FISH and , 2003, 4,359^371

Ghoti

Ghoti papers Ghoti aims to serve as a forum for stimulatingand pertinent ideas. Ghoti publishes suc- cinct commentary and opinion that addresses important areas in ¢sh and ¢sheries science. Ghoti contributions will be innovative and have a perspective that may lead to fresh and productive insight of concepts, issues and research agendas. All Ghoti contri- butions will be selected by the editors and peer reviewed.

Etymology of Ghoti George Bernard Shaw (1856^1950), polymath, playwright, Nobel prize winner, and the most proli¢c letter writer in history, was an advocate of English spelling reform. He was reportedly fond of pointingout its absurdities by provingthat `¢sh'could be spelt `ghoti'.That is:`gh'as in`rough',`o'as in`women'and`ti'as in palatial.

The barefoot ecologist goes ®shing

Jeremy D Prince

Biospherics P/L, PO Box168, South Fremantle,WA 6162, Australia

Abstract Correspondence: Haliotid (abalone) ¢sheries are comprised of small-scale (<5km2) stocks and serve as a Jeremy D Prince, model for many such ¢sheries. Extremely valuable to local ¢shingcommunities in Biospherics P/L, PO Box168, South aggregate, these micro-stocks are myriad and complex to study, monitor, assess and Fremantle,WA 6162, manage. Micro-stocks need assessment and management at local scales to prevent Australia small components from su¡eringthe tragedy of commons. This paper asks how can Tel.: ‡61 8 9336 3793 we ever hope to address the research and management needs of so many small Fax: ‡61 8 9335 2740 resources? Community-based and territorial rights-based systems may help in sustain- E-mail: biospherics @ozemail.com.au ingthese resources, but servicingthe technical needs of many small communities of stakeholders raises problems. A new generation of `barefoot ecologists' is envisaged to Received18 Nov 2001 perform this task. Accepted19Aug2003

Keywords barefoot ecologist, haliotids, micromanagement, micro-stocks, scienti¢c ¢shing,TURF

1998;Tegner1992; Shepherd and Brown1993). Func- Introduction tional units of stock, in the sense of Gulland (1969), It is now widelyaccepted that the dispersal of haliotid have scales of hundreds to thousands of metres, larvae, juveniles and adults is generally limited to rather than the tens to hundreds of kilometres tens to hundreds of metres (Prince et al.1987, 1988b; originally inferred. Regional ¢sheries consist of thou- McShane et al. 1988; Brown 1991; McShane 1992a, sands to ten thousands of relatively independent

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self-recruitingunits, or micro-stocks (Sluczanowski 1982; Prince 1989; McShane 1991; Nash 1992). So, 1984, 1986; Hilborn and Walters 1987; Prince 1989; populations of the same species commence breeding McShane1998).1 at the same age over broad regions but over a wide If micro-stocks were biologically similar, and ¢sh- range of sizes (Prince1989; Nash1992). ingpressure was distributed evenly so that ¢shing Contrary to much of the literature, youngabalone mortality was similar for each micro-stock, there have high rates of natural mortality and remain hid- would be little implication for assessment and man- den in the interstitial spaces of reefs, where they agement (Fukuda 1973; Garrod 1973). Component are virtually invisible to ¢shers and researchers micro-stocks could be managed in aggregate and (Witherspoon 1975; Sainsbury 1982; McShane and classic regional management should work. Smith 1988; Prince et al.1988c; Tegner 1989; McShane Unfortunately, nature is not that simple. The 1992a). At maturity, cryptic juveniles emerge from growth of abalone is extremely plastic, adapting to a the interstitial spaces of the reef and join adult feed- wide range of local conditions (Leighton and Booloo- ingand breedingaggregations on the exposed sur- tian1963; Poore1972; Dayand Fleming1992). Growth face of the reef, where they are highly vulnerable to and the maximum size attained is highly variable divers who learn and remember aggregation sites between nearby individuals and populations (dis- (Witherspoon 1975; Prince et al. 1988b; Prince 1989; tances of 1^1000 m) and across the geographical Wells and Mulvay1995). range of each species (Poore 1972; Shepherd and Regional legal minimum lengths (LMLs) and catch Hearn 1983; Prince 1989; Day and Fleming1992; controls have very di¡erent e¡ects on component McShane and Naylor 1995; Wells and Mulvay 1995; populations within a haliotid resource (Sluczanowski Worthington and Andrew 1998; Naylor and Andrew 1984,1986; McShane1992b). In productive fast-grow- 2001). Maturity is principally determined by age ing areas, abalone mature and emerge at larger sizes rather than size (Shepherd and Laws1974; Sainsbury than in slower growing areas (McShane1991; Prince et al. 1998). A `stunted' or slow-growing population

