v Table of Contents
PURPOSE OF THIS DOCUMENT ...... 3. INFRASTRUCTURE AND PUBLIC FACILITIES ...... 30
KA‘U COMMUNITY DEELOPMENT PLAN AREA . . . . . 4. Roads ...... 3. 0 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT ...... 5. Water ...... 31. Wastewater ...... 3. 2 Geology ...... 5. Climate ...... 11. Parks and Trails ...... 3. 3 Hydrology ...... 12. Schools ...... 35. Flora / Fauna ...... 13. Fire ...... 35. Police ...... 35. COASTAL RESOURCES ...... 18 Medical ...... 35. Coastal Resources ...... 20. Marine Managed Areas ...... 22. LAND USE ...... 36
Rural Land Use Pattern ...... 36. HERITAGE ...... 23 Location of Urban Areas ...... 36. Historical Cultural Resources ...... 23. Coastal Regulated Areas ...... 36. Natural Beauty Sites ...... 24. Land Ownership ...... 37. Ahupua‘a ...... 25. State Land Use ...... 38. LUPAG ...... 39. SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS ...... 26 Zoning ...... 4. 1 Population Growth ...... 26. Population Demographics ...... 27. REFERENCES ...... 42 Housing ...... 28. Employment and Employers ...... 28. Purpose of This document
3 KA‘U Community Development Plan Area
4 Physical Environment Geology Kaÿü is characterized by several distinctive geological formations.
Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Of the five volcanoes that created Hawaiÿi Island, Mauna Loa and Kilauea formed the lands of Kaÿü. Mauna Loa is nearing the end of the shield stage and rises to 13,340 feet. Eruptions are rare, with three occur- ring in the last 50 years. Kilauea, on the other hand has been continuously active throughout recorded history. Both volcanoes have southeast and southwest rift zones where land is slipping towards the ocean, generating both small and large earthquakes. 18 miles off the coast of Kaÿü is another volcano, Löÿihi Seamount which has infrequent eruptions and small earthquakes.
Remnant Features of a Buried Ancient Volcano. One additional vol- cano which helped build the island has been buried by Mauna Loa. About the same time as the birth of the Kohala Mountain, this obscure vent opened on the sea floor beneath the present south end of the island. Lavas from this south- ern vent built a shield volcano that rose to 2,500 meters above sea level in the region northwest of the present Naalehu. These rocks, estimated at 100,000 to 500,000 years old, are known as the Nïnole volcanic series, named after the now-abandoned Nïnole Village where these rocks are exposed. Remnants of the tops of ridges of this old topography protrude through the surrounding Mauna Loa lava forming the prominent hills called Makaalia, Kaiholena, and Puÿu ÿEnuhe (Macdonald 1983).
Pähala Ash. Near the town of Pähala, the remnants of the Nïnole volcano are covered by a yellowish volcanic ash, known as the Pähala ash. What appears to be the same ash is the only rock formation found on more than one volcanic mountain - it is found on Kilauea, Mauna Kea, Kohala, and Hualälai besides Mauna Loa. In Kaÿü, it appears the ash is primarily from Kilauea with some contribution from Mauna Loa.
Littoral Cones. Along the south shore of the island for about 22 kilometers west of Ka Lae (South Point), a row of cinder and ash cones has been built by littoral explosions where lava flows from the southwest right of Mauna Loa en- tered the sea. The most recent and largest is Puÿu Hou near Ka Lae, formed by the 1868 flow. Puÿu Mahana is an older littoral cone belonging to the Kahuku series. Wave erosion has carved a small bay on the seaward side of this cone, creating one of the best green sand (grains of olivine from the cone) beaches in Hawaiÿi (Macdonald 1983).
Faults, Pali, and Cracks. Faults are areas of displacement expressed in the landscape as cliffs (pali), usually caused by gravitational slumping along the fault system. Kaÿü is where most of the faults on the island are located. The faults in Kaÿü include: the Kahuku Fault, Waiÿöhinu Fault, Honuÿapo Kaÿöiki Fault System, Kaoe Fault System, and Hilina Fault System. The movement that produced the Geology violent 1975 Kalapana earthquake was the latest episode of a long series of sea- ward displacements that produced Hilina fault system.
The Great Crack extends uninterrupted for 22.5 kilometers along Kilauea’s southwest rift zone. In places the crack is as much as 15 meters wide but nar- rows rapidly downward. The flow from this crack is noted for the large number of lava balls (formed from blocks of older lava wrapped in new liquid lava a few centimeters to over a meter in diameter) exposed along the edges of the crack.
5 Elevation
6 Physical Environment Soils
Soil Formation Processes. Soil formation is the result of leaching and weathering processes, an integrated influence of the parent material, climate, vegetation, drainage, and time. Mineral decomposition of the parent mate- rial occurs relatively rapidly in Hawaiÿi due to: year-round warm climate for continuous weathering; porous lava surface for infiltration and leaching; and parent materials susceptible to mineral decomposition. Generally, soil forms more rapidly from volcanic ash, followed by ÿaÿä, with pähoehoe the most re- sistant to weathering. As a result of the leaching and weathering, the primary characteristic distinguishing the classification of tropical soils is the types of secondary minerals formed from the decomposition or transformation of the parent materials (Sherman 1976).
Kaÿü’s Soil Types. The Kaÿü region is characterized by the high proportion of barren lava, particularly at high elevation slopes of Mauna Loa and Kilauea and at coastal locations known for black sand beaches, such as Punaluÿu. The Lava flows are a combination of ÿAÿä (NRCS soil type rLV) and Pähohehoe (NRCS soil type rLW). There are a few extensive areas of soil found mainly in the Ka Lae, Näÿälehu and Pähala areas derived from the Pähala Ash (rPYD, NhD, rKXD, MoC, NaC, rPXE, rKYD, rHP, ApD, rKHD, among others). The Ka Lae area is dry and subject to wind erosion (LSB 1965).
Puna Extremely Stony Muck 6-20% (rPXE) slopes are associated with the Ocean View subdivision lands. Kaÿaluÿalu extremely stony loamy sand 2-12% slopes (KBC), Päkini very fine sandy loam 2-6% slopes (PKB) in between areas of Very Stony Land (rVS) can be found at Ka Lae (South Point). As one might expect, Rock Land (NRCS rRO) is interspersed throughout Kaÿü.
