from. The point where they heard the news is point y, which was away from their cities of origin, therefore, y>x.

Anaphora

οὕτω ὦν καὶ τὰ ἀπὸ τῆς νήσου τῆς ἐπὶ Λιβύῃ κειμένης οἰκότα ἐστὶ ἀληθείῃ, Ηροδ. 4. 195

“Τhus then the story coming from [regarding] the island off the Libyan coast is like the truth”, Hdt. 4. 195

This example was cited as an instance of anaphora by Liddell & Scott ( op. cit. ). However, it is an instance of dislocation. The news travels from the island (point x) towards another point y out of the island. Therefore, again y>x.

Ἄν ἐθυμάται [κάτι] ἀπό γονιούς τίποτες ρώτηξέ τη, Ασσίζες 106 18 “If she remembers anything from her parents, ask her”

The above example was cited as an instance of anaphora by Κριαράς (op. cit. ). It expresses dislocation: the memories come from the domain of parents in the sub-conscious (point x) towards the level of consciousness (point y). Therefore y>x along a trajectory from deeper (inner) levels to outer ones.

Από φιλοσοφικής απόψεως “From a philosophical point of view”

124 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

The above example refers metaphorically to a point x in space (point of view) from which someone views things, therefore acts. What he or she views is point y, which is informed by point x again along an assumed trajectory. Therefore y>x.:

Content

Γεμάτος από χαρά “Full of joy”

Lexicographers influenced by the presence of the adjective γεμάτος “full” named this category: “content”. However, it is an instance of partition. A part of joy moved from total joy and filled the person. The total of joy is the initial point of dislocation (point x). The recipient of joy (the person –point y) is beyond x. Χαρά (joy) is metaphorised and re-ified as existing independently of subjects who have this emotion. The subjects are viewed as containers filled with a substance ( χαρά “joy”) which comes (originates) from an outer point.

Dislocation in time

The dislocation expressed by apo in physical terms metaphorically expands onto the time domain. There is mapping of the abstract domain of time onto the concrete of physical space for better comprehension. Therefore the semantic functions of apo described by lexicographers can be accounted for in terms of the same model:

Onset

Δουλεύω από τις 5 το πρωί “I have been working since 5 in the morning”

There is dislocation on a time axis. On the time axis, “now” is zero. Five in the morning is the point of initiation of the activity (point x), which is before “now” on the time axis. Therefore y>x.

125 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Posterior ἀπικομένους δὲ τῆ ὑστεραίῃ τοὺς Πέρσας κατακλίνας ἐς λειμῶνα εὐώχεε. ἐπείτε δὲ ἀπὸ δείπνου ἦσαν, εἴρετό σφεας ὁ Κῦρος κότερα τὰ τῇ προτεραίῃ εἶχον ἢ τὰ παρεόντα σφι εἴη αἱρετώτερα, Ηροδ. 1. 126

“When the Persians came on the next day he made them sit and feast in a meadow. After dinner he asked them which pleased them best, their task of yesterday or their present state”, Hdt. I. 126

Ἀπό θανάτου τοῦ ρέ Πιέρ ἀρμάσθη μέ τόν ὑιόν τοῦ πρίντζη , Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 578 22

“Following King Pier’s death she got engaged with the son of the prince”, Λεόντιος Μαχαιράς, Το Χρονικόν της Κύπρου, 578 22

Από βροχής δεν πρέπει να μπαίνης ‘ς τα στάρια “You should not enter a field with wheat after rain ”

The above three examples were included by lexicographers in the semantic category “posterior”. However, each event conjoined with apo (dinner, death, rain) functions as point of initiation (point x) of the time period in which the act denoted by the verb (asking, joining forces, entering) occurs. This time period extends from point x (dinner, death, rain) to eternity. The point y (at which the act denoted by the verb occurs) is any point on the linear time axis following point x. Therefore, y>x.

Boundaries

Δουλεύω από τις οκτώ ως τις δέκα . “I work from five to ten”

In this case again, we have dislocation in time. Apo and its conjoined noun express the point of initiation of a period, which extends to point y, expressed by ως “until”. Point y is further beyond on the time axis, therefore y>x.

126 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Dislocation in a Causal Chain

In my opinion, other semantic functions of apo are causal and express a dislocation in a causal chain. “A causal chain consists of something continuing to exist [evidently or inherently], a persistent lump of matter for example”, (Lewis 1986: 261). As Aristotle beautifully shows this eternal cycle of the transformation of the same matter: “everything that changes, changes from something into something; that which has changed, as soon as it has changed, must be in that in which it has changed”, (Aristotle, Physics, VI 235 b6). This dislocation occurs within the same micro-universe: point x is the “initial” form of matter (the “cause of giving birth” γενεσιουργός αιτία ), which through internal dislocation leads to point y. Point y is a point beyond x in a process trajectory from x of becoming y. In actual terms, y=x n. In other words x is part of y. This explains why in a change of state Motion Event, the Ground, the Figure and the Goal (the ending point of the Motion) all refer to the same real world entity (Jackendoff 1990:125) 67 . In this process non regressability holds: who says that “it is not possible for an object to move more than once in the same quality space”, Davis (1970: 436). This dislocation in a causal chain will lead to:

1. Product 2. Construct 3. Change of State

Product

In this case, there is transition from an entity conjoined with apo (point x) to another entity (point y) through a natural process . Dislocation here is internal and forms part of the same universe (the universe of “milk” for example). This new entity forms a strong continuation of the first through causal relations. Again, the link with frame theory is obvious, since entity y (product) must be part of the same frame as entity x (original) and therefore lower down on the hierarchical structure:

67 For explanatory comments on the terms Motion Event, Ground, Figure and Goal see section Semantic components of a Motion Event.

127 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Γάλα από αγελάδα “Milk from a cow ”

#Γάλα από δέντρο #”Milk from a tree”

The Agentive role is secondary. Non-regressability holds ensuring y>x restriction. The semantic categories of “origin of a product”, “descent” are encompassed here.

Γιαούρτι [point y] από αγελαδινό γάλα [point x] “Yogurt of cow milk” #“Cow milk of yoghurt”

Derivation of yoghurt from milk is a non regressive natural process. The role of Agent is secondary.

Παιδί [point y ] από μετανάστες [point x] “Child of immigrants” #”immigrants of child”

“Geographic origin” could be encompassed here in the sense that an entity is the “product” [y] of the region [x], in which he or she lives. The great influence of the environment on human personality is depicted by Croft & Cruse (2004: 58), who claim that the concept of location includes temporal, epistemic, cultural, and physical elements. This correlates to what the phenomenological philosopher Heidegger calls “being in the world”: it is more than simple spatial inclusion, (Heidegger 1962: 79, 80) but it is an instance of “conceptual blending” (cf. Fauconnier & Turner 2002: 42, 43; Fauconnier 1985: 3) which influences the person. It could be claimed that “location” acts as the frame and the person is part of this frame: a person cannot develop separately from the environment he or she lives in. The strong causal relation between a person and his or her environment is evidenced by the fact that we can say:

Η Μαρία είναι από τη Θεσσαλονίκη. “Maria is from Thessalonica ”

#H Μαρία είναι από το ποτήρι #“Maria is from the glass ”

128 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

The latter construction is unlicensed as in the semantic components of glass the concept “human” does not exist. Whereas part of the semantic components of a city is “people” and Maria is a person, therefore continuity exists. This formation of Maria by the environment of Thessalonica is a “natural” process (no one intervenes). Non-regressability holds, y>x:

#Η Θεσσαλονίκη είναι από τη Μαρία #“Thessalonica is from Maria ”

In this case, apo usually correlates with the verb be and imposes an atemporal stative relation (cf. Langacker 1993: 220, 221; 1991: 204) of the person with the region. This relation is portrayed by the fact that apo and its conjoined noun can be transformed into an adjective:

Είμαι από το Λονδίνο = είμαι Λονδρέζος “I am from London ”= “I am a Londoner ”

This atemporal relation is further substantiated by the fact that we cannot say:

* ”He is being from London” .

This happens because active be cannot co-occur with a prepositional phrase, as in our case is apo , (cf. Zucchi 1998: 352).

Construct

In this case, there is transition from an entity conjoined with apo (x) to a new construct (y) through an implicit or explicit Agent or a machine . The new entity forms a continuation of the first through causal relations of the first with the intervention of an Agent or a machine:

Τραπέζι [y] από ξύλο [x] “Table [y] of wood [x]”

#Τραπέζι από αγελάδα #“Table of a cow”

129 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Non regressability holds ensuring y>x. The category of “matter” is encompassed here. Certain values are unlicensed on account of frame specifications and constraints (#Τραπέζι από αγελάδα). These conceptual frames of knowledge are well entrenched as background knowledge.

Τραπέζι [point y] από ξύλο [point x] “Table of wood ” #”Wood of table”

process

Figure 1 This transformational process from crude wood to finished product is a metaphoric Path.

The strong Agentive role is evident in the above example. Non regressability holds in the sense that the wood taken from a broken table won’t be the same as the one the table was constructed out of.

Ψωμί από σταρένιο αλεύρι “Bread from wheat flour” #“Flour from bread”

The category of “construct” brings into mind a comment by Talmy (2003a: 151): “viewing an entity may lead one to sense not only a history of its current configuration but also a potential or probable future succession of changes away from its current configuration. This is termed the sensing of structural history”. It is this feeling that drives people to transform an entity into something else. It must be noted that this potential future succession of forms will be part of the frame of the initial entity.

130 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Change of state

In this case, there is no product or construct (new entity) but there is a change of state in the same entity. Apo denotes transition from a state x to a state y in the same entity. Non regressability holds (therefore y>x). The semantic categories of “alteration” is witnessed here:

Από δήμαρχος [point x] έγινε κλητήρας [point y]. “From a Mayor he became an office boy”.

An eloquent comment: the reverse is still possible.

Από κλητήρας έγινε ( πάλι) δήμαρχος. “From an office boy he became a Mayor (again)”

Mayor Office boy

Role Role

Figure 2: transition from one role to the other is possible, since the two roles constitute two different domains

This does not abolish the restriction (y>x) for two reasons: first, even if one becomes a Mayor again he or she will bear the marks of his or her previous situation. Second, in semantic terms becoming a Mayor again (from being an office boy) is still moving beyond the sense boundaries of “office boy”. Office boy and Mayor constitute two different domains (frames) or sub-domains or subframes, and moving in and out is possible. What would abolish the restriction is the following statement:

#Aπό μαραγκός [x], έγινε μαθητευόμενος μαραγκός [y]. #He descended from being a carpenter to being an apprentice-carpenter .

In this example, the concept “apprentice-carpenter ” falls under the concept of “carpenter ”, therefore y

131 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Non regressability in change of state is underlined by Talmy who claims that the constraint in state departure is that once one has left a state, it is not possible for him or her to go back to it again, (Talmy 2003b: 86). This is due to the fact that moving back into a previous state would involve regression in time, which is impossible. So, while “Mayor” and “office boy” are roles, “carpenter” in relation to “apprentice-carpenter” profile aspects of an emergent process with a beginning and an end (event). Up to here we have seen how the apparently many semantic functions of apo pertain to actually one:

Motion apo point x point y

in physical space in time in a causal chain

Where: x and y belong in the same domain (frame) y>x

Motion Event

These functions are expressed in a Motion event. 68 This event can be accompanied by an external co-event of cause, (Talmy 2003b: 24). Apo plays a binary role in relation to a Motion- event:

• It plays an internal role to the Motion event, whereby it signals the initial point in the dislocation • An external to the Motion event role, whereby it introduces the external cause of the Motion event. This cause might be either animate or inanimate: 69

68 See section Motion Event 69 See section Apo and its Supportive function to a Motion Event

132 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

Motion

apo point x point y apo

• in physical space • in time • in a causal chain Cause

Where:

• x and y belong in the same domain • y>x

External Cause Motion Event

In this case (where apo denotes the external role to a Motion event) the same dislocation occurs at a higher level of a causal chain: the cause (nominalised event sub-categorized with apo ) functions as the point of initiation x in a causal chain which leads to a point y that is the resulting Motion event:

x (external cause) y (Motion Event)

This external causal relation of apo in a Motion event actually refers to the following categories imposed by lexicographers: αναγκαστικό αίτιο (“compulsory causation”), ποιητικό αίτιο (“Agent”), προτρεπτικό αίτιο (“motivating cause”), όργανο (“instrument”), μέσο (“Intermediary”), περιστάσεις (“circumstances”) and πόροι ζωής (“life resources”), (cf. Γιαννακόπουλος 1991; Τζάρτζανος 1946; Δημητράκος 1958).

Αναγκαστικό Αίτιο (“Compulsory Causation”) This is a term employed by Γιαννακόπουλος (1991: 384). As previously stated 70 , this term is employed indiscriminately to refer either to animate or

70 See section Apo in Modern Greek

133 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo inanimate causation. This distinction is irrelevant to our model, since in any case apo and its conjoined noun perform an external causal role to the event described.

Η σκύλα από τη βιάση της γεννάει τυφλά κουτάβια, (Γιαννακόπουλος 1991:381). “The dog gives birth to blind puppies out of hastiness ”

There is a Motion event (giving birth to blind puppies) having “hastiness” as external cause ( in relation to the structure of the birth event per se). Notice, how the adverbial relation of cause imposed by apo, refers to the whole event argument of birth. There is here a mental force (hastiness) that maps onto a physical force (delivery).

Ποιητικό Αίτιο (“Agent”, “Animate”)

By the term ποιητικό αίτιο reference is made to animate causation, either purposeful (Agent) or accidental.

Σκοτωμένος από τον εχθρό. “Killed by the enemy”

There is a Motion event (an event of killing: there is a change of state of the entity that moves from life to death along a trajectory) in the change of state an entity, who moves from life to death). This change of change was invoked by an external animate cause (enemy).

Προτρεπτικό Αίτιο (“Motivating Causation”)

As previously discussed 71 Δημητράκος (1958) employs the term προτρεπτικό αίτιο (“motivating causation “). I assume it refers to internal to the subject causation. In this case, cause may be internal to the subject (part of inner world) but is external to the structure of the event per se .

Πήδηξε από χαρά . “He jumped with joy ”

71 See section Apo in Modern Greek

134 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

There is a Motion event (dislocation in physical space), with the external (to the event) cause of joy .

Όργανο (“Instrument”)

Παγωτό από τη μηχανή “ Machine ice-cream”

There is a Motion event: a change of state (milk [point x] to ice-cream [y]). The machine is independent of ice-cream (therefore external to it) and is the mechanical cause of the Motion event. This relates to the notion of construct discussed above. In this case, we discuss the same phenomenon from another point of view: we do not focus on the end-point of the process (ice-cream-construct-strong agentive role) but rather on the beginning point (the machine is an extension of the Agent) of the process.

Μέσον (“Intermediary”)

Τον γνώρισε από τη φωνή “She recognized him from his voice ”

A mental Motion event occurs (change of internal, mental state from ignorance to knowledge) with the external cause being the voice.

Περιστάσεις (“Circumstances”)

Από τις κακουχίες αρρώστησε. “His ordeals made him ill”.

A Motion event occurs (the change of state of the person: the passing from well-being to illness) with the external cause being his misfortunes.

Πόροι Ζωής (“Life Resources”)

Αγόρασε αυτοκίνητο απ΄ το μισθό του. “He bought a car with his salary”.

135 Minimal Semantic Model for Apo

There is a Motion event (where from the state of not having one passes to the state of having) with external cause the salary, which is considered a resource of life.

Up to here we have shown how the meaning variability of apo detected by lexicographers throughout the centuries can be epitomized into one notion: dislocation from a point x to a(n unarticulated) point y along a trajectory in physical space, time or cause (transformation chain), functions expressed in a Motion event 72 . Furthermore, apo and its conjoined noun may play an external causal role to the Motion event 73 . In this case, again, the causal force expressed by apo and its conjoined noun is point x and the outcome (the whole event) is point y along a causal chain. In this section we have tried to re-organize the variability of meaning (or unprincipled polysemy) offered for apo by lexicographers throughout the centuries and present a more minimal and elegant model. Apo imposes a dislocation from point x (the lexical item sub-categorized with apo ) to an obligatory but often unarticulated point y. Thus, apo is inherently dynamic. This dislocation may occur in physical space and metaphorically expand to time and cause. The restrictions are that both x and y must be part of the same domain (frame) and that y>x. When the dislocation is on a causal chain, the outcome (point y) may be a product, a construct or a further step on the transformational chain. Further, apo in free form may play a causal external to the event role, which accounts for all traditional labels attributed to it. In short, the semantic model proposed is minimal and unified as it is grounded in a basic core function, it is functional, as it can extend to encompass the majority of its uses and account for them within the frame of principled polysemy. In the next chapter, we will examine this semantic function of apo (dislocation in two-dimensional space, time and cause) as expressed in a Motion event in language in order to see how apo correlates with a Motion event.

72 See section Motion Event 73 See section Apo and its supportive role to a Motion Event

136

Apo and a Motion Event

137

“everything that moves, moves in time, and changes from something to something ”, (Aristotle, Physics, VI 238 a 23).

“everything that moves, moves in some respect […] of place per se and of quality per accidens”, (Aristotle, Physics, VI 235 a 13).

“Motion is one of the two types of change identified by Aristotle. The other being change in quality and existential change”, (Gill 1993: 487).

138 A Motion Event

7. Apo and a Motion Event

7.1. What is a Motion Event?

A Motion event depicts primarily physical motion and metaphorically expands to denote temporal contouring (Talmy 2003b: 213) and change of state, (Talmy 2003b: 40). This is in line with Krifka (1998: 228-230), who says that change of qualities is structurally similar to movement in space. Mary heated the water from 30 o degrees to 90 o degrees Celsius, (which expresses change of state) can be treated in the same way as Mary walked from the university to the Capitol, because it denotes a change in the directed Path structure of temperature. Fixed degrees like 30 o denote locations in the directed path space of temperature. Bake, for another example, denotes change in the directed Path structure of being cooked. 74

A Motion event was first conceived by Aristotle:

ἐπεὶ πᾶσα κίνησις μεταβολή τις, […] ἀνάγκη τὴν ἐξ ὑποκειμένου εἰς ὑποκείμενον μεταβολὴν κίνησιν εἶναι μόνην, Αριστ. Φυσικά Ε1. 225a 34 “Since all movement is change […] only the change from A to B is movement”

More researchers draw a parallel between themes of changes of locations (Figures in Talmy’s terminology) and Patients of changes of state. These parallels were first drawn in localist theories (Jackendoff 1976, 1983: 196 ff), which conceptualize changes of state as instances of changes of location. Also, in Lakoff (1990: 55) the passing of time is motion, something that justifies temporal contouring being part of a motion event. Here is the formula suggested by Talmy (2003a: 341) for a Motion Event:

Motion Event

Motion /MOVE/ BE LOCATED/ Figure Ground Path (=Vector + Conformation + D eictic)

74 Unless the context says anything to the contrary then the starting point of the change is the origins of a scale (for example in the case of bake it would be raw ), (Krifka 1998: 229, 230).

139 A Motion Event

7.2. Semantic Components of a Motion Event

The semantic components of a Motion are constant. Any change in them will constitute a new event, (Zacks and Tversky 2001: 10). They are interrelated and all together form the frame of a Motion event, (Talmy 2003a: 290). The components of a Motion event (as they are already inscribed in the above table) are the following, (Talmy 2003b: 25,107):

Motion

By the term “ Motion ” reference is made either to “ translational motion ” (whereby a physical entity moves) or to locatedness (whereby a physical object is located in respect of another), (Talmy 2003b: 25). This binary notion of movement is in line with Aristotle who claims that “everything […] is either moving or at rest […] that is coming to a stand must be moving”, (Aristotle, Physics, 238 b 23). For Talmy, much to our agreement, “ rest ” is a type of “ self-contained motion ” (Talmy 2003b: 35, 36). This is in line with Foucault (as he is quoted by Deleuze (1988: 350)): “the

location of a thing, in fact, is no longer anything more than a point in its movement,

its rest nothing but its movement slowed down indefinitely”. Similar positions come

from other philosophers like Osho 75 : “if you observe carefully, you will see that in the

world there are no things. Everything is under an evolutionary process. The use of

the word “is” when talking for existence is wrong. Everything is “being” [my

translation]”, (Osho 2003: 4). Or from science 76 : “we see that something that looks soulless and indifferent […] in reality contains a dynamic and interesting phenomenon that goes on without stopping. With our confined sight, we do not perceive any change, but if we could see the picture enlarged […] we would see that

75 Aν παρατηρήσεις προσεκτικά θα δεις ότι στον κόσμο δεν υπάρχουν πράγματα. Τα πάντα είναι μια συνεχής εξελικτική ιαδικασία. Η χρήση της λέξης «είναι», όταν μιλάς για την ύπαρξη είναι λάθος. Τα πάντα είναι «γίγνεσθαι». 76 Bλέπουμε πως κάτι που μοιάζει άψυχο και αδιάφορο […] στην πραγματικότητα εμπεριέχει ένα δυναμικό και ενδιαφέρον φαινόμενο που συνεχίζει χωρίς να σταματά. Με τις περιορισμένες δυνατότητες της όρασής μας δεν αντιλαμβανόμαστε καμία μεταβολή, εάν όμως μπορούσαμε να δούμε την εικόνα μεγεθυνόμενη […]θα διαπιστώναμε ότι υπάρχει συνεχής μεταβολή: μόρια εγκαταλείπουν την επιφάνεια και μόρια επιστρέφουν.

140 A Motion Event there is a never ending change: molecules leaving surfaces and molecules coming back [my translation]”, (Feynmann 1995: 28).

The component of Motion, in a Motion event, metaphorically also refers to “fictive (imaginary) Motion”, whereby a factively stationary entity is conceptualized as moving, (Talmy 2003a: 101). In this case, a static scene is construed in dynamic terms, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 53).

Η οροσειρά απλώνεται από τη Μέκκα ως το Ριάντ. “The mountain range stretches from Mecca to Riad”.

In the above example, there is fictive Motion because the mountain can not really move. This extensibility of physical motion to fictive motion is a general phenomenon. Languages systematically and extensively refer to stationary entities with linguistic forms that refer to Motion. This is called “constructional fictive Motion”, (Talmy 2003a: 104). It portrays a general cognitive bias towards dynamism, (Talmy 2003a: 101). Fictive Motion encompasses a number of distinct categories. One of these, the “line of sight” 77 , (Talmy 2003a: 110), correlates with apo. It is a concept that underlies many linguistic patterns and is also a component of perceptual structure. The line of sight is an intangible line emerging from the visual apparatus, which is typically located on the front 78 of an animate or mechanical entity. The fictive motion which occurs along the line of sight is called “a sensory Path”, (Talmy 2003a: 110). The reason that I correlate apo with a Sensory Path is based on apo’s occurrence with sensory verbs:

Τον είδε από μακριά. “She saw him from far away”.

