Public Perceptions of Development and Relationship with Wellbeing: the Case of Makueni County in Kenya

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UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND HUMAN SCIENCES School of Social Sciences

Public perceptions of development and relationship with wellbeing: the case of Makueni County in Kenya

Hildah Minayo Essendi

Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

August 2015

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON ABSTRACT FACULTY OF SOCIAL AND HUMAN SCIENCES

SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

Thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy PUBLIC PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT AND RELATIONSHIP WITH WELLBEING: THE CASE OF MAKUENI COUNTY IN KENYA

By Hildah Minayo Essendi

This thesis contains three papers which investigate three aspects of perceptions of development in a rural community in Makueni County of Eastern Kenya. The study uses a mix of qualitative and quantitative data collected in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations of the County between 2010 and 2012. The overarching argument in the three papers is the need for a shift in development approaches from a mere implementation, to a more participatory one that incorporates the opinions and actions of those that the development efforts are intended for. This study argues that development efforts not only need to continue incorporating the key traditional dimensions of development such as standards of living and income, but most importantly, these efforts need to also recognise the importance of non-monetary factors, particularly in understanding the dynamics of socio-economic development. This position is reinforced by the inequality in the endowment of natural and human resources, varying levels of development and wellbeing standards and specifically since most rural areas of the country and other countries in the region continue to lag behind.

Paper one (chapter 4) focuses on the perceptions of development using qualitative and quantitative data collected from the youth, adults and leaders from the two sub-locations. The paper sought to investigate how those responding in the study conceptualise development in their context and how they rank their development needs in order of priority, whilst also articulating possible strategies to address these needs. The study finds that definitions of, and strategies to address development are multidimensional, contextual and go beyond the monetary measures. The community also perceives poverty to be a major indicator of development, or lack of it. Using the conceptualization of development articulated in the first paper, paper two (chapter 5) looks at the socio-economic, demographic and wellbeing factors influencing these perceptions using a structural equation modeling approach. In this paper, a perception of development index is computed and modelled against socio-economic, demographic and perceived wellbeing factors. The paper finds gender, age, perceived household wellbeing and health behavioural factors, interpreted in this study as community socialization, to be significant influencers of perceptions of development by those responding in this study. Still using perceptions articulated in paper one, paper three (chapter 6) investigates whether perceptions of development influence wellbeing outcomes. A perception of participation in development index is computed and then modelled against fertility choices (contraceptive use and desired fertility). The paper finds that contraceptive use and desire for fewer children corresponds with perceptions of participatory development.

Following these findings, policy and programmatic implications for development are highlighted. i

Table of Contents

ABSTRACT ...... i

Table of Contents ...... ii

List of tables ...... v

List of figures ...... vi

DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP ...... ix

Acknowledgements ...... xi

Definitions and Abbreviations ...... xii

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

1.1 Background of the study ...... 1 1.2 Rationale of the study ...... 3 1.3 Aims and objectives of the thesis ...... 10 1.4 Structure of the thesis ...... 12 2. BACKGROUND TO STUDY: DEVELOPMENT INTO CONTEXT ...... 15

2.1 The state of world development ...... 15 2.2 Inequalities in development...... 17 2.3 Development and wellbeing inequalities in Kenya ...... 21 2.4 Development efforts being undertaken in Kenya ...... 28 2.5 Poor development progress in Makueni County/Makueni County profile ...... 32 2.6 Theoretical frameworks in study of development ...... 35 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 49

3.6 Introduction ...... 49 3.7 Geographical setting ...... 49 3.8 Measurement of key concepts ...... 58 3.8.1 Definition of development and perceptions of development ...... 59 3.9 Study design ...... 63 3.10 Study population ...... 72 3.11 Methods of data collection ...... 73 3.12 Key measurement concepts and variables ...... 74 3.13 Methods of data analysis ...... 74 4 PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT BY RESIDENTS OF A RURAL COMMUNITY IN KENYA ...... 81

4.6 Abstract...... 81 4.7 Introduction ...... 81 4.8 Methods ...... 84 ii

4.9 Results ...... 87 4.10 Discussion ...... 121 4.11 Conclusion ...... 126 5 WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL KENYA? A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING APPROACH ...... 127

5.1 Abstract ...... 127 5.2 Background ...... 127 5.3 Theoretical approaches ...... 128 5.4 Data and methods ...... 137 5.5 Descriptive results ...... 146 5.6 Discussion ...... 152 5.7 Conclusion ...... 155 6 DO PERCEPTIONS OF PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT INFLUENCE FERTILITY CHOICES? EVIDENCE FROM RURAL KENYA ...... 159

6.1 Abstract ...... 159 6.2 Introduction ...... 160 6.3 Data and methods ...... 166 6.4 Results ...... 168 6.5 Discussions and conclusions ...... 175 7 MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS ...... 179

7.1. Main findings ...... 179 7.2. Conclusion ...... 183 7.3. Limitations of the research ...... 186 7.4. Policy and programme implications ...... 188 7.5. Planned publication of research findings ...... 191 7.6. Areas for further research ...... 192 Appendices ...... 193

Appendix 1: Kenya ethical approval for the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project ...... 193 Appendix 2: University of Southampton ethical approval_ the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project ...... 194 Appendix 3: Ethical approval _University of Southampton ...... 195 Appendix 4: Research authorization ...... 196 Appendix 5: Research permit ...... 197 Appendix 6: Community leader key informant interview guide ...... 197 Appendix 7: Focus group discussion guide ...... 202 Appendix 8: Questionnaire for the survey on perceptions of development ...... 208

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Appendix 9: Household questionnaire for the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project ...... 215 Appendix 10: Papers drafted from this study and either published or submitted to peer-referred journals ...... 233 List of References ...... 279

List of tables

TABLE 2.1: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF MALNUTRITION BY PROVINCE AND BY PLACE OF

RESIDENCE IN KENYA, KDHS 2008-9 ...... 23

TABLE 3.1: CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ...... 69

TABLE 4.1: CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ...... 86

TABLE 4.2: REPORTED IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT BY GENDER (SOURCE: HOUSEHOLD

SURVEY IN KITONYONI, 2012) ...... 90

TABLE 4.3: GENDER DIFFERENTIALS IN PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT AT PERSONAL, COMMUNITY

AND NATIONAL LEVELS (SOURCE: HOUSEHOLD SURVEY IN KITONYONI, 2012) ...... 95

TABLE 5.1: DEMOGRAPHIC AND HOUSEHOLD SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE ...... 138

TABLE 5.2: ACRONYM DEFINITIONS OF VARIABLES IN THE MODEL ...... 146

TABLE 5.3: PARAMETER ESTIMATES OF PERCEIVED DEVELOPMENT AND INDEPENDENT

CHARACTERISTICS ...... 147

TABLE 6.1: TOTAL VARIANCE OF PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT INDEX EXPLAINED ...... 168

TABLE 6.2: FACTOR LOADINGS AND COMMUNALITIES OF PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT INDEX ... 169

TABLE 6.3: DEMOGRAPHIC AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS (SOURCE:

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY DATA, KITONYONI 2011 & 2012) ...... 170

TABLE 6.4: RESULTS OF LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS ON THE EFFECTS OF PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT ON THE USE OF CONTRACEPTION (SOURCE: HOUSEHOLD SURVEY DATA,

KITONYONI 2011 & 2012) ...... 172

TABLE 6.5: RESULTS OF MULTINOMIAL LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS ON THE EFFECTS OF

PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT ON DESIRED FERTILITY ...... 174

TABLE 7.1: DEMOGRAPHIC, SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND HEALTH CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS (18-

54 YEARS) ...... 267

TABLE 7.2: RESULTS OF MULTINOMIAL LOGISTIC REGRESSION ANALYSIS ON THE EFFECTS OF

PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT ON DESIRED FERTILITY ...... 273

List of figures

FIGURE 1.1: KENYA'S GDP PER CAPITA IN USD ...... 5

FIGURE 1.2: TRENDS IN KENYA'S HUMAN DEVELOPMENT INDEX (HDI), 1980-2013 ...... 6

FIGURE 2.1: TRENDS IN CONTRACEPTION USE BY MARRIED WOMEN (15-49) IN KENYA, KDHS 2008-9 24

FIGURE 2.2: PERCENTAGE OF MARRIED WOMEN (15-49) IN KENYA USING CONTRACEPTION BY REGION,

KDHS 2008-9 ...... 25

FIGURE 2.3: PERCENTAGE PROVINCIAL CONTRIBUTION TO NATIONAL POVERTY IN KENYA ...... 27

FIGURE 2.4: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF POVERTY IN 10 OF THE POOREST CONSTITUENCIES IN

EASTERN PROVINCE...... 28

FIGURE 2.5: A SUMMARY OF THE MODIFIED SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT APPROACH ...... 41

FIGURE 2.6: THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ADOPTED IN THE STUDY: A SUMMARY OF APPROACHES

TO DEVELOPMENT ...... 46

FIGURE 2.7: STUDY’S THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THE BEST APPROACHES TO DEVELOPMENT ...... 47

FIGURE 3.1: MAP OF STUDY AREAS ...... 56

FIGURE 3.2: MAP SHOWING STUDY AREAS AND NEARBY TOWNS ...... 57

FIGURE 4.1: REPORTED IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF DEVELOPMENT AND THEIR RANKING (SOURCE:

HOUSEHOLD SURVEY IN KITONYONI, 2012) ...... 89

FIGURE 4.2: PERCEIVED IMPORTANT ASPECTS/FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT AT PERSONAL,

COMMUNITY AND NATIONAL LEVELS (SOURCE: HOUSEHOLD SURVEY IN KITONYONI, 2012) ...... 92

FIGURE 4.3: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY OF RESPONDENTS’ PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE WATER SUPPLY AND ITS LINK WITH DEVELOPMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION (SOURCE: QUALITATIVE

DATA IN KITONYONI AND MWANIA, 2010) ...... 96

FIGURE 4.4: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY OF RESPONDENTS’ PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF ADEQUATE ELECTRICITY SUPPLY AND ITS LINK WITH DEVELOPMENT (SOURCE: QUALITATIVE DATA IN

KITONYONI AND MWANIA, 2010) ...... 98

FIGURE 4.5: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY OF RESPONDENTS’ PERCEIVED IMPORTANCE OF IMPROVED TRANSPORT AND ITS LINK TO DEVELOPMENT (SOURCE: QUALITATIVE DATA IN KITONYONI AND

MWANIA, 2010) ...... 99

FIGURE 4.6: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY LINKING POVERTY AND DEVELOPMENT INDICATORS IN MAKUENI ...... 110

FIGURE 4.7: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY OF THE PERCEIVED INDICATORS OF POVERTY IN MAKUENI ...... 111

FIGURE 4.8: PERCEPTION OF STRATEGIES THROUGH WHICH DEVELOPMENT CAN BEST BE ACHIEVED AT HOUSEHOLD, COMMUNITY AND NATIONAL LEVELS (SOURCE: AUTHOR’S HOUSEHOLD SURVEY

DATA) ...... 113

FIGURE 4.9: AUTHOR’S SUMMARY OF MAKUENI COMMUNITY PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT ...... 116

FIGURE 5.1: THE PORTER CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF FINANCIAL WELL-BEING ...... 134

FIGURE 5.2: CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF PERCEIVED DEVELOPMENT ...... 136 vi

FIGURE 5.3: FITTED MODEL OF PERCEIVED DEVELOPMENT AND FACTORS INFLUENCING PERCEPTION

OF DEVELOPMENT ...... 145

FIGURE 5.4: DETERMINANTS OF PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT ...... 149

FIGURE 5.5: REVISED MODEL OF PERCEIVED DEVELOPMENT ...... 152

FIGURE 6.1: POTENTIAL BENEFITS OF REDUCED FERTILITY ON DEVELOPMENT ...... 164

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DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP

I, HILDAH MINAYO ESSENDI declare that the thesis entitled Public perceptions of development and relationship with wellbeing: the case of Makueni County in Kenya and the work presented in the thesis are both my own, and have been generated by me as a result of my original research.

I confirm that:

1. this work was done wholly or mainly while in candidature for a research degree at this university;

2. where any part of the thesis has previously been submitted for a degree or any other qualification at this university or any other institution, this has been clearly stated;

3. where I have consulted the published work of others, this is always clearly attributed;

4. where I have quoted from the work of others, the source is always given. With the exception of such quotations, this thesis is entirely my own work;

5. i have acknowledged the main sources of help;

6. where the thesis is based on work done by myself and jointly with others, I have made clear exactly what was done by others and what I have contributed myself;

7. parts of this work have been published as follows:

7.1. Essendi, H., Nyovani, M. and Zoe, M. (2014). Perceptions of development by residents of a rural community in Kenya: A capability issue. Journal of African Studies and Development, 6(4), 67-77. DOI: 10.5897/JASD2014.0281

7.2. Essendi, H. and Nyovani, M. (2014). Factors influencing perception of development in rural Kenya: a structural equation modelling approach. European Journal of Research in Social Sciences, 2(4), ISSN 2056-5429

Signed:

Date:

Acknowledgements

I am truly grateful for all the people who made it possible for me to embark on my PhD and who have tremendously helped me during the entire period of my PhD. Although I may not be able to mention everyone who walked with me in this journey, I will nevertheless start by thanking those whose names do not appear in the list below but who hold a special place in my heart for playing a big role in helping me accomplish this task.

First I would like to especially thank my supervisor, Professor Nyovani Madise and my advisors Professor Zoe Matthews (who was also my supervisor during the first year of my PhD study), Dr. Gloria Langat and Dr. Fiifi Amoako-Johnson for guiding me during these past four years of my PhD study. I greatly appreciate your scientific advice, knowledge and many insightful discussions and suggestions. Special thanks to Nyovani for your marvellous support, guidance and for allowing me freedom to pursue various aspects of my research without objection.

I owe special thanks to the School of Social Sciences (Department of Social Statistics) and the Centre for Global Health, Population Poverty and Policy (GHP3) at the University of Southampton for financial support during my PhD study. I am also grateful to the Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies (IAGAS) of the University of Nairobi for facilitating my fieldwork and giving me office space to conduct my study while in Kenya. I would specifically like to thank Professor Simiyu Wandibba for his mentorship during my PhD data collection. Most importantly, I wish to thank members of Mwania and Kitonyoni sub-locations of Makueni County where this study took place. I am extremely grateful for your accepting to share your thoughts, views and knowledge with me.

This journey of completing a PhD wouldn't be possible without the support of friends and family. Many thanks to my dear friends and colleagues; Gloria, Fiifi, Carla, Rosella, Arek, Yordi and Jesman, for your immense support. I thank my siblings and my parents; to my dad, I finally earned the title (‘Daktari’), my mum, this would never have been possible without your unwavering love and personal sacrifice to see us educated.

Definitions and Abbreviations

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency KII Key Informant Interview Syndrome KIPPRA Kenya Institute for Public ASAL Arid and Semi-Arid Lands Policy Research CBS Central Bureau of Statistics KNBS Kenya National Bureau of CDF Constituency Development Statistics Fund LATF Local Authority Transfer Fund CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis LVPA Latent Variable Path Analysis CFI Comparative Fit Index MDG Millennium Development Goal FAO Food and Agricultural NCAPD National Coordinating Agency Organization for Population and FGD Focus Group Discussion Development GAD Gender and Development OR Odds Ratio GDP Gross Domestic Product PRB Population Reference Bureau GHP3 Centre for Global Health, PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Population, Poverty & Policy Paper GNI Gross National Income RMSEA Root Mean Squared Error of GOK Government of Kenya Approximation HDI Human Development Index ROSCA Rotating Credit Association HIV Human Immunodeficiency SEM Structural Equation Modeling Virus UN United Nations IAGAS Institute of Anthropology UN United Nations Gender and African Studies UNDP United Nations Development IFI Increment Fit Index Programme IMF International Monetary Fund UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund KDHS Kenya Demographic and USD United States Dollar Health Survey WHO World Health Organization KES/KSH Kenyan Shilling WID Women in Development

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the study

In this section, a review of the approaches to development that have potential to ensure sustainable growth is presented. The specific focus is on the arguments towards a participatory approach to development, highlighting its usefulness in ensuring sustainable development. Development as used in this study is defined as the process of enlarging people’s choices thereby enabling them lead long and healthier lives, acquire knowledge and enjoy a decent standard of living while also contributing to political decision-making (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). Participatory development on the other hand is defined as an approach to development where the capacity of the socially and economically marginalised is improved and their decisions sought in regards to development efforts undertaken (Guijt & Shah, 1998; Chambers, 2005; Sen, 1999).

The key factors singled out, in neo-classical approaches, as being key in development are the standard of living and income (Szirmai, 2005). Todaro and Smith summarise some of the traditional economic definitions of development focusing on incomes for instance entailing “the capacity of a national economy, whose initial economic condition has been more or less static for a long time, to generate and sustain an annual increase in its Gross National Income (GNI) at rates of 5% to 7% or more” (Todaro & Smith, 2006, p. 15). Other traditional indicators of development have focused on the ability for nations to expand their output at a rate faster than the growth rates of their populations, otherwise known as income per capita as well as the alternation of modes of production and employment, for instance from agriculture to rapid industrialisation (Todaro & Smith, 2006). These economic approaches are important as they are used to evaluate the progress of development.

In recent development studies however, it has become increasingly important to also recognise the importance of non-monetary factors, particularly in understanding the dynamics of socio-economic development (Ledwith, 1997; Ray, 1998; Sen, 1999, 2010; Todaro & Smith, 2006). Amartya Sen for instance, regards development as more than just the increase in incomes. Rather he refers to development as the removal of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency and regards income as not the end of development, rather a means to development (Sen, 1999,

2010). To Sen, income is only a means to reduce poverty and not the end of it, and that enhancing people’s capabilities is most important as this reflects what people are able to do (Sen, 1999). Szirmai (2005), on the other hand posits that, the concept of development cannot only be explained by changes in economic terms, rather by a combination of changes in economic indicators and other socio-economic factors (Szirmai, 2005). Debraj Ray also advances the argument that development goes beyond income - although acknowledges income as an important indicator – rather that it is also the removal of the unfreedoms preventing the enjoyment of life, such as poverty, undernutrition, low life expectancy, poor access to sanitation, lack of clean drinking water, poor health services, high rates of infant mortality, poor access to knowledge and schooling and low literacy levels, among other factors (Ray, 1998). Todaro and Smith (2006) add to the voice of viewing development as a phenomenon that is better understood by viewing it as more than an increase in incomes. They hence emphasize the importance of approaching development as a multidimensional process involving major changes in social structures, popular attitudes and national institutions as well as the acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of poverty (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Othert scholars contributing to the study of development and to new approaches to the study and measurement of development are Peet and Hartwick (2009) who simply define it as making a better life for everyone, including meeting their basic needs, ensuring everyone has enough food to lead healthy lives, having a safe and healthy place to live, affordable services for everyone and being treated with dignity and respect (Peet & Hartwick, 2009).

Viewing development through the study of both economic and non-economic indicators is therefore an approach that has been advocated for, and in some instances adopted by various scholars and development agencies. In its work, helping to build nations that can withstand crisis and drive and sustain growth that has potential to improve the quality of life, the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) adopts a definition of development that is both multidimensional in nature and seeks to improve peoples’ capabilities. Its definition of development, which is also used in this study views development as a process of enlarging people's choices with the most critical choices entailing a long and healthy life, acquiring knowledge and enjoying a decent standard of living and outlines the other choices to include political freedom, guarantee of human rights and self-respect (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). The World Bank on the other hand emphasizes the aspect of inclusion of growth, that is reduction in disparities within and across countries as important in ensuring 2

equitable development (Ray, 1998). With these emerging voices in the study of development and its economics therefore, there has been the incorporation of both economic and non- economic measures in development assessments. The Human Development Report of the Programme for instance, specifically defines human development as entailing much more than the rise or fall of national incomes, with economic growth being viewed as only the means to development. The agency defines development as the expansion of people’s choices to lead lives that they value (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). This multidimensionality is further incorporated in the programmes’ assessment of human development, as defined and promoted by the United Nations Development Fund as in the case of the Human Development Index (HDI). HDI, a composite statistic is computed using the life expectancy, education, and income indices, and which is used to rank countries in terms of their human development (UNDP, 2014).

1.2 Rationale of the study

Despite the recognition and the incorporation of these additional factors in development assessments, various indicators regarding development, both economic and non-economic especially on wellbeing and health, in developing countries remain below average (United Nations, 2011a; World Bank, 2010b). This situation abounds in spite of the implementation of many development initiatives in these countries, particularly in the rural areas. Many rural areas of the developing world still lag behind in development, as they continue to grapple with various challenges, around the areas of health, education and wellbeing (Black, Morris, & Bryice, 2003; Falkingham, 2000; Fotso, 2007; Sahn & Stifel, 2003). The rural poor are reported to be generally undereducated and to have limited access to health care, adequate sanitation and gas and electricity supplies (Sahn & Stifel, 2003). Some studies have also revealed that children in rural areas have worse health outcomes than their urban counterparts, as a result of poverty and poor accessibility to properly-equipped health facilities (Fotso, 2007; Sastry, 1997; So, 1990).