Suitability for Agriculture. In the NRCS report, “Kaÿu River Basin Study” soil types were analyzed along with wind protection and climate data to determine a general indication of suitable areas for growing coffee, maca- damia nuts and general truck crops (NRCS, 1992). The areas considered “prime” under the Agricultural Lands of Importance to the State of Hawaiÿi (ALISH) are concentrated around Näÿäalehu-Waiÿöhinu and Pähala. The Land Study Bureau classification of B and C corresponds closely to the ALISH prime classification. The LUPAG Important Agricultural Lands classification encompasses lands classified by ALISH as “other” and some LSB “D” lands. NRCS Soil
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LSB Agricultral Land
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General plan IAL
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ALISH
10 Physical Environment Climate
Windward-Leeward Rainfall Pattern. Kaÿü’s rainfall pattern is character- ized by windward-leeward differences due to Mauna Loa and Kilauea. Cast in the dry leeward shadow of Kilauea, the eastern portion of Kaÿü is aptly known as the Kaÿü Desert where the average annual rainfall ranges up to 40”. However, the tradewinds that blow through the saddle of Kilauea and Mauna Loa bring moisture to the upland portion of Kaÿü on the windward side of the Mauna Loa southwest rift zone. On the leeward side of the Mauna Loa southwest rift zone, the maximum average annual rainfall is 60” compared with the maximum annual rainfall on the windward side at comparable elevation is twice as much as 120+”. Kona has a wet upland band that stops just north of Ocean View.
Water Catchment Potential. The 60” isohyet has land use regulatory impli- cations. A subdivision variance to create less than 6 lots using water catchments is permissible only for areas receiving greater than 60” of rainfall (Planning De- partment Rule 22). For Kaÿü, that area is roughly mauka of Mämalahoa Highway on the windward side of the Mauna Loa southwest rift zone. Solar Radiation
Solar Insolation. Generally, the intensity of solar insolation is inverse to rain- fall. Clouds and other atmospheric particles can reflect some of the incoming so- lar radiation. Radiation that has been scattered or reflected and approaches the earth from other than the direction of the sun is called diffuse radiation. Radia- tion that reaches the surface from the direction of the sun is called direct-beam radiation. The sum of direct-beam and diffuse radiation is called solar insolation. Diffuse radiation may account for 100% of insolation on a densely overcast day and 15% on clear days. Diffuse radiation is generally unsuitable for solar energy applications as it is difficult to focus. On the other hand, a high ratio of diffuse to direct-beam is beneficial to plant growth because diffuse radiation has a high visible-light content and greater canopy penetration (Sanderson 1993).
Slope, aspect, and elevation also influence insolation. As a south-facing district, Kaÿü is generally positioned for optimum solar insolation throughout the day. Wind Power Direction On clear days, insolation increases with elevation as the air mass that solar ra- diation must penetrate decreases (Sanderson 1993). The average annual solar radiation intensity in Kaÿü is between 150 and 200 watts per square meter (w/ m²), comparable to areas in Puna, Kona, and Kawaihae (Juvik & Juvik).
Wind Energy. High-wind areas are at the corners of the Islands, the crests of lower mountain ridges, and the lower saddles between large mountains (Sander- son 1993). Ka Lae is one of the best locations on the island for wind energy, as evidenced by the recent installation at Kamoa Wind Farm.
Rainfall 11 Physical Environment Hydrology
Due to the relatively young and porous geology of Kaÿü, most of the rainfall infiltrates to the groundwater; there are no perennial streams in the district.
Groundwater Occurrence. Groundwater generally occurs as a basal lens (freshwater floating on underlying salt water), perched on ash beds, or confined by geologic structures such as dikes or fault systems. In Kaÿü, the known groundwater sources are high-level groundwater perched on ash beds in the Waiÿöhinu to Ka Lae area, and basal groundwater with freshwater above 2,000’ elevation and brackish basal groundwater below 2,000’ elevation (Waimea Water Service 2004). In central and west Kaÿü, small springs discharge from perched groundwater. In 1945 Stearns found that springs in central Kaÿü coastal areas were brackish, becoming more fresh during the rainy season (Stearns 262). He estimated that be- tween 20-25 million gallons per day (mgd) flowed from Nïnole Spring at Punaluÿu. Perched water has been tapped throughout Kaÿü via tunnels for irrigation since sugar took hold as the district’s primary industry.
Groundwater Sustainable Yield. Sustainable yield is the amount of groundwater that can be pumped without depleting the source, estimated by calculating the groundwater recharge. Groundwater aquifers are “recharged” by the amount of precipitation (either rain, or at higher elevations fog drip) that exceeds surface runoff and evapotranspiration. The Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) estimated sustainable yield for each aquifer, which roughly corresponds to watersheds. The Kaÿü District is located partially within three different aquifers, the Kilauea aquifer to the east, SE Mauna Loa Aquifer in Central Kaÿü and SW Mauna Loa Aquifer to the west. Within each aquifer are aquifer systems. The Kaÿü to South Kona Water Master Plan prepared in 2004 estimates a sustainable yield of 31 mgd for Ka Lae; 50 mgd for Kaÿapuna and 42 mgd for Manukä. This is in contrast to the DLNR’s sustainable yield estimates for the same area, which account for fog recharge, of 71 mgd, 115 mgd and 96 mgd respectively (Townscape, Inc, 2004). Watersheds and Surface Water Watersheds. Watersheds define the drainage basins for streams. In Kaÿü, the State’s watershed map defines five watersheds: Kapäpala, Pähala, Hïlea, Ka Lae, and Kaunä. The watershed boundaries roughly correspond to the aquifer boundaries discussed in the previous paragraph, with the Kilauea area the only significant difference where the subsurface geology influencing the groundwater flow could be different from the surface flow direction. The ahupuaÿa boundaries appear to be a much finer subdivision com- pared to the watershed boundaries, especially in the area between Ka Lae and Kilauea corresponding to the primary settlement area of the region.
Streams. In Kaÿü, surface water is typically found in streams, although wetlands are also documented at Nïnole Spring as well as Hïlea. Man-made surface water can also be found behind dams where reservoirs are created and in historic fishponds that become seasonally inundated.
The State of Hawaiÿi, Department of Aquatic Resources has identified approximately 40 non-perennial streams and their associated tributaries in Kaÿü. In 1990, the Hawaii Stream Assessment identified no perennially flowing streams in the District. Kaÿü’s streams can be intermittent, and more typically, they are gulches where flows can be closely associated with season and precipitation.
