275 1 Domestic Water Consumption: 87 TH idy of a Village Community With No ™-_ Water Supply System

WongT. byS. LIBRARY Department of Geography Simon Fraser University INTERNATIONAL REFERENCE Burnaby, B.C. Canada V5A 1S6

ABSTRACT

Thai rural domestic water consumption of 282 households for 59 villages in Amphoe Nong Sua. Pathum Than/ Province. Thailand, examinedis thisin study. paperThe describes patternthe of rural domestic eval- waterand use uates the factors which affect per capita rural \vaterconsumption. Stepwise regression analysis was applied to assess the variables which were postulated to be associated with per capita rural water consumption. The variables that were found to be significantly associated with per capita rural water consumption were household si7.c. average household age, level education,of average household income numberand bathsof day.per

INTRODUCTION access to clean water. The U.N. global improvement goa f wateo l r suppl Secone th yn i d Development Dec- Acces adequaten a o st , safconveniend ean t source ade (1970-1980) "to supply safe water to all of the of water supply is a basic human need which is in- urban population and 25 per cent of the rural pop- dispensabl nationae th r efo l healt economid han c well- ulation" therefor mett no .s Becausewa targee eth f to being of every society. Unfortunately, this access is the Second Development Decade was not attained, the not easily within the reach of every one as good qual- U.N. General Assembl Novemben yo , 198010 r- de , ity fresh t uniformlwateno s i r y distributed ovee th r cided to proclaim 1980-1990 as the International earth's surface. Even if fresh water is accessible, not Drinking Water Suppl Sanitatiod yan n Decade- re , every househol privileges di servee b o t dd wit. hit affirming the goal of clean water for all by 1990 [3]. O globana le 1970'scalth bese n i esth t available This declaratio issues nha dchallenga l national o et s figures showed that onl rurye cenr abouth -pe f to 0 1 t around the globe "to take concerted action for pro- al populations had,a safe source of water [1]. On a viding citizens with acces safo st e drinking water" [4]. regional basis, the region of the Americas had the proclamatioe Th involvemenne callth r sfo inpud tan t highest coveragcentr pe 9 . 1 Afric t e centr a 1d 1pe a ha , of national and international participation, mobiliza- r cenanpe d t 9 [2]Asi d .aha tion of resources, national investments, bilateral or According to W.H.O figures in 1970, among 71 de- multilateral aid. veloping countries, only 68 percent of the urban pop- During 1980-1983, the increase in the number of ulation and 14 per cent of the rural population were peopl ruran i e l areas receiving water supplies rose adequately served with potable water: 77 per cent of from 30 to 38 per cent of the world's rural popula- the total urban populatio accesd nha pipeo st d water tion. Thailand responde Decade th o t d e declaration through house connection stanr so d pipes r v/hilpe 2 e2 in 198 prepared 3an Masterplada r Ruranfo l Water cent of the rural communities had access to safe wa- Supply and Sanitation for the whole country [5]. This ter. Over the period 1970-1975, W.H.O. estimated was done for communities that are within the provin- thanumbee th t peoplf ro e having acces publio t s - cwa cial jurisdiction of the Department of Public Health. ter supply in developing countries increased from e traditionaTh l approac communito ht y wate- de r 498 million to 763 million. Despite the 53'per cent in- velopment in Thailand has been to rely on provincial crease, however largea , proportio develope th f no - agencie externad spearheao san t d ai l d communit- ywa ing countries still did not receive clean water. ter supply in rural areas [6]. The history of rural wa- In 1980, less than 75 per cent of the world's urban ter supply development dates back to the early 1950's. 'rurae populatiocenr th f pe l to populatio 5 1 d nan d nha It was not until 1966 that a major effort was made in

0250-8060/87/53.30 Water International, 12 (1987) 60-68 © IWRA/Printed in the U.S.A. - ^200 to Icen (oventuoel fotokopl* van) gjjotokoplo v.o vrasgt O mlkrofilm/-ficha vgn