77 The notion of “line of sight” is included in the more general notion of a “Prospect Path”, which is the orientation that an object has relative to its surroundings, Talmy 2003a: 105). In its turn, a Prospect Path forms part of an “Orientation Path”, which is the Path of an entity emerging from the front of another entity and moving slowly away from it, (Talmy 2003a: 106). An Orientation Path, in its turn, forms part of the more general category of “Emanation”, which is the fictive motion of an intangible entity emerging from a Source (Talmy 2003a: 110). 78 The front of an object is itself a linguistic conceptualization. It is based on either a kind of asymmetry in the object’s physical configuration, in which case one of the sides is taken to be frontal or to the movement of the object, in which case the side which is leading side is considered to be its front side, (Talmy 2003a: 107).

141 A Motion Event

Figure and Ground

The Figure is a focalized, moveable object, within the frame of a scene, which protrudes either formally or according to our frame knowledge. Its position in space is characterized in relation to a reference object, the Ground. The Ground is stationary within a reference frame. Its location and sometimes geometric properties are assumed to be known to the addressee, (Talmy 2003a: 182). The distinction between the Figure and Ground derives from Gestalt Psychology (Koffka 1935) and was introduced into Cognitive Linguistics by Talmy (1983: 225-282) among others. According to Koffka, the Figure is twice represented in the same scene: once by itself and once in relation to the Ground, (Koffka 1935: 178). The Figure and the Ground can be topologically idealizable as a point, a multiplicity of points, a linear extent, an area, or a volume, (Talmy 2003a: 312). They can metaphorically extend to non physical situations, (Talmy 2003a: 317). The utterance she resembles him can be interpreted as she (Figure) is near him (Ground) in appearance. In this case, one of the entities is taken as a reference point, while the other is taken to have a variability and its particular value at issue, (Talmy 2003a: 118). In cases where the Figure is temporarily stable then the distinction between the Figure and Ground relies on other parameters: size and status. Usually the Figure is topicalized:

Το ποδήλατο (Figure) είναι δίπλα από το σπίτι (Ground). “The bicycle (Figure) is next to the house (Ground)”.

The reverse expression, whereby the Figure is larger in size than the Ground:

Το σπίτι είναι δίπλα από το ποδήλατο . “The house is next to the bike ”.

would be acceptable only in special conditions, where the speakers would be

familiar with the bicycle , they would be certain that indeed there is a bicycle and

one of them would give directions to the other having as point of reference the bicycle.

142 A Motion Event

When the above two criteria of size and importance do not hold and the entities referred to by the Figure and the Ground are symmetrical, then the Figure comes before the Ground, which is known.

Το σπίτι της Μαρίας είναι κοντά στο σπίτι του Γιάννη (whose location is known). “Maria’s house is near John’s house”, (whose location is known). Grammatically speaking, the Figure is usually the subject, whereas the Ground is usually the oblique (indirect) object, (Talmy 2003a: 333).

Νερό (subject, Figure) έτρεξε από τη βρύση (object, Ground) . “Water (subject, Figure) ran from the tap (object, Ground)”.

However, in an Agentive schema, prototypically, the Agent is the subject. The Figure is the direct object and the Ground the indirect object. All other schemata are non basic or derived:

Ο Γιάννης (Agent, subject) πήρε το βιβλίο (Figure, direct object) από το τραπέζι (indirect object, Ground) .

“John (Agent, subject) took the book (Figure, direct object) from the table (indirect object, Ground)”.

Interpreting Talmy (2003b:279), when the verb takes two complements and conjoins with apo , then the nominal sub-categorized with apo functions as the Ground and indirect object (or else prepositional object), whereas the Figure functions as the direct object, (Talmy 2003b: 126). The Figure has syntactic precedence over the Ground. In the case of nominals this precedence is portrayed with case hierarchy, (Talmy 2003a: 334). For example, in Greek, in a non Agentive structure, the Figure (the subject) is in the nominative whereas the Ground (the direct object) is in the accusative, which is a “subsidiary case”. In an Agentive structure, the Figure (direct object) is in the accusative, whereas the Ground (indirect object) used to be in the dative and nowadays is expressed as a prepositional phrase with accusative. Apo conjoins with the Ground and determines its case:

143 A Motion Event

Ήρθε από τη Θεσσαλονίκη (prepositional phrase, accusative) “He came from Thessalonica”

When the Ground-nominal is omitted, apo is omitted, too.

*Ήρθε από *“He came from”

The above properties led lexicographers and Talmy (2003b: 106,107) to categorize apo as a preposition (it is pre-posed to the noun). When apo is omitted then the movement implied is Το the Ground and not FROM the Ground:

“Πάμε πλατεία;” (Βαλιούλη & Ψάλτου-Joycey 1994). “Shall we go to the square?”

is interpreted as:

Πάμε στην πλατεία “Let’s go to the square”

With a Toward Motion and telicity.

But:

?Ήρθε πόλη, “He came town”

is read as:

Ήρθε στην πόλη. “He came to town”

rather than:

Ήρθε από την πόλη. “He came from town”

Naturally, verbs of going are deictic, but it is noteworthy that verbs of coming as above may licence the omission of the preposition signifying forward/to motion denoting destination, while the preposition apo, signifying provenance or origin cannot be omitted.

144 A Motion Event

This may lead to the conclusion that Motion towards (in relation to Motion from ) is primary in human cognition, and may be sufficiently explained on account of our up and forward posture and future progressing orientation (even if it ultimately leads to our demise, death) It was mentioned before that apo conjoins with the Ground. However, apparently with verbs like γεμίζω (“get full”) apo conjoins with the Figure:

Γεμάτο από νερό. “Full of water ”.

This was observed by Talmy (2003b: 279). In my view, this is an instance of partition and apo conjoins with the whole of water, part of which fills the vessel. Therefore in this case apo also refers to the Ground. Another instance where apo apparently refers to the Figure is with verbs of deliverance:

Γλίτωσα από τους λύκους . “I escaped the wolves”

At a closer look, however, it becomes evident that the Figure in this case is the person moving away from the wolves. Let’s take the example:

Έχυσε το νερό από τo ποτήρι . “He/she/it poured the water from the glass” .

In the above example, the properties of both a conceptually primary object (Figure) and a secondary object (Ground), as they are described by Talmy (1983: 230-231; 2003a: 183), are depicted. A primary object (in our case “water”):

1. Has unknown spatial (or temporal) properties to be determined: water needs to be defined in relation to some entity (container). 2. It is more moveable, smaller, geometrically more simple (often point like in its treatment). “Water” is more moveable than “glass”. 3. It is more recent on the scene. In our example, the glass pre-existed in the room and then we poured water out of it. 4. It is of greater concern. We are concerned with what the water does. The glass is taken for granted.

145 A Motion Event

5. It is more dependent. Water lies in a glass. 6. It is less immediately perceivable. Water is translucent. 7. It is more salient once perceived. We care more about the water once we have seen it, (Talmy 2003a: 183).

A secondary object (Ground), in our case, “the glass”:

1. Acts as a reference entity having known properties. 2. It is larger (than water since it contains it). 3. It is geometrically more complex. 4. It is earlier in the scene, in memory. 5. It is more immediately perceivable. 6. It is more back-grounded. 7. It is more independent.

We proceed to present the third semantic component of a Motion event, the Path.

Path

A Path is the line of movement or the site occupied by the Figure with respect to the Ground. As a background, we may refer to a comment made by Harris (2005: 77, 78): “we cannot make sense of the idea of motion in space unless we replace it by “motion relative to a practically rigid point of reference” […]. It is clearly seen that there is no such thing as an independently existing trajectory[…] but only a trajectory relative to a particular body of reference [in our case the Ground]”, (cf. Einstein 1961:10). Paths are related to the notion of adjacency. Adjacency is the relation of two entities (in our case the Figure and the Ground), which are externally connected. The condition for adjacency says that adjacent elements do not overlap and if an element x is adjacent to an element y that is part of an element z, then x is also adjacent to z. (Krifka 1998: 203). Excluding circular, crossing and branching Paths, the general principle is that each two disjoint, non-adjacent elements (in our case the Figure and the Ground) are connected by a single Path. Therefore there is just one Path between any two locations (in our case the Figure and the Ground), (Krifka 1998: 203). This mental path, it can be argued, is reflected by apo’s eymology.

146 A Motion Event

Apo etymologically relates to the words ἅπτω (“to attach” , “to tie” , “to light”), ἁφή (“contact”, “grip”, etc.) and probably the word ἅψος (“joint”), (Pokorny, op. cit. entry ap 79 ). Some motion predicates, like walk , may relate the parts of the Path to the parts of an event, (Krifka 1998: 224): Η Μαίρη περπάτησε από το σχολείο ως το σπίτι . “Mary walked home from school”.

In the above example, the parts of the Path: school (Source) and house (Goal) relate to walking. In such cases, the initial part of the movement is adjacent to the location of Source ( school ) and the final part of the movement is adjacent to the location of the Goal ( house ), (Krifka 1998: 227). Path structures are applicable to a wide variety of concepts: we have Paths in spatio-temporal space. We have Paths that describe a qualitative change of properties (like the change of temperature), (Krifka 1998: 104). This, too, is reflected in apo as it defines a Path in three different domains (physical space, time, change of state). 80 There is an additional property exhibited by Paths: precedence. This is an irreflexive, asymmetric and transitive relation, which holds only for non- overlapping elements (like the Figure and the Ground). The Paths which are characterized by precedence are called “directed”, (Krifka 1998: 204-205). Apo is a strong case of a directed Path. It implies strong directionality, with apo signaling the point of initiation. 81 There are different types of Path:

“Open Path”

This is the Path that is defined by an object physically in motion in a course of time and is conceptualized as having a beginning and an end. Various parts of the Path are possibly gapped, (Talmy 2003a: 265). In my view apo relates mostly to this type of Path, because it explicity states the beginning of the Path

79 See section Apo in Sanskrit 80 See section The Role of apo in a Motion Event 81 See section The Role of apo in a Motion Event

147 A Motion Event but leaves the end implicit (therefore gapped), as can be figuratively depicted in the following schema (adapted from Ramchand 2009:15)

Αpo Path: + + + - - - -

Let’s take an example, where the beginning and the ending point of the Path are overtly stated through the presence of apo and σε ”to” respectively:

Το ρωσικό αέριο μεταφέρεται στη βόρεια Τουρκία και από εκεί σε Ελλάδα και Ιταλία, Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ. 4

“The Russian gas is transferred to Northern Turkey and from there to Greece and Italy”, “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p. 4

Notice that not all details of the itinerary are overtly mentioned. In every day communication all Paths are gapped and gapped information is filled in by knowledge of the world.

“Sensory Path” or “Visual Path”:

This is a fictive Path which occurs with sensory verbs, (Talmy 2003a: 115). This fictive Path is formed by the “trajectory” exhibited by a person’s focus of attention shifting over a conceived scene, (Talmy 2003a: 269). In this case, the Experiencer is conceptualized as the beginning of the sensory Path, and the experienced as the end, (Talmy 2003a: 116, 118). For example:

Είδα [μέσω] από την κλειδωνότρουπα , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 8, σελ. 58

“I saw through the key hole ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 8, p. 79 [the keyhole is viewed as a medium which allows viewing]

φυλακάς γε μήν, εἰ τύχοι ἐν τῇ πολεμίᾳ ἀριστοποιούμενος, τὰς μὲν ἐν τῇ γῇ, ὥσπερ προσήκει, καθίστη, ἐν δὲ ταῖς ναυσίν αἰρόμενος αὖ τοὺς ἱστοὺς ἀπό τούτων ἐσκοπεῖτο , Ξεν. Ελλ. 6.2.29-32

“Again, in setting watches, if he chanced to be taking the midday meal in a hostile country, he posted some on the land, as is proper, but besides he

148 A Motion Event hoisted the masts on the ships and had men keep watch from their tops” , Xenoph., H. G. VI ii 29-32

When this sensory Path is directed to two objects by the observer, of which the one object is more active, then this is conceptualized as the Source of emanation of energy. This is called the “active determinative principle, (Talmy 2003a: 117).

Έβλεπα το χιόνι να λιώνει από τον ήλιο . “I was looking at the snow melting from the sun ”

In the above example, the observer sees both the sun and the snow but the sun is conceptualized as the source of energy.

“Agentive Demonstrative Path”:

Prototypically, an Agent affects a distal physical object by moving his or her whole body or reaching it with his or her body part e.g. the hand. This particular form of Agency is called the “Agent Distal Object Pattern”, (Talmy 2003a: 120). The extending arm typically exhibits actual motion away from the body along a line that connects the Agent with the target object. When fully extended the arm’s linear axis coincides with the Path of Motion, (Talmy 2003a: 120).

καὶ ὅσον μὲν χρόνον προσφέροιτο ναῦς, οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν καταστρωμάτων τοῖς ἀκοντίοις καὶ τοξεύμασι καὶ λίθοις ἀφθόνοις ἐπ’ αὐτὴν ἐχρῶντο , Θουκ. 7. 70, 5

“And as long as a ship was bearing down, the men on [from] the decks of the opposing ship used against it javelins and arrows and stones without stint”, Th. VII LXX 5

The actor affects the distal body moving his body to throw the javelin.

Τον σκότωσε από μακριά. “He killed him from far away”.

149 A Motion Event

The Agent affects the distal body by reaching it with an extension of his/her body: the bullet. A Path is not a simplex constituent. It further has three components (Talmy 2003b: 53):

1. Vector 82 2. Conformation 3. Deictic

A vector comprises the notions of arrival, traversal and departure that a Figure can have in relation to the Ground (Talmy 2003b: 53). A whole pattern of categorization of vector is presented, which can be fairly complicated. However, apo should be discussed selectively in relation to the vector. So, apo in relation to the vector expresses:

• Movement From: Ήρθε από τη Θεσσαλονίκη. “He came from Thessalonica”.

• Movement Via: Πέρνα από το γραφείο μου. “Pass by my office”.

• Movement Along: Κατέβηκαν από τα μονοπάτια. “They came down from (along) the paths”.

• Movement From-To: Ταξίδεψε από τη Θεσσαλονίκη ως την Αθήνα. “He traveled from Salonika to Athens”.

As mentioned above, another constituent part of a Path is conformation. If I have interpreted Talmy correctly (2003b: 55) conformation is the geometrical relation that correlates the Ground to the whole structural complex of a Motion event. This includes notions such as “on”, “in”, “onto”, “into” etc. Apo expresses the relations:

• From a point inside: Από το σπίτι “From the house”

82 A “vector” is a variable quantity, such as force, that has size and direction, (Collins, English Dictionary, entry vector ).

150 A Motion Event

• From a point on a surface: Από το τραπέζι “Off the table”

In English, however, the same relations are expressed by different prepositions. From in the case of a point inside and off in the case of a point on a surface, (Talmy 2003b: 55). Another category of conformation denotes the semantic relation (Talmy 2003b:55):

• Passing from one’s side: Από δίπλα “Pass by ”

This relation in English is expressed by by whereas in Greek by apo. Finally, another component of the Path is the deictic component, which refers to whether the movement is towards the speaker or in any other direction (Talmy 2003b: 55). This component does not correlate with apo because apo denotes movement in relation to the Ground and not the speaker.

7.2. The internal role of apo in a Motion Event

In the following, we will examine apo in relation to the three types of a Motion event, which depict:

a. Dislocation in Physical space b. Dislocation in time c. Dislocation in a Causal chain

Dislocation in Physical Space In a Motion event denoting physical dislocation the verb root can incorporate the following (Talmy 2003b: 60-62):

1. Motion + Path 2. Motion + Manner 3. Motion + Figure

We will examine each verb type separately: A number of verbs in English are presented by Talmy (2003b: 228) expressing the Path in their verb root. For example: enter, exit, ascend, descend,

151 A Motion Event pass, cross, traverse, circle, return, arrive, etc. These are typical Motion verbs. A common element of the above verbs is that they are deictic. The Path semantically inherent in them is unspecified and needs to be defined in relation to a stable entity in physical space (the Ground). This may be the entity conjoined with apo. Therefore apo and its conjoined element ground the Motion expressed by the verb in physical space. As already seen in the section “Path”, omitting apo implies “to”. An utterance such as *Έρχομαι πόλη, “I am coming city”, (possibly uttered by a foreigner) would be interpreted as έρχομαι στην πόλη, “I am coming to the city” . On the other hand, omitting the verb leads to correct inference: the utterance από την πόλη (“from the city”) renders the verb έρχομαι (“come”) optional in specific contexts. Therefore, the Path is more clear and definite in the proposition. An adverb occurs with Motion verbs only when it plays a semantic role for the geometric specification of the Path (“conformation”, cf. Talmy 2003 b: 53, 54) and it cannot be inferred from context. In this case apo and its conjoined noun act as the point of reference (Ground) for the adverb.

Ξεκίνησε μπροστά από το σπίτι. “He set off in front of the house”.

In this case, presence of the adverb μπροστά “in front” further specifies the fact that the entity did not start its Motion from the inner part of the house, or from the back part of the house but from the front part of the house. Apo and its conjoined element define the adverb μπροστά “in front”. The notion of μπροστά “in front” is defined in relation to apo and its conjoined argument. In contrast, in the example:

Βγήκε (μέσα) από τη σπηλιά. “He came out (of) the cave”.

μέσα is optional because it is semantically conveyed by the verb βγήκε “came out of something” and by the word “cave”, which is conceptualized as a container. If we take the example:

152 A Motion Event

Ήρθε από το σπίτι .

This has a binary interpretation. It can be interpreted either as: a) “He came from the house ”, or b) “He visited/passed by the house”. In the first reading, absence of overt manifestation of an adverb of the type μπροστά από (το σπίτι), δίπλα από (το σπίτι), which further specifies the Path, implies the adverb μέσα από (either literally from inside the house, viewed as a container, or extensively from the house and its surrounding space, which however, through frames is conceptualized as a whole. The second reading implies that someone came to the house, paused a little and then continued his or her Path. In this case, the Path previous to the arrival to the house is gapped (because it is considered communicationally irrelevant), and a pseudo-beginning is imposed FROM the house onwards. This is done for focal reasons. The same happens with the verb περνώ “pass”, which was categorized by lexicographers as denoting διέλευση (“transit”) . The verb περνώ has inherent in its lexical meaning the semantic element expressed by the adverb μέσα “through” as is evident in its etymology. It derives from the Ancient Greek verb περῶ (διέρχομαι διά των πόρων ) meaning “go through a hole” 83 . Therefore the example:

Πέρασε (μέσα) από το σπίτι (η σφαίρα). “It passed through the house” (a bullet).

implies the presence of the adverb μέσα and apo and its conjoined item function as a point of reference to the implied adverb. This μέσα may refer to the extended space of a house (e.g. the yard) since this is included in the notion “house” through frames. Therefore in the example πέρασε από το σπίτι και είδε ότι τα

φώτα είναι αναμμένα “he passed by the house and saw that the lights were on” the implied adverb μέσα refers to the whole space surrounding the house.

83 See also section “Transit” in Modern Greek

153 A Motion Event

The same example though, πέρασε από το σπίτι, with an Animate subject

can have the reading of “visited the house”, in which case again a pseudo- beginning in the Path is imposed for focal reasons.

In some Motion verbs, the Path is expressed both in the prefix and in the verb core meaning:

ανεβαίνω (ανά + βαίνω)= “go up” κατεβαίνω (κατά +βαίνω)= “go down”

In these cases, the direction of the Path is specified within the prefix, (“vector”, cf. Talmy 2003b: 53). Even in the case where the Path is expressed in the prefix the presence of apo as opposed to σε (“to”) is indispensable. *Κατεβαίνω βουνό “*I go down mountain” would be interpreted as: I am somewhere higher and I move downwards to the mountain. This further supports the fact that the TO direction is primitive to cognition and that FROM direction needs to be overtly stated. However, one should note that presence of article renders the presence of apo optional:

Κατεβαίνω (από) το βουνό. “I go down the mountain”.

However, in my view omission of apo emphasizes Movement along the Path, whereas manifestation of apo stresses the beginning of the Path.

In Ancient Greek, the Path could be expressed in the suffix –θεν, which added to nouns incorporated in its meaning both the semantic elements of Motion and Ground, e.g. οικο-θεν “from the house”. Later, the suffix was replaced by a prepositional phrase with apo. There are some cases in which the verb root denotes Motion and Manner. Ιn Talmy’s phrasing: a co-event of Manner is conflated within the verb root, (2003b: 60). According to Levin (1993: 264-267) these verbs describe the manner in which animate or (in some cases inanimate) entities move: “roll” verbs (“bounce”, “drop”, “float”, “glide”, “slide”, “roll”, “swing”, etc.), “run” verbs

154 A Motion Event

(“amble”, “backpack”, “bolt”, “bounce”, etc.) and structure a simple event, because the two events, the main one of Motion and the co-event of Manner are spatio-temporally dependent, (Levin & Hovav 1999: 206). According to Talmy (2003b: 60), however, they constitute a complex event because the co-event of Manner is conflated within the main Motion event expressed in the verb root. This is why manner of Motion verbs can be analyzed into a verb and a participle: Κύλησε= κινήθηκε κυλώντας= “moved by way of rolling”. In this case of Manner of Motion verbs, the verb refers to the Figure, as in I rolled the keg (the verb rolled refers to what the Figure (the keg) does and not to what the Agent does as in I kicked the keg , (Talmy 2003b: 28, 29). In the absence of a prepositional phrase specifying direction, none of the Motion and Manner verbs indicates the direction of motion. However, many of these, Manner of Motion verbs, take a rather restricted range of prepositions heading the prepositional phrase to describe the Path of Motion. This is what happens with apo. Apo and its nominal function semantically as the Ground to the Motion element expressed in the verb. When it comes to verbs that incorporate in their root Motion+Figure, like scale a fish (cf.Talmy 2003b: 62), it was found as part of this thesis that such verbs in Greek may be complex verbs with apo-. E.g. αποκεφαλίζω (“behead”), αποτριχώνω (“epilate”). In this case, apo- imposes a further dislocation of the Figure but this matter needs further investigation and is beyond the scope of this thesis.

Dislocation in Time Τhe employment of apo in both the domains of physical space and time should not be surprising as in general terms there is an extensive homology between the representation of space and time, (Talmy 2003a: 41). This homology is expressed in the “time as space” metaphor, (Lakoff and Johnson 1980: 31-32). Time is assumed as a one-dimensional directed Path structure, where the relation is interpreted as temporal precedence, (Krifka 1998: 205). On this Path, apo expresses the starting point of an activity. “A part of an activity is considered as the initial part, if it is not preceded by any other part of the same activity”, (Krifka 1998: 207). Theoretically, the time span of the activity whose initiation is expressed with apo may extend to positive infinity as is

155 A Motion Event metaphorically expressed in the film title From Here to Eternity 84 , in which there is a blend of space (here) and time. Let’s take first a verb that expresses an activity or a process 85 in time without the presence of apo . We take the process in a generic sense, whereby it is habit-forming and therefore it acts as a state, (Bach 1981: 73): Παίζει τέννις. “He plays tennis”. This is an unbounded process. If we add apo :

Από τις πέντε παίζει τέννις [implied until now]. “He has been playing tennis since five”.