Wetlands. The few, but environmentally significant wetlands of Kaÿü have also been documented most thoroughly as part of a study of the native and threatened Hawaiian Damselfly. The Nïnole Springs wet- land complex is described as, “an extensive set of limnetic to mixohaline (brackish) marshes, ponds and creeks”. These wetlands are associated with ancient fishponds. This study also documents the many cold, freshwater springs that flow into tide pools at Nïnole. Hïlea wetlands are described as being similar to the Nïnole complex, albeit smaller. Wetlands at Whittington Beach Park, Luaÿopalahemo, Kanonohe Waterhole, are associated with former fishponds. Naturally occurring coastal wetlands are also found at Hoÿonoua and Punaluÿu. Aquifers Inland wetlands are rare in Kaÿü. The National Wetlands Inventory does identify wetlands associated with Punaluÿu Gulch at Keoneÿeleÿele Flats. These wetlands are described as Palustrine (non-tidal, surrounded by upland) (PUS3A).
12 Physical Environment Flora / Fauna
Vegetation Zones. Climate, substrate, and elevation are important factors controlling the types of natural ecosystems that develop. In Kaÿü, the diversity of ecosystems span the range from coastal strand ecosystems, to mid-level dry, mesic and wet forests, to sub-alpine and alpine ecological systems (Juvik & Juvik 1998). The mid-level forests are primarily ÿöhia (Metrosideros polymorpha) with con- centrations of koa (Acacia koaia) in the Pähala to Kapapala area and east of Ocean View.
Existing Reserves. Existing areas set aside in protected reserves in Kaÿü include: Hawaiÿi Volca- noes National Park (Federal), Kaÿü and Kapapala Forest Reserves (State), Kaÿü Preserves (The Nature Conservancy), Manukä Natural Area Reserve and Wayside (State), and Kamehame Preserve (The Nature Conservancy). These reserves encompass nearly the entire lands within the Conservation District in Kaÿü. The only Conservation lands not in one of these reserves are privately owned lands makai of Ocean View Ranchos, fingers of land in interspersed in the Kaÿü Forest Reserve owned by Kamehameha Schools, a block of land in the northern portion of the district owned by Kamehameha Schools, and privately owned land along the Käwä-Honuÿapo shoreline in the vicinity of the Kame- hame Preserve.
The Nature Conservancy’s 2006 Ecoregional Plan identifies the Kaÿü-Kapäpala Conservation Area as one with high biodiversity richness. According to the Environmental Impact Statement prepared for the Kaÿü Preserve (TNC, 2006), twelve known species of rare plans were found in the forests located mauka of Wood Valley, Pähala and Näÿälehu. Throughout Kaÿü, critical habitat for 17 rare and endangered plants can be found. Vegetation in the few coastal wetlands in Kaÿü includes watercress (Nasturtium microphyllum), bulrushes (Schoenople ctus. sp), honohono (Commelina diffusa), water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes) (Polhemus, 1996). Vegetation Species ASsociation Type Threats to Native Vegetation. According to the Three Mountain Alliance Management Plan, threats to Hawaiÿi’s native vegetation include uncontrolled wildfire; feral animals; other introduced species, such as slugs which both consume plant life and spread fungus; and, competition from invasive, non-native weeds (TMA, 2007).
Critical Habitats. US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) and Hawaiÿi’s DLNR, Division of Forestry and Wildlife document habitat for ÿIo (Buteo solitarius, Hawaiian Hawk), ÿAlalä (Corvus Hawaiiensis, Hawaiian Crow), Hawaiÿi Creeper (Oreomystis mana), ÿAkiapöläÿau (Hemingnathus munroi), nënë (Branta sandvicensis, Hawaiian Goose), Äkepa (Loxops coccineus coccineus Honeycreeper) and ÿOu (Bulweria bulwerii or Bulwer’s Petrel) in Kaÿü. The Environmental Impact Statement for the Kaÿü For- est Reserve also documents habitat for endangered forest birds such as the Hawaiÿi Creeper, Hawaiÿi Äkepa, ÿAkiapöläÿau and ÿIo (TNC, 2004).
Endangered Species. The ÿÖpe‘ape‘a (Lasiurus cinereus semotus) or Hawaiian hoary bat, which is an endangered species is also found in Kaÿü. An endangered insect, the Hawaiian damselfly is documented in Kaÿü’s wetlands, and lava tubes are home to cave invertebrate fauna (Polhemus, 1996, Three Mountain Alliance, 2007)
Kaÿü’s beaches also provide nesting habitat for the endangered honu ea (Chelonia), or Hawksbill Tur- tle and habitat for honu (Chelonia mydas) or Green Sea Turtle. Confirmed honu ÿea nesting habitat sites are (from east to west) at ÿÄpua Point, Halapë, Kamehame, Punaluÿu, Käwä, Pöhue Bay and ÿÄwili Point. Threats to turtle nesting habitat include human contact, such as visitors coming too close and entanglement in fishing lines, both of which have been well documented (Hawksbill Turtle Recovery Project, Punaluÿu Survey, 2006).
The South Kona-Kaÿü Conservation Task Force, created by the State Legislature also reports sitings Fauna of the endangered Hawaiian Monk Seal on Kaÿü’s beaches.