Globally, although there has been progress in improvement of wellbeing, rural areas of developing countries lag behind in reduction in poverty, hunger, illiteracy and disease (United Nations, 2011a). Overall, the situation of millions of people worldwide has improved due to various efforts at the global, regional, national and local levels. Consequently, there has been some progress in the improvement of health. For instance, there has been an improvement

in child and maternal health and a reduced loss of lives from HIV, malaria and tuberculosis (United Nations, 2014). Despite this progress, there are still some inequalities in the areas of wellbeing. Sub-Saharan Africa for instance, still experiences widespread poverty and poor wellbeing, with its rural areas being worse off (World Bank, 2010b). Although there has been a marginal improvement in various aspects of wellbeing, globally, this improvement has been both at a reduced level in the region, and also unequal. For instance, while the population using an improved water source between 1990 and 2008 had improved from 71% to 84%, the sub-Saharan Africa region’s improvement remained low (improving from 49% to 60%), with rural areas lagging behind urban areas, at 47% and 83% respectively (World Bank, 2010b). Despite general improvement in meeting the MDGs, other wellbeing indicators remain below average among the poorest indicating that there is need to pay special attention to the poor, most of who reside in the rural areas (United Nations, 2011a).

Kenya, like many countries in the region faces dire conditions on development and wellbeing, particularly among its rural populace. The country’s development prospects as demonstrated by the economic indicators of growth, shows that the country’s development progress stagnated from 1980 and only started to improve from 2003 (Figure 1.1). There has however been a recent overhaul of its data, taking into account the expanding industries such as mobile phone money transfer and other informal businesses, thereby increasing the size of its gross domestic product from $44.1 billion in 2013 to $55.2 billion in 2014 (KNBS, 2014). Although this has in effect pushed the country to a lower-middle income economy status, it still grapples with various challenges, including unequal development, poverty and poor indicators in some aspects of wellbeing. Although the country’s GDP is projected to improve further, poverty levels in the country remain high, and rural areas are worst affected, both by poverty and in the development disparities. Yet it has been argued that both economic development and the equal distribution of wealth are paramount in the development of a country (Ray, 1998). While the World Bank advocates for equitable development progress and reduction in the disparities across and within countries (Kagia, 2005), the situation in Kenya still portrays huge inequalities, particularly between the rural and urban parts of the country and between the various regions of the country (Central Bureau of Statistics, 2009; World Bank, 2009). Some regions of the country have fared better, while others lag behind in various indicators of wellbeing, including health and education (Onsomu, Nzomo, & Obiero, 2005; Republic of Kenya, 2011a, 2011c, 2011d). Poverty levels and distribution of

resources also vary by region and area of location with some regions experiencing as much as four times the level of poverty in other regions (World Bank, 2009).

Figure 1.1: Kenya's GDP per capita in USD

1600.00 1400.00 1200.00 1000.00 USD)

800.00 Actual 600.00 (Million Projected 400.00 Units 200.00 0.00

Year

Source: (IMF, World Economic Outlook 2013)

Consequently, the country’s human development has been inconsistent, steadily rising from 1980 till 1990, when the progress began to reverse, dipping further in 2000, but which began to rise again (Figure 1.2). Progress in the improvement of wellbeing in the country has also been slow (Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) [Kenya], Ministry of Health (MOH) [Kenya], & ORC Macro, 2004; Kiringai & Levin, 2008; World Bank, 2009). In addition, overall, development in the country has been unequal. While the World Bank gives the poverty estimates at the macro-level, the Kenya Central Bureau of Statistic breaks down the poverty estimates regionally and by constituency. It estimates that in Eastern province, 42% of the poor are concentrated in 10 of the 36 constituencies, which are Makueni, Nithi, Kitui Central, Mbooni, Kangundo, Kibwezi, Igembe, Mwingi North, Mwala and Machakos Town (CBS, World Bank, SIDA, & SID, 2005). Further, within this region, Makueni constituency is considered to be poorest (73.5% of households in the constituency are poor) (National Coordinating Agency for Popolation and Development, 2005). A similar pattern can be observed in Coast province, where poverty incidence in the poorest constituency (Ganze) is almost 3 times that of the least poor one (Bura constituency). These patterns of poverty are

mirrored by the poor health indicators in these areas, where disparities have been reported. The percentage of women delivering in health facilities for instance was 17.3% in North Eastern, 42.8% in Eastern and 73% in Central province (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). Percentage of severely stunted children on the other hand also varies from 17.7% in North Eastern, 17.1% in Eastern and 9.4 in Central province (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010).

Figure 1.2: Trends in Kenya's Human Development Index (HDI), 1980-2013

0.540

0.520

0.500

0.480 HDI 0.460

0.440

0.420 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2011 2012 2013

Source: Human Development Reports (UNFPA, 2013b)

Some of these inequalities persist despite Kenya recording some improvement in its GDP, a situation that could however be explained by some of the inequality hypotheses that argue that when a country is developing, for instance with increase in a country’s GDP, the benefits to individuals may take longer, such that this may not immediately translate into improvement in individuals’ welfare and growth and that this development is often accompanied by inequalities, until it reaches a stable level (Kuznets, 1955). Investigating the long-term changes in the personal distribution of income, Kuznets (1955) articulates that a country’s increase in its GDP might not necessarily translate into immediate equitable development for all, rather, that, only a few members may initially benefit from this development, which equalizes later, with sustained economic growth and improvement of the GDP (Kuznets, 1955). According to Kuznets’s hypothesis, there occurs a natural cycle of economic inequality which in most cases is driven by market forces, causing inequality initially, which later reduces. Despite this, efforts to try and reduce this gap, while ensuring

that economic gains are enjoyed by everyone, need to be implemented. Efforts to ensure that economic and development gains that can be felt by everyone however, need to be accompanied by other measures and changes as was implemented in some Asian countries. As such countries as Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, South Korea and Hong Kong experienced rapid increases in the growth of their economies, there were also concerted efforts to ensure this growth was uniformly distributed. Someone of the approaches undertaken to ensure this were immediate re-investment of the initial benefits in such sectors as agriculture, education and the industries (Stiglitz, 1996). One of the priority issues to check is ensuring that the country’s population growth is controlled. This is because the two have been found to influence each other (Thuku, Gachanja, & Obere, 2013), and efforts to increase the gain of economic growth would succeed if population growth was also controlled, as high population impacts economic development due to such challenges as food inadequacy, adequate infrastructure and reduction in savings per capita among other issues (United Nations Population Fund, 2013).

There is therefore need to ensure that Kenya’s economic and population growth rates match each other. A comparison of the country’s GDP and population growth rates indicate that controlling the country’s population is an urgent matter, if any gains in its economic development is to be felt by all. In the last 15 years, Kenya’s population has been growing at 2.7% annually, and although this is a reduction from the 3.4% annual rate in the early 1990’s, this is still unsustainable, especially since its GDP has not been growing at a rate to match this population increase (World Bank, 2015). Controlling Kenya’s population growth, while at the same time increasing development efforts is even more important as the country aspires to achieve the Kenya Vision 2030, that seeks to drive the country to a middle-income status by 2030, by ensuring that it maintains a growth rate of 10% per annum over the next quarter of a century (Republic of Kenya, 2007a). To achieve this vision, there is need to also make progress in other areas that put a strain to its economy, for instance by ensuring that there is a decline in its population growth. There has indeed been progress on this front, whereby Kenya’s population growth rate reduced from 3.8% per annum in the early 1980s to about 2.6% per annum (The World Bank, 2014b). This current growth rate however still reflects one of the highest in the world since this implies that Kenya has a very young population which puts a strain to its economy and resources, contributing to a high poverty incidence (Yin & Kent, 2008). Kenya has more than 40% of its population being aged below 15 years (Haub, 2007). Addressing population growth is therefore as vital to the country’s 7

development as such factors as technological advancement. This is because a very young population and high population growth rate can put an unsustainable pressure on the country’s economy and resources (United Nations, 2013b). Checking the country’s population growth rate is therefore important as efforts to advance its development progress are implemented, also has potential to ensure that the population is healthy enough to be able to fully participate in development while reducing the pressure on the economy for instance through a burden of disease (Adam, Collier, & Ndung’u, 2010).

These inequalities in development, poverty and wellbeing in the country persist despite various efforts to address them. These efforts, although well-meaning, have failed to adequately address development and wellbeing needs due to poor prioritization of these initiatives, rigid government budgetary procedures and incomplete decentralization of the approaches used (Czaja & Blair, 1996; Mukui, 2005). Despite government attempts to incorporate participatory approaches in development efforts in the country, these attempts have been incomplete, being mainly planned from a central point. Resources have traditionally been distributed through government line ministries, to districts and communities to go towards such development initiatives as education, health care and protection of the vulnerable (the poor). Although the Kenyan government has employed participatory approaches such as, in the development of poverty maps using qualitative information generated from beneficiary communities and in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, these efforts amounted to incomplete-participation (Czaja & Blair, 1996; IMF, 2011). These attempts have failed to achieve this desired effect as there has been minimal involvement of the beneficiary communities, an omission that has contributed to the poor identification/prioritization of development initiatives (Czaja & Blair, 1996; Mukui, 2005). The other efforts the Kenyan government has engaged in are in regards to the use of various decentralised approaches, including the constituency development fund and the district development committees (Republic of Kenya, 1999, 2002), where the central government allocates funds for development activities through constituencies (Republic of Kenya, 2008a). Despite these efforts, poverty, poor development and poor wellbeing outcomes still abound, especially for the country’s rural population (Republic of Kenya, 2011a, 2011c). The most recent attempts at decentralised development is through the new devolution governance which began in March 2013 (The World Bank, 2014a). It is however premature to make any assessment of the benefits of these new structures, although these new approaches promise to implement development projects that reflect the needs of 8

communities at the county level (Akech, 2010). Employing decentralised approaches and participatory development in the country has potential to drive faster and equitable development because Kenya faces differences in the geography and resource-availability regionally indicating that this approach could provide focused-development, as previous approaches have not been effective in ensuring equitable development since development has continued to elude the rural poor in the country. Consequently, Kenya was ranked 147th out of 187 countries worldwide in the United Nations Development Program's 2013 human development index (UNFPA, 2013b). The human development report gives the country’s human development index at 0.535, which although is a constant improvement, these changes are quite modest. In addition, other development assessments show a country where more effort is still needed; life expectancy at birth in 2013 was 61.72 years, the mean years of schooling was given as 6.27 years while the percentage of people in multidimensional poverty was 48.19% in 2013 (UNFPA, 2013b).

It is obvious therefore, that since independence, the Kenyan government and its development partners have made development and the improvement of well-being an important agenda. However, few of the government and other development partners’ initiatives have incorporated full participatory development methodology where the views of recipient communities regarding important aspects and outcomes of their development are sought. Even fewer initiatives have incorporated this approach in development targeting the rural poor in the country. This is despite increased emphasis on the need to shift the approach to development towards incorporating more community approaches, especially at the stage of planning for development projects (Chambers, 1983; Green, 2008; Okafor, 1982; Sen, 1999). These approaches are also in complete disregard of research findings indicating the existence of clear dynamics even between regions in the same country, as is the case of Kenya, evidence that reinforces the importance of approaching each group as a separate entity in development efforts (Alwy & Schech, 2007; IFAD, 2010; Muhula, 2009).

Participatory development is one of the approaches that has potential to help achieve faster and equitable development outcomes. This is because it enables the enlargement of the capacity of communities and empower them to participate in decisions regarding development in their contexts has potential in ensuring that the initiated projects reflect the needs, desires, resources and expertise of the beneficiary communities (Chambers, 1983, 2005), thereby achieving quicker and sustainable results. This approach is especially 9

important in a country like Kenya which continues to experience development inequalities either between the rural and urban areas of the country or regionally, and where the different regions have unique resources, indicating that approaching each region/area of the country separately, could improve development outcomes in the country. This approach to development has the potential to both reduce development inequalities and to ensure projects initiated reflect the expectations of community members thereby quickening sustainable development and improvement of wellbeing. One approach of capturing people’s expectations of development is the understanding of their perceptions of development in their context and involving them in designing development strategies that are geared towards directly addressing their felt needs. People/communities will perceive what matters to them according to their immediate felt needs, culture, context, history and past experiences. Further, ranking of people’s needs is important for development initiatives because this technique has potential to address the needs of beneficiary communities in order of priority.

This research intends to highlight the importance of community perceptions of development and their perception of participation in development, thereby enabling stakeholders in development to re-focus their approach to development. Adopting UNDP’s definition, this study defines development as the progressive act of making a better life for everyone, by meeting their basic needs, ensuring everyone has enough food to lead healthy lives, having a safe and healthy place to live, ensuring that everyone has affordable services and ensuring that everyone is treated with dignity and respect (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). The study seeks to understand how people in Makueni County define development at the personal/household, community and national levels and how they rank their needs in order of priority. The study goes further to understand whether perceptions vary by personal and demographic characterises and how these perceptions influence wellbeing outcomes.

1.3 Aims and objectives of the thesis

In an effort to foster development and improve wellbeing in the country, the government of Kenya has therefore designed and implemented many development and poverty alleviation projects. There have been specific decentralised development initiatives as well as initiatives employing participatory approaches. These include planning and implementing initiatives through government line ministries as well as through the constituency development

programme and the local authority transfer funds. In addition, the government has sought to involve the public in understanding and designing poverty and development initiatives through the Medium Term Expenditure Framework/Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (MTEF/PRSP) (Republic of Kenya, 1999). These efforts have been targeted at advancing the various development issues such as reduction in poverty and inequalities, improvement in incomes and meeting of the millennium development goals. With this recognition, the government has been designing and implementing pro-poor and targeted policies to improve the well-being of the poor and the vulnerable (CBS et al., 2005). The government has also increasingly mainstreamed MDG goals in their project plans and interventions. Despite all these initiatives, most of the efforts have not borne much results, because of the limited involvement of development beneficiaries in these initiatives. The country still grapples with development inequalities, inconsistent economic growth and poor outcomes in human development. These challenges point to the need to revisit the development approaches currently being used in the country with the aim of adopting those that may help achieve sustainable development.

The main objective of this study is to understand the perspectives of community members on the key dimensions of development, and the relationship of their perceptions of development with some aspects of wellbeing.

Specifically, the study investigates:

1. A rural community’s understanding of development and the dimensions of development that are perceived to be important to them at personal/household, community and national levels.

2. The socio-economic, socio-demographic and wellbeing factors influencing perceptions of development

3. The relationship between perceptions of development and select wellbeing outcomes, specifically fertility choices (contraception and desired fertility)

Research questions 1. How do residents of a rural community understand “development”? What are the various aspects of development that are perceived to be important to them, at personal/household, community and national levels? 11

2. What socio-economic, socio-demographic and wellbeing factors influence the perceptions of development?

3. Are perceptions of development associated with wellbeing outcomes fertility choices (contraceptive use and desired fertility)?

This study was guided by the assumption that perceptions of development have a relationship with socio-economic, socio-demographic and wellbeing of people in Makueni County.

It was conducted in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya.

1.4 Structure of the thesis

This thesis is divided into 8 main chapters. Chapter 1 gives the background of the study by briefly outlining the key arguments for conducting the study. It also articulates the rationale of the study, the study’s objectives, research questions and assumptions and the structure of the thesis. Chapter two reviews existing literature around development with focus being centred around development at the global level and narrowing down to the sub-Saharan region, on the Kenyan context and going further to look at development in Makueni County where this study was conducted. This review highlights the state of development and wellbeing in the country, including the existing inequalities in development. The chapter further focuses on the development approaches employed in the country, narrowing down to the use of participatory approaches. Using Makueni County to showcase the state of development, literature on the development progress is reviewed and presented. A review of development theories is done and those most suitable for the study selected. These include the sustainable development approach, Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and the gender and development approaches and the conceptual framework highlighting the best approaches for sustainable development.

Chapter three documents the methodology used in the thesis. It presents information on the geographical setting of the study area, the study design, the study population, methods of data collection, the data collected and the data analysis methods used. The methodology used in the thesis; the mixed-methods approach is articulated. In addition, the researcher presents

the areas of focus of the research, which is investigation of community perspectives of development, perceptions of participation in development and the relationship with some select wellbeing outcomes. The sampling strategy used and the sample as well as the data collection plan employed is also presented in this section. The type of data used in the thesis, which is a mix of qualitative and quantitative data, and the analytical approaches employed are also presented. This section also gives a background of the Akamba-speaking people, who inhabit Makueni County.

Chapter four focuses on the first paper of the thesis which explores the perceptions of development by residents of Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations. The paper uses qualitative data where the youth, adults and community leaders were interviewed in focus group discussions and key informant interviews regarding their understanding of development. The goal is to understand the community’s view of their development needs and the best approaches to address these needs. The paper uses thematic analytical approach where the main themes emerging from the narratives are summarised and presented. The main findings of this paper as well as discussions, conclusions and recommendations for policy implications are given in the paper. The paper which answers research question number one is published in the Journal of African Studies and Development (Essendi, Madise, & Matthews, 2014). The published paper is also included in this thesis (Appendix 10).

Chapter five investigates the factors influencing the perceptions of development. This paper uses the structural equation modeling approach because the perception of development variable is latent, since it is not directly observable, rather it is computed using a number of observed variables which were measured at the time of data collection. The outcome variable, perception of development index, is modelled against age, gender, education, household wealth, parity and two health behavioural factors which are, alcohol use and smoking. The main findings of this analysis are also presented. In addition, the paper presents the main conclusions arising from these findings and the study’s limitations and suggestions for future research are indicated. The paper generated from this chapter is undergoing peer-review in the Development in Practice journal. This chapter answers research question number two.

Chapter six assesses whether perceptions of participation in development is associated with better wellbeing, specifically fertility choices. This chapter’s objective was informed by the realization that despite some progress in economic development in Kenya, the health situation especially for the rural poor in the country in many instances continues to fare 13

worse than that of the urban residents. The fertility situation also continues to show poor progress in rural Kenya despite evidence indicating that reduced fertility has potential to improve development in many of the developing countries experiencing uncontrolled population growth. Growing evidence shows that fertility reduction for rural Kenya continues to show slow improvement, yet its impact on the country’s development is unprecedented. The paper employs logistic regression and multinomial logistic regression in the analyses and seeks to answer research question number 3. The results of the analysis indicate that the odds of using a method of contraception and desiring to have fewer children corresponds with holding perceptions of participatory development. The paper generated from this chapter is undergoing a second peer-review in PLOS ONE journal. The submitted paper is included in this thesis (Appendix 10).

Chapter seven presents an overall summary and conclusions of the thesis, highlighting the study’s main findings and conclusions, limitations of the study, the policy and programmatic implications of the study, areas where further research could focus on and planned publication of the findings of the study.

2. BACKGROUND TO STUDY: DEVELOPMENT INTO CONTEXT

2.1 The state of world development

Although there has been significant progress in development at the global level within the last decade, some inequalities on the regional front and between urban and rural areas have been reported (United Nations, 2011a; United Nations Development Program, 2010a; World Bank, 2000, 2010b). Development in this context can be taken to mean economic progress, improvement in per capita income, reduction in inequalities, improvement in human development and achievement of the millennium development goals. An assessment of the progress of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) for instance indicates that there has been a general improvement in the MDG indicators, with the greatest progress being reported in education and health (United Nations, 2011a). MDGs, which refer to a development initiative encompassing 8 goals (including eradicating extreme poverty, reducing child mortality rates, fighting such epidemics like HIV/AIDS etc.) that 193 United Nations member states and 23 international organizations agreed to achieve by 2015, have recorded the greatest progress on child mortality, from 12.4 million in 1990 to 8.1 million in 2009 due to improvement in vaccination coverage and averting measles deaths (United Nations, 2011a). There has also been a reduction in malaria and tuberculosis incidences as well as in the number of people getting infected with HIV and also (an increase) in the number of those receiving HIV treatment, thereby reducing the number of AIDS-related deaths by 19 per cent by the 2009. The improvement in new HIV infections has been greater in sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations, 2011a).

Despite these improvements, some pockets of the world’s population are still yet to experience the benefits of international efforts and technological advancement geared towards aiding development and improving the quality of life. By 2010, a quarter of humanity still lived on less than $1.25 a day (World Bank, 2010b). In addition, one billion people lacked clean drinking water; 1.6 billion lacked electricity; 3 billion lacked adequate sanitation, while a quarter of all children in developing countries were malnourished (World Bank, 2010b). Further, although the increased efforts on development were reported to have made a positive impact on indicators of well-being by 2011, these indicators remain below average

among the poorest (United Nations, 2011a). Worse still, these indicators are expected to worsen, such that despite the United Nations predicting 15% fall in global poverty by 2015, this mainly reflects results from rapid growth in Eastern Asia, especially China and less progress in two of the poorest regions, including South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations, 2011a). Sub-Saharan Africa fares worse where improvement in wellbeing evaluated against the MDG deadlines shows the region lagging behind other regions in these outcomes.

The rural areas of the region fare even worse. For instance, although sub-Saharan Africa nearly doubled the number of people using an improved drinking water source, from 252 million in 1990 to 492 million in 2008, this progress was greater in urban areas, compared to the rural areas of the region (United Nations, 2011a). Consequently, an urban dweller in sub- Saharan Africa is 1.8 times more likely to have access to an improved water source than a counterpart in the rural area (United Nations, 2011a). The improvements, favouring the urban areas, have also been reported in other areas of wellbeing. Reports of child malnutrition indicate that the rural population is worst affected, with children in rural areas of developing regions being twice as likely to be underweight as their urban counterparts (United Nations, 2011a). In comparison to the urban and the non-poor, less progress in sanitation has been registered among the poor and those in the rural areas (World Bank, 2010b). Food shortages are also a major problem during years of drought, and nutritional intake in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa is consistently poor (Maxwell, 2001).