1My doctoral work confronted me with the spatial complex- with a size of maturity well below the LML has a high ity of haliotid populations. The consequent complexity of proportion of breedingbiomass protected from ¢sh- assessingand managingthese resources ¢red my interest ing, while the breeding biomass of a nearby fast- in workingwith commercial abalone divers, and, in turn, growing population that matures and emerges above led me to become both commercial abalone diver and stock the LML may be legally removed (Sluczanowski assessment scientist. Spanningboth sides of this equation I 1984,1986, Hilborn andWalters1987; McShane1991; can no longer claim to be scienti¢cally dispassionate. I can only hope that the cited body of scienti¢c work supports my Prince et al.1998). claim to be scienti¢cally passionate (Fig. 1). After working Moreover, ¢shingpressure is never applied evenly, witha classic large-scale ¢shery,forWestern Australian lob- instead it focuses on a few reefs accordingto a sliding ster (Phillips and Brown1989), I found myconceptionof ¢sh- scale of preferences. Abundance of legal size abalone eries inappropriate when I began work on Tasmanian abalone (Haliotis rubra). Abalone larvae remain in the water is the major priority for a diver, but the choice of dive column for 8^10 days with an apparant dispersal potential site is honed by proximity to port, depth, and expo- of 60^80 km (Tegner and Butler1985). Size at maturity was sure to swell (Prince 1989). Adult abalone actively assumed to be relatively uniform and the ¢shery was mana- re-aggregate around the same points, which are ged regionally (over hundreds of kilometres of coastline) quickly learnt by divers (Prince1989,1992). If unpro- with minimum size limits, limited entry and individually transferable quotas (Prince and Shepherd 1992). After tected by minimum size limits, focused ¢shingpres- learningsome respect for the opinions of abalone divers in sure results in localized depletions, recruitment national spear¢shingchampionships, I began my ¢eld stu- collapses and eventuallylocalized extinctions.Unfor- dies by divingand talkingwith them. I found that they did tunately,¢shingpressure concentrates on areas with not ascribe to many of the scienti¢c dogmas. The divers the highest size of maturity and where LMLs a¡ord described localized phenomena (hundreds to thousands of metres) which seemed incompatible with the assumption breedingstocks least protection, because by de¢ni- of broad scale units of stock; `stunted stocks' where adults tion that is where legal sized abalone can be most may never reach legal minimum length, and `nonrecovery easily collected (Prince 1989; Prince and Hilborn bottom' where local extinctions occurred after a few years 1998; Pr i nc e et al. 1998). Component micro-stocks ¢shing. As a consequence, I developed and applied new are prone to recruitment over¢shingeventually techniques for tagging, ageing and sampling juveniles (Prince and Ford 1985; Prince et al.1988a; Pri nc e 1991) and leadingto local extinctions, ¢shingpressure then began testing alternate points of view (Prince et al. 1987, refocuses on the next most preferable micro-stocks 1988b,c; Prince 1989). and the process continues leadingto the sequential

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Figure 1 The ¢rst `barefoot ecologist'may have been Fruitfoot, from an epic poem by Mervyn Peake (1972; of Gormeghast fame).`Look! Look! Here cometh Fruitfoot: out of the wilderness, a ¢re in his belly,a purpose in his head; and a nose for the truth. depletion of meta-populations (Sluczanowski 1984, only lasted several years and sometimes only several 1986; Harrison 1986; Hilborn and Walters 1987). dives, beforethe original biomass was exhausted.Five Compoundingmatters, regional LMLs have often to 10 years of lower catches followed (although still been set too low.With an eye to the logistics of dive- at high-catch rates), until the pre-¢shery recruitment based research programmes and with little expecta- had emerged, aggregatedand beencollected. Catches tion of actual levels of variability,the ¢rst researchers from these areas then collapsed. A short dive every tended to choose relatively sheltered research sites couple of years is all that is needed to visit all the containingrelatively `stunted' stocks for the studies remembered aggregation points and clean up any of growth and maturity. remnant recruitment that may be beginning to rebuild a population. Figure 2 is a map of Cape Leeuwin, Western Stunted stocks and nonrecovery bottom Australia, prepared with the help of the ¢rst abalone Commercial divers in every abalone ¢shery refer to divers in the area (Prince et al.1998).The original size `stunted' and `shorty' abalone populations, or some- of the abalone is mapped, which is indicative of the thingsimilar, where abalone are found in highcon- original size of maturity.The regional LML had been centrations (Sluczanowski 1986; Sloan and Breen set too small for this area; preservinghighlevels 1988; Nash 1992; Prince and Shepherd 1992; Wells (70^90%) of the breedingbiomass on the`small' reefs, and Mulvay 1995). These are self-recruitingpopula- and moderate levels (<30%) in the`small-to-average' tions that persist in the ¢shery because local condi- sized areas.While the `average',`average-to-large'and tions cause the abalone to mature and attain `large' growing reefs could be legally stripped, pro- maximum sizes near or below the regional LML vided a diver had su¤cient quota. However, as quota (McShane1991; Nash1992). is allocated over a 700-km stretch of coastline it is Older and retired abalone divers will speak of areas almost never limitingat the scale of these micro- theycall`nonrecovery bottom'which failed to recover stocks. With some intuitive understandingof aba- from ¢shingand represent the other extreme. lone, the local divers at ¢rst maintained a voluntary Recently, Shepherd and Baker (1998), Shepherd and minimum length considerably above the legal LML. Rodda (2001) and Shepherd et al. (2001) have pro- Their voluntary minimum size preserved around vided the scienti¢c description of this phenomenon. 50% of breeding stock on the `average-to-large' reefs Typically, these areas are characterized by a large and limited the extent of `nonrecovery bottom'.This size at emergence relative to the regional LML, and agreement stabilized catches around 30 tonnes £at, relatively open reef habitat. Fishingpressure yearÀ1 duringthe early 1980s. However when a focused on these areas because the uniformly large single diver broke the voluntary agreement and size and £at topography ensured highly e¤cient began using the legislated LML, a short-lived compe- searchingand high-catch rates. This soon stripped titive gold rush followed, substantially reducing the away the original breeding stock leading to localized biomass and extent of breedingstocks. By the early depletions. Recruitment failure may have been exa- 1990s, production had fallen to around 7 tonnes cerbated by the £at topography, which restricts cre- yearÀ1 and was still declining, only `small', and vice habitat for settlement. `small-to-average'size of maturity areas were produ- When initially ¢shed, these `nonrecovery' areas cing, the rest had beentransformed into nonrecovery supported large catches at high-catch rates. These bottom.