Threats to Native Fauna. According to the Three Mountain Alliance Management Plan, threats to Hawaiÿi’s flora and fauna include other fauna; feral ungulates; other feral animals such as cats; non- native invertebrates and aquatic species such as slugs and aquarium species of fishes (TMA, 2007). 13 Physical Environment
Vegetation Overstory
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Conservation District and reserves
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16 Physical Environment
17 Coastal Resources cessed by the 7.2-mile Halapë Trail. High cliffs separate Halapë from the shoreline, high surf, and dangerous currents preclude all swimming in the Huhuluiÿi ka hulu o nä manu next accessible site, Kaluÿe. Kaluÿe is the third shoreline camping site in open ocean. Pole fishermen report some good catches taken from these I ka ua kakahiaka, the Hawaii Volcanoes National park equipped with facilities and drinking rough waters. Käwä Bay is known for its surfing. Käwä was also the site Akaka wale no kau mai ka ohu, water. At a flat pähoehoe point, wave erosion has formed a small inlet of a Hawaiian fishing village, destroyed by the 1868 tsunami. Besides surf- Ohuohu Punaluÿu i ka wai hü o Kauila, bordered by black sand beach tinted with a little red cinder and fine bits ing, it is a popular fishing and camping site. The eastern edge of Käwä Bay of white coral. Black sand and scattered boulders cover the nearshore is a massive ÿaÿa flow, the site of Keÿekü Heiau. The heiau offers a com- I ka hoÿowali ÿana pau ÿia bottom of the inlet, but the rough surges do not make for safe swim- manding view of the shoreline and points mauka, including Puÿu Makana, E ke kai o Kamehame, ming. Shoreline fishermen and ÿopihi pickers should be particularly careful the flat-topped hill located directly inland. A black sand beach sprinkled ÿA ÿohe wahi hemahema o ka pali o Pohina, along the edge of the point in the splash zone, where there are dangerous with olivines rims the head of the bay. The northeastern end of the beach Kahiko ÿia nei e ka ohu o Waiÿöhinu. waves and many boulders covered with kaunaÿoa mollusks (tube worms consists primarily of pebbles and fronts a small brackish spring-fed pond that if stepped on can cause severe puncture wounds). that marks the seaward end of the intermittent Hilea Stream. Driftwood Tousled are the feathers of the birds and wind-blown trash litter most of the southwestern end of the beach. In the morning rain, • Kamehame. Kamehame is the name of a littoral cone located on the Large sand deposits cover most of the inshore bottom of the bay, over Clearly on e can see through the mist, shoreline directly below Pähala. Fronting this cone is a pocket beach of which surf driven by prevailing trade winds break. A rip current usually Punaluÿu is decked out in the swelling waters of Kauila, black cinder sand tinted green with olivines. The shoreline for miles on runs toward the northeastern end of the beach where it converges with either side of this beach consists of low sea cliffs. This windy beach is brackish water escaping the pond and flows out to sea along the north- Completely stirred up steep and incoming surf often generates a strong undertow and powerful eastern point of the bay. In the open ocean, strong alongshore current By the sea of Kamehame, (but) rip currents. Local fishermen use the littoral cone as a mark for offshore usually pull toward Honuÿapo. Diving is fine during calm conditions, but The cliff of Pohina lacks nothing. fishing grounds. The top of the hill offers a spectacular view inland from divers should always be alert for strong currents and sharks, both com- Clothed in the mist of Waiÿöhinu. Hilina Pali to Ka Lae. Kamehame is a remote wilderness area with no mon in the area. Beyond Käwä toward Honuÿapo are several small ponds facilities or shade. There is no convenient public access. It is visited and inlets and a large number of springs. The springs well up not only -untitled mele recorded by Mary Kawena Pukui, 1943 primarily by ÿopihi pickers and pole fishermen. from the shoreline, but from the ocean bottom as well. Honuÿapo was also the site of a Hawaiian village destroyed by the 1868 tsunami. It also • Punalu’u to Käwä. The beautiful black sand beach of Punalu’u was the had a fishpond known for its mullet. Honuÿapo Bay was deepened in the site of a major Hawaiian village, also destroyed by the 1868 tsunami, re- 1870s and wharf completed in 1883. With the new landing, improved Shoreline Type. Kaÿü’s shoreline is over 80 miles in length. Most of the built, evolved into a thriving village with the growth of the sugar industry roads, and railroad line, Honuÿapo became a busy industrial port with shoreline is rocky low cliffs; where sandy beaches occur, these are usually black in Kaÿü, declined with the advent of the automobile and modern roads several large warehouses and other associated structures in addition to or green sand beaches. Many of these sandy beach inlets or embayments were where trucking the sugar in bulk proved more economical than shipping the mill just inland. As with the Punaluÿu landing, Honuÿapo gradually fell sites of former fishing villages destroyed by the 1868 tsunami or 1868 lava flow. in bags, but still supported a sizable population until the 1946 tsunami. into disuse during the 1940s as large trucks took favor. The 1946 tsunami There is a strong alongshore current and high waves cause strong rip currents The beach lies between Kahiolo and Puÿumoa points. The southwest- battered the wharf causing its abandonment. The grounds that once ac- in most areas. Many areas along the shoreline have brackish water ponds and ern point, Puÿumoa, is the site of the County beach park, complete with commodated the former landing and port facilities were converted into springs as well as underwater springs. Some of the sandy beaches include: parking, showers, restrooms, pavilions, drinking water, electricity, and a public beach park by the plantation and various local civic clubs, then Keauhou, Halapë, Kaluÿe, Kamehame, Punaluÿu, Nïnole Cove, Käwä, Green camping sites. Because lava bedrock is exposed at the water’s edge along turned over to the county and named the Whittington Beach Park in Sands, Waiÿahukini, Kaÿikikiÿi, Pu’u Hou, Kakio, Kahakahakea, Pöhue, Manukä. the northern portion of the bay, swimmers tend to concentrate at the honor of one of the early-twentieth-century residents of Kaÿü. Whitting- southeastern edge of the bay. This is also the location of a small one-lane ton Park consists of a grassy field with a coconut grove, picnic pavilions, The shoreline will be described in sections going from east to west summarizing boat ramp. Swimmers and snorkelers should be cautious about ventur- picnic tables, restrooms, and showers. Offshore of the park, pounding descriptions from Beaches of the Big Island (Clark 1985): ing beyond the boat ramp due to a powerful rip current that constantly waves and strong currents prevail throughout the year, allowing little runs out the boat channel. From the boat channel to Puÿumoa, a line of opportunity for safe recreational swimming. Fishermen report that these • Volcanoes National Park (Keauhou-Halapë-Kaluÿe) to Kamehame. lava boulders form an irregular natural breakwater that partially protects rough waters are often productive. Picnickers and campers occasionally Keauhou, once the site of a Hawaiian fishing village, can be reached by the end of the beach near Puÿumoa Point. Occasionally, some surfers and see the white-tailed tropic seabird (Phaethon lepturus dorotheae or koaÿe hiking 8.0 miles down the Keauhou Trail in the Volcanoes National Park. body surfers ride the small waves near the point, but caution must be ex- kea) that nest in the high sea cliffs adjoining the park. A low rocky point divides Keauhou into two inlets. Small tidal pools ercised because the water movement is always toward the boat channel, and pockets of black sand line the foreshore of both inlets, but shallow, into the rip current. The inshore waters from Punalu’u to Nïnole have • Green Sands Beach to Ka Lae (South Point). Green Sand Beach , also rocky bottoms make for poor swimming conditions. Snorkeling is good long been a popular fishing area for both pole and throw-net for a variety known as Mahana or Papakölea, is at the base of Pu’u Mahana, a littoral within the inlets. Seaward of the inlets, the deep water, strong currents, of reef fish. Koloa, a small pebble beach between Punalu’u and Nïnole, cone formed by an ancient eruption of Mauna Loa. High surf produces