In addition, inequalities in development between regions, countries and between rural and urban areas continue to be registered. The Gini coefficient, a measure of how much the distribution of income or consumption among individuals or households within an economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution indicates that there exist high inequalities in countries in sub-Saharan Africa compared to countries in other regions of the world (World Bank, 2014). Many countries in the region are ranked as having the lowest human development, as assessed by the human development index (UNDP, 2014). Another important measure of development, GDP per capita, which gives a country’s value of goods and services divided by its average mid-year population, ranks many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia lowest (World Bank, 2014). All the indicators of development ultimately have an impact on the wellbeing of those residing in the affected countries. The regions and countries showing the least progress with these measures of development for instance also have high poverty levels, indicating the need to make more effort in ensuring

that there is both equitable and sustainable development across the globe, which would ultimately ensure a general improvement of wellbeing. This would help curtail the cyclical nature of poverty and underdevelopment whereby, the conditions of poverty, presence of diseases and inadequate human capital have been found to contribute to an increased state of underdevelopment. Underdevelopment on the other hand is reported to exacerbate the situation of poverty, disease, and generally poor development indicators in populations that are already poorly affected. An example of the seriousness of this condition relates to the over 22,000 children who die every day around the world with some of the major contributing factors being poverty, easily preventable diseases and illnesses (Shah, 2010; UNICEF, 2009; United Nations, 2011a). More efforts are needed in order to ensure that while overall improvements in the various development indicators around the world are made, the benefits are felt by all of the world’s population, particularly those residing in rural areas of developing countries.

2.2 Inequalities in development

A review of the main indicators of development, including inequalities in some aspects of wellbeing is undertaken in this section. As this research focuses on such development outcomes as development inequalities, achievement of millennium development goals and poverty, this section highlights these indicators and their distribution in the various regions, including the differences between the rural and urban areas. The specific indicators of wellbeing under focus in this section include malnutrition, contraception and electricity, due to their importance in development progress. Contraception and fertility control for instance, is one of the ways to control population growth, which ultimately impact the achievement of the MDGs and overall development (UNDP, 2005). Electricity on the other hand has been found to be important in socio-economic development, specifically, through its contribution in creating opportunities for growth, as well as in expanding business opportunities (World Bank, 2001). Adequate nutrition for children within their first 1000 days of life is also as important for a country’s development as it impacts both their current and future health, burden of health, cognitive development and therefore performance in school and consequently, the economy (Levinson & Basset, 2007).

Although there has been significant progress in development at the global level within the last decade, there still exist inequalities on the regional front and between urban and rural 17

areas (United Nations, 2010; United Nations, 2011; United Nations, 2014 World Bank, 2010). Disparities in the distribution of income assets, development outcomes and wellbeing between the rich and the poor, and between those residing in rural and urban areas around the world have necessitated an implementation of efforts aimed at bridging these gaps. Inequalities can be observed among regions and within regions. The Gini coefficient, a measure commonly used to show inequality between and within countries for instance shows the existence of huge inequalities between regions and within regions, with sub-Saharan Africa not only showing the most inequality as a region, but also displaying the existence of high inequalities within the individual countries (World Bank, 2014). In addition, development, reflected by the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) shows that there has been progress, however, some pockets of the world’s population are still yet to experience this progress (United Nations, 2014). While significant progress in the achievement of MDG goals has been recorded worldwide, some regions and countries still fare far worse (United Nations, 2014). These development indicators are expected to worsen among the poorest such that, although global poverty is expected to fall by 15% between 1990 and 2015, this mainly reflects results from rapid growth in Eastern Asia, especially China and less progress in two of the poorest regions; South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations, 2011).

Most of these disparities are registered between the rich and the poor and between those residing in rural and urban areas around the world, causing them to lag behind in development (Feachem, 2000; S. Sastry, 2004). These countries and communities lagging behind in development experience various challenges related to political, social, health, education, poverty and general wellbeing. Some of these include shorter life expectancies, higher disease rates, infant mortality, obesity, teenage pregnancies, political instability, emotional depression and high prison population which correlates with higher socioeconomic inequalities (Nel, 2003; Wilkinson & Pickett, 2009; World Bank, 2009). These conditions have been found to have a huge impact on the individuals, communities and countries that experience them. Poor health for instance hinders human capital, thereby creating and perpetuating a vicious circle of poverty and poor health outcomes (ACC/SCN, 1997; Haddad, Ruel, & Garrett, 1999). General development inequalities also exacerbate relative poverty and its impacts because those trapped in it are in most cases unable to meet basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing, access to clean water, sanitation facilities,

education and information (World Bank, 2009). While the poorest regions of the world are lagging behind in the various indicators of wellbeing, the between individual inequalities highlight the characteristics of individuals caught in this web (United Nations, 2011a; United Nations Development Program, 2010a). These include being disadvantaged on the basis of sex, age, ethnicity, region or disability with residents of rural areas being worst affected and encountering widening disparities in comparison with urban areas in some wellbeing outcomes (Alwy & Schech, 2007; Black et al., 2003; Caldwell & Caldwell, 1993; Falkingham, 2000; Fotso, 2006; Fotso, 2007; Madise, Matthews, & Margetts, 1999; Magadi, Madise, & Diamond, 2001; Sen, 2008; United Nations, 2011a). Those living in rural areas are worst affected, having the least progress in health, water and sanitation and general development. The presence of these inequalities therefore demands that recognition be given to the dynamism in development between regions as the various regions of the world follow different development patterns (Gereffi & Fonda, 1992).

Sub-Saharan Africa follows a different pathway to development, one that has seen it consistently display poor development outcomes and development inequalities. Despite years of development support, most indicators of wellbeing are still poor. The region has also been experiencing increasing poverty levels over the years and poor health outcomes. Whereas the other regions have encountered an improvement in human development, including life expectancy, sub-Saharan Africa has, in the past decade experienced a decline in life expectancy arising from the HIV/AIDS pandemic whose impacts have been most felt in the region than in any other region (USAID, 2011). In addition, the development inequalities between urban and rural areas of the region as well as between regions has also been well documented, with the poor experiencing worse conditions (Bocquier, Madise, & Zulu, 2011; Fotso, 2006; Fotso, 2007; Sahn & Stifel, 2002; Smith, Ruel, & Ndiaye, 2004). The gaps between the rural and urban populace in the region seems not to be closing (Sahn & Sahn, 2004; Sahn & Stifel, 2003). Consequently, the region’s poor get marginalized from society and have little representation or voice in public and political debates including in development matters, making it even harder to get out of poverty and to improve their wellbeing (Lipton, 1977; Sahn & Stifel, 2002; United Nations Development Program, 2010a). The urban rural inequalities have also been reported to be the source of conflict on the continent (Stewart, 2010).

The region also grapples with challenges around fertility. Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience a slow decline in its fertility, despite the recognition of a link between lower fertility and improvement of general wellbeing and ultimately the contribution to sustainable development (Potter, Schmertmann, & Cavenaghi, 2002; Todaro & Smith, 2006). Uncontrolled population growth has been found to impact development through its pressure on creation of wealth at the household, community and national levels, as well as its limiting of the expansion and access to education, health care and other opportunities including children’s educational development (Todaro & Smith, 2006; United Nations Development Program, 2005b). Unsustainable population growth also makes it difficult for governments to cater for the needs of the increasing population (Ahlburg, Kelley, & Mason, 1996; Brockerhoff & Brennan, 1998; Global Futures Studies & Research, 2013). An improvement in reproductive health services and choices on the other hand has potential to advance development by helping meet the MDGs #1, #2 and #4 seeking to eradicate poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education and to reduce child mortality respectively (Todaro & Smith, 2006; United Nations Development Program, 2005b). It has been argued that smaller families can enable adequate child nutrition and investment in education, which would ultimately enable faster social and economic development at the family, community and national levels (United Nations Development Program, 2005a). In addition, the ability for women to have choices on their reproductive health matters has potential to promote gender equality and women empowerment (MDG #3), while at the same time improving maternal health (MDG #5) and helping combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Improved fertility also has potential to enable access to adequate food, water, housing, sanitation facilities as well as improvement in health and education (United Nations, 2012). Despite this recognition, many countries in the region, including Kenya still experience poor fertility choices and outcomes. Consequently, most of the countries are either experiencing high fertility or a stall in the decline of their respective fertility rates, yet they also experience the least development progress and poverty decline. Fertility in the region was 5.1 births per woman between 2005 and 2010, a figure that exceeds its replacement level by more than two times (United Nations, 2011c). This fertility’s contribution to an increase in the region’s population is likely to make it impossible for the countries in the region to advance in development and improve the capabilities of its people, including improving incomes, health education, self-esteem, respect, dignity and freedom to choose (Todaro & Smith, 2006). This study therefore assesses the association between perceptions of participatory development

and fertility choices as a wellbeing outcome that has a bearing on development outcomes in the region.

2.3 Development and wellbeing inequalities in Kenya

Kenya, a developing country with a gross national income (GNI) per capita of US $ 2,250 in 2013 (World Bank, 2014) has previously experienced both slow economic development and human development progress. The country’s Human Development Index, an indicator of a country’s general wellbeing was 0.535 in 2013, causing it to be ranked 147 out of 187 countries (UNDP, 2014). The country faces various challenges, including regional inequalities in development and in various sectors of development and wellbeing including infrastructure, health and education (CBS et al., 2005; World Bank, 2009). The least developed area in the country is North Eastern province, characterised mainly by its arid nature and the nomadic lifestyle of its inhabitants. At the same time, the most developed province is Nairobi, the capital city. The provinces, commonly known as regions, of Kenya face inequalities in other wellbeing aspects, such as income distribution, specifically the gap between the rich and poor, but also the differences in access to education, health, access and enjoyment of political rights and representation (CBS et al., 2005; Liang, 2006; Stewart, 2010). The inequality in the country is so unprecedented that Kenya was ranked among 10 most unequal countries in the world and the most unequal in East Africa (Republic of Kenya, 2007b). Most of these differences in development have resulted from structural inequalities, which in turn have made job creation and poverty reduction difficult, resulting in a country with one of the highest Gini co-efficient in Africa; with nearly a half of its citizens also living in poverty (World Bank, 2009). These inequalities ultimately negatively impact the most vulnerable of the country’s populations.

Inequality, closely related to poverty, is an aspect of deprivation such that while poverty entails the inability to afford basic necessities for living, inequality distinguishes this inability between people, families, regions, countries etc. (Liang, 2006). Poverty and inequality continue to affect a significant percentage of the Kenyan population. The World Bank estimates that nearly a half of the Kenyan population live below the poverty line (Republic of Kenya, 2008a; World Bank, 2009), a state that ensures that most Kenyans are denied basic supplies needed for their survival, with those most affected being the urban poor and the rural poor (The World Bank, 2008). This situation arises from the lack of sustained economic

growth in the country. Since its independence in 1963, its growth has been uneven, starting with high growth rates in the 1960’s and 1970’s but stagnating in the mid-1970’s till the 1990’s (Adam et al., 2010). This poor performance has had a consequence on socio-economic development and wellbeing such that poverty, poor life expectancy, increased infant and maternal mortality, and poor educational achievement still abound in the country, giving rise to an increasingly vulnerable population (Yin & Kent, 2008). This vulnerability of the Kenyan people living in poverty is worsened, as it often goes beyond material poverty to include inequalities in various sectors including unequal distribution of power, health and other resources, contributing to socio-cultural inequalities which lead to increased marginalisation of the vulnerable groups, most of whom reside in the rural areas and in certain regions of the country (Okello, 2006; Stewart, 2010).

Inequalities, both in health infrastructure and health outcomes, amongst rural and urban residents and between and within provinces/regions in the country, have been widely reported. Regarding child health, although there is realization that many deaths in early childhood can be prevented if children are immunized against preventable diseases and receive prompt and appropriate treatment when they become ill, vaccination coverage is still not uniform across the country. The regional variations in the overall percentage of children who had received all the basic vaccines shows Central, Rift Valley and Eastern regions leading at 85.8%, 85.0% and 84.2% respectively while the other regions trail these indicators including; Coast at 75.8%, Nairobi at 73.1%, Western at 73.1%, Nyanza at 64.6% with North Eastern having the lowest coverage at 48.3% (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). The differences between rural and urban indicators are also clear. Although 77% of all children 12-23 months had been fully vaccinated in the country, the percentage of those fully vaccinated in urban Kenya was 81% while that of rural areas was 76% (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010).

Malnutrition is still a serious problem in Kenya as the percentage of those under five children who are stunted (those having too low a height for their age) stands at 35% nationally with the urban areas having lower rates than the rural Kenya at 26% and 37% respectively (Table 2.1). In addition, the percentage of underweight children (those having low weight for their age) stands at 16% nationally, 17% in rural Kenya with the urban areas having much lower rates of 10% (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). These statistics are even more worrying because it is estimated that about 70% of the illnesses that cause death among the under five children in the country are exacerbated by malnutrition, indicating that children from rural Kenya

have higher risks of morbidity and mortality resulting from malnutrition, compared to those from urban Kenya (National Coordinating agency for Population and Development (NCAPD), Ministry of Health (MOH) [Kenya], Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS), & ORC Macro, 2005). This situation is likely to worsen further, given that Kenya’s poverty alleviation efforts have not borne much fruit and yet poor nutritional status and poverty are interlinked. Undernutrition leads to poverty and poverty in turn, influences undernutrition and exacerbates the impacts of this condition. Malnutrition is therefore likely to negatively impact development and slow down the achievement of the MDGs because of its potential impairment of the learning ability in children, thereby leading to low productivity and poor investment in human capital (Fotso, 2007; Frongillo, deOnis, & Hanson, 1997; Madise et al., 1999; Victora et al., 2008). In addition, the impact of the condition on the child has a lifelong effect on the individual and ultimately on a country’s development, as its impacts on the cognitive development of the individual affected are irreversible (ACC/SCN, 2004; FAO, 2005; Victora et al., 2008).

Table 2.1: Percentage distribution of malnutrition by province and by place of residence in Kenya, KDHS 2008-9

Percentage Percentage Province severely stunted stunted Nairobi 8.7 28.5 Central 9.4 32.4 Coast 14.3 39 Eastern 17.1 41.9 Nyanza 13 30.9 Rift Valley 14.9 35.7 Western 14.8 34.2 North Eastern 17.7 35.2

Urban 8.7 26.4 Rural 15.3 37.1 Source: Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010)

Although contraception use in the country is gradually improving over the years, there are still differences by place of residence (urban/rural) and also regionally. As indicated in Figure 2.1 there has been a steady improvement in the percentage of married women using any modern method of contraception, from 7% in 1978, 17% in 1984, 27% in 1989, 33% in 1993, 39% in 1998 and 2003 and 46% in 2008/09. However the regional imbalances are still very clear. The 2008/09 indicators (Figure 2.2) show that the percentage of women using any methods in the urban area is higher compared to the number using contraception in rural Kenya (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). In addition, some provinces of the country have higher

rates, for instance Central province has the highest rate (67%), followed by Nairobi (55%), Eastern (52%), Western (47%), Rift Valley (42%), Nyanza (37%), Coast (34%) and North eastern (4%). Further, a look at the facilities offering modern family planning methods indicates that Nairobi has 68% of its facilities offering this service while Central has 89%, Eastern has 79%, Western (93%), Rift Valley (92%), Nyanza (93%), Coast (75%) and Eastern 67%) (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). Consequently, the total fertility is also higher in the rural areas (at 5.2 children, compared to 2.9 in urban Kenya) and in some regions: 4.4 in Eastern, 5.6 in Western, 4.7 in Rift Valley, 5.4 in Nyanza, 4.8 in Coast and 5.6 in North Eastern Province compared to 2.8 in Nairobi and 3.4 in Central where fertility is lower (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010).

Figure 2.1: Trends in contraception use by married women (15-49) in Kenya, KDHS 2008-9

40 women

30 married

contraception 20

using 10 Percentage 0 1978 1984 1989 1993 1998 2003 2008‐09

Source: Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010)

Figure 2.2: Percentage of married women (15-49) in Kenya using contraception by region, KDHS 2008-9

women 60

40 married

contraception 20 using 0 Percentage

Source: Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010)

Other demographic outcomes also show regional and rural/urban variations. Life expectancy is for instance, 19 years less in Nyanza province, compared to Central province, and that of Meru district (in Eastern province) which is double that of Mombasa district (in Coast province) (KNBS, 2007b). Regarding health indicators, HIV prevalence rates also vary across the Kenyan regions with Nyanza Province having the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence rate of 15.3% , compared to the national prevalence of 9.2% for women and 5.8% for men, and a paltry 1.0% in North Eastern Kenya (National AIDS and STI Control Programme & Kenya Ministry of Health, 2008). These varying statistics could be a result of the variations in the provision of health services, which are also is also unequal. The doctor-patient ratio varies across the regions with Central province having one doctor for 20,000 people while North Eastern province has one doctor per 120,000 people (KNBS, 2007b).

These differences in access to, and resultant variations in health and wellbeing outcomes therefore imply that the poorest in society and the rural people have poorer health conditions and are also likely to die young. North Eastern province, the poorest province in the country has poorer health and wellbeing indicators. At the global level, research points to this cyclical nature of poverty and poor health outcomes, where the world’s shortest life expectancies occur in the world’s poorest countries and communities (World Health Organization, 2006).

The health and wellbeing indicators also consistently portray those in rural Kenya as being more disadvantaged than those in urban Kenya, although those living in Kenya’s poor urban areas sometimes exhibit poorer health outcomes compared to those in rural Kenya.

Other than regional variation, these inequalities are also observed at a more micro-level in the country. About 72% of households in Nairobi district have electricity and only about 13% of people in the same district rely on lantern and tin lamps (Republic of Kenya, 2011a). Kiambu, a predominantly urban district adjacent to Nairobi also has high percentage of electricity use at 53%, while only about 19% of its households use a tin lamp for lighting. On the contrary, some districts/counties1 have low electricity supply, for instance, in Kwale district, only about 6% of the households have electricity while a majority of households in this district (about 76%) use tin lamps for lighting. The other districts have far lower levels of access to clean energy (electricity), including Mandera (about 3%), Tharaka Nithi (about 3%) and Kitui district (about 5%). Makueni district has only about 6% of households using electricity, with a majority (63% and 25%) using lanterns and tin lamps respectively, for lighting (Republic of Kenya, 2011a).

2.3.1 Geographic distribution of poverty in Kenya

Similar to other indicators of well-being, there exist varying levels of poverty in the country, with the various provinces making varying contributions to the national poverty. Figure 2.3 gives a summary of the poverty distribution by province as follows: Nairobi province contributes 6% to the national poverty level with an estimated 874,058 poor people; Central province contributes 8% with about 1.1 million poor people; Coast province contributes 10% with an estimated 1.363 million poor people; Eastern province 18% with an estimated 2.62 million poor people; North Eastern province contribute less than 4% to total national poverty with an estimated half a million poor people; Rift Valley province contributes just over 22% to the total national poverty with an estimated 3.18 million poor people; Western province contributes almost 14% to total national poverty with an estimated 1.99 million

1 Kenya has 47 county governments, which were created in March 2013, after adopting a new constitution in August 2010. This number was based on the delineation of administrative districts as created under the Provinces and Districts Act of 1992. The County boundaries are based on those of the country’s 47 districts at independence in 1963.

poor people while Nyanza province contributes 19% to total national poverty with an estimated 2.73 million poor people (CBS et al., 2005).

Figure 2.3: Percentage provincial contribution to national poverty in Kenya2

4% 6% 10% 8% Central Nairobi Eastern 16% 19% Western Rift Valley Nyanza

14% Coast North Eastern 23%

Source: Geographic Dimensions of Well-being in Kenya (CBS et al., 2005)

Even within the provinces, there are huge inequalities with some districts and constituencies being poorer than their counterparts in the same province, for instance, Nairobi province, which is also a district (and now a County), with 8 political constituencies has a poverty incidence of 44%, but this varies in the various individual constituencies; Westlands constituency has a poverty level of 31% while that of Makadara is 59% (CBS et al., 2005). In addition, almost a half of the poor in the province (49%) hail from just 3 of the 8 constituencies; Embakasi (19.1%), Kasarani (17.3% and Makadara (12.5%). The same pattern can be observed in Coast province, where poverty incidence in the poorest constituency (Ganze) is almost 3 times that of Bura constituency, the least poor one. In Eastern province, 42% of the poor are concentrated in 10 of the 36 constituencies: Makueni (5.1%), Nithi (4.5%), Kitui Central (4.4%), Mbooni (4.2%), Kangundo (4.2%), Kibwezi (4%), Igembe (3.9%), Mwingi North (3.9%), Mwala (3.7%), and Machakos Town (3.6%) and yet Saku and Laisamis constituencies each contribute less than a half of the provincial poverty (CBS et al., 2005). Figure 2.4 indicates that Makueni constituency has the highest poverty level amongst the 10 poorest in Eastern province.