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1992; Prince and Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o1993). Rather than The tyranny of scale re£ectingstock abundance aggregated CPUE trends The plasticity in abalone size at maturity, together re£ect the choice divers make between dive sites withthelocalized scale of larvaldispersal, confounds (Prince1989,1992; Prince and Hilborn1998). Higher the management and assessment of abalone ¢sheries catch rate areas have higher densities of abalone (Sluczanowski 1986; Prince and Shepherd 1992; because factors deter frequent diving(i.e. deeper, McShane 1998; Prince and Hilborn 1998). A tyranny exposed coast, far from port). By in£uencingthe of scale (Prince et al.1998) results from management choice of dive site, material factors in£uencingincen- operatingat scales of 100^1000 km, data collection tive, such as beach price and management regimes, and assessment on a scale of1^10 km, while popula- drive CPUE trends (Prince 1989; Prince and Hilborn tion dynamics within functional units of stock act 1998). Nevertheless, because fundinglimitations on scales of 10^100 m. Prince and Hilborn (1998) restrict the number of research surveys many stock emphasized the need to expand understandingof assessment processes remain wedded to catch rate the resource and think of the resource as a complex data aggregated over hundred to thousands of spatial pattern. micro-stocks. Surveyed trends also tend to be region- The prompt application of regional size limits, lim- ally aggregated over many micro-stocks, rather than ited entry, and ITQs in Australia and New Zealand used as indices of the micro-stock surveyed, because e¡ectively controlled development and stabilized the the complementary catch data can only be collected ¢shery (Harrison 1986; Prince and Shepherd 1992). on the larger scale, and, there are too few surveys to But despite the super¢cial appearance of stability, index a signi¢cant proportion of micro-stocks (e.g. the `tragedy of the commons' (Hardin 1968) is still government surveys in Victoria, Australia and New occurringat the scale of individual micro-stocks. Zealand). With regional management ¢shing pressure focuses Coarsely aggregated stock assessments typically on micro-stocks with large sizes of maturity, closest interpret trends in an abalone ¢shery as the slow to port, or in shallow and relatively protected water decline of a large and unproductive original biomass (Prince 1989; Prince and Hilborn 1998). Educated (Prince and Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o 1993). The reality is a divers with large investments in the ¢shery know- combination of the disparate trends from many smal- ingly apply LMLs that strip away remnant breeding ler but productive populations, but there is rarely suf- stock, while rationalizing; `If I don't do it, the next ¢cient ¢ne-scale datato show this.These biases cause diver will' (Prince et al. 1998). Serial depletion and actual levels of depletion to be under-estimated along local extinctions continue below the scale of man- withthetrueproductivityof the original resource. agement, while pressure uponthe remainingproduc- Re-introducingand re-buildingbreedingaggrega- tive beds steadily escalates, all within the `safe tions restores productivity, but there are very few keeping' of regional catch limits and LMLs (TAFI recorded incidences of this occurring.Whenthe diver 2000). This `tyranny of scale' prevents otherwise who broke the voluntaryagreement inthe CapeLeeu- e¡ective management strategies addressing the `tra- win area (Fig. 2) left the ¢shery, voluntary size limits gedy of the commons'. were restored, brood stock translocations occurred, The tyranny of scale renders stock assessment and annual catch was rebuilt to over 30 tonnes by unreliable (Harrison1986; Hilborn and Walters1987; 2001. But such rehabilitation does not normally Prince1989; Breen1992; Prince and Guzma¨ n delPro¨ o occur because the organizational capacity required 1993; Prince and Hilborn 1998; TAFI 2000). Catch to voluntarily implement a complex of reef-by-reef and e¡ort data is aggregated over many (hundreds size limits, quotas, translocations and closures, is to thousands of) micro-stocks and within each generally beyond competing divers, while the local micro-stock abalone actively reform aggregations knowledge and ¢ne scale mechanisms are beyond around stable points in the reef (Prince 1989, 1992). centralized`small'governments. Divers allocate searchingtime across a concentra- tion pro¢le of remembered aggregations, visually Too much environment and not enough checkingthem before decidingto dive (Prince and taxpayers to pay for it all Hilborn 1998). Consequently, at the scale of micro- stocks and aggregations catch rates tend to remain The tyranny of scale is not con¢ned to abalone ¢sh- linearly related and catch rates remain hyper-stable eries, but is observed widely across the world's ¢sh- until the ¢nal phase of a stock collapse (Prince 1989, eries. Many benthic invertebrate and tropical reef