a and gusty offshore winds make for hazardous conditions. The Hawaiian was once famous for its ‘ili’ili hanau, “birthing stones”. Few pebbles powerful shore break and very dangerous rip current. During calm peri- village was totally destroyed by the tsunami of 1868. Shoreline fishing remain today as a result of mining (before it was prohibited) and tsunamis. ods, swimmers, bodysurfers, and divers frequent the beach and the sandy at Keauhou is limited to Native Hawaiian residents of Kalapana or their Nïnole Pond, famous for its mullet, received freshwater from icy springs. inshore waters. Shoreline fishermen try their luck on the rocky points. guests. South of Keauhou, is another former Hawaiian village called High storm surf and tsunamis destroyed the pond walls. But the springs The beach is accessed by a rutted 4-wheel drive road. This isolated spot Halapë, also destroyed by the 1868 tsunami. The violent earthquake of continued to flow until 1980, when extremely heavy rains washed tons has no facilities, shade, or water. Ka Lae or South Point is the southern 1975 caused a sudden sinking of the shoreline from Keauhou to Kaluÿe. of soil and boulders down the intermittent stream that empties into the most point of the Hawaiian Islands and the 50 states. Turbulent currents Two campers died at Halapë from the local tsunami caused by that pond, burying the pond and springs. Nïnole Cove is a small public beach converge close to shore creating conditions conducive to big-game fish earthquake. Halapë Beach is a beautiful little cove of white sand speckled park with no facilities developed with the resort complex. A small inlet including ÿahi and ulua. To overcome the strong winds and currents, one with bits of black lava. It offers safe, protected inshore swimming. The and several small ponds in the lava rock are shallow and protected for of the unique ways the Hawaiians apparently fished the grounds was to ocean bottom is sandy and gently sloping. Pole fishermen report excel- children. Several pockets of black sand also offer some small beach areas drill holes in the ledge at the water’s edge, tie their canoes with a long lent catches of päpio and ulua along the Halapë shoreline. Halapë is ac- for easy entry and exits into the nearshore waters. The otherwise rocky rope, and allow the wind and the current to pull the canoe out to the 18 Coastal Resources desired spot. Today, fishermen use a similar method sailing floats out sions to the rear of the beach. Pöhue is a beautiful little pocket of white to sea dragging the baited hooks. The canoe mooring holes are part of sand with a sand-bottomed inlet. During periods of calm seas, this beach a significant group of archaeological sites, referred to as the South Point is one of the safest swimming areas in the district and offers excellent Complex, considered one of the most important pre-contact sites. South snorkeling opportunities. For boaters, it is known as the best refuge from Point Park, is an undeveloped park that offers spectacular views. the wind between South Point and Kaunä Point. Hazardous conditions occur during high surf with powerful shore breaks, backwash, undertows, • Waiÿahukini to Manukä. On the lee side of South Point, Waiÿahukini and rip currents. Fronting Puÿu Ki to the east of the bay is one of the was situated between a 500-foot cliff and a branch of a 1868 lava flow. best low cliff ulua fishing grounds. To the west of Pöhue, is a storm beach In the time before there was a road between South Kona and Kaÿü, of white sand, lava fragments, coral rubble, and pebbles. Immediately Waiÿahukini was the gateway to the eastern half of the island. Because of offshore is a wide, shallow, rocky shelf that precludes swimming. Just the hazardous wind and current conditions to paddle around South Point, inland of the beach is a large rectangular brackish water pond, Kanonone canoes from Kona would land at Waiÿahukini and travel would resume Pond, which is encircled by coconut and hala trees. The shoreline toward inland by foot. With improved roads and boats, Waiÿahukini began to de- Manukä is barren and desolate. The Manukä archaeological complex, cline. The last residents abandoned the village at the outbreak of World which is part of the shoreline to mountain ahupuaÿa Manukä Natural Area War II. Fishermen and campers continue to visit the area, but there is no Reserve, includes the former fishing village, a heiau, a hölua slide, petro- convenient access for the general public. Two sections of beach front the glyphs, and a trail system. The little bay at Manukä is the only low-lying former village, but neither is good for swimming. The eastern section is a opening in the sea cliffs from Keawaiki to Niuÿou, a distance of nearly 10 white sand beach at the base of Pali o Külani. The nearshore is a shallow miles. Manukä beach consists of coral rubble, lava fragments and white and rocky shelf upon which surf is often breaking. Considerable amounts sand. Swimming conditions are poor because of the shallow and rocky of white sand have been blown inland upon which naupaka (Scaevola) bottom. Numerous deep fissures in the bottom and an underwater cliff flourishes. Two brackish water ponds are mauka of the naupaka. The attract an abundance of reef fish and other sea life, affording excellent smaller pond provided drinking water for the residents and was called snorkeling and scuba diving opportunities during calm conditions. At Wai o Ahukini, water of Ahukini (a supernatural woman), giving the place times of high surf, rip currents cause hazardous conditions. A backshore its name. During periods of calm seas, snorkeling and diving condi- of kiawe provides some protection for campers, primarily goat hungers tions are good. Surfers report occasional rideable breaks. Fishing is the and shoreline fishermen. Access via a jeep road is open to the public, but dominant activity of this area. There are also significant archaeological it is very rugged and negotiable only by four-wheel drive. sites in the area. Kaÿikikiÿi was a former fishing village that shared the gateway role with Waiÿahukini. The lava flow of 1868, however, partially destroyed the village. Kaÿilikiÿi Beach borders a small bay set between two rocky points. Pebbles cover the entire foreshore, but a large amount of green sand makes up the backshore overgrown with pöhuehue or beach morning glory (Ipomoea pes-caprae subsp. Brasiliensis). Offshore, the water drops quickly to overhead depths. Although conditions are suitable for swimming, the small bay is unprotected from the open ocean and high surf comes in straight and unchecked forming rip currents that converge offshore with strong alongshore currents. Occasionally, the waves are surfable. The area is best known for its fishing. There is no convenient public access. Puÿu Hou, standing 240 feet high, is a littoral cone formed by the 1868 flow. Wave erosion has created three beautiful green sand beaches at its base. The easternmost beach contains three distinctively colored materials—black cinder, red cinder, and green olivines, making it one of the most unusual beach in the Hawaiian Islands. With a steep foreshore and abrupt drop to overhead depths, this beach is not safe for swimming. Even during periods of calm, persistent alongshore currents flow past this completely unprotected stretch of beach. Low sea cliffs line the shoreline from Puÿu Hou to Kahakahakea, but several storm beaches of white sand cover the rocks below Puÿu Waimänalo and Puÿu Kaimuÿuala. A pocket of white sand occupies a small kipuka at Kakio, the only low-lying area in the makai edge of the 1887 lava flow. This rugged reach of shoreline is frequented primarily by ÿopihi pickers and pole fish- ermen. There is no convenient public access. The moderately long white sand storm beach at Kahakahakea is strewn with lava fragments, giving it a salt-and-pepper appearance. Boulders and broken lava front the entire length of the beach, preventing safe entry and exit points. Wave breaking continually over the rocks precludes almost all in-water activities. A num- ber of natural brackish water ponds occupy various cracks and depres- 19 Coastal Resources
Coastal Resource
20 Coastal Resources
Coastal Photo Points
21 Coastal Resources
Marine Managed Areas
22 Heritage
Historical and Cultural Resources
The County of Hawaiÿi maintains a list of State-registered historic sites. Some of the State-registered sites have also been successfully nominated to the National Register of Historic Places. These lists are documented in the County’s General Plan.