cooperation with the United States Operations Mis- tors affectin r capitagpe l water consumptio pree nar - sio supplo nt y wate 12,00o rt 0 communitie ; 8-11]s[6 . sented e perceptioTh . attitudd e villagernan th f eo s resulte Th thif so s effort have however been mixed. toward improven sa d syste ruraf mo l water suppls yi An evaluation of the effectiveness of the Community presented elsewhere in another paper [24]. Portable Water Project showed thatechnologe th t - yap Thi partso stw studn .i Pardescribee s yi on t e sth sophisticateo to plies wa d r smalfo d l rural commu- characteristics and pattern of rural domestic water use nities [12-17]. The small scale approach based on run- by village household districte th t sa , subdistricd an t off collection tank pondd san s t seaso durinwe e ngth village levels. Parpresento tw t stepwise sth e regres- s thereforha e been recommende e Northeasth r dfo t sion analysis of some factors affecting per capital rur- [18, 19], althoug Nationae hth l Economi Sociad can l al water consumption at these three levels. Development Board (N.E.S.D.B.) continues to invest in and promote the large scale plan [5, 20]. While researc functionae th n hi l desig ruraf n- o wa l RESEARCH DESIGN, DATD AAN ter supply and the application of various types of fil- STUDY AREA tration processes for rural surface water treatment is continuously being improved, little is known about the The research design entails a complex sampling pro- patter ruraf no l water consumptio factore th d - snaf an cedure in the selection of village households. The data r capitfectinpe e agth wate r consumptio ruran i l com- were obtained fro ma fiel d 2 survevillag28 f o ye munities that hav organizeo en d water supply system households and the interviews were conducted by the [21-23]. An organized water supply system is one author when he was supervising a number of mast- where household havn sca e water pumpe r delivdo - er's theses project ruran so l developmen Thailann i t d ered to their homes at a cost billed quarterly, bian- [25]. nually or annually by an administrative agency of a In order to sample a village household one must first local district council. Only communities which have understand the administrative hierarchy of political unit Thailandn si Thailandn I . highese th , t level unit f administratioo province th s ni e (changwad). Ben- Little is known about the eath it is the district (amphoe). Each district is divid- patter f rurano l water intd e onumbea subdistrictf ro s (tambon). Each sub- consumption and the factors district is made up of villages (muban), each of which is composed of households or farmsteads. affectin capitr pe e a gth wate r In this paper, the area of study if focused on Am- consumption in rural phoe Nondistrictx si province f gth o Suan e i s on ,e communities that havo en of Pathum Thani, whic locates hi d abou kilome6 5 t - ters nort f Bangkoho provincee k (FigTh . 1) . , which organized water supply ha populatioa s f abouno t 300,000 accordine th o gt system 1980 census, is made up of six districts, fifty-seven subdistricts and five hundred and five villages. Am- phoe Nong Sua, which is made up of six subdistricts, populatioa morf no e than five thousan thosd dan e that has fifty-nine villages. The number of villages in each e withiar n the,J>rovincial jurisdictio Depart-e th f no , subdistrict ranges from eigh thirteeno t subdise Th . - ment of Public Health have access to the services and tric largese tth thad t ha tnumbe villagef ro Tams swa - facilities of a centrally administered water supply and bon Sara Krue, which had thirteen villages. The re- distribution system. maining forty-six villages thus compose rese f dth o t the five subdistricts. There were 5,255 households in Amphoe Nong Sua. PURPOSE OF STUDY Of this, 985 households were accounted for by Tam- bon Sar cenr a pe Krue t 4 stratifie2 A . d sampl5 98 f eo purpose Th thif eo s pape preseno t s ri casa t e study households (i.e. 236) for thirteen villages was taken e sucoon fh village community orgao whicn s -hha for detailed investigation completo T . coverage eth e nized water supply system. Most of the villages here for the whole district of Amphoe Nong Sua, an ar- depend on rain, klong (canal) and pond water which bitrary sample of one household from each of the free chargef us eo the n yca termn I . supplyf so , there forty-six villages was selected from the five remain- does not seem to be a problem in this community. ing subdistricts totae Th .l numbe f householdo r r fo s However, ther qualita s ei y proble durinms y a dr e gth Amphoe None Sua therefore came to 282 households season ther juss t enougei no t h good quality water (236 + 46 = 282) for fifty-nine villages. available for drinking and cooking. In this paper, only Tambon Sara Krue was selected for the study as it the pattern of rural domestic water use and the fac- ha dsevera e drinking water problem, particularly dur-

Vol. 12, No. 1 (1987) 61 Figur . Obtainin2 e g rain water fro e roomth f throug ha drai n pipe.

Figure 3largA . e water storage earthenware jar. stored in earthenware or klong jars (Fig. 3). These jars differ in size, varying in capacity from 10 litres to 400 litres. In community halls, schools and tem- ples, metal tank e usedar s . Klong wate obtaines i r d fro klonge mth s whice har man-made canals use provido dt e wate domestir fo r c Figure 1. The location of Pathum Thani Province in Thailand. purposes, irrigation and as a means of inland water transportation (Fig. 4). Many settlements are located along a system of klongs (Fig. 5). Due to the lack of season,y recommendes dr ine wa gt th -I studr dfo y yb roads in remote areas, the klongs constitute an im- the officials of th$ Department of Public Health in the portant transportation network for the villagers. The province becaus organizeeo n ther s ewa d rural water klongs also serve a sewage disposal function. Most supply progra areae th r .mvillage e Mosfo th f to s here of the water in the klongs comes from rain; some of depen rain do theis na r main sourc f wateeo r supply. it is diverted from the tributaries of rivers. Klong wa- ter for domestic use is usually carried home by means of two tin buckets. Such a bucket normally has a 20 PATTERN OF RURAL DOMESTIC WATER USE