Then it becomes semi-bounded. The unbounded activity is “demarcated” and the relevant part is “fore-grounded, (cf. Bach 1981: 73). Overt manifestation of the ending, for example, with έως (“to”), imposes complete bounding and the atelic 86 activity becomes Accomplishment 87 :

Κάθε μέρα παίζει τένις από τις πέντε έως τις οκτώ. (Accomplishment) “Every day he plays tennis from nine to eight”.

This transformation of an unbounded process (atelic) to a bounded one (telic 88 ) is expressed by the following schema, (adapted from Talmy 2003a: 52):

[V unbounded + apo Noun extent in time ]V bounded

With two argument activity verbs, like sweep, scrub, wipe , (the fact that activity verbs can take either one or two argument is noted in Levin 1999: 234) apo, apart from denoting the starting point of the activity temporally

84 Α 1953 drama film with Burt Lancaster, Montgomery Clift, Frank Sinatra, Deborrah Kerr. It won eight Academy Awards (Oscars). 85 A process is an activity of indefinite length, which contains internal change but which is not characterized by any particular conclusion or culmination, (Ramchand 2009: 9). Activities, for example, are a kind of process, (Gill 1993: 482). 86 The term “atelic” derives from the Greek word τέλος /tέlos/ (“purpose”, “end”). It refers to actions that do not portray completion. 87 “Accomplishments are defined as bounded processes viewed with reference to a time segment and involve a product, upshot or outcome, (Vendler 1957: 149). 88 The term “telic” (as opposed to “atelic”) refers to actions with a set terminal point. The distinction between telic and atelic was inspired by Aristotle’s types of actions and was taken up and turned into a linguistic discussion by Vendler (1957).

156 A Motion Event

(metaphorically speaking conjoining with the “Ground” on the time axis), it conjoins with the Ground in physical space:

Η Μαρία σκουπίζει τα φύλλα από την αυλή (Ground) από τις πέντε . “Mary has been sweeping the leaves in the yard since 5”.

In the above example, apo has a dual role: first it conjoins with the Ground (the place where the Figure (the leaves) is removed from) and second it expresses the point of initiation of the activity . Apart from activity verbs, apo also combines with semelfactive 89 verbs, like βήχω “cough”, κλείνω το μάτι “wink”. This is predictable since semelfactive verbs generally pattern with activity verbs, (Levin 1999: 232).

Η Μαρία βήχει από το πρωί. “Maria has been coughing since the morning”.

The same things noted for activity verbs hold: apo signals the point of initiation of the activity denoted by the semelfactive verb and “transforms” a generic or habitual activity verb into an event. Apo also combines with Accomplishments and Achievements90 , which are event types.

?Έχει ξυπνήσει/ξύπνησε) (είναι ξυπνητός) από τις εννιά. “He has woken up/woke up (has been awake) since nine ”.

As commented in Ψάλτου-Joycey (2001) the apparent ungrammatical co- occurrence of the present perfect with a definite adverbial expression, [like από τις εννιά “since”] , has gained psychological validity for speakers and is attributed to sentimental proximity of the speaker to the event described. A different explanation will be attempted here.

89 (

157 A Motion Event

The above example describes the event of a person who woke up at nine. This event can be interpreted, certainly as an Achievement and in certain contexts as an Accomplishment (if the person has difficulty in waking). With a closer look in the internal structure of this event of waking it becomes evident that it is a process: from deep sleep, we move to lighter sleep, then we are half awake, then we may fall back to sleep again, and so on until we reach this critical point of gaining consciousness i.e. of being awake. The key word is “culmination”: if an activity or a process culminates then it constitutes an event, if not, it constitutes a process (Zucchi 1998: 360). Culmination appears to relate to what Moens & Steedman (1988: 18) call “event nucleus”. A nucleus is an elementary event structure comprising a culmination, an associated preparatory process and a consequent state:

Preparatory Process Consequent state

Culmination

NUCLEUS

However, events may lack a property of strict cumulativity and may just meet the property of relative cumulativity (Zucchi 1998: 362, 363). For example, the event of someone’s baking a cake by less rigorous standards would be completed even if it stopped five minutes before the time suggested by the cookery book (this event meets the property of relative cumulativity). However, the event of proving a theorem, would by no means be considered complete if the speaker stopped one minute before actually proving the theorem (this event meets the property of strict cumulativity). Therefore, culmination is not an absolute idea: it should be seen in relation with the other events, times and properties with respect to which these events culminate (Zucchi 1998: 367). For example, if someone is going by train to Athens and the train breaks down and stops in Lamia, then the event of going to Athens may not have culminated but the event of going to Lamia did. In any case, it is a true fact that after the culmination a consequent state is reached (of being awake, of being baked, of having proven the theorem).

158 A Motion Event

This is in line with Kenny (1963: 177, 178) who argues that performances 91 [events] are brought to an end by states: washing the dishes is bringing about that the dishes are clean, learning French is bringing about that I know French, walking to Rome is bringing about that I am in Rome. Or that alternatively any new state (even existence) is brought about by a performance [event]. Building a house is bringing it about that a house exists. Burning the gas works is bringing it about that the gasworks does not exist. Following Dixon (1982: 22) these new result-states (which are the result of some action) are expressed with adjectives that derive from verbs in strongly verbal languages, like English, in opposition to property concepts, that are expressed with adjectives that are morphologically simple (like widened vs. wide ). As Parsons (1990: 234) puts it: “for every event e that culminates, there is a corresponding state that holds forever after. This is the state of the event having culminated, which is the resultant state of event, for example, if Mary eats lunch then there is a state that holds forever after”. This result state, in my view, constitutes a “stage-predicate” (cf. Kratzer 1995), exactly because it has a beginning and is not a permanent characteristic. Let’ s take again the previous example:

?Έχει ξυπνήσει/ξύπνησε) (είναι ξυπνητός) από τις εννιά. “He has woken up/woke up (has been awake) since nine ”.

In my view, apo marks the initiation of this result (consequent) state of being awake. Let’s take two other examples, where there is a change of state due to an implied event:

?Είμαι παντρεμένος από χθές. “I have been married since yesterday”.

#Είμαι παντρεμένος από τις 6. “I have been married since 6”.

91 “Performances” contrast with “activities” whereby “A is φing” implies that “A has φed”, for example, if “I am living in Rome, this implies that I have lived in Rome”, as well as with “states” whereby “if A has φed” this implies that “A φes”, for example, “if I have understood something then I still understand it”, Kenny’s (1963: 172ff).

159 A Motion Event

The above examples express an Achievement or an Accomplishment (depending on the person who got married!). They relate to a “stage-predicate” (cf. Kratzer 1995) because they do not attribute a permanent characteristic. The event of the wedding is implied. Apo marks the initiation of the consequent state of that event. The reason that the second example is not acceptable is mainly pragmatic: marriage is such a major change in a person’s life that the transition cannot be measured in seconds: when do you cease being single? When the priest has uttered some specific words? When you have signed the documents? When you start to realize it? These are questions, which are hard to answer that make the second example akward. The non-compatibility of temporal apo with participial adjunct clauses is in line with Tsimpli (2001: 160), who claims that “[participial adjunct clauses] allow for a manner or cause interpretation but never a temporal one”. This can be portrayed by the following examples:

Είναι λυπημένος από το θάνατο του φίλου [cause]. “He has been sad due to his friend’s death”.

#Είναι λυπημένος από τις πέντε. “#He has been sad since five”.

When it comes to states incompatibility with temporal apo is still evident. This occurs because “the definitional properties of a stative situation include internal stability homogeneity and lack of end points”, (Tsangalidis 1999: 25), therefore incompatibility with apo which does impose a beginning is expected. In fact, it is the homogeneity of states that distinguishes them from other aspectual types. As Kim (1976: 159 beautifully quoting Ducasse) writes, states are “unchanged”. “Having, possessing, desiring, wanting something, liking, disliking, loving, hating, ruling, dominating, knowing and believing things are manifestly states” (Vendler 1957: 150). States are characterized by the “sub-interval property”, i.e. “if a person is in a state at an interval t then the person is in that state at every sub-interval of it”, (Cresswell 1986: 372). A state is simply the list of all the properties of a system, e.g. temperature, pressure, (Professor Efstathios Michaelides, University of Texas, personal communication,

160 A Motion Event

December, 12, 2008). State verbs relate to “individual level predicates” (cf. Kratzer 1995), and can be conceptualized as atemporal.

#Είμαι γυναίκα από τις πέντε. “#I have been a woman since five”.

#Σε θέλω από τις πέντε. 92 “#I have wanted you since five”

An utterance of the type:

Σε θέλω από τη στιγμή που σε είδα. “I have wanted you since I saw you”.

is in my view causal because the use of apo is not purely temporal. It has a causal meaning: σε θέλω από τη στιγμή που είδα, επειδή είσαι αξιαγάπητος “I have wanted you since the moment I saw you because you are lovable”. “Incompatibility of purely temporal function of apo with lexically stative verbs is in line with the fact that lexically stative verbs do not correlate with temporal frame adverbs, such as yesterday or on Friday”, (Abusch 1998: 16). However, when the same utterances are viewed metaphorically and imply a hidden event (of change), then apo is acceptable and plays an external causal role to the hidden event of change 93 .

Είμαι [implied έγινα ] γυναίκα από τότε που τον γνώρισα. “I have been [implied become] a woman since I met him”.

Let’s take a lexically stative verb ζω (“live”).

Ζει στο Παρίσι από πέρσι. “He has been living in Paris since last year”.

Apo, imposes a semi-boundedness by setting the beginning. This is allowed because the verb ζω “live” has a habitual/generic character which allows for a certain dynamism (cf. Tsangalidis 1999: 25).

92 In the sense of emotional desire, etc. but not in its sense of ‘need’ 93 For further analysis of this function of apo see section External role of apo to a Motion Event

161 A Motion Event

However, if we impose boundaries through the perfective:

Έχει ζήσει στο Παρίσι. “He has lived in Paris”.

Incompatibility occurs with apo.

Έχει ζήσει στο Παρίσι *από πέρσι. “She has lived in Paris *since last year”

This occurs because the above utterance imposes an eventive reading on a state and gives to the state of “living” a definite character with well defined boundaries: έχει ζήσει (“s/he has lived”) implies beginning and end, whereas apo expresses only beginning and leaves the end unexpressed. This incompatibility is in line with the one imposed by μέχρι (cf. Giannakidou 2002), as is evident in the following example ( ibid. ):

?Η Αριάδνη έχει ζήσει στο Παρίσι μέχρι τώρα. “?Ariadne has lived in Paris until now”

Similar function of apo and μέχρι should not be surprising as apo and mehri have a mirror function: apo expresses an interval with a definite starting point, whereas “UNTIL introduces an interval with a well-defined endpoint” (as Giannakidou 2002 quotes Hitzeman 1991). However, notice the apparent paradox. We can say:

Έχει ξυπνήσει από τις πέντε. “He has been awake since five”.

But we cannot say:

Έχει ζήσει στο Παρίσι *από πέρσι “He has lived in Paris *since last year”.

The difference is due to the fact that έχει ξυπνήσει (“he has woken up”) implies a change of state (the verb is an accomplishment) and the beginning of new state, which is expressed with apo, whereas, έχει ζήσει “he has lived” does

162 A Motion Event not imply an internal change of state. The verb ζω (“live”) implies a homogeneity. This is evident by the fact that we can say:

Έχει ξυπνήσει από τις πέντε (this implies είναι ξυπνητός new state) “He has woken up since five” (this implies “he is awake” new state)

But we cannot say:

Έχει ζήσει στο Παρίσι *από πέρσι (therefore * είναι ζωντανός ) “He has lived in Paris *since last year” (therefore “*he is alive”).

So, when it comes to states we can make a distinction: when it comes to result states (which have a beginning) then co-occurrence with apo is possible and expresses the beginning of the new state. When it comes to pure states, then co- occurrence with apo is not possible because they are conceptualized as atemporal. We proceed with our discussion of the temporal function of apo. The span of time referred to by apo is compressed. This process, whereby a linear extent is conceptually collapsed into a point is called “punctifying”, (Talmy 2003a: 66). This becomes more evident in cases where apo conjoints with states or state-like activities:

Από τότε που ζούσα στην Αγγλία. (state like activity) “Since the time when I was living in England”

*Από ζόυσα στην Αγγλία. “?Since I was living in England”

Από τότε που ήμουν παιδί (state) “Since the time I was a kid”

*Από ήμουν παιδί (state) “?Since I was a kid”

In this case, the presence of the self-referential adverb τότε (in this context “at the time when”) is necessary because it punctifies the whole duration. Since events, in contrast to states, are conceptualized as momentary, they correlate very well with apo. The event conjoined with apo may function as the

163 A Motion Event anchoring point for the time span of another event and it may function causally to it:

Από τότε που τον είδα, τον ερωτεύτηκα. “From the moment (and because) I saw him [event A], I fell in love with him [event B]”

In a system of events, the spatial notions of Figure and Ground of a Motion event extend to refer to the events of the system. “Figure event” is the one whose location in time is conceived as a variable, (“falling in love”). “Ground event is the reference event, which is stationary relatively to the reference frame”, (cf.Talmy 2003a: 320) (“seeing him”). “The ordering of events in a complex sentence is the result of intertwined semantic and discourse anaphoric factors”, (Abusch 1998: 24). “However, usually, in a complex sentence a Figure-Ground event order is observed”, (Talmy 2003a: 352). “The reverse is marked”, (Talmy 2003a: 370). Therefore, the main clause (result event-Figure Event) is foregrounded and the subordinate clause (with apo ) expressing cause is back-grounded, (cf. Athanasiadou 2007: 9). Therefore, reversal of events for reasons of topicalisation is possible, however the temporal relation does not alter: “[temporal] precedence is an irreflexive, asymmetric and transitive relation in real world situation”, (Krifka 1998: 206). No matter how we structure the sentence, the fact remains that first she saw him and then she fell in love with him. In a system of events, the causing event is expressed in a subordinate clause, while the resulting event is in the main clause, (Hoopper 1979; Talmy 2003a: 327, 328). According to the “contingency principle”, the “causing event (in the subordinate clause) acts as the Ground, whereas the caused event (in the main clause) acts as the Figure”, (Talmy 2003a: 329). In our example, the causing event is the event “of seeing”, which is sub-categorized by apo and acts as an external cause to the Motion event of “falling in love” 94 . In order for a causal-temporal relation to exist between two events, the causing event must have some elements in common with the caused event (frame theory). In other words, in the complex event formed by the caused and the causing event, there is a sort of “conceptual blending”, (Fauconnier and Turner

94 See section The external role of apo to a Motion Event

164 A Motion Event

2002). The two events “share the caused event’s Figure element”, (Talmy 2003a: 486). In our example, the lady who is metaphorically the caused event’s Figure element because she metaphorically moves from the state of not being in love to the state of being in love participates also in the causing event as the experiencer. Furthermore, according to Talmy (2003a: 486) the shared element of the two events (“the lady”) must function as the Ground, on which some other Figural element (“the man”) acts. Indeed, in the causing event of seeing the lady acts as the Ground and the man as the Figure, because she sees him move around her.

Dislocation in a Causal chain When it comes to linking two states, apo can either be “scalar”, (term borrowed by Croft & Cruse 2004: 233), as in:

Τα ρούχα από άσπρα έγιναν ροζ . “The clothes from white became pink ”

Or it may link notions that are “contrary on an axis” (cf.Talmy 2003a: 64) but still part of the same domain:

Από μαύρο έγινε άσπρο . “From black it turned white ”.

For further comments on the dislocation on a causal chain one could see the section “Minimal Semantic Model”. In this chapter, we defined what a Motion event is. We described its constituent parts: Motion, Path, Figure and Ground and discussed various parameters of these parts, in relation to apo. Then we portrayed the internal role that apo plays in a Motion event. We discussed its correlation with verbs incorporating Motion and Path and Motion and Manner in their stem. We showed that overt manifestation of preposition is necessary to express movement-from. We also examined various aspects that relate to the temporal function of apo. First, we saw that it imposes a punctification 95 . Then, we saw how apo correlates with various verb types: we found out that when it comes to activities, processes and semelfactives apo sets the starting point and turns an unbounded process into (semi-)bounded one, depending on whether the ending is overtly stated. When it comes to states, then there are two cases: apo correlates

95 Process whereby “a linear extent is conceptually collapsed into a point”, (Talmy 2003a: 66).

165 A Motion Event with the result states of an event and expresses the starting point of “hold”. When it comes to pure, atemporal states then incompatibility occurs. Also, we examined systems of events, and saw that apo imposes a spatio-temporal relation. The same Ground-Figure relation that exists within a Motion event expands into a system of events. Strong continuity relations must hold between the events. Then we discussed apo in relation to πριν “before”) and saw the link imposed is both temporal and causal (bi-directional determinism) and that the restriction y>x is not violated, because we move on a negative time axis. Finally, we briefly discussed a few aspects of apo in relation to change of state.

166

The External Role of Apo to a Motion Event

167

” Everything that is in movement must be moved by something “ (Aristotle, Physics, VI 242 a 49 )

168 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

8. The External Role of Apo to a Motion Event

In the previous section, we examined the internal role of apo in a Motion Event. We have seen how apo and its conjoined element express the initial point in a dislocation (in physical space, time or causal chain). Apart from that apo plays an external role in a Motion event, that of cause. As mentioned in Lewis (1986: 242) “an event e [in our case a Motion event] depends causally on a distinct event c [in our case the nominalised event introduced with apo ] iff, if c had not occurred, e would not have occurred either. Any event has a causal history: a vast branching structure consisting of that event and all the events which cause it, together with all the relations of causal dependence among these events”. A Motion event involves change of state in spatio-temporal space or in a causal chain. The verb categories that express a change of state are the following (Talmy 2003b: 83, 86):

1. Verbs denoting entering into a state (“inchoative”). E.g. “stand up”, “sit down”, “get sick”, etc. 2. Verbs denoting putting something or someone into a state (Agentive). E.g. “set”, “lay”, “make someone sick”, etc. 3. Verbs denoting exiting from a state. E.g. “get well”, “get free”, etc. 4. Verbs denoting removal from a state. E.g. “unload”, “free”, etc .

Therefore these verb categories are expected to be found in a Motion Event. Following Talmy the last two cases are types of “state departure”: the constraint is that “one cannot at the same time go in and out to these states”, ( ibid. ). This enforces the constraint of non reversibility (y>x) we discussed before. 96 Naturally, change demands cause. According to Talmy (2003a: 480) the basic causative situation of a Motion event consists of three main components:

1. A simple event [the event invoking change, the Motion event] 2. Something that immediately causes the event. 3. The causal relation between the two.

96 See Minimalistic Model for Apo

169 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

The following structure is proposed:

Basic Causative Situation

NP V P NP

Something (Resulting Event) Result-ed from Something (Cause)

E.g. Πέθανε (Resulting Event) από καρκίνο (Cause-NP) , (“he died of cancer”).

When it comes to supporting relation of cause, Talmy distinguishes among different types of causality, out of which the following correlate with apo , (Talmy 2003a: 428):

1. Causing event causation 2. Instrument causation 3. Author causation 4. Agent causation 5. Self agency 6. Inducement

Two big categories are evident in the above types of causality:

1. Inanimate causation, which involves the Causing Event, Causation , the Instrument [on a first reading] 2. Animate causation, which involves the Agent, the Author, Self agency and Inducement

We proceed to describe both categories of causation (inanimate and animate) in relation to apo .

Inanimate Causation Apo may conjoin with lexical items that express inanimate causation. In my view, this is an instance of indirect causation.

170 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

Πέθανε από το κρύο (inanimate causation). “He died from cold (inanimate causation)”.

Cold is not a direct cause of death. It has other effects on the Patient’s body, e.g. the heart stops beating, the blood pressure falls and these causes lead to death. If one asked a doctor, why the patient had died the answer would be not because of cold but because of heart failure. Following Talmy (2003a: 501, 502), when there is a causal chain of two or more causal events, then there is continuous or discontinuous causation, depending on whether there is physical contact among the different causal forces: if the wind blows on the branches and these break (move away from the tree) and in their turn fall upon the aerial and topple it, this is an instance of discontinuous causation because the branches are cut away from the tree. If on the other hand, the branches were not cut off the tree but were just bent (by the wind) and toppled the aerial then this would be an instance of continuous causation. In any case, the middle phases in causal chains can be gapped and link the earliest physical event (the enabling event), expressed with apo, with the last event, (Talmy 2003a: 509), thus portraying the initial (indirect) cause as direct. This process is called “windowing” on the initiatory causal event and the final event. How an experience is framed is a matter of construal by the speaker: it depends on how the speaker conceptualizes the experience for the understanding of the hearer, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 19, 42). Apo can refer to any phase of a (dis)continuous causation depending on the construal:

Αναποδογύρισε η κεραία από τον αέρα/ από τα κλαδιά. “The aerial was toppled by the wind/by the branches ”.

In my view, this distinction between continuous and discontinuous causation needs further elaboration as I cannot conceptualize any causal relations that do not have continuity relations between onset and end. Another distinction supported by Talmy (2003b:43) is that between “onset causation” and “extended causation”, a distinction, which in my opinion lies in the realm of Physics. As Talmy claims (ibid. ), in onset causation the result continues even when the cause stops:

171 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

Η μπάλα έφυγε μακριά από το χτύπημα του χεριού. “Our plastic ball rolled away by the stroke of the hand”

In the above example, the plastic ball continued to roll even after the cessation of the hand stroke. Extended causation “moves along” the process that leads to the result:

Η οδοντόκρεμα βγήκε έξω από το σπρώξιμο . “The toothpaste was squeezed out “(implied “ by pushing ”).

The toothpaste was moving only as long as the squeezing lasted. In this case, again “squeezing” is a deverbal, which implies animate causation.

On a first reading, another type of inanimate causation is “Instrument”. However, on closer examination this constitutes an instance of animate causation, since a human is hidden behind the instrument:

Αυτός πήγε από μαχαίρι . “Ηe was killed by knifing ”.