Some of the earliest inhabitants of Hawaiÿi are thought to have lived at Ka Lae (South Point), Kaÿü. Early settlement consisted of fishing villages as the ocean provided nutritional resources. Many of Kaÿü’s registered historic sites relate to these early settlements. Other historic sites that are registered protect ancient petroglyphs and remnants of heiau, platforms and even the retreating footsteps of Keoua’s army. With settlement of Hawaiÿi Island by missionaries and others of European descent, Kaÿü was a lay-over point for sea going travelers to Hilo. Registered historic sites from this era include early campsites and ranch houses.
23 Heritage
Natural Beauty Sites
Ka’u is known for its natural beauty. The challenge is to identify the special vantage points and landmarks to perpetuate the special character of Ka’u. The General Plan has identified 17 sites in Kaÿü as “Natural Beauty Sites”. Excep- tional Trees is a program to protect special landmark trees (Hawaii County Code Chapter 14, Article 10); however, there are no trees designated for Ka’u.
A report entitled, “Community Planning in the Ahupuaÿa of Kamäÿoa-Puÿuÿeo and Punaluÿu, Kaÿü” identified special vistas, including views of pali, pu’u, bays, and the wind farm at South Point.
24 Heritage
Ahupua‘a
25 Socio-Economic Characteristics Population Growth Kaÿü is one of the most sparsely populated among the nine districts in the County. In 2000, Kaÿü had the second lowest population (North Hilo had the lowest). In 1990 and 1980, Kaÿü was the third lowest (behind North Hilo and North Kohala). Kaÿü’s population has constituted just 4% of the “I stay because it is the best place on Earth for me” overall County population from 1980 to 2000. This relatively small population is spread over a broad area. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the Quote from The Kaÿü Listening Project, 2007 population of the Kaÿü District (census tract 212) was 5,827 persons. With a land area of 922 square miles, this equates to 6 persons per square mile (compared with 45 persons per square mile for rural North Kohala and 4,000 persons per square mile for a census tract in urban Hilo) (Hawaii County Data Book, Table 1.8). Kaÿü is one of the most sparsely populated among the nine districts in the County. In 2000, Kaÿü had the second lowest population (North Hilo had the lowest). In 1990 and 1980, Kaÿü was the third lowest (behind North Hilo and North Kohala). Kaÿü’s population has constituted just 4% of the overall County population from 1980 to 2000. This relatively small population is spread over a broad area. According to the 2000 U.S. Census, the population of the Kaÿü Dis- trict (census tract 212) was 5,827 persons. With a land area of 922 square miles, this equates to 6 persons per square mile (compared with 45 persons per square mile for rural North Kohala and 4,000 persons per square mile for a census tract in urban Hilo) (Hawaii County Data Book, Table 1.8).
Because of the “frontier” nature of some of Kaÿü’s places (e.g., Hawaiian Overall, it is expected that population will continue to grow in Kaÿü as with Ocean View), the Census may undercount Kaÿü’s population. Residents the rest of Hawaiÿi County. The State of Hawaiÿi Department of Business, have surveyed dwellings in Ocean View in 2008. This survey found 2,231 Economic Development and Tourism estimates that the Hawaiÿi County dwellings including houses, cabins, shacks, tents, yurts, travel trailers, buses/ on a whole increased from 149,100 persons in the year 2000 to 175,784 recreational vehicles, cargo containers and a lava tube. The survey used persons in July, 2008, representing a 2.1 percent average annual increase. a multiplier of 2.7 persons per house and a multiplier of 2.3 for all other Looking ahead, DBEDT expects the County’s population to increase at dwelling types which amounted to a total estimated population of 5,765 an average annual growth rate of 1.3 percent to 279,700 persons in 2035 persons in Ocean View (compared with the Census count of 2,178). Rec- (DBEDT, 2009). Assuming Kaÿü’s proportion of the County’s popula- ognizing that this survey is not scientific, it does highlight the unique charac- tion continues at 4%, Kaÿü’s estimated 2035 resident population would be ter of Kaÿü and illustrates that the community is difficult to encapsulate with 11,188 persons (12 persons per square mile). standard techniques of demography.
26 Socio-Economic Characteristics Population Demographics
Age. Compared to the Statewide age distribution pattern, Pähala and Näÿälehu have a Ethnicity. Pähala and Näÿälehu had similar ethnic compositions—about relatively high percentage of school-age children (5-19 years old) and elderly (>65 years old). half the population Asian and the other half nearly equally divided among There is a noticeably smaller percentage in the 20-34 year old age groups in Pähala, Näÿälehu, Native Hawaiians and Caucasian. Ocean View was made up of more than and Hawaiian Ocean View, as compared to the State. Hawaiian Ocean View has an older half Caucasian, with the balance a mix of Native Hawaiian, Other Pacific population compared with Pähala and Näÿälehu, with a median age of 43 (Pähala’s median age Islanders, Asian, American Indian or Alaska Native, and African American. is 39 and Näÿälehu is 35).
Place of Birth. According to the 2000 Census, the percent of residents born in Hawaiÿi were as follows:
• Pähala: 72% • Näÿälehu: 72% • Hawaiian Ocean View: 42%.