Sources of Rural Water Supply Water for domestic use in Amphoe Nong Sua is sup- plied by four sources: 1) Convectional and monsoon rain ) klong2 ; ) groun 4 pon) 3 ;d dan d wate r wellro . Rain water composita , convectionaf eo monsood an l n rains, is obtained from the roofs of houses through the drain pipes whic hearthenware th lea o dt e jars (Fig . Usuall2) . firse yt th collect t no pourin s i t i - f go duste b dirtyd y rooe yan th ma f;s a rai d ne wates i r collected after two or three showers. The water is then Figure 4. The klong as a means of inland water transportation.

62 Wafer International vrssgi

On the average for a family V of four membersa , household needs eight buckets y litre0 oda 16 r sa

quite ar e shallow, usually meter6 abou o t 5 ts deep. e diameteTh wela f generalls i o rl y betweeo t 5 1. n meter2 s wide- . Therco pum o o n to s e i ps i uset i s da stly for the villagers. Water is fetched by dropping Figure 5. Location of settlements along a klong. a tin bucket with a rope attached to it into the well. e filleTh d bucke thes e watei t th n s d pullei r an p du poured into a container for carrying on the should- ers. Although ground water is quite easily available, t useno ds i i tver y frequentl drinkinr fo y r cookingo g because of its high iron content, mineral odor and un- pleasant taste. It is used as an alternative source only seasony durindr e gth .

Household Water Intake by Sources of Supply Tabl showe1 distributiosa householf no d wate- in r take by sources of water supply for 236 households in Tambon Sara Krue strikinA . g featur table th f eeo is tha thouseholds e nonth f eo , excep oner fo t , relied on a single source of water supply. Instead, most of the households (56%) obtained their water through a combinatio r threo o e tw sources f no combinae Th . - tion which accounted for the highest proportion of wa- ter intake was rain and klong water. The next was the combinatio rainf no , klon pond gan d water which made totae th lf wateo % urp36 intake lace reliancf Th k.o e singla n o e sourc preferenc e f suppleo th d ya an y eb high proportion of the households for two or three combinatio f sourceno s sugges demane th t cornr dfo -

Table 1: Household Water Intak Sourcey eb f Supplso y

Households

Single Sources Number Percentage

Rain _ _ Klong 1 0.42 Pond Well — — Figure 6. A villager carrying two tin buckets of water. Combinatioo Tw f Sourceno s Raid Klonan n g 132 55.94 litre capacity villageA . r usually carrie bucketo stw s Rain and Pond 7 2.97 o npola e ove shoulders rhi average th sn (FigO e . 6) . Rain and Well 2 0.85 for a family of four members, a household needs eight Klong and Pond 1 0.42 Klon Weld gan l buckets or 160 litres a day. Pond and Well Pond water is obtained from artificial lakes or shal- low depressions. The water comes mainly from rain; Three Combination of Sources Rain. Klong and Pond 84 35.59 sometimes water from the klongs is diverted to a pond Rain. Klon d Welgan l 9 3.81 ensuro t e that ther sufficiens ei t fishe wateth r . Mosfo r t Klong. Pond and Well ponds are used for fish raising and the cultivation of Four Combinatio f Sourceno s water hyacinths and water-lilies. Rain. Klong, Pond and Well Ground wate supplies i r welly db s whic gene har - erally dug outside the village compound. The wells Total 236 100.00

Vol. 12. No. 1 (1987) 63 binatio f sourceo n r differenfo s t purpose y rurab s l households.