2 Data extracted from a report titles ‘Geographic Dimensions of Well-being in Kenya’ (CBS et al., 2005) 27

Figure 2.4: Percentage distribution of poverty in 10 of the poorest constituencies in Eastern province

Percentage 2

Source: Geographic Dimensions of Well-being in Kenya (CBS et al., 2005)

2.4 Development efforts being undertaken in Kenya

In an effort to foster development and improve wellbeing in the country, the government of Kenya has designed and implemented many development and poverty alleviation projects. There have been specific decentralised development initiatives, with the aim of improving the well-being of the poor (CBS et al., 2005). One of the most common means through which decentralised development has been handled by the government has been through government line ministries tasked with distributing the resources allocated at the provincial levels, the district levels and to the communities. In addition, the Kenyan government’s plans to reduce regional imbalances have seen it come up with various strategies recognising the need for substantial and sustained efforts at development. These efforts were initiated in order to reduce poverty and ensure equitable development, by going beyond just improvement in economic growth rates (CBS et al., 2005). With this recognition, the government has been designing and implementing pro-poor and targeted policies to improve the well-being of the poor and the vulnerable (CBS et al., 2005). The plan was to ensure that the various government sectors and the various different levels are able to plan and deliver key essential services including better schools, a stronger health care system, and a safety net that effectively protects the marginalized and the vulnerable (CBS et al., 2005). Some of these

initiatives include the national poverty eradication plan initiated in the 1990s and the Medium Term Expenditure Framework/Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (MTEF/PRSP) (Republic of Kenya, 1999). The other key strategy, which has sought to incorporate community participation in development, is the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) approach, initiated by the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank in 1999. This was done with the goal of enhancing development-ownership, thereby ensuring sustainable development (IMF, 2011). The PRSP papers which are country-specific usually contain an assessment of poverty and a description of the macroeconomic, structural, and social policies and programs that a country intends to pursue over several years, to promote growth and reduce poverty. The papers also contain external financing needs and the associated sources of financing and are prepared by governments in low-income countries through a participatory process involving domestic stakeholders and external development partners, including the IMF and the World Bank (IMF, 2011). They are further updated every three years with annual progress reports. Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) have been implemented by most African governments, including Kenya.

Some of the other approaches employed by the government of Kenya include the approach -by all governments globally to improve health- is the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) development approach (United Nations, 2011b). Over the years, the government of Kenya has sought to mainstream the MDG plans into its policies and plans. Kenya’s implementation of the millennium development goals (MDGs) can be said to have started in 1965, when the Kenyan government at the time planned for the elimination of disease, ignorance and poverty, plans that were articulated in the sessional paper no.10 of 1965 (Republic of Kenya, 1965). Other than this, the various governments that the country has had since independence continue to incorporate the MDG goals in their plans, for instance, by incorporating targets geared towards meeting the MDGs in the policy and programme documents as well as by allocating funding for the implementation of the various targets (Republic of Kenya, 2008b, 2013). In addition, the government has increasingly mainstreamed MDG goals in their project plans and interventions. The country has made overt plans geared towards meeting the MDGs, for instance by planning for their implementation in the Economic Recovery Strategy (ERS) for 2002-2007, incorporation into Kenya’s Vision 2030 plans, the first and second Medium Term Plans (MTP 2008-2012 and MTP 2013-2017) and incorporating in the government’s District Development Plans (Republic of Kenya, 2008b, 2013). The devolved county governments are also making efforts 29

to ensure that MDGs plans are incorporated into their newly government plans (Mailu, 2013).

In addition, more recently, the government of Kenya has been implementing the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) through which development resources are devolved to the constituency offices, headed by a member of parliament and which determine development projects to be undertaken in the constituencies (Constituencies Development Fund, 2011). At the same time, there has been the Local Authority Transfer Fund (LATF), through the local authorities where development funds are disbursed to, and utilised in the local authorities (Kenya Ministry of Local Government, 2011). Presently, the government of Kenya has set development plans whose plans are to ensure that it becomes a globally competitive and prosperous nation with a high quality of life by the year 2030 through its Vision 2030, a development plan that aims to see annual growth rates of 10% over the next 20 years (Republic of Kenya, 2007b). To achieve this goal, there are various strategies and efforts put in place, including equitable improvement of all regions of the country, improvement of the quality of life, expansion of the democratic space and improvement in the country’s infrastructure. Reduction in the country’s regional inequalities and improving access of services by the rural poor, will therefore be a major achievement of this development vision. The major step to take in this effort is to involve beneficiaries of government services in development projects. Beginning March 2013, the Kenyan government implemented a devolved system of governance whereby the original 47 districts of the country (these were 47 at independence in 1963), were turned into counties. (The World Bank, 2014a). These counties operate as autonomous governance institutions and are given a budgetary allocation from the central government to run development programmes independent of the central government. It is expected that initiated development projects are determined by the local leadership at the county level, thereby reflecting the local population’s felt needs, and ensuring more sustainability and consequently equitable development in the country, which could eventually help achieve Kenya’s Vision 2030. This system of governance and therefore development promises to help achieve this as it deviates from the model previously adopted by the Kenya’s central government whereby development projects were traditionally planned from a central point, hence the unequal development since in most cases, they may not reflect the local needs and resources.

It is therefore obvious that the Kenyan government has clear development strategies outlined. However to realise the equitable and sustainable development that these plans seek to achieve, beneficiaries of these development plans and initiatives need to be involved in the decisions and actions. Although some of the development efforts initiated by the government of Kenya have borne fruit, for instance, the Kenyan economy experienced steady growth from 2002 to 2007, these efforts were quickly eroded due to political upheavals, natural disasters and the global economic meltdown. The most disrupting event of this growth, was the 2007 post-election violence, which occurred after the disputed 2007 general elections (World Bank, 2009). This growth had been broad and its impacts had been felt in many sectors of the economy. Growth in the country’s Gross Domestic product (GDP) had increased from 5 .1 per cent in 2004, to 6.3 per cent in 2006 to 7.1 per cent in 2007, with the major driving sectors including transport & communication, tourism, agriculture, manufacturing, construction, hotels and restaurants (World Bank, 2009). In effect, there was growth in per capita income, from -1.7 per cent in 2002 to 4.1 per cent in 2007, thereby impacting the grassroots’ poverty levels reduced from 57 per cent in 2006 to 46 per cent in 2006/07 (World Bank, 2009). This development progress and efforts have however faced challenges, for instance, due to inequalities in progress in various regions of the country. In addition, Kenya continues to face challenges around youth employment, one of the main causes of the 2007/2008 violence that occurred after the 2007 elections (Republic of Kenya, 2010). There is also generally poor remuneration whereby about 33.3% of employees in the country earn less than USD 1 per day and the unemployment rate stands at 12.7% (KNBS, 2007a). Amidst the economic decline the country has experienced, there has been high growth in labour demand in the country, whereby the annual labour force in Kenya was 3 per cent between 1990 and 2005 (Republic of Kenya, 2010). This growth is very high and has not matched the slow economic growth faced in the country in the same period.

While the Kenyan government has tried to foster the country’s development since independence, these successes are however unstable, since the country still faces some challenges in some sectors, made worse by political and social upheavals, as well as by such disasters like drought, thereby being ranked 147th out of 182 countries worldwide in the United Nations Development Program's 2009 human development index (United Nations Development Program, 2009). In addition, the World Bank recently estimated that almost a half of all Kenyans live below the poverty line (World Bank, 2009).

These challenges point to the need to revisit the development approaches currently being used in the country and adopt those that have potential to improve the outcome of development initiatives. Failures in the initiatives and approaches previously adopted have been documented. Pritchett and Woolcock for instance identify some of the contributing factors for the persistent failure in the implemented initiatives, including the use of top down approaches, implementation of ‘one size fits all’ initiatives and poor implementation of decentralised initiatives (Pritchett & Woolcock, 2004). Although one of the most important initiatives with potential to ensure sustainable development is the participatory approach, some shortcomings have been identified in its implementation leading to poor outcomes. Pritchett and Woolcock argue that even when participatory initiatives are undertaken, the outcome depends on the mode of implementation. Proponents of the principal agent based models explain this failure as resulting from the disconnect that may occur when the principal (development initiator) fails to meet the needs, interests and expectations of the agents (beneficiaries of development), thereby leading to an outcome that may also be undesirable to the principal (Asian Development Bank, 2004; Pritchett & Woolcock, 2004).

2.5 Poor development progress in Makueni County/Makueni County profile

Makueni district, now Makueni County 3 is one of the administrative units in Eastern Province, Kenya, located about 100 Km from Nairobi and covering an area of 1,710.2 Sq Km, with a density of 290. The district was carved out of Machakos district in 1992 and has a total population of 253,316, with 122,443 males and 130,873 females and 52,004 households (KNBS, 2010). The district has five constituencies namely, Mbooni, Kilome, Kaiti, Makueni and Kibwezi. It came into existence as a government-supported settlement area since 1948-the area was initially a bush, and because of this, the population density is still low.

The area is semi-arid and rainfall is very unpredictable, experiencing, like many other parts of Kenya, two distinct rainy seasons, namely the short rains (occurring in October-

3 Following the adoption of the 2010 Kenya constitution, which replaced the 1963 constitution, Kenya now has devolved government system, referred to as the Counties. These are based on Kenya’s 47 districts, implemented in the 1963 constitution. 32

December) and the long rains (occurring in March-May). While the long rains contribute to higher agricultural production in most parts of the country, studies done in Makueni however indicate that the short rains usually constitute higher volumes of rain and are often more reliable than the long rains (Gichuki, 2000). The area therefore experiences droughts during times when it receives less than 250 mm rainfall a year-which happens often, and this, coupled with the high temperatures in the area which lead to high evaporation rates, particularly in the low lying areas, leading to drought and many incidences of crop failures and food shortages, some of which are very severe (Ewel, 1999; Republic of Kenya, 2009). Average annual rainfall ranges from more than 1000 mm in the highlands to slightly less than 500 mm in the low land areas of the district and the low land areas also experience high evaporation rates. The district is also served by Athi River which is perennial as well as with other smaller rivers, mainly originating from the hills and draining into the Athi River, although these rivers become quite irregular downstream, making them mainly seasonal and at the same time being the main source of water for livelihood by people from the low-lying areas of the district. This is made possible because the rivers store water beneath the surface by the use of sand. Their seasonal nature means that people using them as a source of water have to dig shallow wells to access the water (Gichuki, 2000).

Most of the rainy seasons in the district are highly unpredictable, and the poor harvesting and storage of the scarce water compounds the problems for farmers who are-in most cases- unable to capture and utilize this water. As a result, and also being a semi-arid area, located far from river sources, or served mainly by seasonal rivers, rainfall is the most important source of water. In many instances however, the district/county is rarely served with adequate rainfall. The continuous lack of enough rainfall and therefore the cyclical drought conditions has therefore necessitated innovation from community members. Some of the strategies used include planting drought-escaping crops, including new breeds of maize (i.e. Katumani maize) that take a very short time to mature and the use of drought resistant crops e.g. pigeon peas and green grams (Gichuki, 2000). Farmers in Makueni also engage in production of other cash crops that can endure the dry conditions. This includes cotton farming-although the recent attempts at reforms in the cotton industry has reportedly been mishandled, bringing very little profits to farmers, a situation that has led to many of them abandoning cotton farming and resorting to maize-farming, which is less reliable because of poor rains in the area (Gichuki, 2000). Even with the farming activities, the area residents still face infrastructural challenges in getting their produce to the markets. 33

This semi-arid nature of Makueni district, and the unreliable rainfall has driven researchers to stress the importance of prioritizing development initiatives in the region, based on the strengths of community members, in order to utilize indigenous knowledge (Gichuki, Mbohoh, Tiffen, & Mortimore, 2000). One of the reasons elaborated is that local farmers have wide knowledge of the best practices, most likely to improve the production of their lands, given the semi-arid conditions. They proposed some of the areas in which local community would give their input as including developing a water plan, being involved in government reforms affecting the productivity of their lands, improving the education system, infrastructure and the management of the local amenities and services regarded by the community as the most essential for their development (Gichuki et al., 2000). Development planners and implementers in the district have however not widely incorporated local knowledge or actively involved community members in projects initiated in the district. As a result, poverty in the district is still high, people still face inadequate food during the drought periods, thereby relying on the government for food aid. The district also generally lags behind many other districts in the country in development. Indeed, studies indicate that the district has high poverty levels, with 64% of its households being classified as poor (Republic of Kenya, 2011c).

The allocation of funds to the district through the devolved systems of development, specifically the local authorities and the constituency has had the potential to make huge development strides. One of the avenues through which funds have been disbursed to the district has been through the Constituency Development Fund (CDF) fund which was specifically established under the CDF Act, 2003, and whose mission is to ensure that a specific portion of the Annual Government’s ordinary revenue is allocated to the constituencies for development purposes and poverty reduction at the constituency level (CDF Board, 2010). It was entirely supposed to be used for the creation of wealth at the grass-root level, while ensuring high accountability levels in the use of these funds. The amount of money allocated and used for development projects in the district through these devolved systems has been increasing over the years, from Ksh. 100,133,888 (USD 1, 251,673.6) in 2002/03 to Ksh. 280,371,126 (USD 3504639.075) in 2008/2009 (Republic of Kenya, 2011b) (USD to Ksh. exchange rate of Ksh. 80 per 1 USD) and yet, poverty levels in the district remain high. Although this approach to development is not only geared towards more decentralised approach to development of the various constituencies of the country, while seeking to ensure equality in development by favouring the poorest constituencies for 34

more allocation of the funds, more grassroots efforts need to be incorporated in order to ensure sustainable development. This is especially important given the new devolved governance structures geared towards decentralised development (The World Bank, 2014a). Seeking communities’ views about the projects to be implemented is one approach, and yet this has largely been lacking in these initiatives. Given the approach employed by the CDF committee, the poorest constituencies (Makueni being one of the poorest) are eligible for larger funds which if used effectively, have huge potential to ensure great strides in the development of the district (CDF Board, 2010). The CDF funds, mainly used for development projects on education (including to schools and educational bursaries), health, water, livestock & agriculture, infrastructure (including electricity) and security have potential to propel development in Makueni district. There is need to incorporate the community’s views and efforts more especially in the development efforts initiated and implemented by the new county governments. This has potential to help meet Makueni county government’s development plans consequently also helping achieve Kenya’s Vision 2030’s plans.

2.6 Theoretical frameworks in study of development This section provides a synthesis of various development theories, highlighting the main tenets of the theories, their strengths and weaknesses and indicating their suitability in guiding this study. The theories analysed in the section include the Modernization theory, the Dependency theory, the Neoliberalism theory of development, the Sustainable Development Approach, Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach and Gender and Development theories.

2.6.1 Modernization school of development

The Modernization school of development comprises theories popular in the 1950s and 1960s arguing for linear development whereby all societies progress through similar stages of development in a uni-lineal manner and that developed nations are models of how the developing countries would look like once developed (Kambhampati, 2004; So, 1990). The modernization theorists used the European model of development in this argument. They theorists posit that the development situation (stage/s) that developing countries find themselves in is an exact mirror of the developed countries at some point in history (Rostow, 1960). Because of this similar path therefore, proponents of the theory emphasised that in order to help the developing countries to reach the same level of development as the

developed countries, there is need to nudge them along the same path taken by the now developed countries. In this path, various things come into play to facilitate development, including increased investment, technology transfers, and closer integration into the world market (Kambhampati, 2004; Kingsbury et al., 2004). Modernization theorists further highlight the factors existing in developing countries that are responsible for underdevelopment. These include lack of advancement in the countries’ industrial standing, high levels of illiteracy, lack of communication and infrastructural facilities and a traditional attitude of the population. The main tenets of the modernization approach to development were industrialization and urbanization, considered at the time to be the main pathways through which development could be achieved.

One weakness of this theoretical approach is that its application has failed to bring about the planned ‘development’ for developing countries. The modernization approach of development has on the contrary contributed to some unexpected outcomes including dependency. Developing countries have emerged to be highly dependent on the developed countries, a situation that has arisen from the relationship between the developing and developed countries and is the cause of the helplessness that befalls developing countries which constantly need assistance from the developed countries (Kambhampati, 2004; Lall, 1975; Moyo, 2009). This state of dependency considered to me a major obstacle of development for the developing countries is observed in various areas including technology and monetary aspects. The idealistic and Eurocentric nature of this approach basing its assumptions on the path that Europe took in development is also criticised and is therefore inappropriate in guiding participatory and equitable development studies in a developing context (Bernstein, 1971). The theory fails to acknowledge the unique features in the different world contexts, including environment, culture and people, all of which have a role to play in sustainable development. The contribution that people make in development is also not captured in this approach. The other shortcoming of this theory relates to its inability to highlight the indicators of development in terms of wellbeing, rather it only focuses strictly on the economic development aspect through its emphasis on a country’s progression from a ‘traditional’ situation to a ‘modern’ one as a sign of development. The ultimate aim of development and development approaches and assessments need to be assessed based on important indicators like improved health, life expectancy, education, reduced poverty, improved capabilities and the inclusion of development recipients in development plans and initiatives. These shortcomings make the theory inappropriate to guide this study. 36

2.6.2 Dependency theory of development

Dependency theorists sought to address the gap identified in the modernization theory where, the relationship between the developed and developing nations was not highlighted (Futardo, 1964; Kambhampati, 2004). These theorists challenge the notion (of the Modernization theory), which states that all societies progress through similar stages of development, in a uni-lineal manner following the path that Europe took. In rejecting this view, they argued that developing countries are not just mirror images of the developed countries (at a certain stage of development-for the developed countries). Rather, that they have some unique characteristics, in the form of features and structures which are determinants of their development. Additionally, dependency theorists argued that underdevelopment arose from the Western capitalistic processes which have denied developing countries a chance to develop due to the exploitative relationship with developed countries (Baran, 1957; Futardo, 1964; Kambhampati, 2004). They supported the idea of development as one focusing on the roles of governments as the main development stakeholders as well as development being best achieved through increased international investments including through loans and development aid, factors which have been criticised for enhancing the dependency of the developing countries on the developed ones (Moyo, 2009). In this relationship, developed countries are viewed as exploitative because resources flow from the poor and developing countries (known as the "periphery") to the wealthy and developing countries (known as the "core"), at the expense of the former (Baran, 1957; Kambhampati, 2004). This exploitation entails the extraction and expropriation of natural resources including cheaper raw materials, subsistence output and low wages and ensuring an increased demand for imports by the developing countries from developed countries. Dependency theorists also argue that developing countries are used as market for dumping cheap technology. These complexities are therefore viewed as being responsible for the increasing budget deficits and foreign investment in developing countries, thereby increasing their dependency on the developed countries.

Proponents of this theory are of the view that, in order for developing countries to break this cycle of surplus extraction, they would need to reduce their connectedness with the developed countries, particularly in the world market (Kambhampati, 2004). They argue that developing countries should instead focus on systems that address their own needs, although they also highlight the difficulties that come with these efforts. To dependency theorists,

attempts by developing countries to detach from this relationship are normally resisted by developed countries through the use of economic and military force (Kambhampati, 2004).

This theory however has weaknesses as its proponents failed to incorporate other factors that may be responsible for underdevelopment in developing countries. Yet the continued poor development situation that most developing countries find themselves in can be viewed as going beyond dependency on developed countries, to include other factors such as corruption by the leaders of the developing countries, misuse of the poor countries’ resources, poor prioritization of development initiatives and incorporation of local knowledge and community participation in development (United Nations Development Program, 2003). The theory also fails to account for the development strides made by a majority of the Asian countries, although, just like other developing countries, were involved in the world market. In addition, this theory does not adequately explain the development inequalities both among the various world regions, but also within countries, as is the case for Kenya. It is therefore inadequate to guide the current study, because it also fails to account for the people’s participation in development within their contexts as a means of achieving sustainable development.

2.6.3 Neoliberalism theory of development

Although this concept does not have a clear definition, it is generally described by the various authors and academics who have attempted to understand it as a development approach advocating economic liberalizations, free trade and open markets and supports the privatization of nationalized industries, deregulation, and enhancing the role of the private sector in modern society (Peet & Hartwick, 2009). Neoliberal theorists support the view that there needs to be a transfer of the control of economy from the public to the private sector. This, they believe, has potential to produce a more efficient government and improve the economy of a state (Cohen, 2007). Although first coined in 1938 by the German scholar Alexander Rüstow, this approach to development is reported to have been advocated for, and consequently ‘imposed’ by powerful financial institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (Moyo, 2009). The financial institutions believed that this approach had potential to produce more efficient governance systems and improve the economic health of nations (Moyo, 2009).

This approach has however been criticised for its contribution to dependency and therefore to the increasing underdevelopment of poor countries (Moyo, 2009). It has been criticised for having made rich countries grow richer and the poor grow poorer as well as facilitating the spread of global capitalism and consumerism (Chomsky, 1999; Plehwe, Bernard, & Gisela, 2006). Although the approach has been applied in most of the sub-Saharan African countries, it has failed to bring about the desired development, instead, it has fostered poor outcomes, including the deterioration of per capita income (Chang, 2009; Moyo, 2009). Whereas Per capita income in Sub-Saharan Africa used to grow at 1.6% in the 1960s and the 1970s, once the Neoliberalism approach was adopted, the per capita incomes shrank, and instead grew at the rate of -1.1% by 1995 (Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000). This approach, further does not consider the role played by indigenous communities, knowledge and resources in local development. It also fails to consider the importance of the environment both in achieving development but also as an outcome of development. It is therefore not suitable for this study.

2.6.4 Sustainable Development Approach

Recent development strategies emphasize the importance of ensuring that any development plans and initiatives employed can ensure sustainable development. Sustainable development is defined as the development approach that seeks to meet the needs of the present populations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (Kates, Parris, & Leiserowitz, 2005; Smith & Rees, 1998; United Nations, 1987), was initiated by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) in 1980 (IUCN, UNEP, & WWF, 1980). This approach emphasizes the connection between development and conservation and therefore the importance of ensuring that environment and development are inseparable things in the quest for development (United Nations, 1987). The United Nations fronted this as the best approach to development following concerns of the continued deterioration of the human environment and the natural resources, making it impossible to achieve both economic and social development. The organization believes that sustainable development that seeks to meet current needs, while preserving the environment for future generations’ needs should become the central guiding principle of development that should be adopted by not just the UN, but also by other development stakeholders, including governments and private institutions (United Nations, 1987).