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Figure 2 A map of the abalone beds around Cape Leeuwin,Western Australia, prepared in collaboration with the original divers to ¢sh the area.The recollection of the divers, together with aerial photography,and ground-truthing dives have been used to qualitatively map the original`un¢shed'size distribution of abalone as either small, small-to-average, average, average-to-large, or large.This is taken to be indicative of the variation in size of maturity across the area.

¢sheries have the same intricate small-scale stock changes, create and destroy habitat.We have tended structure (Orensanz and Jamieson 1998). At larger to link the scale of functional stocks to these maxi- scales many teleost and even shark ¢sheries with mumdistancesmovedbyaspecies,thelongesttagging multiple breedingstocks are to varyingdegrees also movements, or the scale of genetic isolation. But for subject to tyranny of scale e¡ects; take for example management purposes the shorter `normal' dis- the Norwegian (Maurstad and Sundet 1998) and tances moved within one or two seasons best indicate Nova Scotian cod ¢shery (Gosse et al.2003), the deep- the scale of functional management units ina ¢shery. water orange roughy (Bell et al. 1992), the Paci¢c From this perspective, it becomes clear that the North American salmon ¢sheries (Walters and world's ¢sheries contain a myriad of micro-stocks, Cahoon 1985) and even the soup¢n shark ¢shery of raisinga technical challengein managing,moni- Australia (Punt et al. 2000). Fed by an explosion of toringand assessment. The di¤culties and costs are geo-positioning and genetic typing, understanding proportional to the number of functional units, not of spatial complexity is growing rapidly. But stock their size or value. Likewise, the cost of the required assessment and management thinking about research is not strongly linked to the value of re- stock structure tends to remain crude. For example, sources, but more clearly related to the number of Patterson et al. (2001) in their review of Bayesian units involved. Larkin (1997) proposeda rule of thumb techniques for assessinguncertainty in stock that the cost of research and management cannot assessment and forecasting, do not even list spatial sustainablyexceed10^20% of thevalue of the¢shery. complexity amongst the assumptions used to struc- But when the cost of a single researcher with govern- turally condition models. ment overheads approaches Aus$100 000 per Dispersal and movement is not a simple phenom- annum; what does one do with a ¢shery full of ena (Fig. 3). Species and populations maintain a micro-stocks each worth less than this? Micro-stocks range of di¡ering behaviours (i.e. McDowall 2001) are valuable to local communities in aggregate, but and a few individuals move longdistances in contrast myriad and complex to assess and manage. How to the majority. Over geological and evolutionary could we ever hope to address the needs of so many times, such minorities may be vital for colonizing micro-stocks? Academics in universities and govern- new habitat as natural processes, like sea level mental agencies are too few to assess and manage