Water Treatment Qualityand Since household water intake comes from several source f supplyso , wate drinkinr fo r cookind gan s gi generally treate cloty db h filter priof o t useo t r Ou . household6 23 s surveye Tambon di n Sara Krue8 6 , per cent (or 160) treat their drinking water. Of this households0 16 r cenclote pe us t 1 hr 6 , filterpe 4 1 , cent use alum, 13 per cent use a combination of alum clotd r cene othean pe hus t1 filte r d chemicalsan r . Figure 8. Klong water used for bathing. Amon e fougth r source f wateo s r suppl rainy— , klong, pon weld raidan — l nbese wateth ts qualha r - erally preferred for washing and bathing. Over 80 per ity fro standpoine mth f turbidityo t , color, odod an r cent of the villagers used klong water for these pur- poses regardless of season. During the dry season, Water for drinking and many farmers rely on klong and pond water for cook- ing. Abou percen7 5 t t depen klonn do g4 wate1 d ran cookin s generallgi y treated percent on pond water. In terms of purpose, the larg- by cloth filter e prious o rt f domestio e us t c es r bathingwatefo s i r , whic- hac r cen f householpe o tcount 5 5 r sfo d intake. Washing dishe sr cent accountpe ,9 2 cookin r fo sr r 1pe 1gfo taste. It required the least treatment. The physical qual- cendrinkind an t r cent r onlpe gfo y.5 ity of klong, pond and well water in terms of color as measured by the platinum-cobalt scale is slightly Areal Distribution Ruralof Domestic WaterUse above the specified level required by the World Health The total daily water consumption in Tambon Sara Organization (WHO) standards, i.e. 325-330 units. Krue for 236 households (or 13 villages) with 1,510 According to the latter, the physical quality of water peopl 63,19s ewa 3 litres average Th . e daily water con- should not exceed 300 units [26, 27]. Well water was sumption per household was 267.76 litres. The av- e worsth termn i t f odo o stasted an r . erage daily per capita water consumption was 41.85 litres. Water Use by Sources of Supply In the five remaining subdistricts, for 46 sample In Tambon Sara Krue wate domestir rfo difs i -e cus households witpeople0 h31 totae th , l daily water con- ferentiated by sources of supply. While rain water is sumption was 12,858 litres. The average daily con- used mainl drinkinr yfo cookingd gan , klon pond gan d sumption per household was 279.52 litres, and the av- wate uses ri washinr dfo g dishes (Fig , clothe7) . d san erage dail r capitype a water consumptio 41.4s nwa 8 for bathing (Fi'g . Wel8) . l wate s hardli r y use- dex litres. cept as an alternative source during the dry season. The total daily water consumption in Amphoe Nong Sua for 282 households (236 + 46) with 1,820 peo- ple (1,510 + 310) was 76,051 litres. The average dai- ly water consumptio r householnpe 269.6s dwa - 8li capitr pe trese a averagTh . e daily water consumption was 41.78 litres. A summary of the areal distribution f averago e daily househol r capitpe d a dan wate r con- sumption is shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Areal Distribution of Average Daily Household and Per Cap- ita Water Consumption

Geographic Number of Average Number of Average Per Area Households Household People Capita (litres) (litres)

Tambon Figure 7. Klong water used for dish washing. Sara Krue 236 267.76 1.510 41.85 Five Remaining Durin raine gth y village seasonr centh f pe o t- 9 8 , Subdistricts 46 279.52 310 41.48 dependes er rain do n wate drinkingr rfo , while r 11pe Amphoe cent used klong or pond water. Klong water is gen- Nong Sua 282 269.68 1,820 41.78

64 Water Internationa' (otoVopln v» a vrasgl to Icen (oventuoal fotokopla van) .. i.._ r—..- *..»» fntnkonln van) mHwofilm/-[ich«

The average household and average per capita water Q = a + b,x, -I- ... + bnxn + e consumption betwee districe nth subdistricd an t t lev- fairls i s yel uniform househole th t A . d level dife th ,- in which Q is the dependent variable ference between distric subdistricd an t t consumption is about 2 litres. On a per capita basis, the difference independene x,th . ,e x. xar n2 t variables in consumption between geographic areas is less than a is the intercept 5 litre0. . Whil average eth e household siz abous ei t b,, b2 . . . b" are the regression coefficients and six, the variations in household size range from 2 to e is an error term. 15. Usin r capitpe g a daily water consumption, (PCADWC) or Q, as the dependent variable, one FACTORS AFFECTING RURAL DOMESTIC might hypothesize that Q varies with the household WATER CONSUMPTION size measure n termi d f numbeo s f peoplo r a n i e household (HHSIZE), averagx,e th , e househole dag Rural domestic water consumption varies with a which is the total age of all members in a household wide rang f socialeo , economic, cultura physid an l - divided by household size (AHHAGE), x2, the level cal factors. In this study, the social factors include: f educatioo f householno d head measure numbey db r 1) household size averag) 2 , e household age leve) 3 , l f yearo Than i s i schooling (LEDUTN)- av , e x3Th , of education. The economic factor is represented only erage household income measured in '000 bahts per by the average household income. Price is not used year ($1.00 U.S. =25 bahts), (AHICOM), - x4ba , because the water was obtained virtually at no cost. thing habit measure numbey db (BAy bathf da ro -r spe culturae Th l facto s measurei r termn di f bathinso g THAB), xs, quality of water perceived by the villag- habit whic s depictehi numbee th y f db batho r r pe s whethes er r good, fai poor o r r (WQULTY), x6, size day. Bathing habiimportann a s i t t aspec Thaf to i cul- of water vessel carried in litres (VESIZE), x7, num- tur villagere mans ea th f yo s believe that cleanliness fetco t y h da f tripwate o r r spe rbe (NTRIPS),d x8an help waro st evif dof l spirits physicae Th . l factors in- numbe f sourceo r f wateso r supply (NSOURC), x9. clud qualit) e1 waterf yo ) siz2 ,f wateeo r vessel car- ried fetc) o numbet 3 , y h da f watetrip o r d pe san r 4) number of sources of water supply. Distance which RESULTS OF STEPWISE REGRESSION ANALYSES