Income. In 2000, the median household income for Kaÿü was $29,446. The median family income was $34,395, about $10,000 less than the County wide family median family income. Based on US poverty thresholds, in 1999, 23.9 percent of persons, and 16.8 percent of families in Kaÿü were below the poverty level. Broken down by the three Census Designated Places, median incomes are as follow:
Educational Attainment. Ocean View had the highest percentage of high school and college graduates, compared with Näÿälehu and Pähala. Näÿälehu and Pähala’s percentages were considerable lower than the Countywide percentages.
27 Socio-Economic Characteristics Housing
As described previously, “housing” can mean a variety of structural and non-structural shel- ters in Kaÿü. Unofficial surveys of Ocean View documents housing types from conventional building materials to tents, cargo containers and natural features, such as a lava tube. Of- ficially, the year 2000 US Census found the following for the Kaÿü’s three Census Designated Places: • Higher percentage of owner-occupied units at over 70% for Ocean View, Näÿälehu, and Pähala than the County as whole (64.5%); • High percentage of homes built before 1980 (nearly 30+ years old) in Näÿälehu (al most 90%) and Pähala (84%).
Employment and Employers
For over 100 years, the sugar industry dominated Kaÿü. Beginning in the late 1700’s, sugar- cane was planted, mills were constructed, roads and rail lines were built and harbors were dredged (Kelly, 1980). 1996 saw the last sugar harvest (C. Brewer Today, 1996).
According to the 2000 Census (post-closure of Kaÿü Sugar), of those over 16 years of age, nearly 50% were unemployed (Pähala 42.6%, Näÿälehu 47.2%, HOVE 50.2%), compared to the countywide percentage of 38.3. Of those employed, Kaÿü residents worked in the fol- lowing industries:
• Ocean View - fairly even distribution among education/health/social services, retail trade, construction, professional, arts/recreation; • Näÿälehu - higher percentage in education/health/social services and agriculture/for- Commuting estry/fishing, followed by retail and construction; • Pähala - predominance in agriculture/forestry/fishing, followed by finance/insurance/real The mean travel time to work was an hour for HOVE workers and approximately 30 min- estate and education/health/social services. utes for Pähala and Näÿälehu workers. The percentage of workers who walked or worked at home was comparable to the countywide percentage of approximately 10%.
28 Socio-Economic Characteristics
Census Geographic UNits
29 Infrastructure and Public services Roads
The regional arterial providing access to Kaÿü is Mämalahoa Highway (also known as the Hawaiÿi Belt Road), a 2-lane State highway (Highway Route 11). The Gen- eral Plan proposes a bypass arterial that would provide an alternate access should Highway 11 shut down due to accidents, flooding, or damage. It is not clear whether this new bypass would be a State or County project, and neither juris- diction has included this project in their respective capital improvement projects budget.
The County has identified several roads in limbo segments in the Kaÿü District: unnamed road segments off of South Point Road, a portion of Kaalaulu Road near Green Sands subdivision, a portion of Kilokaa Road, a government road connected to Nïnole Loop Road at Punaluÿu, and a portion of South Road in Wood Valley. Roads in limbo mean that these road segments are government roads, but the County and State have not resolved which jurisdiction is responsible for mainte- nance.
Roads
30 Infrastructure and Public services Water / Wastewater
County Water System. The County Department of Water Supply has two separate water systems in the Kaÿü District, the Näÿälehu-Waiÿöhinu system and the Pähala system:
• Waiÿöhinu-Näÿälehu. This is one of the smaller of DWS’ water systems in terms of both production (average 0.4 million gallons per day or mgd in 2003) and number of connections (757 in 2003). The source consists of two high-elevation groundwater sources, Häÿao Spring and Mountain House Tunnel, as well as the Näÿälehu Well. Water is distributed through the system by gravity and two booster pump stations to eight tanks (RW Beck 2006). • Pähala. This system is even smaller than Waiÿöhinu-Näÿälehu in terms of both production (average 0.2 mgd in 2003) and number of connections (459 in 2003). This system’s water is supplied from a spring and a ground- water well. The system uses four small pressure-breaker tanks between its spring source and the most downstream tank (RW Beck 2006).
Based on the General Plan population projections, the projected water de- mand for these systems is expected to grow at an annual average rate of 1.8%. Based on this growth rate, the projected demand at year 2025 is 0.645 mgd for Waiÿöhinu-Näÿälehu and 0.302 mgd for Pähala (RW Beck 2006). Proposed capital improvement projects for these two systems to meet the needs to 2025 include source development (Waiÿöhinu Well, South Point Well, Pähala Well No. 2), additional storage capacity (replace Discovery Harbor No. 3 & 4 Tanks, Waiÿöhinu Homestead Tank, Discovery Harbor Offsite Tank), and pipeline replacement and booster system improvements (South Point waterline replacement, Pähala Village GI waterline replacement, Waiÿöhinu booster pump, Naalhelu booster MCC building) (RW Beck 2006). These capital improvements do not include any plans to expand the County system to serve areas currently relying on catchments. A rough estimate for the source, storage, transmission, and distribution system is from $15,000 to $25,000 per lot. Although the Facili- ties Charges collected by DWS cannot cover these costs, DWS has innovated with other cost-sharing financial sources such as U.S. Department of Agricultural grant/loan programs coupled with Improvement Districts to find feasible alterna- tives to expand the water system to catchment areas (RW Beck 2006). Water Water Catchments. There are no private water systems in the district. Those not serviced by the County’s water system rely upon rainwater roof catchments. Because some areas receive as little as 20 inches of rainfall per year residents must often pay to truck water to fill their tanks. The typical water hauling cost from Näÿälehu to Ocean View is $140 for 4,000 gallons that would last a month for a typical household (Townscape 2004).
Agricultural Water Systems. Most agricultural water needs are met from rainfall or from a variety of non-potable water systems. Non-potable water is often less expensive for agricultural customers because potable water quality standards do not apply. Nevertheless, many farmers use potable water from the County water system. DWS charges a reduced rate for agricultural use, but nonpotable agricultural use is one of the first uses to be restricted in times of shortage, when the irrigation needs are usually the highest. In Kaÿü, agricultural use is approximately 16% of the total County water consumption - 19% in the Waiÿöhinu-Näÿälehu system and 7% in the Pähala system. Islandwide, the agricul- tural use is 8% of the total metered consumption (RW Beck 2006).
31 Infrastructure and Public services
Wastewater All wastewater disposal is currently by cesspool or septic systems. There are no County or private wastewater treatment plants in Kaÿü. In Näÿälehu and Pähala, the County has plans to build waste- water treatment plants and sewer these towns. Old sewer systems in Näÿälehu and Pähala disposed into large capacity cesspools, which the Environmental Protection Agency cited in violation of the federal Clean Water Act.