The Instrument is a nominal sub-categorized with apo. The Instrument functions as the Figure in the causing event (because it is moved by an Agent). Also, it correlates with the Figure of the result event (the person’s death), (Talmy 2003a: 337, 500). An Instrument can be an instance of frame metonymy, which is loosely the use of a word to denote a meaning other than its literal denotation. As Nunberg (1995: 115) states, metonymy is an instance of “transfer of meaning”. In our example, the concept knife stands for the whole event of stabbing, knowledge that is invoked in frames. The word knife has in its semantic scope a number of “facets” or “micro-senses” (Croft & Cruse 2004: 48): it is a “weapon”, a “utensil”, a “piece of cutlery”. When employed as part of frame metonymy only a specific semantic aspect is activated, in our case that of “weapon”. This is achieved because our knowledge of the world is organized 97 through perception and exposure to repeated experiences in “packets of

97 This ability of the human mind to perceive and organize the outer world was described by Ancient Greek philosophers: Alcmaeon (6 th -5th century B. C.), Anaxagoras (5 th century B. C.), Empedocles (5 th

172 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event knowledge” called “schemata” or “frames”, (Rumelhart & Ortony 1977; Rumelhart 1980; Van Dijk & Kintsch 1983: 47; Minsky (1975) 98 . The main idea is that certain schemata or frameworks of concepts link together as a system, which imposes structure or coherence on some aspect of human experience, (Fillmore 1977: 58). When a speaker chooses to describe a scene referring to an “Instrument”, s/he imposes another type of construal than if he or she had referred to the “Agent”. As Langacker (1991: 189) argues, with an “Instrument” we have “the syntactic movement of Object to Subject raising” i.e. the object (knife) stands for the subject (person holding the knife). A comment by Zwaan & Radvansky (1998: 174) is relevant at this point: objects, especially instruments for actions, are often left implicit in texts. For example, in an utterance such as “Maria pounded a nail into the plywood wall”, no mention is being made of a hammer. This relates to “basic level actions” (Rosch et al , 1976). For example, in the aforementioned scene of someone’s nailing, people would choose a basic action “she hammered a nail” rather than “she took the hammer, raised her arm, etc.” to describe the scene thus making their utterance as informative as possible (cf. Grice 1975: 46). Therefore, explicit mention of an Instrument (through metonymy) attributes to it a protagonist role and serves focusing purposes, since the Instrument is otherwise predictable through construction of the scene and is left unstated. Employment of an Instrument links with “truth conditions”. The employment of a specific Instrument to refer to an event presupposes that the consequences of the employment of this instrument comprise the result event. In other words, even if the event expressed by the instrument stopped in the actual world, a continuation of this event (in a possible world) should lead to the result event (in our case “death”), (Glasbey 1998: 117). This knowledge (inference) is on account of past experience expressed in frames. For example, an utterance of the type: century B. C.), Democritus (5 th -4th century B. C.), Diogenes the Apolloniates (5 th -4th century B. C.), Hippocrates (5th -4th century B.C.), Aristotle (384-322 B. C.), the Stoics (4 th -3rd century B.C.), Galen (2 nd century A. D.), (Siegel 1968, 1970; Λυπουρλής (1983);Karger (1970);Ross (1955); Ιστορία του Ελληνικού Έθνους, entries Ιπποκράτης, Γαληνός ). This led to the formulation of the first Western model of brain function, the Medieval Cell Doctrine , which accounted for the flow of information from the senses to the memory were it had the form of mental images, (Whitaker 2007). 98 See section “Events, Frames and Schemata” in “ Apo and Event Structure”.

173 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

;Πήγε από παγωτό . “?He died of ice-cream ”

is non-sensical because in the real world ice-cream does not lead to death. In the sentence: αυτός πήγε (σκοτώθηκε) από μαχαίρι. “he was gone (killed) by a knife”. it is true that “he” was killed by being stabbed (the extension of stabbing is possibly death). At a closer look, though, it becomes evident that his being stabbed is different from his being killed. There is a time span between the two actions (the stabbing and killing). Killing is more or less a delayed characteristic of stabbing. Therefore, the act of stabbing does not entail/coincide with the act of killing (Thomson 1971; Bennett 1973). In an Instrument structure, however, the two actions appear condensed. This touches upon the question of “individuation of actions” (cf. Goldman 1971) which in our case takes the following form: Is the person who clutches the knife, raises his or her hand, pushes the knife into the other person’s body and hurts him or her (in a way that he or she is led to death), is this person actually performing five actions (clutching, raising, pushing, hurting, killing) or one (killing)? According to Goldman (1971: 762) these actions are not identical (i.e. they do not constitute one action) because they exhibit an ordering, which is imposed by the world: the last action depends on its previous one, and so on. However, Davis (1970: 529) gives an explanation: “if an act description [act of the first person’s stabbing] entails that some event is brought about [death], the act description includes that event”. In this vein, the act of stabbing coincides with the act of killing something which is expressed in a construction with an Instrument. Therefore, in the utterance:

Πήγε από μαχαίρι. “He was knifed to death”

The two actions (stabbing, killing) are considered one. In inanimate causation, when the cause is expressed by apo it is fore- grounded. In contrast, when cause is conflated within the verb root then it is back-grounded (cf. Talmy 2003b: 129-131):

Πέθανε από την πείνα . “He was stabbed to death”.

174 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

Λιμοκτόνησε . “He starved (to death)”.

In the first example, there is overt syntactic manifestation of the cause, employing apo , therefore there is fore-grounding. Whereas in the second example the cause of death is conflated in the verb meaning, therefore it is back-grounded.

Animate Causation Having examined inanimate causation in relation to apo we proceed to examine animate causation. Animate causation may involve, (Talmy 2003b: 72, 73):

1. An Agent : an entity with body, volition and intention (Talmy 2003: 513). The word derives 99 from the Latin agere (“to set in motion, drive, lead and conduct”). Its properties are: volitional involvement in an event or state, sentience, causing an event or change of state in another participant, movement relative to the position of another participant, independent existence in relation to the event named by the verb, (Goldberg 1995: 116; Wyner 1998: 338). Kenny (1963: 183) states that a voluntary action can be commanded. According to Davidson, an Agent is shown in his or her role of a Rational Animal 100 (1971: 46, 48).

2. An Author : someone who does not intend but however performs a bodily action that leads to the main event referred to. This touches upon the philosophical question actions (volitional) vs. acts (unintentional), which is however beyond the scope of this thesis.

3. An Undergoer : someone who does not intend but who is affected by the event which occurs independently.

4. Self-Agency

5. Inducement , whereby an Agent induces another Agent to do something. This second Agent is called by Lurhagi (1989: 296) “Intermediary”. “He or she is similar to an Instrument in as much as both of them imply an Agent. […].

99 http://etymologyonline, retrieved 17-2-2009. 100 The big philosophical question that arises is: “is Man a free Agent or an Automaton?” According to Smith (2008), there is an immense history on the subject stretching back into Classical Antiquity. Most amazing in my opinion is William Carpenter’s view: “It is in fact in virtue of the Will that we are not mere thinking Automata, mere puppets to be pulled by leading strings”, ( ibid., p. 27).

175 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

Intermediaries are typically human, owing to the fact that they must be in a position to perform an action on behalf of somebody else and not because of somebody’s agency, as it would be the case with Instruments”, ( ibid. 300, 301).

For example, the verb hide demands an Agent as a causing entity, the verb mislay an Author and the verb lose an Undergoer.

In my view, apo links with most of the aforementioned types of Animate causation. First, with an Agent:

Σκοτώθηκε από τον εχθρό . “He was killed by the enemy ”.

In the above example “the enemy” is wholly assumed to have acted voluntarily. In the case of an “Author”, though, the utterance is usually dubious because, in my opinion, apo in relation to an animate entity expresses strong Agency . Let’s take the following example:

Σκοτώθηκε από το φίλο το . “He was killed by his friend ”.

In this case, it is not clear whether the killer is a volitional participant (Agent) or whether the act was unintentional because as is dictated by our back- ground knowledge “friends do not kill”. What one expects to hear is whether this was done on purpose. This is due to the fact that the frame semantics of the word “friend” semantically implies a good relationship, which is in opposition with the strong Agentive element of an action of killing . So, an utterance of this type would restore semantic equilibrium like this:

Σκοτώθηκε από το φίλο του κατά λάθος . “He was killed by his friend by mistake” .

In any case, I think that apo plus an Animate entity implies Agency as is evidenced in the following example:

?Μαγειρεύτηκε από τη Μαρίa κατά λάθος ?It was cooked by Maria by mistake .

The above utterance is certainly bizarre, unless it is a joke.

176 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

As far as the third notion, (“the Undergoer”), is concerned it does not refer to the causing force but to the result. Therefore it cannot conjoin with apo. However, apo and its conjoined item express the cause by which the Undergoer is affected:

Μαγεύτηκε από την ομορφιά της. “He was entranced by her beauty ”.

In self-Agency, the cause of change of state of the Agent is the voluntary choice of the Agent. We have internal causation. I believe that this is the instance that the lexicographers have called “motivation”. However, notice that this leads to an instance of inanimate causation:

Πήδηξε από τη χαρά του. “He jumped with joy”

Also, in self Agency we cannot have discontinuity between the person who acts and the person who is internally motivated:

#Ο Γιάννης πήδηξε από τη χαρά του Κώστα. #“John jumped with Kostas’ joy”

(Unless there is a more complicated pattern that John decided to jump with joy for Kostas’ happiness, in which case though John motivates himself).

In Inducement apo participates to the extent that it expresses only one of the two Agents. The same apo cannot sub-categorize two Agents.

Ο Γιάννης [Agent] έφυγε, έπειτα από εντολή του αρχηγού [Agent] του. “John left, following his Chief’s command”

As Talmy claims, a causal chain, which comprises an Agent initiates from the original conceiving of the intention by the Agent, which intention is regarded as the [mental] event that initiates the entire processual complex, (2003a: 271).

177 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event

Physical events are opposed to mental events, which express propositional attitudes, like “remembering”, “deciding”, “perceiving” etc., (Hacker 1982b: 13). Finally, it should be mentioned that apo in combination with a verbal noun which expresses an event may express animate causation when an animate entity is implied:

Πήγε από μαχαίρωμα. (Event expressed by a deverbal. There can be no bolt without the person who did it) “He was stabbed” (Event expressed by a deverbal)

In nominalization, there is “summary scanning”: the verbal noun specifies a whole event, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 54). The original structure hidden behind the verbal noun is: κάποιος χτύπησε κάποιον (“someone hit someone”). It represents an action by which an Agent affects an entity. In the new structure of the verbal noun the scene becomes re-conceptualized in terms of transfer of focal condensation. The verbal noun represents the condensate event as a kind of object. The process is called “reification”, (Talmy 2003a: 43, 44). Once reified the notion of an action (e.g. χτύπημα “bolt”) is amenable to many more of the conceptions of spatial Pathways and manipulations typically associated with a physical object, (Talmy 2003a: 44). In this section, we have examined the external role of apo in relation to a Motion Event. This is a causal role. The distinction we proposed is between animate and inanimate causation. The question that arises is how traditional categories can be accounted for in this schema. This is not easy because there are not clear criteria as to what constitutes each causal category imposed by lexicographers. Roughly, it can be claimed that αναγκαστικό αίτιο corresponds to inanimate external causation, e.g. Πέθανε από το κρύο (“he died of cold”). Περιστάσεις can be claimed to be an instance of inanimate external causation (with human intervention implied), e.g. Πέθανε από την πείνα, που προκάλεσε ο εχθρός (“He died of hunger caused by the enemy”). Προτρεπτικό αίτιο with internal causation (the inner world of the Agent). E.g. Πήδηξε από χαρά (“He jumped with joy”). Ποιητικό αίτιο may stand for Agent (despite the fact that in lexicographers it refers to inanimate entities, too), e.g. Σκοτώθηκε από τον εχθρό του (“He was killed by his enemy”). ‘Οργανον is an instance of frame metonymy, at a first reading it is inanimate but with a closer look it is an instance

178 Apo and its external role to a Motion Event of animate causation as an Instrument cannot move by itself. E.g. Πήγε από μαχαίρι (“he was stabbed”). Μέσο is very close to όργανον with the difference that is not concrete , eg. Τον γνώρισε από τη φωνή (“he recognized him from the voice”) . Περιστάσεις ζωής, this may coincide with a verbal noun, e.g. ζει από το ψάρεμα (“he lives by fishing”). At a first reading this is an instance of inanimate causation but with a closer look an Animate entity is implied.

179

General Remarks on Apo

180 General Remarks

9. General Remarks on Apo

Within lexical semantics there are two sub-systems with complementary function: an open class or lexical sub-system, which represents the conceptual content, and a closed class or grammatical system, which represents and/or sets the conceptual structure. The grammatical system has the fundamental role of acting as a skeletal conceptual microcosm for organizing further conceptual material, (Talmy 2003a: 179). Apo has been categorized by grammar books as a preposition; therefore it belongs in the closed class of the grammatical system, (cf. Talmy 2003a: 24), whose function is to structure conception. With empirical knowledge, I assume it would be safe to claim that the notion expressed by apo, is included in most, if not all language systems of the world. The universal character of the notion signified by apo leads to the conclusion that it may constitute part of the fundamental conceptual system of languages, therefore of human thought taking into consideration the view expressed in Τσοχατζίδης (2001: 68) that language and thought may coincide. Apo forms part of the “configurational structure” of language. It is part of the system of conceptualization of spatial structure. The structural schema that it imposes is, however, fictive, in the sense that it is a matter of construal. This is the case with all abstracted or conceptually imposed schemas, whether sensed visually or specified by linguistic closed class forms, (Talmy 2003a: 163). In cognitive terms, apo is relational, topological and qualitative, rather than absolute, quantitative and precisional. By “relational” it is meant, that the existence of another entity is inherently implied, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 67), which is in line with its Sanskrit meaning as “link”. It is relational (and referential) because it demands the existence of two referents (arguments). For example, the utterance, (αυτός) είναι από μάνα γύφτισσα, (“he is the son of a gypsy mother”) , correlates two entities: the mother and the son. Actually, a series of events is implied: childbearing, enabling childbearing, birth, etc. Apo is “atomic” (i.e. morphologically simple), (term taken from Fillmore et al. 1988: 501). Apo , to adopt Talmy’s terminology (1983: 262, 263; 2003 a: 26), is “magnitude neutral”: in terms of topology it can be stretched indefinitely. It is also “shape neutral” (Talmy 2003a: 27): it is indifferent to particulars of shape or

181 General Remarks contour of the entities it links. Therefore the geometrical schema it imposes is abstracted. Finally, it is “substance neutral” (Talmy 2003a: 32): it cannot be specific as to the material the entities it links are out of. It is also neutral with respect to “temporal magnitude” (term borrowed from Talmy 2003a: 26) i.e. it can link time segments that span from seconds to years. It is “bulk neutral”, like all referents of a closed class (cf. Talmy 2003a: 31), i.e. it represents geometric idealizations abstracted from the bulk of an entity in space. All entities linked by apo are genuinely conceived as (i.e. cognitively reduced to) points, lines, planes. Yet, apo is characterized by a constraint, which relates to reference and is typical of closed class forms: it is “token-neutral” (Talmy 2003a: 32). It refers to types or categories of phenomena but it cannot refer to any particular tokens thereof. As Talmy beautifully states, “we can have proper names but we cannot have proper prepositions”, (Talmy 2003a: 32). We said before that apo forms part of the “configurational structure” (“structural schematization”) of language: it divides a referent scene into Paths and entities. This relates to another theoretical construct of Cognitive Linguistics that of an “image schema 101 ”: “a schema consists of a small number of parts and relations by virtue of which it can structure indefinitely many perceptions, images, and events, (Johnson 1987: 29). It is a concept that has directly understood structures of its own, and is used metaphorically to structure other complex concepts, (Lakoff 1987: 283). The spatial senses of prepositions tend to be defined in terms of image schemas, (Lakoff & Turner 1989: 97 ff). More specifically, Johnson (1987: 28) speaks of the FROM-TO or PATH schema:

A B

PATH

This image schema consists of four elements: a source point A, a terminal point B, a vector tracing a Path between them, and a relation specified as a force vector moving from A to B. This FROM-TO schema is a recurrent structure manifested in a number of seemingly different events, such as: walking from one place to the other, throwing a baseball to one’s sister, giving one’s mother a

101 Johnson’s notion of image schema is directly influenced by Kant, who understood schemata as non propositional structures of imagination, (Johnson 1987: 19, 156).

182 General Remarks present, melting ice into water, (Johnson 1987: 28). It is evident that this image schema pertains to apo and that all the events, referred to, are typical examples of a Motion Event. Apart from that, apo pertains to all the other ways of organizing a referent scene: “distribution of attention” (“windowing”), “deployment of perspective point” and “force dynamics”.

Windowing of Attention:

Windowing of attention is a cognitive process by which linguistic items direct the distribution of attention over a referent scene. The question that arises here is where the observer is. I believe that in most cases of the schematic structure imposed by apo, the observer stays stable and the surroundings move, (Talmy 2003a: 269). This is called an “observer type of frame relative motion”, (Talmy 2003a: 130). For example, in a typical utterance: τον είδα να έρχεται από μακριά (“I saw him coming from far away”) the observer stays stable and the surroundings (part of which is the Figure) move. The reference frame which apo imposes is “projector based”: the observer serves as the source of the projection and the addressee is directed to project his or her perspective point accordingly, (Talmy 2003a: 212, 69). A portion of the referent scene is placed into the foreground of attention by explicit mention, while the rest of the situation is “gapped”, (Talmy 2003a: 257). Fore-grounding is linked to “selection” i.e., to human ability to attend to parts of experience that are relevant to the purpose at hand and ignore aspects of experience that are irrelevant”, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 47). Windowing is imposed by apo in all domains:

Physical space domain:

Ο Άγιος Βασίλης θα έρθει από την καπνοδόχο. “Santa Claus is comes down trough the chimney ”.

Out of the whole the whole room the fireplace is “fore-grounded” while the rest is “gapped”.

183 General Remarks

Time domain:

Τον είδα από τις 5 έως τις 8 . “I saw him from 5 to 8” .

Only this segment of time is demarcated, the rest is gapped.

Causal domain:

Από πνευμονία πέθανε. “He died of pneumonia ”.

All other causes are excluded.

Deployment of Perspective Point:

It is the spatial or temporal positioning of an entity within the frame of the referent scene. It is alternatively called “perspectival location”, (Talmy 2003a: 68). Perspective construals result from our being in the world in a particular location. From a purely bodily point of view, we are in a particular spatial location in the world (“vantage point”). From a communicative perspective, we are situated as participants in the speech event. Our roles in the speech event define our attitude toward it, (Croft & Cruse 2004: 63). In physical terms, deployment of the Perspective point includes : a) The distance of an entity from a referent entity. It is evident that apo directly pertains to that:

Το σπίτι μου απέχει δύο χιλιόμετρα από την Αθήνα. “My house is two kilometers away from Athens ”.

b) The viewing direction from the perspective point to the regarded entity:

Τον είδε να έρχεται από τα αριστερά .. “She saw him coming from the left side ”.

c) The change of location of an entity in the course of time:

184 General Remarks

Από τις 6 έως τις 7 ταξίδευε. “From 6 to 8 he was traveling ”.

d) The Path the entity follows with change:

Από τη Λεωφόρο Νίκης αναχώρησε. “From Nikis’ Avenue he departed”.

As mentioned above, part of the deployment of perspective point is our attitude towards the speech event (“empathy”).

Από τη μεριά μου “From my point of view”

I submit that apo may also express empathy, as opposed to the more neutral, κατ’ εμέ (κατά τη γνώμη μου) “in my view”. The motion that apo denotes leading from my point of view may connote empathy (invitation to transverse the distance to my perspective). It should be said that even statements that are interpreted existentially or generically imply a hidden point of view, expressed by apo, (examples taken from Kiss 1998: 145) .

Sharks are visible. (By me) Οι καρχαρίες είναι ορατοί (από μένα) .

Sharks are dangerous. (Are considered dangerous by me) Οι καρχαρίες είναι επικίνδυνοι (κατά τη γνώμη μου )

Force Dynamics

This is a generalization of the traditional notion of causation, in which processes are conceptualized as involving different kinds of forces acting in different ways upon the participants of an act, (Talmy 1988, 2003a: 428; Jackendoff 1990: 130). The prototypical causative type represents an “Agonist” forcing an “Antagonist” (that tends toward rest) to move. It is specifically referred to by Talmy (1988: 50) that force dynamics is grammatically represented by prepositions, as in our case is the function of apo.

185 General Remarks

Κυνηγημένος ( o άνθρωπος) από τον εχθρό . (Agent) “Chased (the man) by the enemy”.

In the above example, the man (antagonist) is forced to move by the enemy (agonist). The causal relation is expressed with apo. Apo is a “Path preposition”, (cf. Talmy 2003a: 110): it refers to a Figure object executing a Path in the opposite direction of a Reference Object (the distance between the two objects progressively increases). As such, apo plays its part in a force interrelationship between the Figure and the Ground. Since this force is an opposing force, apo is included in the “force dynamics” configuration of the event, (interpreting Talmy 2003a: 152). Apo participates with its causal function in the force dynamics of an event. The Figure of the caused event has the tendency to resist to the force exerted on it by the Instrument of the causing event:

Το ψωμί κόπηκε από το μαχαίρι .(Instrument) “The bread was cut with the knife ”

There is still another case, where apo participates in the force dynamics of an event, the case of extreme complement blockage. A po refers to the blocked complement of the “Antagonist” in modality (Talmy 2003a: 262):

Εγώ (Agonist) απαιτώ ότι εσύ (Antagonist) δεν πρέπει να φας τα μπισκότα.. “I (Agonist) demand that you (Antagonist) not eat the cookies”

Τα μπισκότα δεν πρέπει να φαγωθούν (από σένα - the Antagonist) “The cookies must not be eaten ( by you - the Antagonist)”.

In what follows we will make some more general remarks regarding apo. However, these issues have not been studied in depth and need further investigation. Apo correlates only with events of dyadic personation that involve two participants (the term “participants” is employed in the extended notion to include both animate and inanimate entities). In this case, the actor’s body acts on a further participant, Talmy 2003b: 90) . Apo expresses the relation of the two participants:

Η ηθοποιός χτενίστηκε από τον κομμωτή της. “The actress was hairstyled by her hairdresser ”.

186 General Remarks

Part of personation is also the case, where one participant acts and is affected by his or her act. This case is called “reflexively dyadic or reflexively transitive”. Apo participates in this pseudo-dyadic relation, too.

Πέθανε από τη ζήλια της “She died of jealousy”.

In the above example, the person emits jealousy and hurts herself. We conceptualize a trajectory between a re-ified feeling and her. It has already been noted (see “Geographical Origin”) that even when apo apparently correlates with monadic personation, as in Αυτός είναι από την Ινδία (“He is from India”) it is actually a case of hidden dyadic personation (it links the two personas of the same figure: as he was genetically pre-determined and as he evolved after his life in India). India “begets him”. As for cases registered by lexicographers as denoting “manner”, such as το έμαθε απ’ έξω (“he or she learned it by heart ”), I have argued that they are cases of metaphoric dislocations in physical space, (see section “Minimal Semantic Model of Apo ”). In any case they constitute fossilized cases of idiomatic use.

Let us now look at what is called the Event Structure metaphor. “In this metaphor, different aspects of events, such as state, change, cause, action, and purpose, are comprehended via a small set of physical concepts: location (bounded region), force, and movement. (K ıvecses 2005: 43). An example is DEATH. Death is viewed metaphorically in terms of the EVENTS ARE ACTIONS metaphor. Death (an event) is metaphorically understood in terms of actions: reaping, devouring, departing etc., (Lakoff & Turner 1989: 80- 82). Being part of an event configuration, apo participates in this metaphor. However, it may participate in more ways than we can think of. In a metaphorical understanding of event structure, (Lakoff 1993: 219; Lakoff & Turner 1989: 97; Lakoff & Johnson 1980: 30-32; Lakoff 1990: 55):

187 General Remarks

States are seen as locations or containers
Changes are seen as movements
Causes are seen as forces
Actions are seen as self-propelled movements
Means are seen as Paths to destinations
External events are seen as large, moving objects

Apo correlates with the above metaphorical aspects of event structure. First, it links states ( από άσπρο έγινε μαύρο , “from white it turned black ”). Second, the fact that change is metaphorically viewed as Motion coincides with the correlation of apo with a Motion Event. Third, apo denotes cause, which is viewed as a force, either physical or mental. Fourth, apo is a Path preposition and denotes the “means” (“intermediary”) for an act, which is metaphorically seen as a Path to a destination. The above metaphoric model further substantiates assumptions that have been adopted in this dissertation. For example, actions are presented as self propelled movements, intensifying their volitional character. Finally, the fact that external events are seen as large moving objects is in line with the event-object analogy. In this section we made some general remarks concerning apo, which, however, may need further investigation.