Bathing habiimportann a s i t t Tabl presente2 summarsa stepwise th f yo e regres- aspec f Thao t i culture sio f ninno fouanalysis1 t e . ou independenr Eq n I . t variables were enteree stepwisth y b d e procedure. They were household size, x,, average household age, is used in other rural water supply studies [28] is not x2, average household income, x4, and number of trips used her household e moss ea th f to locatee sar d along per day to fetch water, x8. Of these four, only three the klongs. were significant. stepwiso Tw e linear regression models were con- The proportion of variance accounted for by these structed to evaluate the factors affecting per capita dai- four multivariablew lo r cent e -pe s onl 4 Th . swa 1 y ly water consumption districe th t subdisd a an te on : - ple R2 might be attributable to the scaling of the in- trict level and the other at the village level. dependent variable e width ed variabilitan s pern yi - districe Ath t subdistricd an t t levels, stepwis- ere ception of the factors affecting rural water consump- gression analysis was performed for 282 households tion. The simple correlation coefficients between per for Amphoe Nong Sua; and for 236 households for capita rural water consumption and x,, x2, x4, and x8 Tambon Sara Krue. In both cases the per capita daily were: - 0.24, 0.27, 0.26 and 0.11 respectively. De- water consumptio eacf no h househole uses th ds wa d a simplw lo spit e eeth r's negative th , e sigd f xan no , dependent variable and as an observation unit. e positivth e sign xd f 4x o san 2wit r capithpe a rural At the village level, stepwise regression analyses water consumptio consistene nar t wit resulte hth f so village9 5 r r Amphofo wer fo sn eru e Nong Suar fo ; other residential water consumption studies [29] 30 , village6 fiv4 e th e r remaininsfo g sub-districtr fo d san that have correlated these variables with per capita wa- 13 villages for Tambon Sara Krue. In each case the ter consumption. capitr pe a daily water consumptio eacf no h villags ewa Tambor fo 2 e result. nTh Eq Sarn si a Krue appear used as the dependent variable as well as the obser- to be weaker than those of Eq. 1. Except for the omis- vation unit. sion of x8, the independent variables entered in Eq. identicae ar 2 l with thos Amphof eo e Nong Suae Th . The models used were of the form: three independent variables entered as significant and

(19871 . No ) Vol, 12 . Table 3: Summary of Linear Stepwise Regression Analysis of Per Capita Rural Water Consumption

,-. ,. Are f ao Sampl e Intercept HHSIZE AHHAGE LEDUTN M AMBATHACO I B STRIPS Multiple Multipl F e S« tquation 1 Study Size x, x2 X3 xt \, x, R R Value

1 Amphoe 282 35.776 -0.905 0.261 0.305 1.133 0.3751 0.1407 11.341 11.805 Nong Sua (-2.938)** (2.937)** (2.460)* (2.079)

2 Tanibon 236 38.819 -0.797 0.242 0.548 0.3407 0.1161 10.153 12.119 Sara Krue (-2.277)* (2.373)* (2.962)*

3 Amphoe 59 84.266 0.475 -18.519 0.6392 0.4086 19.348 9.891 Nona Su g (3.253)* (- 3.880)*

4 Five 46 87.961 0.402 -18.893 0.6620 0.4383 16.774 9.849 Remaining (2.466)* (- 3.889)* Subdistricts

5 Tambon 13 101.140 -2.918 -17.309 0.9104 0.8288 24.203 5.678 Sara Krue (-5.165)** - 5.707)*( *

Note: The coefficients within parenthesis are the t-values of the regression coefficients: F-value is the variance-ratio; Se is the standard error of es- timate of the multiple linear regression equation.