For new construction outside of Näÿälehu and Pähala, the Depart- ment of Health’s critical wastewater disposal areas (CWDA) map restricts cesspools in CWDA zones. In Kaÿü, the CWDA zone extends along the coast. Cesspools are allowed in the non-CWDA area further mauka, subject to approval of the Department of Health Director.
WasteWater
32 Infrastructure and Public services
Parks Hawaiÿi Volcanoes National Park (HVNP), the largest of Hawaiÿi’s eight National Parks, is located in Kaÿü. In addition to the land sur- rounding Kilauea’s crater, the park owns considerable mauka areas of Mauna Loa.
State Park facilities, which are operated by the Department of Land and Natural Resources (DLNR) include Manukä State Wayside and three marine facilities Honuÿapo Pier, Kaulana Ramp and Punaluÿu Harbor. The State also manages the Manukä Natural Area Reserve as well as the Kaÿü and Kapapala Forest Reserves.
Park facilities owned and managed by the County of Hawaiÿi include Kahuku Park, Waiÿohinu Park, Naÿalehu Park, Whittington Beach Park and the Pähala Community Center and swimming pool.
Trails Public trails managed by the National Parks Service are found throughout Hawaiÿi Volcanoes National Park. The trails lead to sce- nic overlooks and link wilderness campgrounds. Ala Kahakai National Historic Trail was dedicated in 2000 and recently went through a comprehensive management planning process. The trail is planned to incorporate historic ahupuaÿa trails running parallel to the coast from the east boundary of HVNP, through Ka Lae and north to Kona.
Na Ala Hele, the State’s trail access system manages trails throughout the Big Island including Ainapo Trail which summits Mauna Loa.
Public Facilities
33 Infrastructure and Public services
34 Infrastructure and Public services Schools The State of Hawaiÿi, Board of Education school complex area for Kaÿü is the Kaÿü-Keeau-Pahoa Complex. It includes Kaÿü High and Pähala Elementary, Näÿälehu Elementary and Intermediate and Volcano School of Arts/Science Public Charter School (K-8). Total enrollment at Kaÿü High and Pähala Elementary for the 2009-2010 school year was 576 students. Total enrollment at Näÿälehu Elementary and Intermediate for the 2009-2010 school year was 342 students. Volcano School of Arts and Sciences has 150 students enrolled for the 2009- 2010 school year.
Fire The State of Hawaiÿi, Board of Education school complex area for Kaÿü is the Kaÿü-Keeau-Pahoa Complex. It includes Kaÿü High and Pähala Elementary, Näÿälehu Elementary and Intermediate and Volcano School of Arts/Science Public Charter School (K-8). Total enrollment at Kaÿü High and Pähala Elementary for the 2009-2010 school year was 576 students. Total enrollment at Näÿälehu Elementary and Intermediate for the 2009-2010 school year was 342 students. Volcano School of Arts and Sciences has 150 students enrolled for the 2009- 2010 school year.
Police Kaÿü is located in the Hawaiÿi County Police Department Area II West Hawaiÿi Operations Bureau. The Kaÿü District Police Station is in Naÿalehu and a substa- tion is also located in Pähala. Policing within the Hawaiÿi Volcanoes National Park is performed by National Park staff.
Medical Kaÿü Hospital and Rural Health Clinic in Pähala provides emergency and long term care and includes a Certified Rural Health Clinic. The hospital has 21 beds.
35 Land Use
Rural Land Use Pattern Kaÿü is one of the most undeveloped of the nine districts in Hawaii County based on the State Land Use classifications. The Urban areas comprise only 0.3% of the 661,773 acres in the Kaÿü district, comparable to Hämäkua and North Hilo. However, the percentage of land area classified for Agriculture is the third lowest of the nine districts (35%), with more of the non-Urban area in Conservation (64%).
Location of Urban Areas The Urban areas are concentrated in the following areas: • Pähala; • Punaluÿu; • Näÿälehu; and • Waiÿöhinu.
The General Plan adds a fifth area that is not presently classified in the State Land Use Urban District: Ocean View. The General Plan also shows an Urban Expansion Area in Näÿälehu that is not presently in the State Land Use Urban District. Within the Urban areas, there is just 65 acres zoned for commercial use and 55 acres for indus- trial use. The actual amount of land area in industrial use (approximately 6 acres) is substantially less than the zoned area based on real property tax appraisals. Most of the Urban area is zoned for single-family residential (approximately 775 acres) with some multi-family residential (approximately 105 acres).
Coastal Regulated Areas The Special Management Area boundary extends roughly 500’ inland, except in two areas. Along the Honuÿapo to Punaluÿu coastline, the SMA boundary extends up to roughly 1.4 miles inland. At South Point, the SMA boundary extends beyond the State Land Use Conservation District boundary, to the extent of the General Plan Open boundary, which is roughly a mile inland.
36 land Use Land Ownership
The biggest landowners within the Kaÿü District are as follows:
Land Ownership
37 Land Use
State Land USe Districts
38 land Use
LUPAG
39 Land Use
LUPAG Generalized
40 land Use
Zoning
41 References
Bishop Museum. Offshore Islets Project. Web. August, 2009.
Clark, John R. K. 1985. Beaches of the Big Island. University of Hawaii Press. Kaÿü Preservation. 2006. Punaluÿu Survey March 26 Through April 24, 2006. University of Hawaiÿi at Hilo, Department of Geography and Environmental Honolulu. Kaÿü, Hawaii. Studies. 2006. Island of Hawaiÿi Shoreline Public Access Ways. Prepared for the Hawaiÿi County Department of Planning. Hawaiÿi, County of. 2005. County of Hawaii General Plan. Hilo. ORCA, Ltd./D.P. Cheney. 1981. West Hawaii Coral Reef Atlas. Prepared for the US Army Corps of Engineers Pacific Ocean Division. University of Hawaiÿi, Department of Urban and Regional Planning Spring Hawaiÿi, County of. Police Department. Annual Report Fiscal Year 2006-2007. Practicum. 1998. Community Planning in the Ahupuaÿa of Kamäÿoa-Puÿuÿeo and 2007. Web. August, 2009.
Hawaiÿi, State of. Department of Business and Economic Development and Tour- US Department of the Interior, National Parks Service. 2008. Ala Kahakai ism. SF3 Profile – Hawaii County. Web. August, 2009.
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