188

Conclusion

189 Conclusion

10. Conclusion

Apo has been treated in literature mainly by lexicographers who attributed to it a number of senses that do not seem to be related to any nuclear meaning. There hasn’t been any principled account of polysemy or otherwise to the best of our knowledge claiming a comprehensive analysis of this item across times and genres. In this thesis, we looked at apo , not so much as a lexeme (after all, this is a function word having null referentiality), but as a lexical unit or as a construction that contracts with events. This approach prioritizes the constructional unit rather than the individual lexeme, and, on this view, the notion of polysemy may be accorded a subsidiary role in this enterprise (cf. Cruse 1986: 80). The aim of this thesis was to examine apo in relation to event structure. For this reason, first we examined apo (forms, meanings, syntactic functions) in Ancient Greek, Byzantine Greek and Modern Greek. Original literary texts were cross-referenced in relation to dictionaries and authoritative translations were employed when necessary. In addition, a corpus of Modern Greek newspaper discourse was used. Since Greek is part of the Indo-European family of languages, it was considered necessary to trace the etymology of apo in Sanskrit and portray briefly the way apo surfaces in other languages of the Indo-European family today. Introductory chapters on each language phase have been included. The main findings of the first part of the research can be summarized as follows: apo appears in Sanskrit. Vestiges of the Sanskrit meanings that surface today are: path and away. In Ancient Greek, it functioned as a preposition and selected mainly genitive and secondarily dative. In Byzantine Greek, it functioned as a preposition but selected primarily accusative and secondarily genitive. In Modern Greek, it functions as a preposition and selects accusative, nominative and genitive. Apo takes various forms in Standard Greek or dialects. Apo has been treated traditionally as an instance of polysemy in an effort to punctuate its meaning. More than forty meanings have been attributed to apo (in free or bound form) by lexicographers. This multiplicity of meanings was due to the fact that the verb core meaning was extended onto the preposition in the literature examined. The main contribution of this thesis is that it offers a more elegant and economic model to account for this variability in meaning. All these meanings attributed to apo can be epitomized into three main categories:

190 Conclusion

Dislocation in physical space
Dislocation in time
Dislocation in a causal chain

This dislocation is concrete in two-dimensional space and metaphorical in the domains of time and cause, as well as with abstract concepts.

We have claimed that all these strands of meaning can be represented by a single mathematical function:

f (x, y) Where:
x and y are the arguments of apo
x is the argument sub-categorized by apo

The restrictions of this function are defined as follows:

x and y must take values from the same domain (physical space, time, causality)
y>x

Moreover, dislocation in a causal chain leads to:

1. Product (through a natural process) 2. Construct (through the presence of an agent or a machine) 3. Change of State (of the same entity)

The second contribution of the thesis is that it posited that all these semantic functions of apo are expressed in a Motion Event. Apo plays a binary role in relation to a Motion event. First, it plays an internal role to the Motion event, whereby it signals the initial point x in the dislocation expressed by the verb, as shown diagrammatically below:

191 Conclusion

Motion

Apo point x A Motion Event point y

• in physical space • in time • in a causal chain

Where:

• x and y belong in the same domain • y>x

Motion Event

Second, it plays an external role to it, whereby it introduces the external cause, which might be either animate or inanimate, as shown below:

Motion

apo point x point y apo

in physical space in time Cause in a causal chain Animate or Inanimate Where:

x and y belong in the same domain y>x

External Cause Motion Event

When apo plays an external to the Motion event role, the same dislocation occurs: the cause (sub-categorized with apo ) functions as the point of initiation x in the causal chain that leads to a point y, which is the Motion event. In an effort to set up the theoretical framework of the proposed analysis, we presented the notion of a motion event in the context of events, frames and situations. The notion “event” is very important and widely discussed in the

192 Conclusion literature, and an in-depth analysis would form the subject of, at least, another thesis. For the purposes of this thesis, it was deemed adequate to merely concentrate on motion events in order to provide the requisite context for the analysis of apo. Conclusively and on a rather speculative metaphysical note, it could be proposed that apo is a highly “intelligent” connector. It plays a very important role in the configuration of space. Its intense presence in languages of the world may be claimed to portray its cognitive salience. At this point an ontological metaphor can be poised: if all entities are entwined in the universe, then apo can be said to express the correlation among all entities. It can be argued that apo refers to the initial point of γίγνεσθαι. It becomes a vehicle for the expression of “ontological relativity”. Furthermore, it imposes a triadic relation, which, by the way, is also central in the metaphysical systems of Christianity and Buddhism. On the one hand, we have the original entity, on the other the final entity and in the middle apo as a vehicle of transition. This leads inevitably to Peirce 102 , who stressed the importance of relation . In the logic of Peirce the subject is the sum of all its relations. Therefore, the ontological function of apo emerging is that of a linguistic medium par excellence to express ontological relativity.

As an aside: This study has presented many difficulties. First of all, this mental process of the transition from some densely typed pages of dictionaries to a mathematic model that epitomizes the approximately forty senses of a supposedly polysemous word into one, may seem simple to the reader but it has engaged me in an extremely complex and tedious decoding, for the further reason that the categorization of dictionaries was not based on clear criteria or differentiated from one dictionary to another. The picture was blurred and the boundaries fuzzy. Moreover, lexicographers had an aura of authority hard to question and surpass. To employ a metaphor, which has been so fashionable in modern linguistic cycles, and science, I had to turn a deaf ear to the lexicographers’ “sirens” in order to reduce multiplicity to “oneness” . The very process of this study presents a metaphor reflecting the function of apo: the actual transition

102 Charles Sanders Peirce (1839 – 1914): American Logician, Mathematician

193 Conclusion from, or, more aptly, the reduction of the many diverse senses of apo to the proposed core one in this thesis can be said to portray the very function semiotized by apo (from x to y). This road has been a solitary one and became even harder by the fact that it “passed through” seven linguistic codes: Ancient Greek, Byzantinte Greek, Modern Greek, English, Latin, German and French, as many dictionaries were written in German (Pokorny, Frisk, Hofmann) or French (Chantraine). This created a further practical difficulty in that it demanded special typing skills to account for the polytonic system. Difficulties were also encountered in the second part of the thesis, engaging with the complex notion of event but, in the end, we limited discussion to what was useful for our purposes, the notion of motion event. However, these difficulties charmed me rather than discouraged me. Plunging into the beautiful world of Greek literature of all periods, Ancient, Byzantine and Modern, had rewards for me. Being the “offspring” of the English Department such texts were not part of my curriculum of studies. Sixty-seven writers and ninety-two works have been referred to, as is evident in the Index of Authors and Works. The various forms of the Greek Language were captivating. I encountered old bi-lingual editions, testimony to the importantance of the Greek language for scholars. Authoritative translations were employed and rare editions were ordered from abroad, as for example the translation of Ερωφίλη “Erophile” (F. H. Marshall, Trans., 1929) and the translation of Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου “The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy” (G. Thompson, Trans., 1969). Furthermore, even though scantily evidenced here, this study gave me the chance to engage in a subject that has always intrigued me: the event. Why? Because I have always sensed that any minor change in the physical or mental world, which may chaotically lead to a major change, constitutes an event, and because a human life is, not only eventful but also… eventive: in the course of life, a human life can be metaphorically seen as an “event” with a beginning, a culmination and an ending… Hereby, I conclude this thesis in the hope that it has offered to the reader some of the “flavour” it gave to me.

194

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209

Appendices

210 Appendices

Appendix I

Apo in Ancient Greek

Meanings

Distaning ἅμα δὲ τῇ ᾑμέρᾳ τῇ πόλει προσέκειτο οὔσῃ οὐ μεγάλῃ, καὶ αἱρεῖ ἀφυλάκτοις τε ἐπιπεσὼν καὶ ἀπροσδοκήτοις μὴ ἄν ποτέ τινα σφίσιν ἀπὸ θαλάσσης τοσοῦτον ἐπαναβάντα ἐπιθέσθαι , Θουκ. 7.29.3 “but at daybreak (they) assaulted the town, which was not large, and took it; for he fell upon the people off their guard and not expecting that anybody would ever march so far inland from the sea and attack them ”, Th. VII, xxix 3

Ἡ δὲ μάχη σφέων ἦν ἀφ’ ἵππων , δόρατά τε ἐφόρεον μεγάλα , καὶ αὐτοὶ ἦσαν ἱππεύεσθαι ἀγαθοί, Ηρ. 1, 79 “It was their custom to fight [ from ] on horseback , carrying long spears , and they were skilled in the management of horses”, Hdt. I 79

Ὥς ὅ γε κοιρανέων δίεπε στρατόν· οἱ δ’ ἀγορήνδε αὖτις ἐπεσσεύοντο νεῶν ἄπο καὶ κλισιάων ἠχῇ, ὡς ὅτε κῦμα πολυφλοίσβοιο θαλάσσης αἰγιαλῷ μεγάλῳ βρέμεται, σμαραγεῖ δέ τε πόντος, Β 207-210. “Thus masterfully did he range through the host, and they hasted back to the place of gathering from their ships and huts with noise, as when a wave of the loud-resounding sea thundereth on the long beach, and the deep roareth”, Hom. Il. I, 207-210

οὔθ’ ὅτ’ ἂν ἂψ ἐπὶ γαῖαν ἀπ’ οὐρανόθεν προτράπηται , λ 18 “or when he returns again to earth from heaven ”, Od . 11 18 (Redundant Presence of apo )

οὐρανόθεν δ’ ἄρ’ ὑπερράγη ἄσπετος αἰθήρ, Π 300 “and from heaven breaketh open the infinite air”, Il . XVI 300 (Absence of apo )

ἐκ instead of apo καὶ ὑπολαβοῦσα εὐθύς, εὐφήμει, ἔφη. μὴ γένοιο σὺ τοιοῦτος· οὐ γὰρ ἄν ἔγωγέ σε δυναίμην, εἰ τοιοῦτος εἴης, ἀσπάσασθαι ἐκ τῆς ψυχῆς, Ξεν. Οικ. 10, 4

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“Hush!” she broke in immediately, “pray don’t be like that- I could not love you with all my heart [ from my heart ], if you were like that” Xen. Oec. X. 4

Place from which someone acts ταῦτα δὲ ἐφεστὼς ὁρᾶν αὐτός, ἐν ἀσφαλεῖ μέντοι ἀπὸ δένδρου ὑψηλοῦ ποιούμενος τὴν σκοπήν. καὶ εὖ γε ἐποίησε μὴ ὁμόσε χωρήσας τοῖς θηρίοις, ἐπεὶ οὐκ ἂν ἡμεῖς οὕτω θαυμαστόν συγγραφέα νῦν εἴχομεν καὶ ἀπὸ χειρὸς αὐτὸν μεγάλα καὶ λαμπρὰ ἐν τῷ πολέμῳ τούτῳ ἐργασάμενον , Λουκ. Ιστ. Συγγρ. 29 “he himself had been an eyewitness of this, he said, making his observations, however, in safety from a tall tree . He was quite right in not meeting the beasts at close quarters; we should not now have such an excellent historian, who off-hand did great and glorious deeds in this war”, Luc. Hist. Conscr. 29

Non Definite Distance «ὦ γέρον, Ὀγχηστοῖο βατοδρόπε ποιήεντος, / βοῦς ἀπὸ Πιερίης διζήμενος ἐνθάδ’ ἱκάνω, /πάσας θηλείας, πάσας κεράεσσιν ἑλικτάς, /ἐξ ἀγέλης· ὁ δέ ταῦρος μοῦνος ἀπ’ ἄλλων κυάνεος, /χαροποὶ δέ κύνες κατόπισθεν ἕποντο τέσσαρες /ἠύτε φῶτες ὁμόφρονες», Ομ. Υμν.Ερμ. 190-195 “Old sir, culler of grassy Onchestus’ thorns, I have come here searching for some cattle from Pieria, all cows, all with crumpled horns from a herd. The bull was grazing apart from the rest -sable color- and there were four fierce-eyed dogs following after them, working as a team like humans”, Hom. To Herm. 190-195.

Definite Distance Γιγνώσκοντες δὲ ὅτι καὶ ἐκ τῶν ἀγρῶν λεηλατήσοιεν, εἰ μή τις φυλακή ἔσοιτο, διαπέμπουσιν εἰς τὰς ἐσχατιὰς ὅσον πεντεκαίδεκα στάδια ἀπὸ Φυλῆς103 τούς τε Λακωνικοὺς πλήν ὀλίγων φρουροὺς καὶ τῶν ἱππέων δύο φυλάς, Ξεν. Ελ. 2. 4, 4 “Then the Thirty, knowing that the enemy would also gather plunder from the farms if there were no force to protect them, sent out all but a few of the Laconian guardsmen and two divisions of the cavalry to the outlying districts about fifteen stadia from Phyle ”, X., H. G., II IV 4

σχολῆς δὲ οὔσης ἢ κυνηγῶν διεπόνει τὸ σῶμα καὶ κατεσκεύαζε κοῦφον ἅμα καὶ ῥωμαλέον, ἢ γεωργῶν . ἦν γὰρ ἀγρὸς αὐτῷ καλὸς ἀπὸ σταδίων εἴκοσι τῆς πόλεως, Πλoυτ. Φιλοπ. 4, 2

103 Phyle was a fortress in the region of Athens.

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“And when he had leisure, he would give his body hard exercise in hunting, thus rendering it agile and at the same time sturdy, or in cultivating the soil. For he had a fine farm twenty furlongs from the city ”, Plu. Phil . IV 2

Absence σοὶ δ’ ἐγὼ οὐχ ἅλιος σκοπὸς ἔσσομαι οὐδ’ ἀπὸ δόξης [=opinion, expectation] , Κ 324 “and to thee shall I prove in no vain scout, neither one to deceive thy hopes ” Il . X 324

Οὕτως οὐδ΄ ἡμεῖς θαυμαστὸν οὐδὲν πεποιήκαμεν οὐδ΄ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἀνθρωπείου τρόπου, εἰ ἀρχήν τε δεδομένην ἐδεξάμεθα καὶ ταύτην μὴ ἀνεῖμεν ὑπὸ τῶν μεγίστων νικηθέντες, τιμῆς καὶ δέους καὶ ὠφελίας, Θουκ. 1.76, 2 “Thus there is nothing remarkable or inconsistent with human nature in what we also yielding to the strongest motives, honor, fear, and self- interest declined to give it up”, Th. I LXXVI 2

λέγω δὲ τὰ δύο τὸ μὲν οἰκεῖον καὶ ξυγγενές, τὸ δὲ ἀλλότριον καὶ ὀθνεῖον. ἐπὶ μὲν οὖν τῇ τοῦ οἰκείου ἔχθρᾳ στάσις κέκληται, ἐπὶ δὲ τῇ τοῦ ἀλλοτρίου πόλεμος. Καὶ οὐδέν γε, ἔφη, ἀπὸ τρόπου λέγεις , Πλ. Πολ. 470 Β “ ‘The two things I mean are the friendly and kindred on the one hand and the alien and foreign on the other. Now the term employed for the hostility of the friendly is faction, and for that of the alien is war’. ‘What you say is nothing beside the mark [what you say is not apposite to the case]’, he replied.” Pl. R. 470 B

«δαιμονίη, αἰεὶ μὲν ὀΐεαι, οὐδέ σε λήθω· πρῆξαι δ’ ἔμπης, οὔ τι δυνήσεαι, ἀλλ’ ἀπὸ θυμοῦ μᾶλλον ἐμοὶ ἔσεαι», Α 562 “Strange queen, ever art thou imagining, and I escape thee not; yet shalt thou in no wise have power to accomplish aught, but shalt be the further from my heart ”, Il . I 562

Apo with an article Ἀκούοντες οὖν ταῦτα οἱ ἀπὸ τῶν πόλεων πρέσβεις , ἀπήγγελλον ἐπὶ τὰς ἑαυτῶν ἕκαστοι πόλεις, Ξεν. Ελ . 5. 1, 32 “Upon hearing these words the ambassadors frοm the various states reported to their own several states”, X. H. G. VI 32

τῶν δέ ἀγγέλων τοὺς ἀπὸ τῆς Σπάρτης πρὸς τὰ ῥηθέντα ἐκ τῆς βουλῆς ἀμείψασθαι τοισίδε, Ηροδ. 7. 149 “Then those of the envoys that were Spartans [from Sparta] replied to what was said by the council.” Hdt. VII 149

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Partition κατὰ πάντα γὰρ πάντως νικηθέντες καὶ οὐδὲν ὀλίγον ἐς οὐδὲν κακοπαθήσαντες, πανωλεθρίᾳ δὴ τὸ λεγόμενον καὶ πεζός καὶ νῆες καὶ οὐδὲν ὅ τι οὐκ ἀπώλετο, καὶ ὀλίγοι ἀπὸ πολλῶν ἐπ’ οἴκου ἀπενόστησαν. Θουκ. 7.87 “For the vanquished, beaten utterly at every point and having suffered no slight ill in any respect- having met, as the saying goes, with utter destruction- land force and fleet and everything perished, and few out of many came back home”, Th.VII LXXXVII Deliverance Ἀπὸ πάσης ἀκαθαρσίας (ἀπηλλαγμένος), P. Lips. (= Papyrus Lipsiensis) 16. 19 “From each impurity (exempted)” , P. Lips. (= Papyrus Lipsiensis) 16. 19

Time Onset κλειναῖσιν Αἰακιδᾶν θιγοῖσα νᾶσος· τελέαν δ’ ἔχει δόξαν ἀπ’ ἀρχᾶς, Πινδ. Πυθ. 8. 3 “it knoweth the famous merits of the sons of Aeacus, and hath perfect glory frοm the beginning ”, Pi. P., VIII 3

ταύτην ὦν τὴν ἐλαίην ἅμα τῷ ἄλλῳ ἱρῷ κατέλαβε ἐμπρησθῆναι ὑπὸ τῶν βαρβάρων· δευτέρῃ δὲ ἡμέρῃ ἀπὸ τῆς ἐμπρήσιος Ἀθηναίων οἱ θύειν ὑπό βασιλέος κελευόμενοι ὡς ἀνέβησαν ἐς τὸ ἱρόν, ὥρων βλαστὸν ἐκ τοῦ στελέχεος ὅσον τε πηχυαῖον ἀναδεδραμηκότα. οὗτοι μέν νυν ταῦτα ἔφρασαν , Ηροδ. 8. 55 “Now it was so, that the olive tree was burnt with the temple by the foreigners; but on the day after its burning [one day from its burning ], when the Athenians bidden by the king to sacrifice went up to the temple, they saw a shoot of about a cubit’s length sprung from the trunk; which thing they reported”, Hdt. VIII. 55.

αὐτίκα γάρ τοι ἔπειτα μεθ’ Ἕκτορα πότμος ἑτοῖμος , Σ 96 “for straightway after Hector is thine own death ready at hand ”, Il. ΧVIII 96

Cause Compulsory Causation Νευροὶ δὲ νόμοισι μὲν χρέωνται Σκυθικοῖσι, γενεῇ δὲ μιῇ πρότερον σφέας τῆς Δαρείου στρατηλασίης κατέλαβε ἐκλιπεῖν τὴν χώρην πᾶσαν ὑπό ὀφίων · ὄφιάς γάρ σφι πολλοὺς μὲν ἡ χώρη ἀνέφαινε, οἱ δὲ πλεῦνες ἄνωθέν σφι ἐκ τῶν ἐρήμων ἐπέπεσον, ἐς ὃ πιεζόμενοι οἴκησαν μετὰ Βουδίνων τὴν ἑωυτῶν ἐκλιπόντες, Ηροδ. 4, 105

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“The Neuri follow Scythian usages; but one generation before the coming of Darius’ army it came about that they were driven from their country by snakes; for their land brought forth great numbers of these, and yet more came down upon them out of the desert on the north, till at last the Neuri were so hard pressed that they left their own country and dwelt among the Budini”, Hdt. IV 105 [ ὑπό instead of ἀπὸ].

Agent Ἐσέβαλεν μέν νυν στρατιὴν καὶ οὗτος ἐπείτε ἦρξε ἔς τε Μίλητον καὶ ἐς Σμύρνην, καὶ Κολοφῶνος τὸ ἄστυ εἷλε· ἀλλ’ οὐδὲν γὰρ μέγα ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ ἄλλο ἔργον ἐγένετο βασιλεύσαντος δυῶν δέοντα τεσσεράκοντα ἔτεα, τοῦτον μὲν παρήσομεν τοσαῦτα ἐπιμνησθέντες, Ἄρδυος δὲ τοῦ Γύγεω μετὰ Γύγην βασιλεύσαντος μνήμην ποιήσομαι. Ηροδ. 1. 15 “As soon as Gyges came to the throne, he too, like others, led an army into the lands of Miletus and Smyrna; and he took the city of Colophon. But he did nothing else [nothing was done by him ] great in his reign of thirty – eight years; I will therefore say no more of him, and will speak rather of Ardys the son of Gyges, who succeeded him.” Hdt. 1. 15

Conditions Ἀχθόμενος οὖν τῇ διαβολῇ ταύτῃ καὶ νομίζων ἐν εἰρήνη μὲν οὐδενὸς σφάλματος γιγνομένου καὶ ἅμα τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων τοὺς ἄνδρας κομιζομένων κἂν αὐτὸς τοῖς ἐχθροῖς ἀνεπίληπτος εἶναι, πολέμου δὲ καθεστῶτος αἰεὶ ἀνάγκην εἶναι τοὺς προύχοντας ἀπὸ τῶν ξυμφορῶν διαβάλλεσθαι , προυθυμήθη τὴν ξύμβασιν, Θουκ. 5. 17. “Vexed, therefore, by this calumny, and thinking that in time of peace, when no calamity would occur and, moreover, the Lacedaemonians would be recovering their men, he himself would not be exposed to the attack of his enemies, whereas so long as there was war it must always be that the leading men would be maligned in the event of any misfortunes [by any misfortunes] , he became very ardent for the agreement”, Th. V 17

Descent πέμπτη δ’ ἀπ’ αὐτοῦ γέννα πεντηκοντάπαις πάλιν πρὸς Ἄργος οὐχ ἑκοῦσ’ ἐλεύσεται θηλύσπορος, φεύγουσα συγγενῆ γάμον ἀνεψιῶν, Αισχ. Προμ. Δ. 853 “fifth in descent from him , fifty maidens shall return to Argos, not of their own free choice, but fleeing marriage with their cousin kin”, A. Pr . 853

ἀλλὰ καὶ ὥς μοι εἰπὲ τεὸν γένος, ὁππόθεν ἐσσί. oὐ γὰρ ἀπὸ δρυός ἐσσι παλαιφάτου οὐδ’ ἀπὸ πέτρης, τ 162

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“Yet even so tell me of your stock from which you come; for you are not sprung from an oak of ancient story or from a stone ”, Hom. Od. 9, 162

ἡμεῖς νομίζομεν Πέρσην εἶναι ἀπ’ οὗ ἡμεῖς γεγόναμεν παῖδα Περσέος τοῦ Δανάης, γεγονότα ἐκ τῆς Κηφέος θυγατρὸς Ἀνδρομέδης , Ηροδ. 7. 150 “Perses our forefather [is from the same generation as us ] had, as we believe, Perseus son of Danaë for his father, and Andromeda daughter of Cepheus for his mother”, Hdt. VII 150 [interchangeable use of ἐκ with ἀπό ].