Significan* 0.0a t 5 level Significan* * ; e 0.0th 1t a tlevel . samee th simple th e simpl e e signTh . th ar ef s so er' t entereno significana s s da wa t variable because eth r's for x,, x2, and x4 are: - 0.22, 0.24 and 0.26. The numbe yearf ro f schoolinso 3 1 constans e gwa th r fo t main differences betwee equatioe nth r Amphofo n e samples selected. Since household size- ba , d x,an , 2 Nong Sua and that for Tambon Sara Krue are that the thing habit, xs were orthogonal, the multiple R yield- latter has 46 fewer observations than the former and ed therefore was very high. that its multiple R2 is 2% lower than the multiple R2 for the Amphoe Nong Sua equation. independeno tw 3 . IEq n t variables, namely- av , DISCUSSION erage household age, x2 and level of education, x3, were entered as significant at the 0.05 level. The sim- At the district level, household size, Xi, average ple correlation coefficients of these two variables with household age, x2 and average income, x4 were sig- per capita water consumption were 0.50 and 0.54. nifican . 1. Eq Althoug n i t numbee hth tripf ro fetco st h Their simultaneous cumulative contributio- ex e th o nt water , s entere xstepwise 8wa ,th y db e proceduret i , plained variance of per capita water consumption wa significano sn s ha t influenc accountinn i e r variagfo - abou highee %1 Th .4 t r multiple R2 migh e attribb t - tions associate r capitd pe wit e ah th rura l water con- e smalleth e f betteutablo th rt o fi t numbere f o r sumption for the 282 households in the Amphoe Nong observations. Sua simpls It . ewitr r capithpe a rural water consump- e independenTh t variables that were significann i t s tioonlnwa y 0.11. wer4 . eEq identica thoso t l e that were entere. Eq n di subdistrice th t A t leve 236r three fo l th , e indepen- 3. Their simple correlation coefficients with per cap- dent variables, namely, household size, x,, average ita rural water consumption were 0.4 0.5d - 9an 9re household age averag,d x2an e household income, x4, spectively. The simple r for level of education, x3 here that were entere significans da Amphon i t e Nona gSu was slightly higher than that with per capita water were also entere significans da Tambon i t n Sara Krue. consumption in Eq. 3. Another difference between the However, numbe tripf ro fetco st h watert no ,s xgwa , results in Eqs. 3 and 4 is that the multiple R2 here entered in the stepwise solution as its simple corre- is about 4% higher than that in Eq. 3. lation wit r capithpe a rural water consumptios nwa In Eq. 5 two variables were entered as significant, only 0.08. namely, household age ,bathin d x,an , g habit, xsA . village Ath t e level, average household age,d x2an striking feature of this equation is that both these in- leve educationf o l , x3 both emerge significans da r fo t dependent variables were significan t 0.0a t 1 level, sample6 sample4 9 r 5 fo d dhouseholdan five th e n si yieldin multiplga e R0.83f 2o simple .Th betwees er' n remaining subdistricts statisticae Th . l- resultAm f so per capita rural water consumption and x, and x5 were five photh e d eremainin an Non a gSu g subdistricts, -0.52 and -0.61. Although per capita rural water con- namely interceptse th , regressioe th , n coefficientse th , sumption had correlation of 0.66 with average house- multiple R2's, F-values and standard errors of esti- hold age, x2, the latter was not entered by the step- mate of the regression equation were very similar, wise procedure, intercorrelation becausa s ha t ei f no even thoug equatioe hfive th th e r remaininnfo g sub- -0.70 with household size, x,. Level of education, x3, district 1d 3s ha observations , fewer tha equatioe nth n