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Figure 3 An indicative curve illustratingthe proportion of a biological population and the distance they move, or disperse. The curve is meant to illustrate that dispersal is not a simple phenomena and should be conceptualized as a distribution curve rather thana simple mean distance or rate. Such functions are maintained byevolutionary processes. Longdistance dispersal by relatively few individuals determines the size of genetic populations, maintains genetic diversity and a species invasive ability maintainingits distribution over geological time frames. Much smaller feedingand breedingmovements by the majority of individuals determine the scale of functional units of stock for assessment and management purposes. all these micro-marine resources. Meanwhile, the per year, well within Larkin's rule-of-thumb for role of central government is shrinking, not expand- a¡ordable assessment and management. Hence, if ing, as taxpayers demand leaner and smaller govern- extended to the entire Tasmanian resource, the ments. There is simply too much environment, and approximately 1000 micro-stocks in the Tasmanian not enough taxpayers to pay for it all. ¢shery would cost about Aus$15 million. In fact, In the developed countries, ¢sheries management only a reasonable proportion of micro-stocks would remains the last great bastion of the Command-Con- need to be covered to place the stock assessment on a trolTheoryof government. Management, monitoring secure footing. and assessment processes are reserved for centra- In contrast, in 2000 Tasmania's 125 commercial lized governments. The assumption is that ¢shers divers and quota holders paid approximatelyAus$16 cannot be trusted, and must be compelled by legisla- million in license fees, for aTotal Allowable Commer- tion to ¢sh sustainably. But when it comes to micro- cial Catch worth about Aus$100 million (beach stocks the emperor has no clothes because centra- price). Meanwhile, total expenditure on the manage- lized governments are incapable of allocating the ment, research and assessment of this ¢shery was decentralized resources required for the task. only around Aus$2 million, most of that was spent Tasmania, Australia, which has the largest on the Quota Management System (Mr W. Ford, remainingabalone ¢shery, will serve as an example. Tasmanian Department Primary Industry and Despite its complexity, I argue that the ¢shery has Fisheries, Hobart, personal communication). The the ¢nancial and social capital required to manage small research programme is basically left to a single itself. For example, George III Rock, a 360 000 m2 researcher and a few technical o¤cers, with a 4WD reef, produced an annual recruitment of approxi- vehicle and a dinghy. In my view, none of the micro- mately 5000 abalone into an adult population of stocks is reliablyassessed or managed. 25 000 abalone (Prince1989). Recruitment had prob- The state agencies who manage abalone in ably been higher from a previously larger parental Australia have recently agreed that the development biomass, and could be sustained harvesting4000 of micromanagement is a priority. Nevertheless, in abalone/year worth around Aus$150^200 000. the western zone of Victoria, Australia, requests for After modest installation costs, an accurate micro- government assistance to help enforce voluntary stock scale stock assessment based on ¢shery inde- agreements on sizes and catches made by the pendent surveyingwould cost about Aus$15 000 Western Abalone Divers Association were declined

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because enforcement could not be adapted to the ¢ne micro-stocks? Certainly not the expensively trained scale requested by the divers. experts from governmental agencies and universi- ties. In the 1950s, China realized that medical skills were required in every village throughout that mas- Beyond centralized management ± abalone sive country, but there was a critical shortage of gardens trained doctors. China responded e¡ectively with With apologies toAldo Leopold:`relegating conserva- `barefoot doctors', who were low-cost, generalists tion to government is like relegating virtue to the recruited from local communities and given simple Sabbath. It turns over to [so very] few professionals basic trainingto deal with core villageailments. what should be the daily work [of a vast army] of The answer put forward in this paper is to create amateurs' (Meine and Knight 1999). The tragedy of the equivalent of the `barefoot doctors' of China, the commons socially constrains people so that `barefoot ecologists' (Fig. 4b).2 Barefoot ecologists they act against the long-term communal good for will need to be pragmatic generalists, skilled in the short-term personal pro¢t. Hardin (1968) argued multiple disciplines required to work e¡ectively with that the `tragedy of the commons' does not have a micro-stocks and in diverse ¢shingcommunities. technical solution, rather it is a social issue requiring They could be termed holistic ethno-socio-quantita- society to change and develop new patterns of tive ¢sheries ecologists. In local communities, the behaviour. barefoot ecologist will catalyse change and build Sustainingand optimizinghaliotid production social capital within ¢shingcommunities. Their role requires maintainingproductive breedingstocks on will be to motivate and empower ¢shers to research, all abalone reefs. This requires reef-by-reef size and monitor and manage their own localized natural catch limits at scales that can only be assessed and resources. While workingto strengthen existing implemented by informed and motivated divers. I endogenous community structures, the barefoot believe divers may be enabled to change from being ecologist can support the development of social marine hunters, competingamongst themselves and structures that foster community-based manage- `bringing ruin to all'. They could be empowered to ment and data collection. become marine gardeners, co-operatively tending For each new community and micro-stock, the and harvesting`abalone gardens'.We need them to startingpoint for a `barefoot ecologist' will be the be resource surveyors, assessors, managers and har- application of data less management (Johannes vesters. I term this `scienti¢c ¢shing'. Fishers are the 1998b), gleaninglocal knowledge, readingthe com- key to micromanagement because, as members of parative literature, o¡eringbasic biological informa- the local community,they already have e¡ective cus- tion to ¢shers and recommendingsensible `rule-of- tody of the resources, even when this is not formally thumb'management. In this ¢rst stage, barefoot ecol- recognized with property rights. Failure to appreci- ogists will require expertise in survey design, ate this will continue the de-humanizingprocesses because their aim will be to implement long-term that currently contribute to depletion. community-based population abundance and envir- With species subject to the tyranny of scale, some onmental monitoringsystems. formof TerritorialUser Rights (TURF) or Cus- The aim of the`barefoot ecologist'will be to identify tomaryMarineTenure(CMT)canprovidethemotiva- strategic opportunities to gather scienti¢c data. tion and the control needed for local communities When communities of ¢shers perceive their own and individuals to manage localized marine over-capacity for ¢shing, and realize their need for resources (Orensanz and Jamieson 1998). Recent both income and data, they become increasingly pre- experiences inChile (Castilla et al.1998) andVanuatu pared to ¢sh to prearranged ¢shery independent pat- (Johannes 1998a) demonstrate the creative `learning terns and record data. By combiningelegant survey by doing' approach to management (Walters and design and community involvement, much ¢shery- Holling1990) that local communities and indivi- independent data can be collected by ¢shers enga- duals adopt when given control over local resources. ging in`scienti¢c ¢shing',with onlya marginal sacri- ¢ce in ¢shinge¤ciency. Agents of change: barefoot ecologists