This theory can however be criticised for mainly concentrating on the environmental aspects of development and neglecting other economic and social aspects that are equally important for development. In addition, the theory’s emphasis on conservation of current resources for future generations, catering for the needs of the present populations while at the same time striving to achieve economic development is not sustainable. This is because of the finite nature of the available world resources. Instead, emphasis needs to be placed on development approaches where development actors avoid the single-handed approaches to development whose quest to address certain needs fails to consider the impact of these actions on the other related aspects. Rather, more participatory development should be the ideal approaches that have potential to ensure equitable development that improves people’s wellbeing. This sustainable environment approach could therefore be modified to one that ensures that consideration is given on impact of development beneficiaries’ actions on the environment, the process, the social environment and the allocation of resources. The aim of such a modified approach, it can be argued, is all-inclusive because it incorporates all the factors important in the development cycle. The modified approach also puts into consideration the roles of the various actors in development, in the different contexts to design strategies that are uniquely beneficial to the particular contexts. By default therefore, this modified approach can incorporate the role of development beneficiaries in the development process by seeking to balance three groups of objectives (social, economic and environment) in its development plans (Figure 2.5). Ultimately, the approach seeks to be all- inclusive in development (Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000), such that, ignoring one of the aspects can threaten economic growth as well as the entire development process. In addition, following the argument for people-centred development, this approach would incorporate a community element and would further approach development as both a process and an outcome whereby development as an outcome should incorporate development as a process which enhances people’s capabilities.

Figure 2.5: A summary of the Modified Sustainable Development Approach

Economic objectives - Growth -Efficiency -Stability Environmental Social objectives objectives - Healthy environment for - Equity humans -Rational use of renewable -Social cohesion natural resources -Conservation of non- -Social mobility Economic objectives renewable natural -Participation resources -Cultural identity E V S

Social Environmental B objectives objectives KEY

E=Equitable S=Sustainable V=Viable B=Bearable

Participatory development - Inclusiveness-people-centred -Consultation- Identification of roles of government, private sector, and individuals (beneficiaries)

Source: Adapted from World Bank, Kingsbury D (2004) etal (Kingsbury et al., 2004).

2.6.5 Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach

In addition to the Sustainable Development Approach, this study is guided by the Capability approach, posited by Amartya Sen (1999). Sen argues that development can be understood as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy (Sen, 1999). To Sen, development is more than an availing of material resources; although recognised as being necessary, material resources are however not sufficient to enhance development and the improvement of people’s wellbeing and capabilities. In addition, he suggests that poverty, which depicts an absence of development in the current study, be seen as the deprivation of basic capability rather than merely as an income based measure. In order to address sustainable development therefore, Sen advocates for a development approach that has

potential to ensure that people’s capabilities are improved. The Capability Approach has two main tenets; capability and functioning. Functioning is viewed as relating to the things that a person may value being and doing and these vary from very simple ones for instance, having proper nourishment, being free from preventable disease and premature mortality to complex ones like being able to participate in community activities (Sen, 1999). Capability on the other hand refers to the various factors that enhance a people’s freedoms. Such factors, according to Sen may entail cushioning the very poor; whereby even in a country/society experiencing progressive economic growth there will always be a cluster of people who may be vulnerable and who may also succumb to deprivation. In such a case, the government may for instance, think of initiating such policies as unemployment benefits, as well as such mechanisms as famine relief for the vulnerable people who may otherwise starve to death. Insurance for the poor is indeed premised as a good response in cushioning the poor and the vulnerable from such shocks including natural, health, social and economic risks, factors that exacerbate their poor statuses, further negatively impacting their capabilities (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008). To sum it up, Sen views development as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy. These freedoms include; political freedoms, economic facilities; social opportunities; transparency guarantees and protective security. He argues heavily against looking at development as just the rise of fall in incomes. Rather, income should be considered to be valuable only in so far as it can increase the capabilities of individuals and thereby enable people’s functionings in society (Sen, 1999).

One of the major aspects that can be said to have potential in improving people’s capabilities are the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) (Kates et al., 2005). These goals include; Goal #1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; Goal #2: Achieve universal primary education; Goal #3: Promote gender equality and empower women; Goal #4: Reduce child mortality; Goal #5: Improve maternal health; Goal #6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases; Goal #7: Ensure environmental sustainability and Goal #8: Global partnership for development. It can be premised that the achievement of the MDG goals has potential in ensuring that people’s wellbeing and standards of living are improved.

In addition to understanding the Capability Approach’s two main principles of development (Capability and Functioning), Sen (1999) also appreciated the importance of participatory development in ensuring progress in development. He highlights the role of an agent in development-bringing about a change in society. He talks of an agent ‘…as someone who acts

and brings about change, and whose achievements can be judged in terms of her own values and objectives, whether or not we assess them in terms of some external criteria as well.’ He further stresses that the role of an agent can be through an individual or member of society and as a participant in economic, social and political actions (Sen, 1999 p. 19). This perspective points to the importance of community participation in development.

Amartya Sen’s contribution to the debate on community participation in development emphasizes the importance of empowerment of beneficiary communities (Sen, 1999). His Capability Approach has been compared with the rights-based approach (RBA) and the sustainable-livelihoods framework (SLF), both of which seek to empower development- recipient communities and governments and also emphasizes the achievement of human rights as a development objective and the advocating for sustainable livelihoods (ODI, 1993). These approaches seek to reduce communities’ dependency on donor-supported programmes while understanding and making use of the communities’ resources and capacities needed to escape poverty on a sustainable basis. Other scholars’ arguments support a process of community participation where community members have more input in development geared at benefitting them (Kingsbury et al., 2004).

2.6.6 Social capital theory

In addition to the Capability Approach, this study also employs the social capital theory as another wellbeing theory with potential to explain some of the study’s findings. Social capital originates from Emile Durkhem’s work of 1901 through his work when he identified a link between suicide rates and the level of social integration (Durkheim, 1893/1964). Durkheim found that the level that an individual felt connected or accepted in society determined suicide rates. Some of the factors of integration that were found to influence suicide include low levels of integration, lack of religious affiliation, marital status (the unmarried individuals were more likely to commit suicide) and wealth status. This theory has however become popularised especially in the field of improvement of health trough the work of such scholars Pierre Bourdieu, James Coleman and Robert Putnam (Bourdieu, 1986; Coleman, 1988; Putnam, 1995). The theory has recently become quite popular in explaining the differences in health outcomes given social resources. Social capital is generally accepted as an asset with potential to link as well as explain the various factors that may influence health and wellbeing outcomes.

This study applies concepts of social capital particularly in explaining the perceptions of development and poverty as articulated by those responding in this study. Results from Chapter 4 of this study show that family relationships (marital status), education level and household wealth as some of the factors considered to be indicators of development.

2.6.7 Gender and Development approaches

This thesis is also guided by some gender and development theories where emphasis is placed on the planning and implementation of development from a gender perspective (Moser, 1993). The first approach is the Gender and Development (GAD) theory proposed by Caroline Moser, whose approach to gender planning was informed by the previously unrecognised role of women in development matters, their subordination to men and their systemic exclusion from development matters (Moser, 1993). Her GAD theoretical approach in development was therefore geared towards improving the involvement of women in development matters through their empowerment in regards to control of resources, and decision-making at the household, community and national levels (Moser, 1993). Evolving from the Gender and Development approach emerged the Women in Development (WID) approach proposed in the early 1970s, and which called for the incorporation of both men and women in development. The Women in Development approach made a good argument for the inclusion of women in development as an untapped resource who, if involved in development matters have potential to provide an economic contribution to development (Overholt, Anderson, Cloud, & Austin, 1984). It was however criticised for ignoring the social processes through which this involvement happens (Oakley, 1972), a gap that the Gender and Development approach sought to address by emphasizing the involvement of both gender in development and by also focusing on the factors influencing the participation of both men and women in development matters.

2.6.8 A summary of theoretical approaches to development

This study employs the overarching theoretical framework (Figure 2.6) which is a summary of the neo-classical approaches to development, their weaknesses and eventually settles on three suitable ones that are used together and which support participatory development. The first three development approaches/theories include the modernization theory of development, the dependency theory of development and the neoliberalism theory of development. While the weaknesses of these three theoretical approaches are articulated in 44

Figure 2.6 and section 2.6, their contribution to most current and more sustainable approaches to development is also recognised (Figure 2.6). The three theories indeed influence the current approaches to development. Modernization theory for instance is still applied in current development initiatives, in such areas as access to education, electricity, roads; the dependency theory shows that in some ways, development communities are unable to develop without the help of external institutions for instance through funding. The neo-liberalism approach to development also influences current approaches and measurements of development through such things as ensuring that developing countries have more expanded and liberal economies and free trade in order to effectively compete in the global market. The section summarises the main tenets of these theories, highlights their weaknesses, showing their unsuitability for this study and eventually settles on three more suitable ones. The four eventual ones adopted in the study include a modified Sustainable Development approach, the Capability Approach, Social capital theory and the Gender and Development approach (Figure 2.7). These approaches are most suitable as they are likely to help achieve sustainable development by incorporating various factors, including participatory development where both men and women are involved in the planning, implementation and monitoring of development initiatives. This participatory approach has potential to both achieve sustainable development while at the same time improving wellbeing and capabilities.

Figure 2.6: The theoretical framework adopted in the study: a summary of approaches to

development

Modernization theory Dependency theory (INDUSTRIALIZATION & (ADDRESS DEPENDENCY) Neoliberalism theory URBANIZATION) -Development is NOT lineal (ECONOMIC LIBERALISM) -Development is linear (Europe): -Considers unique resources -Development results from:  Increased investment -Development results from:  Economic Liberalism  Technology transfers  Government main actor  Free trade & open markets  Closer integration into world  International investment  Privatization of industries markets  No resource  Deregulation -Underdevelopment results from: extraction/exploitation  Enhance private sector  Low industrial advancement  No dumping cheap -Adopted by IMF, World Bank  High illiteracy levels technology Critique  Poor communication &  Reduced connection -Increased dependency infrastructure -Underdevelopment results from: -Widened development gap -More underdevelopment  Traditional attitudes  Capitalism -Spread capitalism, consumerism Critique Critique -Worsened situation in SSA -Solely economic approach -Ignores internal factors e.g. -Ignores role of locals, resources -Failed to bring development corruption, poor prioritization -Ignores wellbeing -Created DEPENDENCY -Fails to explain progress in Asia -Doesn't consider -Ignored unique resources -Fails to explain inequalities PARTICIPATION -Ignores wellbeing, -Ignores wellbeing -Ignores PARTICIPATION -Ignores PARTICIPATION

Capability Approach-Amartya Sen Sustainable development (CAPABILITY & FUNCTIONING) and Social (RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY) Capital -Meets needs of current & future -Process; expanding people’s freedoms -Development & environment are inseparable -Explains the role of social assets in wellbeing -Beyond incomes to develop/escape poverty -Fronted by United Nations-conservation Critique -Beyond meeting material needs -Neglects socio-economic aspects  Focus on people’s basic capabilities -Resources are finite -Functionings: Modification of model (Figure 2.5)  Bring value; nourishment, -Development should be holistic PARTICIPATION -Should be both process & outcome-wellbeing -Capabilities: -Balance of environment, socio-economic factors  Actions that enhance people’s freedoms -Includes PARTICIPATION -MDGs to enhance functionings & capabilities -Incorporates PARTICIPATION

Social capital theory Gender and Development (IMPORTANCE OF RESOURCES IN (GENDER GIVEN PREFERANCE) WELLBEING OUTCOMES) -Both men & women involved in development -Explains the differences in wellbeing outcomes by -Supports PARTICIPATION ownership of resources such as wealth & education

Source: A review of the development theories and approaches

Figure 2.7: Study’s theoretical framework: the best approaches to development

Sustainable development Capability Approach-Amartya Sen (RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY) (CAPABILITY & FUNCTIONING) -Meets needs of current & future -Process; expanding people’s freedoms -Development & environment are inseparable -Beyond incomes to develop/escape poverty -Fronted by United Nations-conservation -Beyond meeting material needs Critique  Focus on people’s basic capabilities -Neglects socio-economic aspects -Functionings:  Bring value; nourishment, -Resources are finite Modification of model (Figure 2.5) PARTICIPATION -Development should be holistic -Capabilities: -Should be both process & outcome-wellbeing  Actions that enhance people’s freedoms -Balance of environment, socio-economic factors -MDGs to enhance functionings & capabilities -Includes PARTICIPATION -Incorporates PARTICIPATION

Source: A review of the development theories and approaches

3 METHODOLOGY

3.6 Introduction

This study sought to understand rural community members’ perspectives of development, the factors influencing these perceptions and the relationship between the perception of development and wellbeing, focusing on fertility. The research took place in Makueni County which is described in section 3.7. Specifically, the study sought to answer these research questions:

1. How do residents of a rural community understand “development”? What are the various aspects of development that are perceived to be important to them, at personal/household, community and national levels? 2. What socio-demographic, socio-economic, community and wellbeing factors influence the perceptions of development? 3. Are perceptions of development associated with wellbeing outcomes?

This chapter focuses on the methodology employed in answering these research questions. It presents information on the parent study on which the current study is perched, the geographical setting of the study, the study design, the study population, methods of data collection, the key concepts and variables, the data collected including data quality and the data analysis methods employed in the thesis.

3.7 Geographical setting

3.7.1 The Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Rural Decentralised Off-grid Electricity Generation Schemes project

This PhD study perches onto a larger project being implemented by the University of Southampton’s Schools of Civil Engineering and the Environment and Social Sciences in collaboration with Imperial College Business School in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations of Makueni County. This project namely, Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Rural Decentralised Off-grid Electricity Generation Schemes in Rural Kenya seeks to design and implement off-grid electricity schemes to test the feasibility of providing such electricity, in rural villages in developing countries, with Kenya being used as a pilot site. As part of the

assessment of the feasibility of this scheme, the project endeavours to carry out an assessment of appropriate business models that can enable the scheme to be replicated in other rural villages in Africa. Further, the assessment of the potential for the project to impact the community’s wellbeing is undertaken using three evaluations.

The feasibility of this electricity project is informed by evidence indicating that sustainable energy systems from such sources as solar, wind, biomass or water can be harnessed to improve human wellbeing and thereby contribute to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) of alleviating poverty (MDG 1), promoting wellbeing (MDGs 4, 5, 6), and environmental sustainability (MDG 7). Such off-grid rural electrification schemes can in addition be used to provide energy sources to isolated communities for lighting, milling of grain, micro-irrigation and refrigeration in homes and health facilities. This project has thus been designing off-grid electricity systems, implementing them, and evaluating their socio-economic impact on the wellbeing and economic status of rural communities where it is implemented. The main areas of impact that are under focus are hinged on some of the United Nations Millennium Development Goals including poverty, nutrition, maternal, and child health. The electricity project’s assessment thus consists of three evaluation phases: a needs assessment conducted at the start of the project, a household baseline survey conducted prior to implementation of the electricity scheme and a household endline evaluation conducted at the end of the scheme.

The needs assessment was conducted at the start of the project and after the selection of potential implementation sites in September 2010. The main aim was to assess the suitability and feasibility of implementing the project in the selected sites as well as establishing the possible off-grid models to adopt based on the environment. The household baseline survey on the other hand was conducted prior to the implementation of the scheme (in March-Mary 2011) to collect baseline information on health and wellbeing, while the endline survey was conducted about 9 months from the implementation of the electricity scheme (in June- August 2014) to assess the impact of the project. The general objectives of these assessments include: 1) To quantify the impact of having electricity in the community on household economic status (measured by income and other measures of wellbeing).

2) To assess the impact of electrification in the community on health and wellbeing of mothers and their children.

3) To assess the impact of electrification in the community on other aspects of wellbeing including schooling and business opportunities.

4) To identify appropriate business models for sustained supply of electricity in the communities.

5) To find out how best to replicate the scheme to other villages in Kenya and other African countries.

The selection of Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations was based on the analysis conducted using data on Kenya’s administrative boundaries, electrical distribution network, planned extension of the electrical distribution network, existing centralised power stations, Kenya’s population, mobile telephone coverage, health-facility coverage, and poverty data. These analyses guided the selection process. The selected sub-locations had to meet the following criteria:

 Have potential to have maximum benefit from the project. This criteria was defined using this formula: Benefit = Distance from grid or DPS  Population density. The sites were to be located far enough from the main grid in order to eliminate pollution from the country’s main electricity grid. At the same time they were to be reasonably populated in order to maximize the number of people to whom the results of the scheme would apply.

 Be located in areas where there is high potential for replication of a successful electrification project

 Be in the rural part of Kenya

 Not be connected to main electricity grid of the Kenya Power and Lighting Company (KPLC) and must not be in the Kenya Rural Electrification Authority (REA) plans for electrification in the near future (5 years of the project).

 Have a school, health facility and a trading centre.

Data for the needs assessment was collected using focus group discussions with community members, key informant interviews with community leaders and observation of community activities and livelihoods. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected during the baseline and endline surveys. The qualitative data collected in the baseline and endline survey was done using focus group discussions and key informant interviews. The data focused on livelihoods, leisure activities, challenges faced in the community, perceptions of importance of electricity as well as the best possible electricity schemes that could suit the available resources and needs. These two surveys entailed conducting a census of all the 1068 households in the two sub-locations; 479 in Kitonyoni and 589 in Mwania. These data collected at the household level focused on food consumption, purchases, household membership, autonomy, child and women’s nutrition, birth histories, delivery and antenatal care, child morbidity and health-seeking practices and vaccination.

All the three socio-economic assessments of the electricity project were conducted in both sub-locations. However, being an experimental project, the electricity project was only implemented in Kitonyoni sub-location while Mwania served as a control site.

3.7.2 Perceptions of development PhD study

This study uses data collected at three time points including September 2010 (in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations), March-May 2011 (in Kitonyoni sub-location only) and October- December 2012 (in Kitonyoni sub-location only). These two sub-locations constitute the sites where the Socio-Economic Impact Assessment of Rural Decentralised Off-grid Electricity Generation Schemes project is being implemented.

The data used in thesis therefore vary, for instance chapter 4 uses the data collected in both sub-locations in September 2010, March-May 2011 and October-December 2012 while those used in chapters 5 and 6 were only collected in Kitonyoni in March-May 2011 and October- December 2012. This perceptions project perched on the electricity project and took advantage of the already established networks with the study community to collect data for the PhD, investigating perceptions of development. This perceptions of development study also uses some of the household data collected in the electricity project’s baseline survey. The specific data from the baseline survey used in this study include information on household assets which is used to compute wealth quintiles for analyses of chapters 5 & 6. In addition household income and demographic information about members of households 52

listed in the 290 sampled households in Kitonyoni was merged with data collected in the perceptions study (October-December 2012) and used in the analysis. The qualitative data used in chapter 4 was collected from both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations at the time the needs assessment was conducted, in September 2010, although this was a separate assessment from the needs assessment. These qualitative data, in addition to forming most of the analysis for chapter 4, also informed the questions asked during the bigger household perceptions study implemented in October-December 2012. The data collected during this period (October-December 2012) was however only done in Kitonyoni sub-location, being the electricity project’s implementation site where the project was ongoing at the time of this data collection, a situation that made the exercise much easier. The additional perceptions of development data collected focused on fertility and perceptions of fertility, contraceptive use and perceptions of development. Given that there were no data collected in Mwania sub- location for the perceptions study, analyses in chapters 5 and 6 and the quantitative section of chapter 4 primarily use the data collected in the perceptions study for Kitonyoni sub- location only.

3.7.3 The study community

Makueni County, an area inhabited by the Akamba speaking people who are from the Bantu community. The Akamba community forms about 97% of the population of the County while the remaining 3% are people from other communities, who live mainly in the town areas of the district (Republic of Kenya, 2009). The Akamba people rely on farming as the primary means of livelihood and, like many other indigenous African communities, consider a family unit as a very important entity in their lives, because it is the basic unit of production, consumption, investment and insurance (Tiffen, Mortimore, & Gichuki, 1994). Although traditionally relying on farming as a means of livelihood, in the recent past however, the country in general and the Akamba people in particular, have been facing tough economic and social changes, necessitating a change in the means of livelihood. The Akamba people are now shifting from farming and are incorporating other means of livelihood, in particular migrant labour. A study conducted in Makueni County, which was then a district in 2000, indicated that about 26% of household members in the district have become non-residents, due to schooling, migrant labour and marriage with most migrants being husbands and sons (Nzioka, 2000).

The livelihood patterns in Makueni follow those of many other areas of the country. The main livelihood activities in Kenya revolve around agriculture, but some communities also practice pastoralism and trade and exchange. These activities, which are often geared towards accessing such necessities as food, water, shelter, clothing, health care and education, vary in the various regions of the country depending on climate, soil, access to markets, geographical location and altitudes (Otolo & Wakhungu, 2013). The challenge for adequate livelihoods in the country however results from the zoning of most of its land as arid or semi-arid (ASAL). About 80% of the land in Kenya lies either in the arid or semi-arid zones, mostly inhabited by pastoralists and agro-pastoralists (Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). This description of the country’s agro-ecological zones indicates that this thesis’s study area lies in one of the drier zones of the country, which receives annual rainfall of 300-600mm and where most livelihood activities include pastoralism, agro-pastoralism and mixed farming (Kenya Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). The high percentage of arid and semi-arid land in the country has been argued to be a challenge of food security, a common feature in Makueni County (Otolo & Wakhungu, 2013). Efforts to resolve this situation and improve food security in these ASAL areas thus aim to incorporate the use of new technology as well as seeking to improve infrastructure and ensure that the farming communities in these areas have ready markets for their agricultural produce in order to encourage productivity of the land (Otolo & Wakhungu, 2013).