Geographical Origin τοὺς μέντοι Ἕλληνας τοὺς ἐν τῇ Ἀσίᾳ οἰκοῦντας οὐδέν πω σαφὲς λέγεται εἰ ἕπονται. τοὺς δὲ ἀπὸ Φρυγίας τῆς πρὸς Ἑλλησπόντῳ συμβαλεῖν φασι Γάβαιδον ἔχοντα εἰς Καΰστρου Πεδίον ἑξακισχιλίους μὲν ἱππέας, πελταστὰς δὲ εἰς μυρίους, Ξεν. Κυρ . Παιδ. 2.1, 5 “As for the Greeks who dwell in Asia, however, no definite information is as yet received whether they are in the coalition or not. But the contingent from Phrygia on the Hellespont, under Gabaedus, has arrived at Caÿstru-Pedium, it is said, to the number of 6000 horse and 10,000 peltasts”, X. Cyr. II i 5

Origin of a Product τοιγὰρ κέλευθον τὴν δ’ ἄνευ τ’ ὀχημάτων χλιδῆς τε τῆς πάροιθεν ἐκ δόμων πάλιν ἔστειλα, παιδὸς πατρὶ πρευμενεῖς χοὰς φέρουσ’, ἅπερ νεκροῖσι μειλικτήρια, βοός [when feminine as in this case it means “cow” when masculine it means “bull”] τ’ ἀφ’ ἁγνῆς λευκὸν εὔποτον γάλα , τῆς τ’ ἀνθεμουργοῦ στάγμα, παμφαὲς μέλι, λιβάσιν ὑδρηλαῖς παρθένου πηγῆς μέτα, Αισχ. Περσ. 611 “΄Τis for this reason that I have directed my course hither from the palace once again, without my chariot and my former pomp, and bring, as propitiatory libations for the father of my son, offerings that serve to soothe the dead, both white milk , sweet to drink, from an unblemished cow , and bright honey, distillation wrought from blossoms by the bee, together with lustral water from a virgin spring”, A. Pers . 611

Chief or Founder of a School τῶν δὲ Ἑλληνικῶν φιλοσόφων οὐδενὸς μέν, ὡς ἁπλῶς εἰπεῖν, ἀνήκοος ἦν οὐδὲ ἀλλότριος, διαφερόντως δ’ ἐσπουδάκει πρὸς τοὺς ἀπὸ Πλάτωνος, Πλουτ., Βρούτ. 2 2

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“There was practically no Greek philosopher with whom Brutus was unacquainted or unfamiliar, but he devoted himself particularly to the disciples of Plato ”, Plu. Brut. II 2

Tοὺς μὲν ἄλλους τί ἄν σοι λέγοιμι; οἱ δὲ ἀπὸ φιλοσοφίας καὶ λόγων , οὕσπερ ἐθέλεις, οἶμαι, ἀκοῦσαι μάλιστα, Ζηνόθεμις ἦν ὁ πρεσβεύτης ὁ ἀπὸ τῆς στοᾶς104 καί ξὺν αὐτῷ Δίφιλος ὁ Λαβύρινθος ἐπίκλην, διδάσκαλος οὗτος ὢν τοῦ Ἀρισταινέτου υἱέος τοῦ Ζήνωνος, Λουκ., Συμπόσιον ἢ Λαπίθαι, 6 “Why should I tell you all of them? The philosophers [those from the domain of philosophy ] and literary [those from the domain of literature ] men, whom, I suppose, you are most eager to hear about, were Zenothemis, the old man of the Porch , and along with him Diphilus whom they call “Labyrinth”, tutor of Aristaenetus’ boy Zenon, Luc., The Carousal or The Lapithai, 6

ἐπεὶ δὲ κύριος ἁπάντων κατέστη, συναγαγόντα τῶν ἀπὸ σκηνῆς καὶ θεάτρου τοὺς ἰταμωτάτους ὁσημέραι πίνειν καὶ διαπληκτίζεσθαι τοῖς σκώμμασι, τοῦ τε γήρως ἀωρότερα πράττειν δοκοῦντα καὶ πρὸς τῷ καταισχύνειν τὸ ἀξίωμα τῆς ἀρχῆς πολλὰ τῶν δεομένων ἐπιμελείας προϊέμενον, Πλουτ. Συλλ. 2 “and when he had made himself supreme master, he would daily assemble the most reckless stage and theatre folk [folk from the theatre] to drink and bandy jests with them, although men thought that he disgraced his years, and although he not only dishonored his high office, but neglected much required attention”, Plu. Sull . 2.

Life Resources ζῶσι δὲ ἀπὸ ληίης τε καὶ πολέμου , Ηροδ. 4. 103 “The Tauri live by plundering and war ”, Hdt. IV 103

Ἐννοήσατε δ’, ἔφη, εἰ εἰκὸς καὶ τρέφειν ἀπὸ κοινοῦ οὓς ἂν κατάγωμεν ὅσον ἂν χρόνον ἡμῶν ἕνεκεν μένωσι, καὶ ναῦλον ξυνθέσθαι, ὅπως ὠφελοῦντες καὶ ὠφελῶνται. Ἔδοξε καί ταῦτα, Ξεν. Αν . 5 12 ““Again”, he said, “do you not think it reasonable that we should maintain from our common fund the sailors we thus bring into port for as long a time as they may be waiting for our sakes, and that we should agree upon a price for our passage, so that in conferring a benefit upon us they may also benefit themselves?”” This proposal also was adopted, Hdt, An. V i 9

104 It refers to the famous “Porch” where Zenon and his disciplines frequented and after which the Stoics were named.

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Πενία: σκέψαι τοίνυν ἐν ταῖς πόλεσιν τοὺς ῥήτορας, ὡς ὁπόταν μὲν ὦσι πένητες, περὶ τὸν δῆμον καὶ τὴν πόλιν εἰσὶ δίκαιοι, πλουτήσαντες δ’ ἀπὸ τῶν κοινῶν παραχρῆμ΄ ἄδικοι γεγένηνται, ἐπιβουλεύουσί τε τῷ πλήθει καὶ τῷ δήμῳ πολεμοῦσιν. Αριστοφ. Πλ. 564-570 “Poverty: ‘Just observe the politicians in every state: when they’re poor, they do right by the people and the state; but when they get rich on public funds [they get rich from the public wealth] , they immediately become wrongdoers, plotting against the masses and warring against the people’ ”, Ar. Pl . 564-570

Instrument Ἀλλὰ νὴ Δία, ὁ κατήγορος ἔφη, ὑπερορᾶν ἐποίει τῶν καθεστώτων νόμων τοὺς συνόντας λέγων, ὡς μῶρον εἴη τοὺς μὲν τῆς πόλεως ἄρχοντας ἀπὸ κυάμου 105 καθιστάναι, κυβερνήτῃ δὲ μηδένα ἐθέλειν χρῆσθαι κυαμευτῷ μηδὲ τέκτονι μηδ’ αὐλητῇ μηδ’ ἐπ’ ἄλλα τοιαῦτα, ἃ πολλῷ ἐλάττονας βλάβας ἁμαρτανόμενα ποιεῖ τῶν περὶ τὴν πόλιν ἁμαρτανομένων, Ξεν. Απομν . 1.2, 9 “but, said his accuser, he taught his companions to despise the established laws by insisting on the folly of appointing public officials by lot , when none would choose a pilot or builder or flautist by lot, nor any other craftsman for work in which mistakes are far less disastrous than mistakes in statecraft”, X., Mem., I ii 9

πρῶτον μὲν Ἄργος καὶ θεοὺς ἐγχωρίους δίκη προσειπεῖν, τοὺς ἐμοὶ μεταιτίους νόστου δικαίων θ’ ὧν ἐπραξάμην πόλιν Πριάμου· δίκας γὰρ οὐκ ἀπὸ γλώσσης 106 θεοὶ κύοντες ἀνδροθνῆτας Ἰλίου φθορὰς ἐς αἱματηρὸν τεῦχος οὐ διχορρόπως ψήφους ἔθεντο, Αισχ. Αγ . 810-813 “Argos first, as is right and due, I greet and the gods that dwell therein who have helped me to my safe return and to the justice I exacted from Priam’s town. For hearkening to no pleadings by word of mouth , without dissentient voice, they cast into the urn of blood their ballots for the murderous destroying of Ilium”. Aes. Ag. 813

βουλόμενος Ἄρπαγος δηλῶσαι τὴν ἑωυτοῦ γνώμην ἄλλως μὲν οὐδαμῶς εἶχε ἅτε τῶν ὁδῶν φυλασσομενέων, ὁ δὲ ἐπιτεχνᾶται τοιόνδε· λαγὸν μηχανησάμενος, καὶ ἀνασχίσας τούτου τὴν γαστέρα καὶ οὐδὲν ἀποτίλας, ὡς δὲ εἶχε, οὕτω ἐσέθηκε βυβλίον, γράψας τά οἱ ἐδόκεε· ἀπορράψας δὲ τοῦ

105 Kύαμοι /kiami/ refers to “broad beans” that were used as votes in Ancient Age. 106 In this case tongue is the implied “tool” for the articulation of pleadings.

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λαγοῦ τὴν γαστέρα, καὶ δίκτυα δοὺς ἅτε θηρευτῇ τῶν οἰκετέων τῷ πιστοτάτῳ, ἀπέστελλε ἐς τοὺς Πέρσας, ἐντειλάμενός οἱ ἀπὸ γλώσσης 107 διδόντα τὸν λαγὸν Κύρῳ ἐπειπεῖν αὐτοχειρίῃ μιν διελεῖν καὶ μηδένα οἱ ταῦτα ποιεῦντι παρεῖναι, Ηροδ. 1. 123 “Arpagus desired to make known his intent to Cyrus, then dwelling among the Persians; but the roads were guarded, and he had no plan for sending a message but this- he artfully slit the belly of a hare, and then leaving it as it was without further harm he put into it a paper on which he wrote what he thought fit. Then he sewed up the hare’s belly, and sent it to Persia by the trustiest of his servants, giving him nets to carry as if he were a huntsman. The messenger was charged to give Cyrus the hare and bid him by word of mouth cut it open with his own hands, none other being present” Hdt. I 123

οὐ γὰρ ἦν οἷος ἀπὸ παντὸς κερδαίνειν, ἀλλὰ φιλόχρηστός τε καὶ ἔφη ῥᾷστον εἶναι ἀπὸ τῶν συκοφαντῶν λαμβάνειν , Ξεν. Απομν. 2. 9. 4 [following categorization suggested by K őhner, op.cit. ] “For he was not one of those who make money unscrupulously [make money from everywhere ], but an honest man, and he would say that it was easy to take forfeit from false accusers ”, Xen. Mem. II ix 4

107 ἀπὸ γλώσσης /apo γlosis/ means “orally” and the “tongue” functions as the “tool” of speech.

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Appendix II

Apo in Modern Greek

Meanings

Distancing Κι ἀπ’ τά κελιά τῶν μοναχῶν προστάζει ἐνδύματα ἐκκλησιαστικά να φέρουν , Καβάφης, Μανουήλ Κομνηνός, στ. 8-9 “And orders ecclesiastic vestments brought to him from the monastery cells ”, Cavafy, Manuel Komninos , line 8-9

Θυμᾶσαι, Μάρκε, πού ἔφερες ἀπό τοῦ ἀνθυπάτου τό μέγαρον , τόν Κυρηναῖο περίφημον ζωγράφο, Καβάφης Λάνη Τάφος, στ. 7-8 “Rememeber, Markos, when you brought the famous Kyrenian painter from the proconsul’s palace” , Kavafy K., The Tomb of Lanis , lines 7-8

Βαριά τραυματισμένος βγαίνει ο ελληνικός αθλητισμός από το σκάνδαλο ντόπινγκ, Το Βήμα της Κυριακής , 13-4-2008, σελ. 1, [absence of the motion verb would constitute the example and instance of cause] “Greek sports have been heavily injured by the doping scandal” , “To Vima Tis Kyriakis”, 13-4-2008, p.1

Οἱ παλαιοί νεκροί ξέφυγαν ἀπ’ τόν κύκλο καί ἀναστήθηκαν, Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα, ΚΑ΄ , στ.9 “The ancient dead have escaped [from] the circle and rizen again”, Seferis, Mythistorema, 21 , line 9

Mολοντοῦτο ἐβαστιότανε [=απείχε] ἀπό τά κακά ἔργατα, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 2, σελ. 45 [metaphoric dislocation from “wrongdoings”] “And yet she held back from wrongdoing ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 2., p. 65

Καί τό μετακίνησα ἀπό τόν τόπο του , Σεφέρης, Η Στέρνα, εισαγωγή, σειρ. 5-6 “I had shifted it from its place ”, Seferis, The Cistern , Introduction, line 5

Σήκωσε [απομάκρυνε ] τό κεφάλι ἀπό τά χέρια τά καμπύλα, Σεφέρης, Ερωτικός Λόγος Γ΄, στροφή 1 η, στ. 3 “Raise [move away] your head from your cupped hands ”, Seferis, Erotikos Logos III , stanza 1, line 3

Κι ἀπό τίς πιό ἀλάργα γειτονιές ἔπαιρναν [took away] τή μυρωδιά καί ξεκινοῦσαν , Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 4, σελ. 117

220 Appendices

“And from the most far away neighborhoods they were inhaling the odour and set off ”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chap.4, p.117

Ἀπό τ΄ ἀγκάθι σου ἔφευγε τοῦ δρόμου ὁ στοχασμός, Σεφέρης, Ερωτικός Λόγος Α΄, σ. 2 η, στ. 2 “From your thorn emerged the way’s thought”, Seferis, Erotikos Logos I, stanza 2, line 2 [The “rose of Fate” is love. The “thorn” refers to the difficulties of love, which act as the point of initiation of the course of thought.]

Μά τό καράβι ἀκολουθάει τό στοχασμό του πού ἄρχισε σάν ἄνοιξε [απομακρύνθηκε ] ἀπό τό λιμάνι , Σεφέρης, Το ύφος μιας μέρας, στροφή 5 η, στ. 2 “But the ship keeps going the way it was heading when it put out [moved away] from the harbour” , Seferis, The Mood of a Day , stanza 4, lines 1-2

Πῆγα στή Θεσσαλονίκη, πῆγα στή Βασιλεύουσα, κι ἀπό κεῖ μέ στείλανε ἐδῶ, κι ἀπό δῶ Κύριος οἶδε ποῦ θά μέ στείλουν !, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 1 ο, Στην Ανδριανούπολη, σελ. 16 “I went to Thessalonika, I went to Constantinople; and from the Capital they directed me here. From this place only God knows where they’ ll send me!” Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium , chapt. 1, In Andrianoupolis, p. 4

Ἕνας νέος χωρικός, πού ἔβγαινε ἐκείνη τήν ὥρα ἀπό τόν ξενῶνα , Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 1 ο , Στην Αδριανούπολη, σελ. 12 “A young peasant who leaving the inn at that moment” , Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium , chapt. 1, In Adrianoupolis, p. 2

Ὁ Σαμουήλ πετάχθηκε ἀπό τό στρῶμα , ἅρπαξε τ΄ ἅρματά του κι ἔτρεξε πρός τήν πόρτα, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 5, Στις όχθες του Αξιού, σελ. 77 “Samuel sprung up from his bed , seized his weapons and ran towards the door” , Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium , chapt. 5, At the Banks of the Axios river, p. 46

Ἀπό τήν πατρίδα μας διωγμένοι […] θ’ ἀνατείλουμε στή Δύση, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 5 ος , Ο Θάνατος των Αρχαίων, στροφή 29 η, στ. 4-6 “Exiles from our native shores , […] shall rise in the West”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy, Canto V, The Death of the Ancients , stanza 15, lines 1-4 [“shores” in the English translation stands metonymically for πατρίδα “country”]

Κ’ ἔρχονται μέ κόπο καί σκυφτοί, σάν ἀπό κρυψῶνες μέσ’ στή γῆ, σάν ἀπ΄ τ΄ ἀνήλιαγα κελάρια, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 5 ος , Ο Θάνατος των Αρχαίων, στροφή 9 η, στ. 4-6

221 Appendices

“Walking painfully with a stoop as though they had come from sunless caves and cells ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy, Canto V, The Death of the Ancients , stanza 5, lines 3-4

Ξεκινοῦσε ἀπ’ τήν Ἁραπιά , διαπερνοῦσε τό Λιβυκό πέλαγο, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 2, σελ. 43 “It came from Arabia , crossed the Lybian Sea” , Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt. 2, p. 46

Ὅ, τι ἐγύριζα ἀπό τό μοναστήρι τοῦ Ἁ(γίου) Διονυσίου, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, σελ. 41 “I was just returning from the monastery of St. Dionisius” , Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 1, p. 59

Κι ἔφυγα ἀπό τήν πέτρα τοῦ σκανδάλου ἐγώ ὁ Διονύσιος ὁ Ιερομόναχος, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 4, σελ. 50 “And I, Dionysios the Anchoret, departed from the stumbling block ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 4, p. 71[Μetaphoric departure (i.e. dislocation) of the Monk from temptation]

Βγάζει ἀπ’ τές θῆκες ἄλλα, Καβάφης, Του μαγαζιού, στ. 9 “He takes other things to sell from the cases ”, Kavafy K., For the Shop, line 9

Γιατί τούς διώξαμε ἀπ΄τούς ναούς των, Καβάφης, Ιωνικόν, στ. 2 “Because we threw them out of the temples ”, Cavafy, Ionian , line 2

Καί ἐτραβήχτηκε τό αἶμα ἀπό τά μάγουλά μου [χλώμιασα ], Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 9, σελ. 61 “And I felt my blood drain from my cheeks ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 9, p. 83

Καί ἐφάνηκε ἕνα ψοφογάτσουλο, ὅπου ξετρουπώνει ἀπό τήν κροπιά (sic), ἕνας ἀνεμοστρούφουλας, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 7, σελ. 56 “A dead cat and a whirlwind blows out of a pile of manure ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 7, p. 79

Ἀλλά ἰδού προβαίνει ἀπό τήν κάσα μιά κεφαλή γυναικεία φθαρμένη καί αὐτή ἀπό τό τηχτικό, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 7, σελ. 57 “But there rose of the coffin the head of a woman also ravaged by consumption”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 7, p. 79

Place from which someone acts Ἀπό μέρος ἄγνωστο φώσφορο ἔχυσε , Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Γένεσις, σελ. 21

222 Appendices

“From an unknown source he poured out phosphorus”, Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Genesis , p. 25

Absence Η απουσία της εργατικής τάξης από τον λαϊκό πληθυσμό τού 10, Τα Νέα , 13- 14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 6 “The absence of the working class from lower classes of Greece in 10” , “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 6

Ὅταν λείπει γιά πάντα κανείς ἀπό τή φαμιλιά, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 7, σελ. 58 “When someone leaves the family forever” , Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 8, p. 78

Για την απουσία μου από τις στερνές μέρες μιας παιδικής μου φίλης, Τα Νέα , 13- 14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 3, στήλη 5 “For my absence from the last days of an old friend of mine” , “Ta Nea”, 13- 14/4/2008, slip “Το Vivliodromio”, p. 3, column 5

Αὐτός ὁ ἀέρας πού γυμνώνει [deprives] τά κόκαλα ἀπ΄τή σάρκα , Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα Ζ΄, στ. 3 “The kind of wind that strips bones of their flesh” , Seferis, Mythistorema 7, line 3

Μαλλιά σάν ἀπό ἀγάλματα ἑλληνικά παρμένα [removed], Καβάφης, Έτσι πολύ ατένισα, στ. 4 “Hair as if taken from Greek statues ”, Cavafy, I Have Gazed So Long, line 4

Φοροῦσε ἀψηλά ποδήματα, πού τά δενε στή ζώνη του καί ποτέ δέν τά ΄βγαζε ἀπό τά πόδια του , Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 1, σελ. 9 “His boots were high and hitched to his belt and never did he take them off ”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chapt. 1, p. 9

Deliverance Ἀκριβέ μου, νά μου χαρίσεις γέρνοντας τήν ἀπέραντη λύτρωση , πού γύρευα ἀπό τά γοργά σεῖστρα 108 τοῦ ἀνέμου , Σεφέρης , Ερωτικός Λόγος Γ΄, στροφή 7 η, στ. 3-4 “My beloved, to grant me, bending, the boundless deliverance I was seeking from the wind’s quick sistrum” , Seferis, Erotikos Logos III, stanza 7, lines 3-4

108 In Ancient Greek the word σείστρα /sistra/ derives from the verb σείω/sίο/ “rattle” and meant a ritual rattle.

223 Appendices

Μαζεύοντας τόν πόνο τῆς πληγῆς μας, νά βγοῦμε [be delivered] ἀπό τόν πόνο τῆς πληγῆς μας, μαζεύοντας τήν πίκρα τοῦ κορμιοῦ μας, νά βγοῦμε ἀπό τήν πίκρα τοῦ κορμιοῦ μας, Σεφέρης, Η Στέρνα, στ. 71-75. “Gathering up the pain of our wound, so that we may escape the pain of our wound, gathering up the body’s bitterness, so that we may escape the body’s bitterness” , Seferis, The Cistern , stanza 15, lines 1-4

Κι ὅσοι μείνουνε [γλιτώσουνε] ἀπό τόν ξολοθρεμό , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 4, σελ. 49 “And the ones who survive the slaughter” , Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chap. 4, p. 69

Γιά λίγο βγῆκε [was delivered from] ἀπό τή λαγνεία κι ἀπ΄τή μέθη, Καβάφης, Οροφέρνης, στροφή 6, στ. 7 For a little while he emerged from his lust and drunkeness , Cavafy, Orofernis, stanza 6, line 7

Μιά σκέψις ὅμως παρευθύς ἀπό τήν ἀθυμία τόν βγάζει [frees him], Καβάφης, Ούτος εκείνος, στ. 8-9 “But one thought straight away raises him from his gloom” , Cavafy, This Is The Man , lines 8-9

Transit Λυποῦμαι, γιατί ἄφησα νά περάσει ἕνα πλατύ ποτάμι [μέσα] ἀπό τά δάχτυλά μου χωρίς νά πιῶ οὔτε μιά στάλα, Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα, ΙΗ, στ.1-3 “I regret having let a broad river slip through my fingers without drinking a single drop” , Seferis, Mythistorema, 18, lines 1-3