But, who will service the technical needs of all those 2The `barefoot ecologist' idea derives from long debates in local stakeholder communities managing all those the early1990s with the late Dr Philip Slucanowski.

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Figure 4 (a) The problem. An illustration of the current lack of practitioners in the ¢eld of sustainable ¢sheries. From the perspective of this paper, a major problem for the ¢eld is the great gap between the global needs of the large number of micro-stocks and ¢shingcommunities and the limited resources of the government funded ¢sheries agencies, research institutes and universities. (b) The solution? As proposed by this paper, the technical needs for assessingand managing micro-stocks, and the ¢shers who depend upon them, could be answered bya new class of ¢sheries ecologists called`barefoot ecologists'.Following the example of the Chinese`barefoot doctor'programme this paper proposes basic but holistic training for `barefoot ecologists'with the aim of facilitatingand empoweringmanagement by ¢shingcommunities.

Havingstrengthened community-based data gath- discussion and decision making. A consequent ering, and started a discussion of management and advantage is that `barefoot ecologists' will be seen to assessment frameworks, the active role of the `bare- serve the communities with which they work, rather foot ecologist' may become reduced. The job then thana central government agency.This type of parti- turns to accumulatingtime-series data and improv- cipant/adviser role is well-developed and accepted in ingthe reliability of stock assessment and the sophis- the agricultural sector, but almost nonexistent and tication of management. For this long-term phase, even frowned upon, in ¢sheries. the`barefoot ecologist'needs to be versed in quantita- This suggestion is not meant to imply a reduced tive management processes like `adaptive environ- role for government agencies or academic institu- mental assessment and management' (Walters tions but is a call for clearer thinkingabout di¡ering 1986), and `back to the future' (Pitcher et al. 1998), but complementary roles (Fig. 4b). Government agen- which can capture diverse information streams cies need to develop legislation that supports the evo- and simulate alternative scenarios for community lution of social systems, like TURF and CMT, which