The two sub-locations of study, like the rest of Makueni County, are semi-arid in nature, with minimal rainfall between November and December during which time the residents grow maize, beans, green grams, chickpeas, cowpeas and pigeon peas for subsistence since the main economic activities in the sub-locations include subsistence agriculture, beekeeping, small scale trade and subsistence goat farming (Oxfam, 2006). Being a semi-arid area, the study area is typified of acute food insecurity during the long dry spells contributing to high dependency of a large proportion of the population on government or donor food aid (GOK, 2006). Besides predominantly engaging in farming, some members of the community also practice beekeeping, small scale trade and subsistence goat, sheep and cattle farming (Oxfam, 2006). The minimal rainfall often results in constant food shortage such that the community has to often rely on government food aid (GOK, 2006). Being a semi-arid area, most of the households in the sub-location rely on water from streams, springs, wells or boreholes (Republic of Kenya, 2011b). Only a few households in the whole County (13.1%)

are connected to the country’s main electricity grid while a majority (81.2%) use paraffin for lighting (Republic of Kenya, 2011a).

Kitonyoni sub-location is located about 27KM from the County headquarters at Wote and about 13KM from the closest town, Kathonzweni while Mwania is located about 45KM from Wote and 34KM from Kathonzweni (Figure 3.2). Most residents of the community travel to either of the two towns for important purchases, businesses and to access referral health services from Makueni County hospital and Kathonzweni district hospital. As 95% of the roads in the community are untarred, the community is mainly served by dusty roads. The main means of transportation within the community are motorcycle taxis, while commutes to the two towns are done using mini buses which operate twice daily, in the mornings and evenings. The sub-location is not connected to the country’s main electricity grid and households mainly rely on paraffin for lighting and firewood for cooking. There is no piped water serving homes and community members rely on water from boreholes, streams, rain and shallow wells. Access of health care is also challenging as the community is served by one level-5 dispensary which can only provide basic outpatient services. The contraceptive choices available from this facility are limited to pills and injectables, while those requiring storage in cold chains and surgical procedures to administer can only be accessed from Makueni and Kathonzweni facilities. The facility provides basic child health services including treatment for childhood illnesses such as coughs, malaria and diarrhoea as well as growth monitoring where children’s weights and heights are taken and advice on nutrition given. Although basic vaccination services are often provided, the lack of electricity makes it difficult to provide consistent vaccination. This is because whenever the facility’s LPG gas runs out, the vaccines are transferred to the nearest Kathonzweni facility, where community members are then referred. Like the rest of the sub-location, the facility is not connected to the country’s main electricity grid. As a consequence of the difficult livelihoods and access of important infrastructure, health outcomes in the County are poor such that 41.9% of children aged below 5 years are stunted (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010).

Development in the sub location is now handled by the county government of Makueni. This followed the enactment of the new constitution in 2010 where the governance system was devolved. Consequently, various development projects focusing on improving access to safe water, roads, health facilities, education, farming methods and information communication & technology have been undertaken by Makueni County government

(Mzalendo, 2014). Some projects, for instance, those on child health and fertility and reproductive health are implemented in collaboration with some non-governmental organizations. The focus on the County’s fertility is especially important as it has one of the highest fertility rates in the country. Makueni County’s fertility rate is 5.1 children per woman compared to the national figure of 4.6, while its contraceptive use is still quite slow, at 40% (KNBS & UNICEF, 2008).

The location of the two sub-locations where this study was conducted are indicated in Figures 3.1 and 3.2.

Figure 3.1: Map of study areas

Figure 3.2: Map showing study areas and nearby towns

3.8 Measurement of key concepts

Figure 2.7 gives the theoretical framework used in this study. This framework, which is derived from the bigger framework (a summary of the theoretical approaches to development in Figure 2.6), narrows down to the best approaches to ensure sustainable development, one of which is participatory development. The framework guided the data to be collected and the data approaches employed in the study. The main aspects of this framework, which have potential to ensure sustainable development include:

1. Ensuring that development is holistic. This is best achieved through participatory development, such that all beneficiaries are involved in determining their needs, planning and monitoring development projects and providing locally available resources for development projects, which may include land, water, labour and indigenous ideas to sustaining the initiatives. To best involve people in development initiatives however, it is best to first seek to understand their perceptions of development, ranking of their needs and the best approaches to undertake in development. Such an undertaking has potential to help identify entry points and strategies thereby minimising wastage and consequently implementing only initiatives that are perceived to be most important for the beneficiaries. 2. Gender approach to development was considered in the approaches to data collection in this study. Both men and women’s views of development were sought during data collection. The youth and community leaders were also interviewed in order to understand their perspectives of development. 3. An investigation into people’s resources was done. Information on incomes, livelihoods, education and assets was collected and used in this analysis 4. To understand people’s capabilities, their resources and health assessment was done. This framework also enabled an analysis of the main factors influencing the respondents’ perceptions of development and relationship between these perceptions and health outcomes.

3.8.1 Definition of development and perceptions of development

This thesis adopts the United Nations Development Fund (UNDP)’s definition of development as the progressive act of making a better life for everyone, by meeting their basic needs, ensuring everyone has enough food to lead healthy lives, having a safe and healthy place to live, ensuring that everyone has affordable services and ensuring that everyone is treated with dignity and respect (United Nations Development Program, 2010c).

This definition captures the multidimensionality of development as posited by various scholars who view it as the improvement in the standard of living and the development of per capita income, as well as improvement in other non-economic factors (Ledwith, 1997; Sen, 1999, 2010; Szirmai, 2005; United Nations Development Program, 2010a, 2010c). This approach corresponds with the views of some recent scholars of development who view development as encompassing more than just an increase in income. They argue that income needs to be viewed as not the ultimate, rather as a means to development, whereby it facilitates the people’s expansion of their choices enabling them to lead valuable, healthier and descent lives (Sen, 1999; United Nations Development Program, 2010c). Adopting this definition helps to investigates the respondents’ perceptions of development in their context. The investigation began as an exploratory factor where respondents were allowed to freely mention factors that they considered important in development, after which they were investigated further using both qualitative and quantitative measures (Appendices 6-8). Understanding Makueni County residents’ perceptions of development was informed by Chambers (2005)’s emphasis to revisit earlier approaches to development where the reality of those who development is intended for need be considered in development decisions and approaches, in order to ensure that there is equity and empowerment especially for the marginalised groups such as women, the poor and those in rural areas (Chambers, 2005, p. 190). Using such a participatory approach could be a step closer to sustainable development as it promises to ensure that development efforts are in sync with the beneficiaries’ expectations.

3.8.1 Wellbeing

Wellbeing is used as a broader term that transcends the standard economic measures of development that rely on standard of living and income, to include other non-economic factors that enable a better understanding of the dynamics of socio-economic development 59

(Sen, 1999). These non-economic indicators, have potential to help understand better, and include capability-based indicators highlighted in other studies (Falkingham, 1999). These indicators range from those depicting the health of the population as well as its demographic and perceived factors that are used to gauge the population’s future development expectations (Falkingham, 1999). One of the important indicators of wellbeing that have potential to offer a better understanding of Kenya’s development status, which form a major focus of wellbeing in this study is therefore health, specifically focusing on fertility.

3.8.1.1 Definition of fertility

The two fertility measures used are; contraception and desired fertility. Contraception was defined as “Any deliberate parity-dependent practice including abstention and sterilization- undertaken to reduce the risk of conception” (Bongaarts, 1978, p. 107). Contraception on the other hand referred to use of any modern means of birth control. The modern methods include combined or progesterone only oral contraceptives (or the pill), combined or progestogen only injectables, implants, Intrauterine copper or hormonal devices, male and female condoms, male (vasectomy) and female (tubal ligation) sterilization, lactational amenorrhoea method and emergency contraception (World Health Organization, 2013a). In this study desired fertility was defined as the reported number of children that a respondent desired to have. This applied both to those with and without children. Those with children were asked to give their initial desired number of children before the start of their child- bearing. This variable was categorised into three; 1-3 children, 4 children and 5+ children. No respondent indicated desire not to have any children. Contraception is a binary variable, categorised into 1. Yes, if any method of contraception was used and 0. No if no method of contraception was used.

Fertility was investigated as a measure of wellbeing in this study due to its important role in the contribution to population variations. It has been argued to be both a facilitator and beneficiary of development (Gilles, Perkins, Roemer, & Snodgrass, 1996) whereby uncontrolled population growth has been found to negatively impact development progress and poor development on the other hand also negatively impacts fertility (Ray, 1998; Todaro & Smith, 2006). While most developed countries can be said to have completed fertility transition with crude birth rates of below 20 and less than 1% of natural increase, many developing countries still grapple with high population growth rates (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). Currently, developing countries account for the greatest increase in 60

population growth worldwide, where crude birth rates are still high and where fertility decline has either stalled or is yet to happen and where most of the population is young thereby burdening the governments (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). In addition, many of the developing countries with high population increase are the poorest, facing such challenges as low incomes, high economic vulnerability, and poor human development indicators such as low life expectancy at birth, very low per capita income, and low levels of education. These factors indicate that uncontrolled population growth is thus an obstacle in the improvement of wellbeing (Haub, 2012). While some regions such as Asia have made the greatest effort in fertility decline, 33 of the 48 poorest countries experiencing high fertility are in sub-Saharan Africa, compounding the problem of provision of health, education, housing, infrastructure and employment opportunities (Haub, 2012). The region is further expected to contribute the greatest percentage increase of population globally by 2015, therefore necessitating an urgent need to mitigate this unprecedented increase especially since only 20% of married women in the region use a modern form of family planning, the lowest rate in the world (Population Reference Bureau, 2012).

Consequently, rapid population increase has been found to impact the achievement of sustainable development (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Todaro and Smith (2006) specifically view population and its impact on human welfare such as on incomes, health, education and general wellbeing as constituting the negative impacts of unprecedented population growth (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Uncontrolled and rapid population growth is also likely to impact people’s capabilities and impact their goals of achieving sustainable development. Developing countries such as Kenya which face poor economic development specifically need to focus on issue of population growth. Indeed Kenya’s population growth rate of 2.6% per annum is one of the highest around the world and if unchecked, it is likely to negatively impact the country’s economic development progress.

Fertility therefore is one of the wellbeing issues under investigation in this study. It is investigated as both an indicator and an outcome of development since it is hypothesised that rapid population increase is likely to slow the gains of the economic development while at the same time standards of living have been argued to have an impact on fertility choices (Todaro & Smith, 2006). Incorporating fertility as an aspect of development is therefore important, especially in a developing context like Kenya where population growth rates continue to be on the rise. Currently, developing countries do account for the greatest 61

increase in population growth worldwide, where crude birth rates are still high and where fertility decline has either stalled or is yet to happen and where most of the population is young, putting a strain on the available resources (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). This therefore necessitates an urgent need to mitigate this unprecedented increase especially because its impacts on development are also far-reaching. As countries, governments and institutions work at enhancing sustainable development and improve wellbeing, efforts at limiting population growth need to be enhanced. To achieve sustainable development and improve wellbeing as proposed by the United Nation’s millennium development goals, there is need to work at reducing population growth, as well as investing in universal health care including providing adequate reproductive health services as well as investment in education and gender equality (United Nations Population Fund, 2013). The United Nations Population Fund cites various ways in which sustainable development could be achieved with reduction in fertility.

Despite the potential for reduced fertility to spur economic growth (development) and improvement in wellbeing, a significant population of women in the reproductive age and who require contraception, do not use any. Those most affected reside in developing countries, including sub-Saharan Africa. The World Health Organization reports that about 222 million women in developing countries who report a desire to delay or stop child-bearing do not use any method of contraception (World Health Organization, 2013a). This gap exists despite the proved benefits including the potential of contraception to improve the women and children’s wellbeing. Access to reliable and effective modern methods of contraception for instance, has been found to contribute to reduced abortion incidences, reduced maternal morbidity and mortality and reduced child morbidity and mortality and consequently a reduction of the burden of disease, all factors that can contribute to the development of the households, communities and countries (World Health Organization, 2013a). However, many women in developing countries continue to die because they lack access to contraception forcing them to either undertake unsafe abortions or putting their lives and those of the unborn babies at risk of maternal and new-born morbidity and mortality (UNFPA, 2013a). This study therefore attempts to show the link between perceptions of participatory development and fertility choices.

3.9 Study design

3.9.1 Data used in the thesis

This study uses various data sets for the three analysis chapters as described both below and in section 3.7. While the qualitative data was collected from respondents aged 18 years and above in the community, the quantitative data used in this chapter and the subsequent chapters did not include data collected from women and men aged over 49 years and 54 years respectively. This is because one of the main wellbeing variable of interest is fertility choices (contraceptive use and desired fertility). It was therefore not relevant to collect this data from those beyond the reproductive age. This exclusion does not negate the importance of the views of this group as their responses are captured and reported in the results of chapter 4.

a. Chapter 4 attempts to answer research question number 1, which seeks to understand how residents of a rural community understand ‘development’ and their views of aspects of development considered important to them at the personal/household, community and national levels. To answer this question, the chapter uses both qualitative and qualitative data collected in the study using focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and household interviews (Table 4.1). The qualitative data is part of the thesis’s data collected in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations of Makueni County, Eastern Kenya. This data focused on understanding the community’s perceptions of poverty and development both at the community (using qualitative methods) and household (using quantitative data) levels. It was collected using focus group discussions from men, women and youth from both sub-locations and using key informant interviews from community leaders and those involved in development initiatives in the sub-locations or County in general (Table 4.1). The quantitative data was however only collected in Kitonyoni sub-location from the 290 households sampled and visited for interviews. This data was collected using questionnaires administered to people of reproductive age; men (18-54 years) and women (18-49 years). b. To answer research questions 2 and 3 in chapters 5 and 6 we use data collected only in the 290 households in Kitonyoni sub-location. These data were collected using questionnaires administered to the people of reproductive age; men (18-54 years) and

women (18-49 years). At the analysis stage, some household information collected in the electricity project’s baseline survey including information on household income, demographic data of the household members and assets was merged with the perceptions data in order to provide background data for those interviewed in the perceptions study. Research question number 2 aims to investigate the factors influencing perceptions of development while number 3 looks into whether perceptions of participation in development influence wellbeing outcomes.

3.9.2 Mixed methodology

This study thus uses the mixed-methods approach to investigate Kitonyoni and Mwania residents’ perceptions of development and their wellbeing. Mixed methodology is a study design that focuses on collecting and analysing a mix of qualitative and quantitative data in order to best understand the issue being investigated (Creswell, 2003). It is the best approach to understand people’s perception of development, the issues influencing perceptions of development and the link between perceptions of development and wellbeing. This approach involves collecting, analysing and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data as the assumption is that this mix provides a better understanding of the issue being investigated, compared to just using either a qualitative or quantitative approach (Creswell, 2008). This thesis employs this approach, that is, uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and data as this gives a better understanding of the respondents’ perspectives of development and the relationship of these perceptions with some select aspects of their wellbeing. The choice of this approach is informed by the multifaceted nature of the research topic and questions under investigation. To adequately assess and understand the perceptions of development, it was fit to use rigorous qualitative and quantitative approaches. Perceptions and wellbeing studies elsewhere have employed both approaches, either singularly or in combination (Akwara, Madise, & Hinde, 2003; Chepngeno-Langat, 2013; Essendi et al., 2014; Kovacs, 2000; Mwaseba et al., 2009). The wellbeing outcomes under focus in this study revolve around fertility, specifically use of contraception and desired fertility. These issue were investigated using quantitative approaches while perceptions of development were investigated using both qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative data was first used to collect data on how the community of study perceives development. This data was analysed and is reported in chapter 4. Later, quantitative questions were computed using results of this initial qualitative data. These questions were then administered 64

in a quantitative questionnaire, and thereafter, used to compute the perceptions indices used in chapters 5 and 6. Mixed methods approach is used at both the data collection and analysis stages.

This thesis focuses on two types of variables; perceived/subjective and objective variables. While the data on the perceived variables (perceptions of development) could best be captured using qualitative data, an attempt to use quantitative measures is also used to capture these perceptions. In addition, data on aspects of health and use of contraception were best captured using both subjective and objective measures. The analytical approach employed therefore focuses on both qualitative and quantitative data. The advantages that the quantitative methods used in this study have is that the results can be inferred to bigger populations while the qualitative approaches helped answer questions relating the ‘whys’ and ‘how’s in the investigation of perceptions of development (Hennink, Hutter, & Bailey, 2011).

3.9.1 Sample size determination:

To answer research questions 2 and 3 in chapters 5 and 6 respectively, quantitative data on perceptions of development was collected in Kitonyoni sub-location only from a sample of 290 households. Some of these data are also used for the bivariate analysis in chapter 4. This sample size was calculated based on the consideration that the parameter of interest in this study is the nutrition status, measured by the percentage of children who are stunted. Stunting is a measure of malnutrition calculated using a child’s height/length and age whereby those having a height (or length)-for-age z-score more than 2 standard deviation below the median of the WHO/NCHS’s set international reference, are considered to be stunted (World Health Organization, 2011). Although it is not used in the analysis, child nutrition was considered an important measure in this study since food security is an important aspect of development, which both demonstrates areas of need and can also be used to assess development-progress. While global reduction in hunger and poverty has the key to propel communities and countries to development, malnutrition, on the other hand, stands as a major barrier to both economic and social development as inadequate food supply means that the affected populations remain less productive economically and socially (United Nations, 2011b). Stunting as a measure of malnutrition is used in the sample size calculation in this study as it indicates a continuing process of growth-failure or chronic malnutrition, a

situation arising from a consistent lack of adequate food, which is an indicator of poor development or poor economic conditions (Sakisaka et al., 2006).

Sample size calculation

n The sample size ( 0 ) was calculated using Cochran’s sample size formula (Cochran, 1963). The formula is:

2 z 2 pq n0  2 e

Where z   / 2 Value for selected alpha level of .05 = 1.96.

p is the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population, in this case this was estimated from the percentage of children in Eastern province who are stunted. q is 1- p e is the acceptable margin of error for proportion being estimated (error researcher is willing to except).

Once the first stage of sampling was done, Cochran’s (1977) correction formula was used to calculate the final sample size, because the population from which the sample is being drawn is known (Cochran, 1977). This formula is as follows:

n n  0 n 1 0 N

The sample:

Where  =0.05 at 95% confidence interval and the precision of the proportion is0.04 about the population values of my parameter of interest. In addition, if we consider that the proportion of my parameter of interest was derived from the percentage of children in

Eastern province who are stunted (this is 41.9%), p=0.419, the sample n 0 size is calculated as follows:

(1.96)2 (0.419)(1 0.419) n0  2 0.04 = 584

The estimation of the sample size n0 is assuming we have an infinite population, but because our population had a finite size, we had to correct it using Cochran’s (1977) correction formula. This correction was based on what is known about the population of the study area.

Given that the total population for Kitonyoni sub location using the household listing generated during the electricity project’s baseline survey conducted in March-June 2011 is N=522, the finite population correction, was calculated as follows:

n n  0 n 1 0 584 N = n  =275.63=276 584 1  522

276 was the selected sample size, but the sample needed to be adjusted further because of non-response of 5%. This non-response was derived from the findings of the Energy project’s baseline survey for Kitonyoni sub-location. The sample, after adjusting for non- response was 276/(1-nonresponse rate)=(276/.95)=290

Then sample size adjusted for non-response was 290

Since the number of households to be visited had been determined and Kitonyoni sub- location comprises 12 villages4, this study used both stratified and simple random sampling techniques. Households were stratified by villages then samples drawn from the list of households in each village. Respondents in the household interviews were grouped into females and males of the reproductive age (18-49 years) and (18-54 years respectively). This distinction by gender was deemed important in this thesis as it has been hypothesized that women and men’s perceptions of wellbeing vary because of the engendered roles assigned by society (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998). Consequently, since the gender perspectives of the perceptions of development are a main focus of this study, it was

4 At the time of the Baseline Survey in March-May 2011, the sub location had 10 villages, but we incorporated an additional one, which bordered the sub location. By February 2012 (the E4D team visited the community), this village had been incorporated into the sub location. In addition, one other village (King’ang’i) was considered too big for proper administration and has since been split into two. This brings the total villages to 12 67

important to have both gender represented in the sample. Regarding the age group (respondent’s age), age was given an important consideration since one of the factors of wellbeing being investigated is fertility and desired fertility, hence the need to limit the respondents to those in the reproductive age. In the sample strategy, villages were treated as strata from which a predetermined sample was drawn at random. The selected households were then visited where eligible household members were approached, their consent sought and then interviewed. Given the importance of gender in this study, interviews with male respondents were conducted in a half of all the households sampled while interviews with women comprised the remaining half. At the end of data collection total of 135 men (18-54 years old) and 140 women (18-49 years old) had been interviewed in Kitonyoni (Table 3.1).

For the qualitative data collected, a total of 36 FGDs were conducted in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations (see Table 3.1). These data were collected in both sub-locations at the beginning of the electricity study Those who participated in the FGDs were constituted based on age and gender, thereby having two youth groups (18-24 years), two men groups (25-40 years and 41 years and above) and two women groups (25-40 years and 41 years and above. These 12 FGDs ensured that the data from across the two sub location was representative along gender and age. In addition, two key informant interviews were conducted with community leaders in the two sub-locations, while another three were conducted with various government officials at the district level.

Qualitative data were coded in NVivo 8 software while the quantitative data was analysed using the IBM SPSS statistics version 20 and AMOS.