66 Wafer International for Amphoe Nong Sua. surprising that the statistical results are not impres- samplee th r Fo d household Tambon si n Sara Krue, sive. However findinge th , s that emerge fro anale mth - household size bathin,d xan ( g habit, x8, surfaces da t withouno ysi e sar t value. Besides providing insight significant at the 0.01 level, yielding a very high multi- introle of th socioeconomie o c variable accountn i s - ple R0.83f 2o emergence Th . f xeo , compensater sfo ing for variations associated with per capita water con- the absence of x2 while the surfacing of x8 makes up sumption, the consistene yar t wit resulte hth f othso - omissioe foth r f leveno f educationo l , x3. er studies which have tested similar variables in de- Average household age, x2, and household size, x,, veloping countries [29]. moso tw appearete dominanth e b o dt t variable- ac n si counting for variations associated with per capita rur- al water consumption e formeTh . r variable surfaced CONCLUSION as significant in four of five of the stepwise regres- sion equations, while household size X! emerged in In a community where there is no organized water three of them. Both average household income and supply system, rain water become cruciasa l source leve educatiof o l n appeared twice amon five gth e equa- of supply. Although this is the main source of water tions, while number of trips to fetch water, x8, and for drinking and cooking in Tambon Sara Krue, most number of baths per day, xs appeared once. household t rel rain no yo no s d wate r entirel their yfo r noticeablA e featur stepwise th f eo e regression equa- domestic purposes. Instead ,combinatio a the e yus f no tions is that as the number of observations decrease threr so o e tw source watef so r suppl differenr yfo t pur- the multiple R2's of the equations begin to increase poses so that not all rain water would be used up by and the goodness of fit of the stepwise regression equa- various demands. Differentiation in the allocation of tions gets better e latte Th .reflectes i r stande th n i d- water for domestic use through various combinations ard error of estimate of the stepwise regression equa- of sources of supply is therefore one of the most sig- tion theid an s r F-values. nificant finding studye th f so . Since rain watee th s i r Althoug ninf ho fivt e eindependenou t variables that only source of water supply that is acceptable to the were postulated to be associated with per capita rural villages for drinking and cooking, it is vital that eve- water consumption were founsignificante b o dt e th , ry househol providee db d with adequate water stor- statistical results of the five estimation equations, with facililtiee ag colleco t s t enough rain water durine gth the whol e exceptioth . 5n eo , Eq wer f no e unimpres- sive. The low multiple R2's in the first-four equations are hardly strong for predicting rural water I ncommunita y where there consumption. organizeo n s i d water supply Several reasons may be attributed for this lack of functional relationships among the variables used. First system, rain water becomesa inaccurace ith s e measurementh n yi depene th f o t - crucial sourc f suppleo y dent variable. Since there was no metering in rural domestic water use, the per capita water consumption in each household was derived either by asking the monsoon seaso laso n t months y t ovedr e rth . Although househole heath f do mucw dho h wate usee d h r dan well water is easily available, but it is not frequently consumed a day, or by dividing the total amount of used becaus odos tasted it f an reo , efforts shoule db water store larga a di e earthenwar nume th y -b r eja made to remove the odor and improve its palatability ber of peopleifiving in the house. At best, the per thao villagere s th t s would accep drinkinr fo t i t d gan capita water consumption was merely a "guestimate," cooking and not run the risk of not having enough rain Secon heterogeneite th s di e independenth f yo t var- water should there be a drought. iables which arises from the mixing of discrete data e statisticaTh l finding stude th lese f yar so s strik- with continuous data independene th , f e.go x .si t var- ing other than providing insight into the role of so- iables, viz., x,. x3, xs, x6, x8, and x9, were scaled cioeconomic variables in accounting for variations as- from discrete data and three, x2, x4 amd x7 were based sociated with per capita water consumption. Since on continuous data. A large part of the lack of fit equatione nonth f districte eo th t sa , subdistricd an t among the independent variables is a result of the var- village level is good enough for predicting per capita iability caused by the scaling of the data. Third is the water consumption, anyone trying to make use of the aggregation of data among the different units of ob- statistical results must improv accurace eth f datyo a servation. Ther variatione r capitear - pe e awa th n si measurement of the dependent variable and reduce the ter consumption between using the household and the variability of the independent variables so that better villag units ea observationf so pooree Th . r resultf so attainee b regressioe y th fit n ma dsi n equations. Eqs. 1 and 2 compared with Eqs. 3, 4 and 5 testify As to better planning in setting up an organized wa- to this assertion. Given these data problems, it is not ter supply system for the community, little can be done