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encourage sustainable ¢ne-scale behaviour. Govern- quality and allow ¢shers to control access to their ment also needs to legislate to protect broader stan- own data. By transferringresponsibility, motivation dards approved by the community (e.g. biodiversity and ownership of the data to ¢shers, the aim is to and natural heritage), provide for checks and bal- side-step the problem of data con¢dentiality which ances, and establishauditingprocedures. Specialized commonly undermines government agency attempts expertise will be needed to train and equip `barefoot to collect accurate spatially explicit data. ecologists'. Research agencies and universities may One imagines that in time there will be many mar- have a continuingrole in discoveringand publishing ine gardeners, advised by `barefoot ecologists',apply- scienti¢c knowledge, and developing innovative tech- ingtheir own individual expertise and intuition to niques and tools for the`barefoot ecologists'to use. optimizing local ¢sheries. As suggested by Walters and Holling(1990), much will be learnt by conduct- ingcomparative analyses of these diverse approaches The barefoot ecologists toolbox: to resource management. a millennium project Un-orchestrated competition amongst researchers `Barefoot ecologists' will need to be armed with tool- for funding, publication and kudos may make for a boxes. Like the famous Hitch-Hiker's Guide to the lively ¢eld of scienti¢c endeavour as researchers Galaxy (Adams1979), the Barefoot Ecologist'sToolbox squirrel away the knowledge of ¢shers to advance might be a hand-held computer programmed to be their own careers. I think it is time our ¢eld matured useful in every situation.3 It might contain the hand- and began to integrate its skills and intellectual prop- books of a diverse training, allow access to the scien- erty, so that they can be applied e¤ciently to the ti¢c literature from remote locations, and contain a obvious needs that confront us. Collectively,¢sheries standardized, general-purpose software that can do scientistsalreadypossessthethinking, coursematerial, almost anythingif required, even if most only ever ¢eld techniques, models and software code needed use it for the basics. 4 to begin trainingand equippinga legionof `barefoot The germ of the`barefoot ecologist' idea is to facili- ecologists'. Working together, each contributing a tate the in situ collection of appropriately scaled ¢sh- smallpart,theglobalcommunityof¢sheriesecologists eries data through the development of a user and modelers could look forward to fully equipped friendly generic software toolbox for use by ¢shers `barefoot ecologists' taking up their practices before (Sluczanowski1993).With the help of a`barefoot ecol- the end of the ¢rst decade of this new millennium. ogist' to establish survey systems and initialize soft- ware, ¢shers armed with a lap-top could be Acknowledgements equipped to monitor and manage many of their local micro-stocks. Over time, the software adaptation for At the August 2001 Conference at UBC on Putting each micro-stock would become proof of the value of Fisher's Knowledge to Work, it was heartening to see that resource and create a cycle for improvingdata so many First Nation peoples, commercial ¢shers and researchers. This paper presents my personal 3As longas the user does not panic! perspective on the imperative for pushingbeyond 4Anyone watchingCarl Walters (UBC) work will have seen simply makingmore e¤cient use of ¢sher's knowl- him usinghis own personal toolbox. Generic software, he edge. I owe agreat debt to the late BobJohannes' semi- has developed over decades, which he rapidlyadapts to ana- lyse and interpret the dynamics of every resource; from the nal `Words of the Lagoon' (Johannes 1978). I thank water balance of the Florida Everglades to the sustainable Tony Pitcher for bringing the Aldo Leopold quote to yield of western rock lobster.The basic ingredients include: my attention. mappingsoftware for mappingstocks and survey designs; spreadsheet for capturingand storinglong-term data sets References (catch, e¡ort and surveys); data analysis and assessment models. But the real power of theWalters'toolbox is visuali- Adams, D. (1979) The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. Heine- zation, both for visual analysis of historic trends, and also mann, London. for real-time scenariogamingof alternative futures (Walters Bell, J.D., Lyle, J.M., Bulman, C.M., Graham, K.J., Newton, 1986). It was the potential for unlockinginsight and com- G.M. and Smith, D.C. (1992) Spatial variation in repro- munity involvement through visualization that really excited Slucanowski when he met Walters duringthe1980s duction, and occurrence of non-reproductive adults, (Prince et al. 1991; Sluczanowski et al. 1992) a nd t hat pro - in orange roughy, Hoplostethus atlanticus Collett vided our motivation for designing a barefoot ecologists' (Trachichthyidae), from south-eastern Australia. Journal toolbox. of Fish Biology 40, 107^122.