Θεοί! Πῶς ἀγωνίζεται ἡ ζωή γιά νά περάσει , θά ’λεγες φουσκωμένο ποτάμι [μέσα] ἀπό τήν τρύπα βελόνας, Σεφέρης, Τετράδιο Γυμνασμάτων (1928-1937), Δοσμένα, Γράμμα του Μαθιού Πασχάλη, στ. 6-7 “God! What a struggle it is for life to keep going, as though it were a swollen river passing through the eye of a needle ”, Seferis, Book of Exercises (1928- 1937), Poems Given, Letter of Mathios Paskalis, lines 11-13

Dependence Εὐθύς οἱ ἄλλοι τόν ἁρπάζανε ἀπό τά μαλλιά, Ελύτη Ο. Το Άξιον Εστί, Το οικόπεδο με τις τσουκνίδες, σελ. 50 “And whoever he chose to stand in front of was hauled out by the hair” , Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Vacant Lot with the Nettles, p.54

Επικαλούμενος κίνδυνο ενεργειακής εξάρτησης των Δυτικών αγορών από τη Μόσχα, Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ . 1 “Pleading danger of power dependence of the western markets on Moscow ”, “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p.1

224 Appendices

Boundaries Κι ἀπ’ τῶν κάστρων τίς Χρυσόπορτες , κι ἀπό τ’ ἄπαρτα Ἑφταπύργια ὡς τήν ἄκρη στά σπαρτά σμαραγδονήσια, λεγεῶνες τά παλάτια καί στρατοί τά μοναστήρια, Παλαμάς Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 4η, στ. 14-18 “From the Golden Gates of the fortress, from the impregnable Seven Towers as far as the emerald isles scattered across the bay, were legions of palaces, armies and monasteries” , Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , stanza 4, lines 9-12

Ἀπό τό χνούδι τοῦ φιλιοῦ, στά φύλλα τῆς καρδιᾶς, Σεφέρης, Ερωτικός Λόγος Γ΄, στροφή 2 η, στ. 4 “From the down of the kiss to the leaves of the heart” , Seferis, Erotikos Logos III, stanza 2, line 4

Ἀπό τό Νεῖλο ὡς τόν Εὐφράτη ἀστράψαμε κι ἀπό τίς Βεναρές ὡς τό Χαλέπι, Παλαμάς Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 7 ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 4 η, στ. 14-18 “From the Nile to the Euphrates and from Benares to Aleppo”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy, Canto VII, Kakava Fair , stanza 23, lines 10-11

Καί ὅλη μέρα τούς προκαλοῦσαν μέ βρισιές καί λόγια εἰρωνικά, πού τούς πετοῦσαν ἀπό τήν μιά ἀκροποταμιά στήν [<σε την] ἄλλη, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφάλαιο 5, Στις όχθες του Αξιού, σελ. 67 “The Bulgarians grew bold and taunted them with curses and jeers hurled from one river bank to the other”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chapt 5, At the banks of the Axios River, p. 38

Εἶχε τό μοῦτρο της τή μορφή τοῦ καλαποδιοῦ, καί ἔβλεπες ἕνα μεγάλο μάκρο ἄν ἐκοίταζες ἀπό τήν ἄκρη τοῦ πηγουνιοῦ ὡς τήν ἄκρη τοῦ κεφαλιοῦ, Σολωμός, Η Γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, (κεφ. 2), σελ. 44 “Her face was shaped like a shoemaker’s last and you saw a thing of great length if you looked at it from the point of the chin to the crown of the head”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 2, p. 63

Σβάρνιζε τόν κάμπο τῆς Μεσαρᾶς, ἀπό τό Τυμπάκι καί τοῦς Καλούς Λιμνιῶνες ὡς τήν Ἁγια-Βαρβάρα, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 2, σελ. 43 “Swept the plain of Mesara from Tymbaki and Good Harbour to Saint Barbara”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt. 2, p. 43

Κι’ ἀπ΄ ὅπου χαράζει [ο ήλιος] κι’ ὡς ὅπου βυθᾶ [ο ήλιος] [πορευόμουν] (= από την ανατολή ως τη δύση του ήλιου), Σολωμός, Η Γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 5, σελ. 53 “And from where it rises [the sun] to where it sets [I was marching]”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 5, p. 73

225 Appendices

Γύριζε ἀπό σπλάχνο σέ σπλάχνο ἕνας ντελάλης καί φώναζε, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 4, σελ. 119 “The crier stood in the middle of the square and his voice was like a bell’s”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt. 4, p. 118

Κι ἔξω, ἀπό στόμα σέ στόμα, μέσα στήν ἀναμπουμπούλα, ἡ ἴδια λέξη ἔτρεχε, ξετρελλαίνοντας καί τούς γενναιότερους, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 5., Στις όχθες του Αξιού, σελ. 77-78 “Amid the uproar [from mouth to mouth], the word travelled like lightning, driving even the bravest soldiers into a frenzy”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chapt 5, At the Banks of the Axios River, p. 46

[…]πως μεταφέρουμε από γενιά σε γενιά, Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο, Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 4, στήλη 4 “[…]that we carry from generation to generation” , “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 4, column 4

Comparison Κι ἦταν κί αὐτό πιό κι ἀπ’ τήν κούραση ἀνυπόφερτο , Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Πορεία προς το μέτωπο, σελ. 30 “And that was even harder to take than being tired ”, Elytis, The Axion Esti, The March Toward the Front , p. 34

Πολύ περισσότερο κι απ΄ ό, τι συνέβαινε στο παρελθόν , Το Βήμα της Κυριακής , 13-4-2008, σελ. 30 “Lots more than it occurred in the past ”, “To Vima tis Kyriakis”, 13-4-2008, p.16

Ὦ! Πιό κοντά στή ρίζα τῆς ζωῆς μας ἀπό τή σκέψη μας κι ἀπό τήν ἔννοια !, Σεφέρης, Η Στέρνα, στροφή 13, στ.1-2 “O (sic ) nearer the root of our life than our thoughts and our anxiety !”, Seferis, The Clistern , stanza 13, lines 1-2

Καί σέ κατιτί ἀκριβώτερο ἀπ’ τ’ ἀράπικα τοπάζια, ἀπ’ τά χουρμούζικα τά μαργαριτάρια, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 5 ος , Ο Θάνατος των Αρχαίων, στροφή 12 η, στ. 4-6 “Treasured like pearls of Ormuz or topaz from Arabia ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy, Canto V, The Death of the Ancients , stanza 4, line 21 [Notice that the English translation is not equivalent].

Καί δόξα σοι ὁ Θεός εἴχετε περσότερα ἀπό ἐκεῖνα πού ἔχω ἐγώ, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 4, σελ. 48 “And you had more than I , Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 4, p. 69

226 Appendices

Καί ἦταν χυμένο ὁλόγυρα κάτι πιό χαϊδευτικό κι ἀπό τ’ ἀεράκι , Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1 ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 2 η, στ. 4 “In the air was something more soothing than the breeze” , Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , stanza 2, line 2

Partition Ἀλλά δέ θά ξέρει κανείς ἀπ΄ὅσους θά μέ πλησιάζουν, Καβάφης, Αιμιλιανός Μονάη Αλεξανδρεύς, 628-655 μ.Χ. στ. 5-6 ‘But none who come near [from those who came near] will know” , Cavafy, Aimilianos Monai, Alexandrian, 628-655 A.D., lines 5-6

Πολλά από τα οποία , Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 5, στήλη 4 “Many of which” , “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 5,column 4

Κι ἀπ’ τούς ὡραίους τῆς Ἰωνίας νέους , ὁ πιό ὡραῖος αὐτός, Καβάφη Κ., Οροφέρνης, στ. 16, 17 “Of all the beautiful young men of Ionia, he was the most beautiful”, Cavafy K, Orofernis , line 16-17

Μιάν ἀπό τίς ἀνήλιαγες μέρες ἐκείνου τοῦ χειμώνα, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Το Οικόπεδο με τις τσουκνίδες, σελ. 50 “One of the sunless days of that winter” , Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Vacant Lot with the Nettles, p. 54

Ὁ Ἀλέξανδρος […] ἀπ’ τούς καλούς μας σοφιστάς , Καβάφη Κ., Ηρώδης Αττικός, στ. 2 “Alexandros […] of our fine sophists ”, Cavafy K, Herodis Attikos, line 2

Ποιός ἀπ’ τούς δυό ποιός ἀπό τέτοιους δυό νά δυσαρεστηθεῖ, Καβάφης, Πρέσβης απ’ την Αλεξάνδρεια, στ. 6 “Which one , which one of such a pair , to displease?”, Cavafy K, Envoys from Alexandria, line 6

Κι ἀπ’ τούς Ἕλληνες πολλοί θά λυπηθοῦν, Καβάφης, Αριστόβουλος, στ. 8 “Even among [from ] the Greeks, many will be saddened” , Cavafy K, Aristovoulos , line 8

Κ’ ἤπια ἀπό δυνατά κρασιά , Καβάφης, Επήγα, στ. 5 “And I drunk [from] strong wines”, Cavafy K, I wemt, line 6

Onset Η Ελλάδα από την πρώτη στιγμή είδε το νέο αγωγό συμπληρωματικό του Ελληνο- Ιταλικού, Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ. 4

227 Appendices

“From the very first moment Greece saw the new pipeline as complementary to the Greek- Italian οne”, “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p.4

Ἀπό τή στιγμή , πού ἔκλεισε ὁ τάφος τοῦ Παγράτη, ἡ κόρη εἶχε πέσει σέ ἀτονία πού, ὧρες-ὧρες, τρόμαζε τόν παπά, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 18 ο, Προδότης, σελ. 258 “From the time Pagratis was buried, the girl had sunk into a depression that at times frightened the priest”, Delta P. S. In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chap. 18, Traitor, p. 178

Ἀπ΄τες ἐννιά πού ἄναψα τή λάμπα, Καβάφης, Απ’ τες εννιά, στ. 7 “Since nine o’ clock, when I lit the lamp” , Cavafy, Since Nine O’ Clock , line 7

Μά ἐκεῖ ἔμαθα πώς ἀπό καιρό εἶχε πεθάνει ἡ Αὐγούστα, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 1 ο, Στην Ανδριανούπολη, σελ. 19 “There I discovered that the Augusta had died some time before”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chapt. 1, In Andrianople , p. 5

Τούς εἴχαμε γνωρίσει ἀπό μικρά παιδιά , Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα Ε΄, στ. 3 “We’d known them since early childhood ”, Seferis, Mythistorema, 5 , line 3

Από τη μεταπολίτευση και μετά δεν έλειψαν […], Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 66 “Since the change-over onwards, never have we missed […]”, “Ta Nea”, 13- 4-2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.66

Για την επέτειο των εκατό χρόνων από τη γέννησή του, Τα Νέα , 13-4/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 66 “For the 100-year anniversary of his birth ”, “Ta Nea”, 13-4-2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.66

Compulsory Causation Κι ἐκεῖ ἔμεινε τρέμοντας ἀπό τή θέρμη καί τό σύγκρυο , Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 18 ο , Προδότης, σελ. 259. “There she remained, shivering from fever and the cold, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chap. 18, Traitor, p. 179

Τό σπαθί τοῦ Βασιλείου ἄχνιζε ἀκόμα ἀπό τό αἶμα τῶν ἐχθρῶν, Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 17 ο , Η εκλογή του Χάρου, σελ. 449 “Basil’s sword was still steaming from enemy blood ” Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chap. 27, Death’s Choice, p. 316

Λύθηκε ἀπό τή φόρα τό μαῦρο κροσσωτό μαντίλι πού ἀνακρατοῦσε τά ἀγκαθωτά μαλλιά του, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 1, σελ. 7

228 Appendices

“The black tasseled band, which bound his hair behind had fallen loose”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt.1, p. 7

Καί ὁ νοῦς μου ἐζαλίστηκε ἀπό τό μεγάλον ἀριθμό , Σολωμός Δ., Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, σελ. 42, κεφ. 1 “And my mind was confused by the great number ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 1, p. 61

Παρηγορημένος ἀπό τές μυρωδίες τοῦ κάμπου, ἀπό τά γλυκότρεχα νερά , καί ἀπό τόν ἀστρόβολον οὐρανόν , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, σελ. 43 “Comforted by the scents of the plain, by the sweet running waters , and by the stormy sky ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 1, p. 61

Ὁλονυχτίς ἔτρεμε ἡ Ζάκυνθος ἀπό τό κανόνισμα τό πολύ, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 3, σελ. 46 “The whole night long Zakythos trembled from the heavy cannon fire ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 3, p. 65

Καί εἶδα φωτισμένη ἀπό μιάν ἀκατάπαυστη σπιθοβολή μιά γυναίκα […], Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 5, σελ. 52 “And I saw lid by a n endless shower of sparks , a woman”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 5, p. 73

Σακατεμένος ἀπ’ τά χρόνια κι ἀπό τίς καταχρήσεις , Καβάφης, Πολύ σπανίως, στ. 2 “Ravaged by the years and excess ”, Cavafy, Very rarely, line 2

[…] πού λάμπει ἀναμένη (sic) ἀπό τοῦ πολυελαίου τή δυνατή φωτιά , Καβάφης, Πολυέλαιος, στ. 6-7 “[…]brilliantly lighted by the chandelier’s strong flame ”, Cavafy K, Chandelier, lines 6-7

Μιά κεφαλή γυναίκεια φθαρμένη καί αὐτή ἀπό τό τηχτικό 109 , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 7, σελ. 57 “The head of a woman also ravaged by consumption ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 7, p. 79

Απ΄ τῆς ταβέρνας τόν καυγά μᾶς φέραν πληγωμένο τόν φίλο Ρέμωνα χθές περί τά μεσάνυχτα, Καβάφης, Εν πόλει της Οσροήνης, στ. 1-2 “After the fight in the taverna, yesterday around midnight, they brought us our wounded [from the fight] friend Remon”, Cavafy, In a (sic) City of Osroini, lines 1-2

109 Tηχτικό /tihtikό/(<τήκω/tίko/ “melt”): metaphorically, the disease that melts you – tuberculosis.

229 Appendices

Καί τό δέντρο δέν τό ἀτίμασε ‘γγίζοντας τό τραχύ τό κλαδευτήρι· ἀπ’ τό βάρος πιό καλόχυμων καρπῶν πιό ἀκριβό γνωρίζει πώς θά γύρη, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 2 ος , Δουλευτής, στροφή 4 η, στ.32-35 “The tree is not dishonoured by the pruning-hook, knowing that it will be more precious bending under [from] a more luscious load ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto II, The Worker , stanza 4, lines 9-12

Καί τό μάτι [προσηλωμένο στον καθρέφτη] ἐμποδίστηκε ἀπό τό λογισμό , Σολωμός, H Γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 8, σελ. 58 [the thought is conceptualized as some external] “And my eye [fixed on the mirror] was distracted by my thoughts ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 7, p. 79

Οἱ ρώτησες τῶν γυναικῶν ἤτανε τές περσότερες φορές συντροφευμένες ἀπό τές κανονιές τοῦ Μισολογγιοῦ […], Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, (κεφ. 3), σελ. 46 “The women’s pleas were often accompanied by cannon fire from Missolonghi”, Solomos, The woman of Zakythos , chap. 3, p. 67

Καί ἦταν οἱ δαρμένοι ἀπ’ κάθε ἀνεμοτάραμα , καί ἦταν ἀπό τά λιοπύρια τῶν ἐρήμων οἱ ψημένοι , Παλαμάς Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 12 η, στ. 1-4 “And so they come, flayed and scorched by wind and sun ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , stanza 4, lines 9-12

Ὁ καπετάν Μάντακας […] μέ χαρακωμένο τό πρόσωπο ἀπό τίς τούρκικες σπαθιές, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 9, σελ. 304 “Captain Mandaka […] his face was furrowed with scars from Turkish scimitars ”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt. 9, p. 298

Agent Σά λιοντάρι δαμασμένο ἀπό ξωτικοῦ βουλή , Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 2 ος , Δουλευτής, στροφή 7 η, στ.3-4 “Like a lion tamed by the will of a spectre” , Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gipsy, Canto II, The Worker , stanza 6, lin. 5-6 [spectre is personified and acts voluntarily]

Στιγμή σταλμένη ἀπό ἔνα χέρι , Σεφέρης, Στροφή, στ.1 “Moment, sent by a hand ”, Seferis, Turning Point , line 1 [the hand stands metonymically for the whole body]

Ν’ ἀκούσουν καί τόν Μητροπολίτη, πού θά’ βγαζε σήμερα λόγο, νά πάρουν καί ἀντίδωρο ἀπό τό χέρι του , Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 3., σελ. 85

230 Appendices

“To hear today’s sermon by the Metropolitan and to receive nourishment at his hands ”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chap.3, p.89 [the hand stands metonymically for the Agent]

Ἀναθρεμμένοι ὅπως ἦταν ἀπό τό Γερο-Παγράτη , μέ τό μίσος τῶν Βουλγάρων , Δέλτα,κεφ. 18 ο, Προδότης, σελ. 259 “Brought up as she was by Pangrates to regard Bulgarian as the enemy”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chapt. 18, Traitor, p. 180

Κι ἄλλοι ἀπό ’ναν ὕπνο , πού ἔλεγες εἶναι ἀξύπνητος, δετοί , κοίτονταν ὅπου τους ἔδεσε [ο ύπνος], Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1 ος , Ο Ερχομός, στροφή 10 η, στ.9-11 “Others lie bound hand and foot in an interminable sleep stretched out just as it (the sleep) had struck them”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , stanza 10, line 4-5 [Sleep is personified]

Καί ἐπίσης ἔτσι ἀπό ἐμᾶς θά βλέπεται , Καβάφης, Λυσίου Γραμματικού Τάφος, στ. 7 “And this way, too, we will see and honour” , Cavafy, The Tomb of Lysias the Grammarian, line 7

Δέν εἶδαν, ἐπί αἰῶνας, τέτοια ὡραῖα δῶρα στούς Δελφούς σάν τοῦτα πού ἐστάλθηκαν ἀπό τούς δύο ἀδερφούς , Καβάφης, Πρέσβης από την Αλεξάνδρεια, στ. 1-3 “For centuries they have not seen such beautiful gifts in Delphi, as these sent by the two brothers ”, Cavafy, Envoys from Alexardria, lines 1-3

Motivating Causation Ὁ φρουρός ἀπό τήν ἀηδία στραβομουτσούριασε , Δέλτα, Τον Καιρό του Βουλγαροκτόνου, κεφ. 5 ο , Στις όχθες του Αξιού, σελ. 69 “The guard made a wry face from disgust ” Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chap. 5, At the Banks of the Axios River, p. 39

Ὁρμώμενος ἀπό ὅσα βλέπει , Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 1, στήλη 3 “Driven by what he sees ”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 1, column 3 [the person is motivated by the interpretation (inner) of what he or she sees]

Κι ἡ πνοή του εἶχε κοπεί ἀπ’ τή λαχτάρα , Καζαντζάκη Ν., Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 3, σελ. 86. “And his breathing stopped with longing”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chapt. 3, p. 91

231 Appendices

Instrument Ἐκοιμότουνα σκεπασμένη ἀπό [με] τό σεντόνι ὡς τό λαιμό, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 6, σελ. 55 “Who was sleeping covered to the neck with the sheet ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chap. 6, p. 55

Κι ἀφήνοντας ἀπ’ [με] τῶν χεριῶν του τό ἄγγιγμα ἑνα αἴσθημα στό μέτωπο, Καβάφης, Στου καφενείου την είσοδο, στ. 8-9 [the hand is viewed as an instrument] “And with a touch of his hands, leaving a feeling on his forehead”, Cavafy, At the Café Door , lines 8-9

Medium Σέ ὅλο τό διάστημα, πού κατέβαιναν καβάλα [μέσω] ἀπό τά μονοπάτια στή Σέταινα, Δέλτα, κεφάλαιο 18 ο, Προδότης, σελ. 258 [path is seen as a medium which allows descent) “In the interval they’d descended on horseback along footpaths to Setaina”, Delta, In the Heroic Age of Basil II Emperor of Byzantium, chapt. 18, Traitor p. 178

Ἐσυχνοτηράζανε [μέσω] ἀπό τό παρεθύρι , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, (κεφ. 3), σελ. 46 [the window is a medium that allows watching” “They would keep gazing from the window ”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 3, p. 66

[Μέσω] Ἀπ’ τά παράθυρα, πού ἀφήσαμε ὁλάνοιχτα, τό ὡραῖο του σῶμα στό κρεββάτι φώτιζε ἡ σελήνη, Καβάφη Κ., Εν πόλει της Οσροήνης, στ. 3-4 [the window is the medium that allows moonlight to get in] “From the window we left wide open, the moon spread light over his beautiful body on the bed”, Cavafy, The City of Osroini, lines 3-4

[Μέσω] Ἀπ’ τό παράθυρο φαίνονταν τό σοκάκι, Καβάφης, Μια Νύχτα, στ. 3 “The window looked out (=through the window you could see) in the alley” , Cavafy, One night, line 3 [the window is the medium which allows the view]

Ὁ Καπετάν Μιχάλης κοίταζε [μέσω] ἀπό τό φεγγίτη νά μπαίνει τό φῶς τῆς μέρας, Καζαντζάκη Ν. Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 4, σελ. 120 “Captain Michales was observing the rise of the daylight through the small window ” Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death , chapt. 4, p. 126

Life Resources Από την προίκα έχτισε το σπίτι. “He built the house on the dowry .”

232 Appendices

Origin Μιάν ὀσμή κεραυνοῦ σάν ἀπό θειάφι, Ελύτη Ο., Το Άξιον Εστί, Το Δοξαστικό, σελ. 78 “A smell of thunder as though from sulphur ”, Elytis, The Axion Esti , The Gloria, stanza 27, line 2 [The smell derives from (is a product of ) sulphur]

Κι ἀπό ξένα δάκρυα κέρδος δέ βγαίνει, Ελύτη Ο., Το Άξιον Εστί, σελ. 48 “And makes no profit out of the tears of others”, Elytis, The Axion Esti , “The Passion” , The Great Sally, X, p. 52

Κι ἀπ’ τά σπλάχνα τῆς γῆς ἀνέβασε σχιστόλιθο, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, σελ. 15 “And brought forth slate from the entrails of the earth”, Elytis, The Axion Esti , “The Genesis” , p.19 [earth “gave birth” to slate”

Αὐτός μιά χάρι ἀφῆκε ἀπ’ τά ὡραῖα του νιᾶτα , ἀπ’ τήν ποιητική ἐμορφιά του ἕνα φῶς, Καβάφης, Οροφέρνης, στροφή 8 η, στ. 2-3 “He left a grace from his beautiful youth , a light from his poetic beauty ”, Cavafy, Orofernis, stanza 8 th , lines 2-3 [grace emanates from youth]

Τήν ἀτμοσφαίρα σου περνᾶ σφρίγος ἀπ΄τήν ζωήν των , Καβάφης, Ιωνικόν, στ. 7 “An energy from the gods’ lives crosses through your atmosphere”, Cavafy, Ionian , line 7 “this energy derives from the gods’ lives”

Geographical Origin

Μᾶς ἔρχονται ἀπό τή Συρία σοφισταί, Καβάφης, Φιλέλλην, στ. 22 “Sophists do come to us from Syria ”, Cavafy, Philhellene, line 22 [Notice the ambiguity: it is not specified whether the sophists were Syrians or if they were just coming from Syria].