Vol. 12, No. 1 (1987) 67 unless aid is provided by the Department of Public 14 Frankel, R.J n EvaluationA . Effectivenesse th f Communitye o th f o Potable Water Project in Northeast Thailand. A Final Report. Bang- Health of the province or unless it comes from out- kok: Environmental Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Tech- side throug internationan ha l agency e reasoTh . s ni nology, 1973. that the villagers are simply too poor to do anything 15 Frankel, R.J SystemA ." s Approac Assessmeno ht f Rurao t l Water Supply Program Effectiveness". Water Resources Research. Vol. 10, thein o r own. No , 163-1692 . , 1974. 16 Frankel. R.J. "Systems Evaluation of Village Water Supply and Treat- men Thailand"n i t . Water Resources Research. Vol. 3 . IINo . 383-38, 1975. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 17 Dworkin. D.M. & B.L.K. Pillsbury. "The Potable Water Program in Rural Thailand". Project Impact Evaluatio . Washington3 . nNo , authoe Th gratefus i rCanadia e th o t l n Internation- DC., U.S. Agency for International Development. 1980. 18 Asian Institute of Technology. Water for the Northeast: A Strategy al Development Agenc financiar yfo l assistanc carn ei - for the Development of Small-Scale Water Resources. Vol. I, Main fiele ryinth dt interviewgou Rafio t d q san Azimn i i Report, Bangkok: Asian Institute of Technology, 1978. some allowinus eo t datm aghi fro fiels mhi d project. 19 Krishna, J.H. "Water Resources Development in Thailand". Water International. , 154-1574 . VolNo , .8 , 1983. 20 National Institute of Development Administration. Evaluation of Rur- al Water Supply Projects Thailand.n i FinalA Report. Bangkok- Na : REFERENCES tional Institut f Developmeno e t Administration, 1978. 21 Thanh, N.C M.B.& . Pescod. Application of Slow Filtration of Sur- face Water Treatment n Tropicali Developing Countries. Fina- Re l 1 Donaldson . "RuraD , l Water Supplie Developinn si g Countries" Wa- . Bangkok65 por. No t : Environmental Engineering Division, Asian ter Resources Bulletin. . 321-3982 . VolNo . ,.8 April 1972. Institut f Technologyo e , 1976. 2 Saunders. R.H J & Warford. . Village Water Supply, Baltimore: 22 Thanh, N.C. Functional Design of Water Supply for Rural Com- John Hopkins University Press, 1976. munities. International Development Research Centre Award Report. 3 Biswas. A.K. "Water for the Third World" Foreign Affairs, Vol. Bangkok: Environmental Engineering Division, Asian Institutf o e 60, No. 1. 148-166. Fall 1981. Technology, 1978. 4 Eaton. D.J. "Community Water Supply Development in Guinea, West 3 Jaksirinont2 . "DevelopmenN , Seriea f o tf Filtratioso n Water Treat- Africa "Wafer International, , 33-381 . Vol.No Sprin, .7 g 1982. ment Method for Small Communities of Asia". Master's Thesis. Bang- 5 National Economi Sociad can l Development Board. Masterplanr fo kok: Environmental Engineering Division, Asian Institute of Tech- Rural Water Supply and Sanitation in Thailand, Final Report. Bang- nology, 1972. kok: National Economic and Social Development Board, 1985. 24 Wong, S.T. & M.R. Azimi. "Perception and Attitude of Thai Vil- 6 Chainarong . "WateL , Domestir rfo Rura n i e l cUs Area , Thailand". lagers Towar Improven da d Rural Water Supply Management Sys- Bangkok: Department of Health, Ministry of Public Health, Mimeo, tem". In Proceedings of the Vth World Congress on Water Resour- 1978. ces for Rural Areas and their Communities. Vol. 2 Paper No. 219, 7 McQuarry. W.A. TVie Development of Community Potable Water Sup- , Aspec861-8691 . No t . Urbana-Champaign, 111.,: Internationa- Wa l ply Program in North and Northeast Thailand. Bangkok: U.S. Op- ter Resources Association, University of Illinois, 1985. erations Mission. May 1968. 5 Azimi2 , R.R. "Rural Water Supply Management CasA : e Studf yo 8 Panomvan, S. "Public Water Supply in Thailand". Proceedings of Tambon Sara Krue, Pathum Thani Province, Thailand." Master's The- International Conference on Water for Peace. Vol. 7. 174-181, Wash- sis. Bangkok: Human Settlements Division, Asian Institute of Tech- ington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. nology, 1979. 9 Tippets-Abbett-McCarthy & Stratton. Community Potable Water Pro- 26 World Health Organization, Regional Office for South-East Asia. Re- ject, Final Report. New York: Tippetts-Abbett-McCarthy & Stratton, port on Rural Water Supply. Thailand. Bangkok: World Health Or- 1970. ganization, Regional Office, 1974. 10 Unakul, S. & W.A. McQuarry. "Potable Water Problems and the 27 World Health Organization. International Standards for Drinking Development of Rural Water Supply in Thailand". Proceedings of Wafer. Geneva: World Health Organization, 1971. the International .Conference on Water for Peace. Vol. 7, 165-173, 8 White2 , G.F., D.J. Bradle A.Uy& . White. Drawers f Water:o - Do Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1967. mestic Water Use in East Africa. Chicago: University of Chicago 11 Unakul . "Thailand'S , s Rural Community Water Supply Program". Press, 1972. In M.B. Pesco D.Ad dan . Okun (eds.) Water Supply Wasted an Dis- 29 Lee, T.R. Residential Water Demand and Economic Development. posal Developingn i Countries. 134-148. Bangkok: Environmenta- En l Toronto: Universit f Torontyo o Press, 1969. gineering Division, Asian Institut f Technologyo e , 1971. 30 Darr, P. S.L. Feldman and C.S. Kamen. "Socioeconomic Factors 12 Shonvanavirakul, P. "Demand for Potable Water in Small Commu- Affecting Domestic Water Deman n Israel"i d . Water Resources nities of Thailand". Master's Thesis. Bangkok: Environmental En- Research, Vol. 11. No. 6. 805-809, 1975. gineering Division, Asian Institute of Technology, 1970. 13 Frankel, R.J. & P. Shonvanavirakul. "Water Consumption in Small Communities of Northeast Thailand." 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Vlth WORLD CONGRESS DEADLINE EXTENDED deadline receipe Th th r abstractf efo to Vlte th hr Worlsfo d Congres bees sha n extende Auguso dt , 198715 t . However, abstracts received by the original deadline, May 30, 1987, will have a higher priority. Submit 1000 word abstract Englishn i s , French r Spanisho , , typed single spaced regulan o , r sized pape: to r Abstracts Review Committee Sixth IWRA World Congress on Water Resources Universit f Ottawyo a 631 King Edward Avenue Ottawa, Ontario KIN 6N5 CANADA

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