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S.A. edge to Work, Vancouver, 27^30 August, 2001). N. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner and S.A. Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o, eds. Haggan, C. Brignall and L.Wood, eds. UniversityofBritish FishingNews Books. Blackwell Scienti¢c Publications, Columbia Fisheries Centre Research Reports Vo l. 11, Cambridge, pp.120^138. No.1,504 pp. McShane, P.E. (1992b) Exploitation models and catch statis- Gulland, J.A. (1969) Manual of methods for ¢sh stock assess- tics of the Victorian ¢shery for abalone Haliotis rubra. ment. Part 1. Fish population analysis. FAO M a nu a l o f Fishery Bulletin 90,139^146. 4,1^54. McShane, P.E. (1998) Assessingstocks of abalone ( Haliotis Hardin, G. (1968) The tragedy of the commons. Science162, spp.): methods and constraints. In: Proceedings of the 1243^1248. North Paci¢c Symposium on Invertebrate StockAssessment Harrison, A.J. (1986) Gastropod ¢sheries of the Paci¢c with and Management (Proceedings of the North Paci¢c particular reference to Australian abalone. 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McShane, P.E. and Naylor, J.R. (1995) Small-scale spatial var- Prince, J.D. (1989) The Fisheries Biology of the Tasmanian iation in growth, size at maturity, and yield- and egg- Stocks of Haliotis rubra. PhD Thesis, UniversityofTasma- per-recruit relations in the New Zealand abalone Haliotis nia,Tasmania,174 pages. iris. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Prince, J.D. (1991)A new technique for taggingabalone.Aus- Research 29,603^612. tralian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 42, McShane, P.E. and Smith, M.G. (1988) Measuringabundance 101^106. of juvenile abalone, Haliotis rubra Leach (Mollusca: Prince, J.D. (1992) Usinga spatial model to explore the Gastropoda); comparison of a novel method with two dynamics of an exploited stock of the abalone Haliotis other methods. Australian Journal of Marine and Fresh- rubra.In:Abalone of theWorld: Biology, Fisheries and Cul- water Research 39, 331^336. ture (Proceedings of the1st International Symposium on Meine, C. and Knight, R.L. (1999) The Essential Aldo Abalone La Paz, 21NovemberÀ25 November, 1989). S.A. Leopold. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, xxii ‡ Shepherd, M.J. Tegner and S.A. Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o, eds. 362 pp. FishingNews Books. Blackwell Scienti¢c Publications, Nash, W.J. (1992) An evaluation of egg-per-recruit analysis Cambridge, pp.305^317. as a means of assessingsize limits for blacklip abalone Prince, J.D. and Ford,W.B. (1985) Use of anaesthetic to stan- (Haliotis rubra) inTasmania. In: Abalone of theWorld:Biol- dardize e¤ciency in samplingabalone populations ogy, Fisheries and Culture (Proceedings of the1st Interna- (genus Haliotis: Mollusca: Gastropoda). Australian Jour- tional Symposium on Abalone La Paz, 21 NovemberÀ nal of Marine and Freshwater Research 39,167^175. 25 November,1989). S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Tegner and S.A. Prince, J.D. and Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o, S.A. (1993) A stock reduc- Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o, eds. FishingNews Books. Blackwell tion analysis of the Mexican abalone (Haliotid) ¢shery. Scienti¢c Publications, Cambridge, pp.318^338. Fisheries Research16,25^49. Naylor, R. and Andrew, N. (2001) Paua ^ is the current size Prince, J. and Hilborn, R. (1998) Concentration pro¢les limit always appropriate? A case study at Taranaki and and invertebrate ¢sheries management. In: Proceedings Banks Peninsula suggests not. New Zealand of the North Paci¢c Symposium on Invertebrate Stock July,33. Assessment and Management (Proceedings of the North Orensanz, J.M. and Jamieson, G.S. (1998) The assessment Paci¢c Symposium on Invertebrate Stock Assessment and management of spatially structured stocks: an and Management, Nanaimo, 6 MarchÀ10 Ma rch, 1995). overview of the North Paci¢c Symposium on inverteb- G.S. Jamieson and A. Campbell, eds. Canadian Special rate stock assessment and management. In: Proceed- Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences125, 187^196. ings of the North Paci¢c Symposium on Invertebrate Prince, J.D. and Shepherd, S.A. (1992) Australian ¢sheries Stock Assessment and Management (Proceedings of the for abalone and their management. In: Abalone of the North Paci¢c Symposium on Invertebrate Stock Assess- World: Biology, Fisheries and Culture (Proceedings of the ment and Management, Nanaimo, 6 MarchÀ10 Ma rc h, 1st International Symposium on Abalone La Paz, 21 1995). G.S. Jamieson and A. Campbell, eds. Canadian NovemberÀ25 November, 1989). S.A. Shepherd, M.J. Special Publication of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 125, Tegner and S.A. Guzma¨ n del Pro¨ o, eds. FishingNews 441^459. Books. Blackwell Scienti¢c Publications, Cambridge, Patterson, K., Cook, R. and Darby,C. et al. (2001) Estimating 744 pp. uncertainty in ¢sh stock assessment and forecasting. Prince, J.D., Sellers, T.L., Ford, W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1987) Fish and Fisheries 2,125^157. Experimental evidence for limited dispersal of halio- Peake, M. (1972) The Enthusiast. In: A Book of Nonsense. tid larvae (genus Haliotis: Mollusca: Gastropoda). Peter Owen, London, UK. JournalofExperimentalMarineBiologyandEcology106, Phillips, B.F. and Brown, R.S. (1989) The West Australian 243^263. Rock Lobster Fishery: research for Management. In: Prince, J.D., Sellers,T.L., Ford,W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1988a) Marine Invertebrate Fisheries (ed. J.F. Caddy).Wiley Inter- A method for ageing the abalone Haliotis rubra Leach science Publications, NewYork, pp.159^181. (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Australian Journal of Marine and Pitcher,T.J., Haggan, N., Preikshot, D. and Pauly, D. (1998) Freshwater Research 39,167^175. `Back to the Future': a method employingecosystem Prince, J.D., Sellers,T.L., Ford,W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1988b) modelingto maximize the sustainable bene¢ts from ¢sh- Con¢rmation of a relationship between the localized eries. In: Ecosystem Approaches for abundance of breedingstock and recruitment for (Proceedings of the 16th Lowell Wake¢eld Fisheries Haliotis rubra Leach (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Journal of Symposium AK-SG-99^01). University of Alaska Sea Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology122,91^104. Grant, Fairbanks, Alaska, pp.447^466. Prince, J.D., Sellers, T.L., Ford, W.B. and Talbot, S.R. (1988c) Poore, G.C.B. (1972) Ecology of New Zealand abalones, Recruitment, growth, mortality and population struc- Haliotis species (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Part 1. Feeding. ture ina southern Australian populationof Haliotisrubra New ZealandJournal of Marine and Freshwater Research 6, (genus Haliotis; Mollusca: Gastropoda). 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