Table 3.1: Characteristics of respondents Method & respondent Age-category No. of groups/individuals Household interviews 18-54 year-old males 135 (Kitonyoni only) 18-49 year-old females 140 Total household interviewees 294

FGD Women 18-24 years 6 FGD Women 25-40 years 6 FGD Women 41+ years 6 FGD Men 18-24 years 6 FGD Men 25-40 years 6 FGD Men 41+ years 6 KII community leader Adult 2 (Kitonyoni and Mwania) District development Adult 3 officials (Kitonyoni and Mwania)

*All the FGDs were conducted in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations

3.9.2 Tools of data collection

Data were collected at the community and household levels using focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews and household interviews. Table 3.1 gives a summary of the study participants. Different approaches were used to select study participants where for instance, those participating in the FGDs and key informant interviews were approached in the community based on the demographic characteristics highlighted in Table 3.1. The purpose of the study was explained to these participants once approached where their consent to participate in the study was sought. Thereafter, an appointment was made to have the discussions or interviews at a later date. Between the first contact and the day of discussion, they were given the project’s consent form (Appendices 6-9) to read further and revert to the researcher if in need of clarification. Key informants were approached at their offices where consent and an appointment for an interview were sort. The household questionnaires were used to collect information on health, demographic outcomes, socioeconomic outcomes and perceptions of development and perceptions of participation in community development. All the instruments, with the exception of the key informant interview guides were translated in the local language for the community (Kamba) for ease of understanding and also to avoid ambiguity, as well as to give participants confidence to engage in the study.

3.9.3 Data collection plan

Data collection was done in October 2012 in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations of Makueni County. Data collection for the survey was conducted in the homes of the respondents while the key informants were conducted at the places of work for the key informants. The FGDs on the other hand were conducted in a neutral place in Kitonyoni and Mwania market places where respondents congregated for the discussions, whose mean time was 2 hours.

3.9.3.1 Questionnaire pre-testing

Once the questionnaires (Appendices 6-9) were prepared, they were pre-tested before the start of data collection was done. This was done in order to ensure that the pre-selected responses were valid and captured all the possible responses. This was especially important because the tools of data collected and the questions implemented in this study had yet to be applied in other studies, hence the need to check their content and consistency. In addition, since the data was collected in the local Kamba language (the language spoken by the residents of Makueni County) all the tools of data collection, with the exception of the KII guides, had to be translated. Pre-testing was therefore important in order to ensure that the translations were clear to the respondents and that the language of translation was the correct variant of the Kamba language as the wider Kamba region has various variants of the language spoken in different parts of the Ukambani region (Nzioka, 2000). The pre-test was conducted in a sub-location in Makueni County that was close enough to the study community and therefore similar in socio-economic characteristics, but far enough in order to avoid contamination of the study where information about the study would have leaked to the study community.

3.9.3.2 Data quality

The researcher ensured that data quality was adhered to during data collection through rigorous training and testing of the data collection skills that the data collection team held. In addition, the completed questionnaires were edited and checked by the researcher before data entry was done, upon which any inconsistencies were addressed within a span of two days of conducting the interviews. The researcher also carried out 50 random spot-checks with the help of the data collection team, in order to ensure that the data collected reflected

the reality of the interviewees’ responses. In 20 randomly selected cases, complete interviews were redone with the same respondent to check the accuracy of the data. Regular meetings between the researcher and the data collection team were also conducted in order to understand and address any issues arising from the data collection process and which would likely impact the quality of the data.

3.9.3.3 Response rate

The sample number of respondents in this study was 290 but 294 people were interviewed, indicating a response rate to be 100%. The success in the response rate in the study was ensured through the various measures employed in the study. Part of the training on data collection focused on training on creation of rapport in order to minimise the chances of refusals in the interviews. In addition, having Kamba-speaking data collection team helped ensure the respondents’ confidence and therefore improvement in the response rate. The team was also expected to make up to three visits to the respondents’ homes if they missed them. Further, considering the economic activities where most members of the villages visited for the interviews engaged in small scale farming activities and trade, the data collection team was advised to make visits either early in the morning or later in the afternoon in order to increase chances of getting a positive response of an interview.

3.9.4 Research and ethical approval

Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the University of Southampton, social sciences’ ethics committee. In addition, before data collection was done, research permit was sought from and issued by the National Council for Science and Technology of the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (Appendices 4 and 5).

3.9.5 Informed consent

One of the requirements of research ethics is that informed consent be obtained from respondents before an interview or a discussion is conducted. The informed consent in this study was administered differently depending on the data being collected. Clearance for the research from the ethics committees at the University of Southampton and in Kenya was given on the basis that informed consent would be obtained prior to interviewing respondents. In order for this consent to be given, it was important to give the respondents 71

all the information pertaining to the study so they could make an informed decision, agreeing or disagreeing to participate in the study. Before the interviews or discussions were conducted the data collection team sought to explain their purpose of visit and study, the procedures involved in the study, including how respondents were selected and identified, assuring the respondents that no harm would happen to them as a result of participating in the study. In addition, any potential benefits of engaging in the study were articulated, which mainly revolved around using the data collected to inform policy makers, researchers and scholars on development issues affecting the community. They were also assured of their confidentiality in participating in the study as well as emphasizing to them regarding the voluntary nature of their participation. Finally the consent forms containing all this information and contact details of the ethics body was given to the respondents to ensure that they knew where to report any violation of their rights, if needed. Those who agreed to participate in the study were asked to sign consent forms indicating this willingness. Those who were unable to sign due to the inability to write put a finger print in the place of the signature.

3.9.5 Confidentiality

All the potential respondents in the study were assured that their responses would be confidential, and that the data would not be shared with others and in cases where this was necessary, the data would be stripped of all identifiers, including names, villages and sub- locations as well as designations (for the key informant). All the key identifiers of the respondents were also stripped when reporting the analysis in the thesis and in the paper forming this thesis. Where quotes from the qualitative data were used in the thesis and in the papers, codes were used to denote these respondents. During data collection, confidentiality was maintained where respondents were interviewed out of the ear-shot of others. The data collection team was also not allowed to discuss the interviews and respondents with other respondents, community leaders or among themselves.

3.10 Study population The areas of study are areas where the University of Southampton, in conjunction with other partners are conducting an electricity project titled “Socio-economic Impact Assessment of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation Schemes in rural Kenya”. The team has been gathering data in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations, so this project uses some of the

infrastructures and relationships established in this larger project, which had ethical approval from the University of Southampton Ethics Committee as well as from an accredited Ethics Committee in Kenya (Appendices 1 and 2). Using these infrastructures, the researcher’s entry point to the community was through the Chief/ Assistant Chief’s office. Here the leaders were informed of the intention to conduct the new study in their sub locations, following which, their permission was sought and once granted, the researcher started mobilizing those to participate in the study. This study got ethical approval from the University of Southampton’s Ethics Committee (Appendix 3). A research permit to conduct the study was also sought and granted from the National Council for Science and Technology in Kenya (Appendices 4 and 5).

For the household interviews, all the households in each village were selected and households to be visited sampled. The researcher used stratified and simple random sampling to select households to be visited using a sampling frame consisting of a list of all households in the two sub-locations listed during the Energy Project’s baseline survey, conducted in March- May 2011. Once the household to be visited were sampled, a team of researchers trained to conduct the data collection then visited these households, where eligible household members were approached, their consent sought and then interviewed. The household interviews and focus group discussions were conducted in the local Kamba language in order to allow respondents to freely express themselves. The researchers collecting this data therefore had to be speakers of Kamba, the local language.

3.11 Methods of data collection

A combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods was used in this research, including, questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs) and key informant interviews (KIIs).

3.11.1 Qualitative methods

The FGDs and KIIs interviews were conducted with community members in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations to understand their perception of development at the qualitative level. Focus Group Discussions: these were conducted with community members and the groups were constituted based on gender and age. 73

Key Informant interviews: These were conducted with community leaders in the two sub- locations of study. In addition key informant interviews were conducted with officials at Makueni district engaged in development projects at the districts including those from the district development office, the environment office and the gender and social development office.

3.11.2 Quantitative methods

Household interviews were conducted where a questionnaire containing a set of questions on perceptions of development were administered. This study uses some of the data on household characteristics collected in the Socio-economic Impact Assessment of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation Schemes in rural Kenya project (see Appendix 9 for questionnaire used in this study). Respondents included the household head (for the household characteristics questions) and other individuals at the household (including women aged 18-49 and men aged 18-54 years). These questions were informed by the literature review conducted.

3.12 Key measurement concepts and variables The areas of focus for both qualitative and quantitative data collection included: 1. The respondents’ understanding of development and various dimensions that they consider important for them at personal/household, community and national levels. This data was collected using both qualitative and quantitative methods 2. The socio-demographic and wellbeing factors influencing the perceptions of development. This data was collected using quantitative methods 3. The relationship between the perceptions of development and wellbeing, specifically focusing on fertility. This quantitative data was collected using questionnaires.

3.13 Methods of data analysis

3.13.1 Quantitative data analysis methods

The methods of analysis of the quantitative data employed in this study are cross-sectional. To answer research question number 1 in chapter 4, descriptive statistics was used to show the distribution and frequency of responses. This research question was focused on 74

understanding how residents of a rural community understand “development” and the various aspects of development that they consider to be important to them at three levels; personal/household, community and national levels. In the same chapter, bivariate analysis has been used to examine relationship between some of the variables in the analysis where the chi-square test was used to investigate the independence of the variables. Structural equation modelling techniques are used to model the relationship between perception of development and socio-economic, demographic and wellbeing factors in chapter 5. This chapter answers research question number 2 which examined the socio-economic, socio- demographic and wellbeing factors influencing how residents of this study community perceive development. The approach is used because of the latent nature of the perceptions of development variable. Binary logistic regression as well as multinomial logistic regression analyses were applied in chapter 6 to assess the relationship between perceptions of development and health outcomes. This chapter seeks to answer research question number 3, which attempts to assess whether perceptions of development are associated with wellbeing outcomes, specifically, fertility choices. These statistical methods are further explained below:

3.13.1.1 Chi-square test

Chapter 4 employed the use of chi-squared tests (χ2) of independence to test the association between variables (Diamond & Jefferies, 2001). This test was done to assess the null hypothesis that there is no association between two variables.

The formula for the chi-square test statistic is:

χ2=

Where O=observed values and E=expected values

To determine the significance of the chi-square test statistics, the computed value is further compared to the critical value in the chi-square distribution table. The values in the chi- square distribution table are based on the set level of significance and the number of degrees of freedom, which is the number of categories minus 1. Finally, the null hypothesis may be rejected if the test statistic is greater than the critical value. The alternative hypothesis, stating the presence of a relationship between the two variables of interest is thus accepted.

3.13.1.2 Logistic regression analysis

Logistic regression analysis is used in part of the analysis in chapter 6 to model the relationship between a dependent and one or more independent variables, where the dependent variable is dichotomous. It varies with linear regression whereby, although its logit coefficients have the same presentations as linear regression’s coefficients, it however does not assume a linear relationship between the dependent and the independent variables. This study could therefore have used linear regression analysis, however this would have required that we assume that the data have a linear distribution. The outcome variable of interest in this study was however dichotomous, having two outcomes, either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. Just like with linear regression analysis, logistic regression enables a researcher to examine the fit of the model and the significance of the relationships between the dependent and independent variable of interest. Logistic regression predicts the probability of an event occurring and the dependent variable is first converted into a logit variable, that is the natural log of the odds of an event occurring, in this case the dependent variable. Logit(p) is the log (to base e) of the odds ratio or likelihood ratio that the dependent variable is 1. It is defined as: log = ⋯

Logistic regression analysis uses the maximum likelihood estimation to estimate the coefficients, by maximising the log likelihood that the observed values of the dependent variable may be estimated using the observed values of the independent variables. Repeated estimation where an iterative process that starts with a tentative solution and revises it as appropriate, until there is an improvement and where there is convergence at which point the log likelihood does not change significantly, is therefore used.

3.13.1.3 Multinomial logistic regression analysis

Multinomial logistic regression, also known as multinomial logit, used in the second part of the analysis in chapter 6, is similar to the logistic regression analysis, although it allows for more than two discrete outcomes in the dependent variable. While logistic regression analysis predicts the probability of an event occurring, multinomial logit predicts the probabilities of the different possible outcomes of the dependent variable (with more than two nominal categories), given a set of independent variables. The dependent variable in multinomial regression is nominal, that is, the categories are equivalent and that are not ordered in any

meaningful categories. This analysis operates in the same way as logistic regression, that is, uses the same formula. The only difference being that the analysis breaks the dependent variable down into a series of comparisons between two categories (Field, 2009).

This second analysis in chapter 6 would therefore have used logistic regression, however this approach is limited to predicting the probability of one event occurring (yes or no outcomes), while the present study investigated the possibility of having more than one outcome, that is, the probability that the respondents in this study would desire to have; 1-3 children; 4 children or; 5+ children. While this is an ordered variable, I use multinomial logit because the variable is desired family size, rather than attained.

3.13.1.4 Structural equation modelling

Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a statistical technique that integrates a number of different multivariate techniques into one model fitting process. It is used in chapter 5 to model the relationship between perception of development and socio-economic, demographic and perceived factors. The analytical approach has been defined as a combination of statistical techniques such as exploratory factor analysis and multiple regression, that examines a set of relationships between one or more Independent Variables and one or more Dependent Variables (Nokelainen, 1999). The technique endeavours to test and estimate causal relations using a combination of statistical data and qualitative causal assumptions and techniques, including: 1. Measurement theory; 2. Factor analysis 3. Regression 4. Simultaneous equation modeling and 5. Path analysis

The approach, defined by various scholars including Wright (1921), articulated the use of structural equation models in either the testing or development of theories (Wright, 1921). It has two main approaches; confirmatory factor analysis and path analysis. Factor analysis handles all variables, whether observed or not observed or those that elude direct measurement in the social world (latent variables) (Byrne, 2010).

Chapter 5 employs perception of development as a latent variable since it is complex and multifaceted, thereby requiring a use of multiple indicators/measures since a single measure would not be adequate in covering the full concept of the variable. SEM was therefore the best analytical approach to use in this chapter since the methodology is able to provide the analysis estimates and coefficients of this complex latent construction while at the same time taking care of errors that also influence the variances of the observable indicators (Byrne, 2010). Latent variable is based on the classical test theory, which assumes the presence of two variables in each measure, that is, the true score and error variation (Lord & Novick, 1968; Lumsden, 1976; Traub, 1997). The true score and measurement error for an observable indicator used to compute a latent variable can thus be expressed as: X Where X is observed score of the item, t is the true score or true point on the measurement scale at time of interview and e is the error variation. The equation is however unidentified with one indicator, necessitating the need for multiple indicators for each latent variable. Factor analysis is therefore employed at this stage where multiple indicators are used in order to estimate the true score and error parameters. Factor analysis transforms correlated observed variables into uncorrelated components whereby a subset of these components can thus be used to summarise the observed relationships of the variables forming the latent variable. SEM factors analysis can either be exploratory when the researcher does not have a pre-defined idea of the possible set of variables or confirmatory, where a specific hypothesis about the structure and number of dimensions underlying a set of variables (in this case, variables defining the latent variable) is known (Suhr, 2009; Wright, 1921).

The analysis in chapter 5 could have employed the use of multiple regression analysis. However this was not suitable for this study. Multiple regression analysis techniques are used to assess the relationships between measurable constructs and therefore the method was unsuitable for the current analysis as the main outcome variable (perception of development) is not a directly measurable variable, rather, it is computed using a set of measurable variables.

3.13.2 Qualitative data analysis methods

The qualitative data employed in this study was analysed using the thematic theory approach which involves the discovery of a theory based on analysis of data. As recommended by Hennink etal (2011), the researcher allowed respondents to mention, discuss and deliberate

on the emerging issues and in some instance reach a consensus amongst themselves on the factors considered to mean/indicate personal, community and national development (Hennink et al., 2011). The data was first transcribed and translated from the Kamba language to English before being imported into the NVivo package of data analysis from QSR. This software allows the coding and analysis of qualitative data. Once the data were imported into NVivo, cross-sectional and categorical coding was done in order to allow for the retrieval of the main ideas arising in the data. Afterwards, further analysis involving the synthesis of the data into themes or meaningful phenomena which was further summarised and presented as text and quotes in the thesis was done.

4 PERCEPTIONS OF DEVELOPMENT BY RESIDENTS OF A RURAL COMMUNITY IN KENYA

4.6 Abstract

Despite the acknowledgment that participatory approaches in development have potential in understanding and designing development programmes and policies, perceptions about poverty and development continue to be dominated by those who are considered to be non- poor, including the professionals, and other development agents. Using data collected from residents of Makueni district (now Makueni County) of Eastern Kenya, this paper seeks to reverse this approach by involving Makueni community members in the conceptualization of poverty and development in their context and outlining possible strategies to address these two issues. The study finds that definitions of poverty and development and strategies to address them are multidimensional and go beyond the monetary measures. These definitions also vary according to context. The study recommends that strategies to address poverty and development should encompass both monetary and non-monetary measures and be contextually-tailored.

Key words: Poverty, development, rural poor, perceptions, Kenya

4.7 Introduction

The importance of going beyond the neo-classical approaches as being key in development specifically, the standard of living and income, in recent development studies is increasingly becoming important. There is however need to also recognise the importance of non- monetary factors which are crucial particularly in seeking to understand the dynamics of socio-economic development and poverty (Laderchi, Saith, & Stewart, 2003; Ledwith, 1997; Sen, 1999, 2010; Szirmai, 2005). These non-monetary approaches view development as a multi-dimensional issue and include various measurement approaches, including using both qualitative and quantitative measures that go beyond the conventional measures of using income and expenditure as the only assessors of development progress (Alkire, Roche, & Sumner, 2013; KIPPRA, 2004; Laderchi, 1997; Laderchi et al., 2003; McKinley, 1997; United Nations Development Program, 2010b).

Based on these approaches, one key aspect in the efforts to reduce poverty and to advance development is the involvement of other development actors in development efforts, most notably the beneficiaries of development efforts, an approach that is however still rarely applied. Participation in development, which entails enlarging the capacity of the socially and economically marginalized peoples and involving them in decision making over their own lives is rarely sought, especially in development and poverty reduction efforts implemented in developing countries (Chambers, 2005; Guijt & Shah, 1998; Sen, 1999). Yet, it has been advanced as an approach that holds great potential in ensuring faster and more sustainable outcomes as it helps understand communities’ felt needs thereby helping prioritise them in development initiatives (Chambers, 1983, 2005). There is therefore a need to revisit such approaches, since many communities in developing countries, especially those in the rural areas, continue to experience poverty, stagnated development and poor wellbeing outcomes (Fotso, 2006; Sahn & Sahn, 2004; Smith et al., 2004).

In Kenya, there exist high poverty levels and unequal development between regions and between rural and urban areas (Alwy & Schech, 2007; IFAD, 2010; Muhula, 2009; World Bank, 2009). Yet, very few of the development initiatives implemented incorporate participatory development where the views of community members are sought in order to prioritise their needs (Republic of Kenya, 2011a, 2011c, 2011d). Where this approach has been used, this has either been incomplete or has been applied at a macro level, disregarding the cultural and geographic variations between the regions of the country. Consequently, development inequalities can be observed not just between regions, but also within regions and between the rural and urban areas of the country. Makueni district, for instance, is reported to be one of the poorest in Eastern province and in the country (73.5% of households are poor) (National Coordinating Agency for Popolation and Development, 2005). The district is also reported as making the highest contribution to the national poverty level (5.1%) compared to other districts in Eastern province where it lies, at: Nithi (4.5%), Kitui Central (4.4%), Mbooni (4.2%), Kangundo (4.2%), Kibwezi (4%), Igembe (3.9%), Mwingi North (3.9%), Mwala (3.7%), and Machakos Town (3.6%). These dynamics support the need to consider the context when planning and implementing poverty reduction and community development projects.

This chapter attempts to demonstrate the importance of involving development beneficiaries in the determination of their needs with the aim of prioritizing these needs. This is expected

to show that development is best approached contextually. The paper seeks to answer the first research question in this thesis which is; How do residents of Makueni County understand “development”?; What are the various aspects of development that are perceived to be important to Makueni residents at individual, household and community levels? To do this, the paper employs the United Nations’ definition of ‘development’ as a process of enlarging people's choices with the most critical choices entailing a long and healthy life, acquiring knowledge and enjoying a decent standard of living. It outlines the other choices to include political freedom, guarantee of human rights and self-respect (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). The approach of ‘development’ used in this paper incorporates its multi-faceted nature that encompasses economic, social, political, cultural and environmental factors. Both the economic and non-economic indicators are applied in this study, for instance, appreciating general wellbeing factors such as health, autonomy and nutrition, education, housing, water, community services, transport and participation (in development) and governance (Bahemuka, Nganda, Nzioka, Gakuru, & Njeru, 1998; Republic of Kenya, 1979).

Using a participatory approach to development, this study seeks to understand how residents of Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations in Makueni perceive poverty and development at the personal/household, community and at national levels. ‘Participation’ or ‘participatory development’ is defined in this study as a methodology where the capacity of the socially and economically marginalised is enlarged and their involvement in decision making over their own lives is sought (Chambers, 2005; Guijt & Shah, 1998; Sen, 1999). The study further investigates the community’s ranking of development needs. It uses the term ‘community’, whose definition is borrowed from MacQueen et al (2001)’s 2001 study among respondents in the US. In the study, diverse members of US communities commonly defined a community as “…a group of people with diverse characteristics who are linked by social ties, share common perspectives, and engage in joint action in geographical locations or settings” (MacQueen et al., 2001). Regarding the definition of poverty and well-being, this study sheds earlier assumptions arising from measuring poverty using a uni-dimensional monetary measure (income and expenditure) since this is not adequate in capturing this broad variable. This study thus incorporates a multidimensional concept of wellbeing whereby those responding in the study define poverty much broadly in their context using various measures, including health, wealth, satisfaction, happiness and psychological wellbeing (Frey & Stutzer, 2002; A. Sen,

1985). Finally, data on perceptions of poverty and an outline of the link between poverty and development as perceived by the study’s respondents is presented.