Μαθητές από όλη την Ελλάδα , Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ. 1 “Students from all of Greece ”, “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p. 1

Οι Grand Avenue από τη Δανία παίζουν, Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 2, στήλη 4 “Grand Avenue from Denmark are playing” , “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p. 2, column 4

Βεδουίνοι ἀπό τήν ἔρημο , ἀμηράδες (sic) ἀπό τά καστέλια τῆς Συριᾶς, Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκαλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 2 ος, Δουλευτής, στροφή 15, στ. 14-15 “Desert bedouins and emirs from the castles of Syria , Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto II, TheWorker , stanza 14, line 6

233 Appendices

Ἄν ἦρθε ποτέ ἀπό τό Μισολόγγι τέτοιο<ς> σεισμό<ς> (sic), Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, (κεφ. 5), σελ. 51 “Did you ever hear such a rumbling from Missolonghi”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chap. 5, p. 73

Descent Κατάγεται από τους Κολοκωτρονέους. “He is a descendant of the Kolokotroneans family”.

Γαμπρός από τζάκι 110 “Son in law of noble descent ”

Κι αὐτός βαστοῦσε ἀπό τήν κορώνα τῆς Συρίας , Καβάφης, Ευρύωνος τάφος, στροφή 6 η, στ. 5 “He, too, was descended from the Syrian crown ”, Cavafy, Orofernis, stanza 6, line 5 [Notice the metonymic use of the word “crown”: it stands for the whole family]

[…] ἀπό ἀλαβάρχας τῆς μητέρας του ἡ σειρά, Καβάφης Ευρύωνος τάφος, στ. 7 “[…] his mother from a line of magistrates ”, Cavafy, The Tomb of Evrion , line 7

Matter Ἀπό ρουμπίνια [φτιαγμένα] ρόδα , ἀπό μαργαριτάρια [φτιαγμένοι] κρίνοι , ἀπό ἀμέθυστους μενεξέδες, Καβάφης, Του μαγαζιού, στ. 3-4 Roses [made] of rubies , lilies [made] of pearl , violets of amethyst , Cavafy, For the Shop, lines 3-4

Content Components Στεφάνι από τριαντάφυλλα “A wreath of roses ”

Στρατός από ζητιάνους “Army of beggars ”

Λαός ἀπό τυχοδιῶκτες πού ὅλο περπατεῖ, Παλαμάς Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 1 ος , Ο Ερχομός, εισαγωγή “A people of adventurers always on the move”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto I, The Arrival , introduction

110 Tζάκι /dzaki/ “fireplace” is a symbol of wealth.

234 Appendices

Μόνες σά νά πηγαίναμε μπουλούκι ἀνάκατο, θαρροῦσες, [με ανθρώπους] ἀπό ὅλες τίς γενιές καί χρονιές , Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Πορεία προς το Μέτωπο, σελ. 31 “We were marching along like a gang made up [with people] of all generations and ages ”, Elytis, The Axion Esti , The March Toward the Front, p.35

Ἀπ’ ἀδέρφια κι ἀπό ἀλλόφυλους χορός , Παλαμάς, Ο Δωδεκάλογος του Γύφτου, Λόγος 2 ος , Δουλευτής, στροφή 14, στ. 3 “The circle of kin and strangers ”, Palamas, The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy , Canto II, The Worker , stanza13, line 2

With adverbs Following an adverb Καί περπατοῦσε κάθε Κυριακή, ὕστερα ἀπό τή λειτουργία, μέ τό παλιό δοξάρι τοῦ παπποῦ, Καζαντζάκης Ο Καπετάν Μιχάλης, κεφ. 1., σελ. 9 “And every Sunday after Mass he used to swagger along with his grandfather’s bow”, Kazantzakis, Freedom and Death, chapt. 1, p. 9

Κάτω από αυτές τις συνθήκες οι νέες υποδομές αποκτούν ιδιαίτερη σημασία, Καθημερινή , 13-4-2008, σελ. 4 “Under these conditions the new infrastructures have a special significance”, , “Kathimerini”, 13-4-2008, p. 4

[…]η οποία ζει πάνω από εκατό χρόνια , Τα Νέα 13-14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 4, στήλη 2 “[…] whο lives for more than a hundred years ”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.4, column 2

Τον Μάρτιο, λίγες μέρες πριν από την αυτοκτονία της , Τα Νέα , 13-14/4/2008 “In March, a few days before her suicide ”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.4, column 2

Δώδεκα ιστορίες μέσα από την αντρική ματιά των ηρώων τους, Τα Νέα , 13- 14/4/2008, ένθετο Βιβλιοδρόμιο , σελ. 2, δεύτερο ημισέλιδο, στήλη 3 “Twelve stories through the men’s perspective of their heroes”, “Ta Nea”, 13-14/4/2008, slip “Vivliodromio”, p.2, column 3

Ἠχώ μέ τό λευκό σαντάλι πέρασε μιά στιγμή γοργά κάτω ἀπ’ τά νερά ἡ ζαργάνα, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Γένεσις, στ. 20 “Like a white-sandaled echo the gar passed fleetingly below the water’s surface ”, Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Genesis , line 24

Κάτω ἀπό τίς χαρουπιές καί τούς μεγάλους ὄρθιους φοίνικες, Ελύτης, Το Άξιον Εστί, Η Γένεσις, στ. 7

235 Appendices

“Under the carob trees and the great upright palms”, Elytis, The Axion Esti, The Genesis, line 20

Πάρε μαζί σου τό παιδί πού εἶδε τό φῶς κάτω ἀπ’ τά φύλλα ἐκείνου τοῦ πλατάνου, Σεφέρης, Μυθιστόρημα ΙΖ΄, Αστυάναξ, στροφή 3 η, στ.15-16 “Take with you the boy who saw the light under the leaves of that plane tree”, Seferis, Mythistorema, 17, Astyanax , stanza 3, lines 4-5

Ἔπαιζα πάνω στό χορτάρι κάτω ἀπό τούς μεγάλους ἴσκιους, Σεφέρης, Ημερολόγιο Καταστρώματος Α΄, Ο Γυρισμός του Ξενιτεμένου, στ. 10-11 “I used to play on grass under great shadows ”, Seferis, Logbook I, The return of the Exile , lines 10-11

Εἶδα ἀντίκρυ ἀπό τόν καθρέφτη στήν ἄκρη τῆς κάμαρας ἕνα κρεβάτι, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 6, σελ. 55 “I saw facing the mirror in the corner of the room a bed”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos , chapt. 6, p. 75

καί κάποτ’ αἰθέρια ἐφηβική μορφή, ἀόριστη, μέ διάβα γρήγορο, ἐπάνω ἀπό τούς λόφους σου περνᾶς, Καβάφης, Ιωνικόν, στ. 8-10 “and sometimes an ethereal adolescent form, Indistinct, with a quick stride, crosses above your hills , Cavafy, Ionian , lines 8-10

Καί εὑρέθηκα ὀπίσω ἀπό ἕναν καθρέφτη , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 5, σελ. 54 “And I found myself behind a mirror”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 6, p. 75

Σπρώχνοντας τό χέρι της ὄξω ἀπό τό κρεβάτι, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 7, σελ. 57 “And she shook her fist from the bed”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 7, p. 79

Καί ὁλόγυρα ἀπ’ τά τείχη τρέχουμε, Καβάφης, Τρώες, στ. 16 “And we race all around the walls ”, Cavafy, Trojans , line 16

Preceding an adverb

Από χθες σε ψάχνω “I have been looking for you since yesterday ”

Από τότε που τον ξέρω “Since when I have known him”

236 Appendices

Από δω θα φύγεις “You are leaving this way”

Preceding and following an adverb

Ὁ Δημο-Δράκος φώναξε (΄πο) πάνω ἀπό τό Σούλι . “Dimo-Drakos yelled from above, Suli.”

Καί ἀπό κάτω [απ’ το στήθος ] κρεμόντανε δύο βυζιά, ὡσάν καπνοσακοῦλες, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 2, σελ. 44 “And there hung down two dugs, like tobacco-pouches”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 2, p. 63

Εἰς τήν ὁποία ἤτανε μία πλεξίδα στρογγυλοδεμένη καί ἀπό πάνου [απ’ την πλεξίδα] ἕνα χτένι θεόρατο, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 2, σελ. 44 “About which was coiled a braid, surmnounted by an enormous comb, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 2, p. 63

Ἐμνέσκανε τό λοιπόν ἀπό κάτου ἀπό τά μάτια μου , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, σελ. 42 “So there remained under my eyes, Solomos, The Woman of Zakynthos, chap. 1, p. 59

Ὁ ὁποῖος ἐφαινότουνα ἀπό πάνου ἀπό τό κεφάλι μου μια Ανάσταση, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, p. 43 “Which seemed a resurrection above my head”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 1, p. 61

Καί ἡ γῆ ἔτρεμε ἀπό κάτου ἀπό τά πόδια μας , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 3, σελ. 46 “And the earth trembled beneath our feet”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 3, p. 67

Ἔβαλε, λοιπόν, τό ζουλάδι [=το ζωηρό παιδί] τά μαλλιά της ἀπό πίσω ἀπό τ’ αὐτιά , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 4, σελ. 47 “And the crazy woman pushed the hair disheveled by her restlessness back behind her eyers”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 4, p. 67

Καί ἐγώ ἤμουνα ἀπό πίσω ἀπό μιά φράχτη , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 5, σελ. 50 “And I was behind the fence”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 5, p. 71

Καί ἐκίνησα γιά νά φύγω καί εἶδα ἀπό πίσω ἀπό τήν ἐκκλησία , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 5, σελ. 51

237 Appendices

“And I was about to leave, when I saw behind the church”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 5, p. 73

Ἀλλά ἄκουσα νά τρέμει ἡ γῆς ἀπό κάτου ἀπό τά πόδια μου , Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 6, σελ. 54 “And I felt the earth trembling beneath my feet”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chapt. 6, p. 75

Καί εἶδα πώς ἐλάμπανε ἀπό πάνω μου 111 ὅλα τ’ ἄστρα, Σολωμός, Η γυναίκα της Ζάκυνθος, κεφ. 1, σελ. 43 “And I saw all the stars were shining above me”, Solomos, The Woman of Zakythos, chap. 1, p. 61

111 The genitive in the above example stands for a prepositional phrase από εμένα /apό emέna/ and the example is quoted as: από πάνω από εμένα.

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Index of Authors and Works

239 Index of Authors and Works

Ancient Greek

Index of Authors and Works

Ancient Greek 112 AUTHOR WORK PERIOD Aeschines, 14.12 4th B. C. Orator, [Aeschin.] Aeschylus, Agamemnon [Ag .] 6th -5th B. Tragicus [A.] Persae [Pers.] C. Prometheus Vinctus [Pr.] Archimedes, Geometra Sphere and Cylinder [Sph . Cyl .] 3rd B. C. [Archim.] Aristophanes, Plutus [Pl.] 5th -4th B. Comicus [Ar.] C. Aristoteles, Philosophus Physics [Ph.] 4th B. C. [Arist.] Politica [Pol.] Rhetorica [Rh.] Demosthenes, De Corona [De cor .] 4th B. C. Orator [Dem.] Diodurus Siculus, Historical Library 1st B. C. Historicus [D. S.] Empedocles Poeta, Fragmenta [Fr.] 5th B. C. Philosophus [Emp.] Euripides, Alcestis [Alc.] 5th B. C. Tragicus [E.] Hecuba [Hec.] Troades [Tr.] Herodotus, Historiae 5th B. C. Historicus [Hdt.] Homerus, Ilias [Il .] 8th B. C. Epicus [Hom.] Odyssea [Od .] Hymnus ad Mercurium [H. Merc.] Isocrates, Panegyricus [Paneg.] 5th - 4th B. Orator [Isoc.] C. Lucianus, Hermotimus [Herm.] 2nd A. D. Sophista [Luc.] Quomo do historia conscribenda sit [Hist. 5th B. C. Conscr.] Symposium or The Lapits [Symp. or Lap.]

112 Based on (Liddell & Scott, op. cit. )

240 Index of Authors and Works

Ancient Greek

Pindarus, Pythian Odes [P.] 5th Β. C. Lyricus [Pi.] Plato, Crito [Cr.] 5th -4th B. Philosophus [Pl.] Phaedon [Phd.] C. Protagoras [Prt.] Respublica [R.] Plutarchus, Biographus, Brutus [Brut.] 1st -2nd A. Philosophus [Plu.] Philopoemen [Phil.] D. Sulla [Sull.] Polybius, Fragmenta [Fr.] 2nd B.C. Historicus [Plb.] Quintus Smyrnaeus, Epicus The Fall of Troy [Fall of Tr.] 4th A. D. [Q. S.] Sappho , Fragmenta [Fragm.] 7th 6th Lyrica [Sapph.] B.C. Sophocles, Ajax [Aj.] 5th B. C. Tragicus [S.] Electra [El.] Theocritus Adoniazusae 3rd B. C. Poeta Bucolicus [Theocr.] Charites Thucydides, Historicus [Th.] Historiae 5th B. C. Xenophon, Anabasis [An.] 5th -4th B. Historicus [X.] Institutio Cyri (Cyropaedia) [Cyr.] C. Historia Graeca (Hellenica) [H.G.] Memorabilia [Mem.] Oeconomicus [Oec.] Papyrus Lipsiensis [P. Lip.] L. Mitteis, Griechische Urkunden der Papyrussablung zu Leipzig, vol. I, 1906.

Συγγραφείς Έργα Χρονολογία Αισχίνης, 14.12 4ος π. Χ. Ρήτορας [Αισχιν.] Αισχύλος, Αγαμέμνων [Αγ.] 6ος -5ος π. Χ. Τραγικός [Αισχ.] Πέρσαι [Περσ.] Προμηθ. Δεσμώτης [Προμ. Δ.] Αριστοφάνης, Πλούτος [Πλ.] 5ος -4ος π. Χ. Κωμικός [Αριστοφ.] Αριστοτέλης, Πολιτικά [Πολ.] 4ος π. Χ. Φιλόσοφος [Αριστ.] Ρητορική [Ρητ.] Φυσικά [Φυσ] Αρχιμήδης, Περί Σφαίρας και Κυλίνδρου 3ος π. Χ. Γεωμέτρης [Αρχιμ.] [Σφ. Κυλ.]

241 Index of Authors and Works

Ancient Greek

Διόδωρος ο Ιστορική Βιβλιοθήκη 1ος π. Χ. Σικελιώτης, Ιστορικός [Διοδ. Σικ.] Δημοσθένης, Περί τού στεφάνου [π. Στεφ.] 4ος π. Χ. Ρήτορας [Δημ.] Εμπεδοκλής, Αποσπάσματα [Απ.] 5ος π. Χ. φιλόσοφος, ποιητής [Εμπεδ.] Ευριπίδης, Άλκηστις [Αλκ.] 5ος π. Χ. Τραγικός [Ευρ.] Εκάβη [Εκ.] Τρωάδες [Τρ.] Ηρόδοτος, Ἱστορίαι 5ος π. Χ. Ιστορικός [Ηροδ.] Θεόκριτος, Συρακόσιοι ἤ Ἀ δωνιάζουσαι 3ος π. Χ. Βουκολικός ποιητής [Συρ. ή Αδων.] [Θεοκρ.] Χάριτες ἤ Ἱέρων [Χαρ. ή Ιερ.] Θουκυδίδης, Ιστορίαι 5ος π. Χ. Ιστορικός [Θουκ.] Ισοκράτης, Πανηγυρικός [Πανηγ.] 5ος -4ος π. Χ. Ρήτορας [Ισοκ.] Κόϊντος Σμυρναίος, Ιλ ίου Πέρσις [Ιλ. Περς] 4ος μ. Χ. Επικός ποιητής [Κοιντ. Σμ.] Λουκιανός, Σοφιστής Ερμότιμος [Ερμοτ.] 2ος μ. Χ. [Λουκ.] Περὶ του πως δει Ιστορίαν Συγγράφειν [Ιστ. Συγγρ.]

Συμπόσιο ή Λάπιθες [Συμπ. ή Λαπ.] Όμηρος, Ιλιάδα [Ιλ.] 113 8ος π. Χ. Επικός [Ομ.] Οδύσσεια [Οδ.] Υμνος στόν Ἐρμή [Υμν. Ερμ.] Πίνδαρος, Πυθιόνικοι [Πυθ.] 5ος π. Χ. Λυρικός [Πινδ.] Πλάτων, Κρίτων [Κρ.] 5ος -4ος π. Χ. Φιλόσοφος Πολιτεία [Πολ.] [Πλ.] Πρωταγόρας [Πρωτ.] Φαίδων [Φαιδ.] Πλούταρχος, Βρούτος [Βρ ουτ.] 1ος -2ος μ. Χ. Βιογράφος, Ιστορικός Σύλλας [Συλλ.] [Πλουτ.] Φιλοποίμην [Φιλοπ.]

113 Whenever is used a capital letter to refer to rhapsody it belongs to Iliad, whenever a small letter is used to refer to a rhapsody it forms part of Odyssey.

242 Index of Authors and Works

Ancient Greek

Πολύβιος, Αποσπάσματα [αποσπ.] 2ος π. Χ. Ιστορικός [Πολυβ.] Σαπφώ, Αποσπάσματα [αποσπ.] 7ος – 6ος π. Χ. Λυρική Ποιήτρια [Σαπφ.] Σοφοκλής, Αίαντας [Αι.] 5ος π. Χ. Τραγικός [Σοφ.] Ηλέκτρα [Ηλ.] Ξενοφών, Ανάβασις [Αναβ.] 5ος – 4ος π. Χ. Ιστορικός [Ξεν.] Απομνημονεύματα [Απομν.] Ελληνικά [Ελλην.] Κύρου Παιδεία (Κυρ. Π.) Οικονομικός [Οικον.]

243 Index of Authors and Works

Byzantine Greek

Byzantine Greek Author Work Translation Anonymous Crusaders as Conquerors: 1964 The Chronicle of Morea H. E. Lurier, (Trans.) New York Anonymous Digenes Akrites 1956 J. Mavrokordato, (Trans.) Oxford Anonymous Digenis Akritis 1990 E. Jeffreys (Trans.) Cambridge Hort átzis Georgios Eroph íle 1929 F. H. Marshall (Trans.) Oxford Kornaros Vitzentzos Erotocritos 1984 Ph. Stephanides, (Trans.) Athens Bergadis Apokopos 2005 M. Alexiou (Trans.) Köln

Συγγραφείς Έργα Χρονολογία Ανωνύμου Ασσίζες 14 th century Ανωνύμου Βέλθανδρος και 15 th century Χρυσάντσα Ανωνύμου Διγενής Ακρίτας 14 th century Ανωνύμου Διήγησις Περί της 15 th century Αγίας Σοφίας Ανωνύμου Έκθεσις Χρονική Ανωνύμου Ηπειρωτικά Ανωνύμου (Κορνάρος;) Η Θυσία του Αβραάμ 17th century Ανωνύμου Τα Κατά Λίβιστρον 14 th century και Ροδάμνη Ανωνύμου Λόγος Παρηγορητικός 13 th century περί Δυστυχίας και Ευτυχίας Ανωνύμου Ορνεοσόφιον αγροικότερον Ανωνύμου Πένθος Θανάτου, 15 th -16 th century Ζωής Μάταιον και προς Θεόν Επιστροφή

244 Index of Authors and Works

Byzantine Greek

Ανωνύμου Πόλεμος Τρωάδος 14 th century Ανωνύμου Στίχοι του Γραμματικού κυρού Θόδωρου του Πτωχοπρόδρομου Ανωνύμου Σπανέας 12 th century Ανωνύμου Φλώριος και Πλάτζια 15 th century Φλώρα Ανωνύμου Χρονικόν του Μορέος 14 th century Γεωργηλάς Εμμανουήλ Το Θανατικόν της 15 th century Ρόδου Δεθαράνας Μάρκος Ιστορία εκ των του 16 th century Δανιήλ Δεφαράνας Μάρκος Περί γέροντος να μην 16 th πάρει κορίτσι Ερμονιακός Ιλιάδος Ραψωδίαι 14 th century Θεοφάνης Χρονογραφία 8th century Κορνάρος Βιτσέντζος Ερωτόκριτος 17 th century Η Θυσία του Αβραάμ 17 th century Μαχαιράς Λεόντιος Χρονικόν της Κύπρου 15 th century Μπεργαδής Απόκοπος 16 th century Μπουμπούλης Αντώνιος Θρήνος της 17 th century περιφήμου πόλεως Αθήνης δια τον θάνατον του Μιχαήλ Λιμπόνα Μπουνιαλής Μαρίνος Κρητικός Πόλεμος 17 th century Τζανές Πα ΐσιος Ιστορία του Αγίου 15 th century Όρους Σινά Παρασπόνδυλος Ζωτικός Βάρνα 15th century Πρόδρομος Θεόδωρος Πτωχοπροδρομικά 12 th century (Πτωχοπρόδρομος) Σουμμάκης Άγγελος Το Ρεμπελιό των 17 th century Ποπολάρων Σοφιανός Νικόλαος Παιδαγωγός 16 th century Σταφίδας Ιωάννης Ιατροσόφιον 14 th century Φώσκολος Μάρκος Φου ρτουνάτος 17 th century Αντώνιος Χορτάτσης Γεώργιος Ερωφίλη 16 th century

245 Index of Authors and Works

Modern Greek

Modern Greek AUTHOR WORK Translation Cavafy, C. P. The Collected Poems 2007 A. Barnstone, (Trans.) New York Delta, P. S. In the Heroic Age of Basil II 2006 Emperor of Byzantium R. Bobick, (Trans.) Portsmouth Elytis, O. The Axion Esti 2007 E. Keeley, G. Savidis, (Trans.) London Kazantzakis, N. Freedom and Death 1983 J. Griffin, B. Cassier, (Trans.) U. K. Palamas, K. The Twelve Lays of the Gypsy 1969 (G. Thomson, Trans.) London Seferis, G. Complete Poems 1995 E. Keeley, P. Sherrard, (Trans.) London Solomos, D. The Woman of Zakynthos 2000 P. Thompson, R. Beaton, P. Colaclides, M. Green & D. Ricks, (Trans.) Nottingham

Συγγραφείς Έργα Δέλτα Πηνελόπη Τον καιρό του Βουλ γαροκτόνου (1874-1941) Ελύτης Οδυσσέας Το Άξιον Εστί (1911-1996) Καζαντζάκης Νίκος Ο καπετάν Μιχάλης (1883-1957) Καβάφης Κωσταντίνος Ποιήματα (1863-1933) Παλαμάς Κωστής Άπαντα (1859-1943) Σεφέρης Γιώργος Ποιήματα (1900-1971) Σολωμός Διονύσιος Η Γυνα ίκα της Ζάκυνθος (1798-1857)

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