4.8 Methods

4.8.1 Study area and population

Data used in this chapter is part of the thesis’s data collected in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations of Kathonzweni district in Makueni County5, Eastern Kenya.

Data collection

The chapter uses both qualitative and quantitative data collected in the study using focus group discussions (FGDs), key informant interviews (KIIs) and household interviews (Table 4.1) to answer research question number 1. The qualitative data is part of the thesis’s data collected in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations of Makueni County, Eastern Kenya. It was collected using focus group discussions from men, women and youth from both sub- locations and key informant interviews from community leaders and those involved in development initiatives in the sub-locations or County (Table 4.1). The quantitative data on the other hand was however only collected in Kitonyoni sub-location from a total of 294 individuals in the 290 sampled households. In this study, a household constituted people who usually pull their resources together, including income, and who usually cook together. This data was collected using questionnaires administered to people of reproductive age; men (18-54 years) and women (18-49 years). These male and female respondents were selected and interviewed in each household alternately.

A question on the respondents’ understanding of development was administered to them, in the quantitative data collection. The question asked at the household was “What is development?” translated into and asked to the respondents in the local Kamba language. The translated question, administered to the heads of the households read “Meendeo ni kyau?”. The translation of the word “Development” into the Kamba equivalent “Meendeo” is derived from the Kiswahili translation “Maendeleo” which indicates progress, translated as “Endelea”

5 Following the adoption of a new constitution in 2010, the Kenyan government implemented a devolved system of governance which came into effect in March 2013. Makueni which was a district at the time of study is now a County. The study sites therefore now fall in Kathonzweni district which is within Makueni County. There are instances in this paper where this area is referred to as a district especially in regards to statistical presentations. 84

in Kiswahili. Both Kamba and Kiswahili belong to the Bantu group of languages hence the construction of the Kamba language is similar to that of Kiswahili, for example in regards to the grammatical inflexion taking place at the beginning of the words and in the words (Gleason, 1961; Nurse, 2006). The two languages have an intimate relationship in the conjugation of their nouns and verbs (Hinde, 1904). The understanding and comprehension of the word ‘development’ by the respondents in this study would therefore be influenced by the community’s experience and familiarity of the use of the word, given that language is dynamics and meanings attached to words and phrases may vary depending on context, historical experiences and previous uses attached to the words (Catford, 1967). The word ‘Maendeleo’ in the Kenyan context, with its variants depending on the location and community/language has been widely applied in the country to refer to development of local communities (MYO, 2014). Maendeleo Ya Wanawake, an organization, which also derives its name from the word for instance, has its main agenda relating to development, that is, to improve the quality of life of rural communities in Kenya (MYO, 2014). Some of its activities of the organization which was registered in Kenya in 1952 include gender equality in development, civic education, governance and peace building and conflict management.

At the analysis stage, frequencies of the issues mentioned as referring to development, was done in order to detect those frequently mentioned by a majority of the respondents, thereby denoting priority issues of development from their perspective due to their frequency of mention by the respondents. Frequencies of these responses are presented in Figure 4.1.

The FGDs were conducted with community members aged between 18 and 60 years who were sampled by age and gender from the 11 and 16 villages comprising Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations respectively. Respondents in the age categories and gender shown in Table 4.1 were selected from each village using the stratified sampling technique. The respondents were categorised by age and gender in order to limit inhibitions during the discussions and to understand these perceptions based on these categorizations, as gender has been found to be important in perceptions (Maccoby, 2002). Each group comprised between 6 and 12 participants to make it easy for the discussant to manage the group. Before the interviews were held, those sampled were approached, a consent form administered then an appointment for the discussion made. Replacements were done in instances where those selected were either unavailable or unwilling to participate. In total, 36 FGDs were held. Four field workers (2 male and 2 female) were trained on the research tools and conducted the

household interviews and group discussions in Kamba6. The KIIs were conducted in English since the community leaders could freely express themselves in English. Key informant interviews were administered to the two community leaders in charge of Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations. The areas of investigation in these discussions included the respondents understanding of development at personal, community and national levels, their perceptions of persons/groups/institutions responsible for development and indicators of poverty in the community. The decision to use the local language was made in order to allow respondents to freely express themselves. The qualitative data were audio recorded and later transcribed and translated into English where necessary. A second examination of the translations after transcriptions was done in order to check for any inconsistencies and ensure reliability of the data.

Table 4.1: Characteristics of respondents

Method & respondent Age-category No. of groups/individuals Individual household interviews - 294 (Kitonyoni only) FGD Women* 18-24 years 6 FGD Women 25-40 years 6 FGD Women 41+ years 6 FGD Men 18-24 years 6 FGD Men 25-40 years 6 FGD Men 41+ years 6 KII community leader (Both Adult 2 Kitonyoni and Mwania) Makueni County government Adult 3 Officials (Both Kitonyoni and Mwania) *All FGDs were conducted in both Kitonyoni and Mwania sub-locations

4.8.2 Data Processing and Analysis

The qualitative data was coded in NVivo 9 software and analysed using the thematic approach, while the household’s quantitative data was summarised and analysed using IBM SPSS statistics version 20. Emerging themes from the qualitative data were summarised and in some cases verbatim quotes used to illustrate responses on the relevant issues/themes. Selection of these quotes is done ensuring there is a balance along gender, age and sub- location.

6 Kamba is the local language spoken in the study area 86

4.9 Results

4.9.1 Meaning of development

The overarching definition of development in this study emerged to be its characteristic of upward mobility in almost all spheres of life. Improvements/progress in personal/household sphere leading to improvement in community affairs and then to national improvement was reported to be the pathway to development.

This study sought to investigate the community’s perceptions of important needs. This investigation was done at various levels, including individual and household levels using interviews and at community levels through community group discussions and key informant interviews with community leaders and government officials involved in development in Makueni County (See respondents in Table 4.1). The first question seeking to understand how the community understands development was asked in interviews with heads of households. The question asked was “What is development?” (See Appendix 9 for the questionnaire) upon which respondents were encouraged to mention scenarios that depicted development to them. This information was then summarised in order to understand the ranking of these issues. These responses are summarised in Figure 4.1. The most important depiction of development to the respondents was access to water, followed by availability of electricity, improvement of transport and health care facilities. Makueni County is a semi- arid area hence the most important development priority is adequate water, followed by electricity supply while access to credit, absence of disease and improved security were ranked as least important in development priority needs. The ‘other’ category comprised access to money transfer services, access to churches, access to adult education, advanced farming methods, good neighbourly relations and access to higher institutions of learning. Responses from the government development officials concurred with the community members’ views, where development was summarised as entailing the measure of a society’s wellbeing including social, political and economic aspects as articulated by one of the government officials in this quote:

“This is a measure of the well-being of a society in three pillars; social, political and economic. Economic development means that people are able to afford the basics, social is where they are able to communicate

political development is when politics is based on issues, not patronage etc. The politics in a developed society are based on issues…” KII District Development Official

4.9.2 Ranking of community needs

4.9.2.1 Overall perceptions of development and ranking

Access to adequate and clean water was a priority development need where the leaders mentioned that there exist efforts to ensure that the community’s access to water is improved. At the time of study there were various on-going efforts to improve access to water in the study communities, including building community dams, boreholes and shallow wells. The importance of water in fostering the community’s development was outlined and includes benefits in such areas as ensuring that households and the community in general has adequate water for use. It was also indicated that with adequate supply of water, the community is able to engage in agricultural activities, thereby ensuring households and the community has access to adequate food supply.

Figure 4.1: Reported important aspects of development and their ranking (Source: Household survey in Kitonyoni, 2012)

Since gender is considered to be important in perceptions of development, this chapter also presents results of analysis focusing on the reporting of the factors considered to be important in development by gender. Cross tabulation of the factors mentioned in Figure 4.1 was done and chi-square tests used to assess whether the differences between male and female responses was statistically significant (Table 4.2). This analysis indicates that regarding the overall factors mentioned in Figure 4.1, there was no significant difference between how male and female respondents prioritise these development areas. Significant differences could only be observed on factors such as improved transport facilities, having adequate employment opportunities and having enough disposable income, where more males, than 89

female heads of households mentioned the presence of these three factors as indicating development.

Table 4.2: Reported important aspects of development by gender (Source: Household survey in Kitonyoni, 2012) p-value Male Female TOTAL significance % N % N % N Access to water 51.8 145 48.2 135 95.2 280 NS Availability of electricity 53.5 108 46.5 94 68.7 202 NS Improved transport facilities 57.0 90 43.0 68 53.7 158 * Access to quality health care services 54.0 81 46.0 69 51.0 150 NS Enough schooling facilities 54.3 76 45.7 64 47.6 140 NS Access to adequate food 52.0 51 48.0 17 33.3 98 NS Access to market place 61.7 29 38.3 18 16.0 47 NS Other factors 51.5 17 48.5 16 11.2 33 NS Employment 67.6 25 32.4 12 12.6 37 * Having trees to change the environment 41.3 19 58.7 27 15.6 46 NS Having enough disposable income 69.7 23 30.0 10 11.2 33 * Access to credit 66.7 10 33.3 5 5.1 15 NS Absence of disease 42.9 6 57 8 4.8 14 NS Improved security 60.0 3 40.0 2 1.7 5 NS

χ2 test of independence between gender and perceptions of development: Significance levels *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05; NS-Not significant

4.9.1.2 Perceptions of development at personal, community and national levels

Having understood the household’s understanding/definition of development, a further attempt was made to understand these perceptions at various levels including at personal/household, community and national levels. Three questions were administered to the responding men and women:

1. “What does personal/household development mean to you or what factors are important for your personal/household development?” 2. “And now, what does community development mean to you or what factors are important for your community’s development?” 3. “And now, what does national development mean to you or what factors are important for your country’s development” (See questions in Appendix 8). 90

Respondents were asked each of the above questions one at a time and prompted to give all the indicators of development as they perceived them. The responses were not predetermined. The field assistants used ‘any other?’ probe to exhaust all the possible responses before proceeding to the next question. The responses to these questions are summarised in Figure 4.2 which shows how these responses vary at the personal/household, community and national levels. Improving one’s status through nurture and education, having a family and meeting basic needs were considered to be the most important indicators of personal development. At the community level, improvement in infrastructure while addressing obstacles to development and involving community members in development projects were cited as the important pathways to community development. National development, on the other hand was reportedly achievable though good leadership and judicial systems. Availability of electricity which was reported to have potential to facilitate entertainment and internet connectivity, thereby improving one’s connection with the world were especially cited by the youth as an indicator of national development. Development was also viewed as a hierarchical process where personal/household development contributed to community development and both eventually would help develop the nation.

Some of these factors overlapped at the three levels. Only two of the factors considered important at the personal/household level overlapped with those considered important at the community level, which include, having a family and the ability to care for one’s family. The others perceived to be crucial for the community’s development and which overlapped with the prerequisites of national development include having electricity, improved transport, acquisition of assets, accessible markets and health facilities, improved roads and good leadership with potential to ensure there is peace and equitable development. Well-equipped and accessible schools and the involvement of everyone in development were reported to be important for national development. In summary, factors considered to be important for personal/household development are those geared towards meeting of basic needs and the building of the family unit. At the community level, respondents valued factors focusing on infrastructural development while at the national level, improvement in infrastructure and leadership were considered to be the most important factors. Whereas access to adequate and clean water was reported in the initial investigation and in the qualitative investigation as being the most important need, it did not emerge as the first need in the follow-up investigation. This could be because the investigations were conducted at different time- 91

points where the community was experiencing varying weather conditions. The initial investigation was conducted during a period of scarce rain (March-May and September) whilst the later investigation was conducted during the rainy season (October-December). This may mean that the response to some of the questions could be influenced by the community’s immediate felt needs, and that the prioritization of needs may also vary with personal conditions.

Figure 4.2: Perceived important aspects/factors of development at personal, community and national levels (Source: Household survey in Kitonyoni, 2012)

60 Personal/household Community National

40 reporting

30 individuals

20 of

% 10

0 life

care food

in roads dvlpt) needs

disease schools poverty mobiles housing

clothing children facilities

produce

livestock property

methods children)

transport

leadership household household of

connection health

e.g

in at at development

farm

family's

Progress

Adequate health in

Improved equitable

Rearing Reduced Owning for farming

accessible Improved assets Improved

all

Eradicating

water (type) Improved (marriage, meet

and

of nurturing

access of

Electricity

and to

fuel

clean markets accessible

family Good

Improved (peace & women/youth

Ability and of

Improved Equipped Acquisition Improved Involvement Having Accessible Adequate leadership

Equipped Involvement Good

4.9.1.3 Gender differences in perceptions of development at personal/household, community and national levels

Guided by the gender and development theories applied in this study and other studies where emphasis is placed on the planning and implementation of development from a gender perspective, this study investigated the gender differentials in the perception of development.

Gender theories of development emphasize the importance of involving both men and women in development plans and initiatives at personal/household, community and national levels. To adequately involve both men and women in development however, understanding their views or factors they consider to be important in development is paramount. Seeking to understand the gender perceptions of development in this study was therefore informed by gender theories and by other research showing the importance of gender in perceiving factors important for development. Some of these studies, although not directly investigating gender perceptions in development, have found this variable to be strongly significant in perception of economic wellbeing (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998). Gender theorists argues that these perceptions are informed by the socially-constructed roles of males and females and/or the socialization of men and women.

The gender analysis not only presents the ranking of development needs overall, at personal/household, community and national levels, but also investigates how these factors were perceived by the male and female respondents in this study. The analysis further shows whether these perceptions statistically vary between the male and female respondents. Table 4.3 shows the frequency with which factors considered important in development are mentioned by the male and female respondents. Chi-square tests of significance were used to check the statistical differences, that is, whether men and women perceive the issues important for development at the three levels differently. Those responding to this question were men and women aged 18-54 years and 18-49 years respectively.

Most of the factors considered important in development at the personal, community and national levels by those responding in this study did not significantly vary by gender, there were some factors where statistical differences were observed. At the personal level, eradicating diseases (91.7% for males vs. 8.3% for females), improved access to health care 90.6% for males vs. 9.4% for females), improved transport (87.7% for males vs. 12.5 for females), reduced poverty (88.5% for males vs. 11.5% for females), were considered most important by men than women, while rearing livestock 32.6% for males vs. 67.4% for females), improved housing (32% for males vs. 68% for females), nurture of children (26.2% for males vs. 73.8% for females) and ownership of property (28.7% for males vs. 71.3% for females) were considered most important by the women respondents. More men than women significantly reported that adequate food supply (80% for male vs. 20% for females), improved transport (58.9% for males vs. 41.1% for females), improved farming methods

(75.6% for males vs. 24.4% for females), proper nurture of children (90% for males vs. 10% for females) and general progress in life (87.5% for males vs. 12.5% for females) were important indicators of community development. More women than men however considered having well-equipped and accessible schools (39% for males vs. 61% for females), adequate and clean water in the households (35.8% for males vs. 64.2% for females), electricity connection (15.8% for males vs. 84.2% for females) and involvement of all members of the community in development matters (32.1% vs. 67.9% for females) to be important in community development. Factors found to be statistically different in national development include adequacy of food (96.4% for males vs. 3.6% for females), eradication of disease (17.4% for males vs. 82.6% for females), equipping and making schools and health facilities easily accessible (34.4% for males vs. 65.6% for females regarding schools and 21.6% for males vs. 78.4% for females regarding health facilities), accessible markets for farm produce (16.2% for males vs. 83.8% for females), having enough and clean water at the household (60.2% for males vs. 39.8% for females), involvement of women in development (21.9% for males vs. 78.1% for females) as well as good leadership with potential to ensure equitable and sustainable development (32.8% male vs. 67.2% for females).

Table 4.3: Gender differentials in perceptions of development at personal, community and national levels (Source: Household survey in Kitonyoni, 2012)

Personal Community National

Male Female P7 Male Female P Male Female P Adequate food 53.6 46.4 NS 80.0 20.0 * 96.4 3.6 *** Eradicating disease 91.7 8.3 *** 66.7 33.3 NS 17.4 82.6 ** Improved access to health care 90.6 9.4 *** 48.7 51.3 NS 51.2 48.8 NS Acquiring assets e.g. mobile phones 62.5 37.5 NS 0 0 0.0 0.0 Improved clothing 46.1 53.9 NS 0 0 0.0 0.0 Rearing livestock 32.6 67.4 *** 0 0 0.0 0.0 Improved transport 87.5 12.5 * 58.9 41.1 * 44.8 55.2 NS Improved housing 32.0 68.0 *** 0.0 0 0.0 0.0 Improved fuel (type) at household 66.7 33.3 NS 0.0 100.0 50.0 50.0 NS Improved farming methods 54.9 45.1 NS 75.6 24.4 *** 60.9 39.1 NS Nurture of children (education etc.) 26.2 73.8 ** 90.0 10.0 * 83.3 16.7 NS Having a family (marriage, children) 43.6 56.4 NS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Owning property 28.7 71.3 *** 22.2 77.7 NS 60.0 40.0 NS Ability to meet family's needs 51.4 48.6 NS 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Reduced poverty 88.5 11.5 *** 0.0 0.0 57.6 42.4 NS Equipped & accessible health facilities 75.0 25.0 NS 47.9 52.1 NS 21.6 78.4 *** Equipped and accessible schools 25.0 75.0 NS 39.0 61.0 ** 34.4 65.6 *** Improved roads 100.0 0.0 54.2 45.8 NS 43.9 56.1 NS Accessible markets for farm produce 40.0 60.0 NS 43.5 56.5 NS 16.2 83.8 *** Enough & clean water at household 66.7 33.3 NS 35.8 64.2 *** 60.2 39.8 ** Electricity connection 27.3 72.7 NS 15.8 84.2 *** 46.3 53.7 NS Involving women in leadership 0.0 0.0 50.0 50.0 NS 21.9 78.1 ** Involvement of all in development 100.0 0.0 32.1 67.9 ** 56.1 43.9 NS Good leadership for peace and dvlpt 100.0 0.0 29.2 70.8 * 32.8 67.2 *** Progress in life 45.9 54.1 NS 87.5 12.5 * 86.7 13.3 **

χ2 test of independence between gender and perceptions of development: Significance levels *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05; NS-Not significant

Chi-square tests for some variables with low samples sizes was not done. These variables do not have p-value results.

7 Chi-square p-value significance for test of independence between gender and perceptions of development, at personal, household and community

4.9.1.4 Water as the most important factor in development

As highlighted in Figure 4.1, an adequate and clean water supply emerged at the most important indicator of development in the study community. This point was overwhelmingly made across age and gender. The main argument for this point was in regards to the importance of water at the person’s household, community and national levels. It was reported that availability of adequate and clean water would benefit the community greatly, as this would help meet other development priorities (Figure 4.3). Access to adequate water has potential to enable irrigation for adequate food production at the three levels as well as contribution to better health and an improved environment. Enhancement of both personal/household and community hygiene, specifically at the health facilities which are currently underserved with water, as well as in reducing water-borne diseases and reducing the time and cost spent on accessing the commodity, instead ploughing these into development efforts, were also reported to potentially enhance development. Further, being a semi-arid area, emphasis was laid on the potential to enable the community construct bigger structures, since a majority resided in small structures, thereby considering themselves poor.

Figure 4.3: Author’s summary of respondents’ perceived importance of adequate water supply and its link with development and poverty reduction (Source: Qualitative data in Kitonyoni and Mwania, 2010)

Irrigation: adequate food production

Improved (green) environment Reduced

 Improved Poverty health Adequate water Improved hygiene‐personal, &  Improved family & community (health supply quality of life Accelerated facility) Development

Reduction in water‐borne diseases

Reduced cost & time spent accessing water

Water as a priority development need in the study community was not only mentioned by responding community members, rather also by the community leaders and other leaders at the district level responding in this study. The importance of water in development as 96

perceived by the government leaders was highlighted by their focus on ensuring that the community makes an improvement in water access, for instance, through the development and improvement of the various sources of water such as the shallow wells and boreholes.

4.9.1.5 Availability of adequate electricity supplies

Adequate energy sources, including reliable and affordable electricity were reported in equal measure by men, women and youth as having the ability to unlock the community’s development potential. One of the areas likely to benefit would be access of health care, specifically immunization for children aged below five years, maternal health services, complicated surgeries, antidotes for snake and dog bites and night services through the available health facilities which lacked electricity at the time of study. Availability of electricity was deemed important as it was likely to help reduce some of the health-related challenges which impact development by exacerbating health conditions, increasing health spend through transport and cost to other facilities located further. The pathways to development through better education opportunities in the presence of adequate, affordable and reliable electricity were also highlighted. It was reported that availability of electricity in the community would enable young people to take computer lessons, have night prep at school as well as study in the evenings at home. Electricity would also enable schools and colleges to teach courses that require the use of electricity such as laboratory techniques, welding, hair-dressing and tailoring. These trainings were considered important in creating employment opportunities for the youth, while also availing their expertise in the community.

Benefits of electricity supply to the general community’s socio-economic status were also highlighted as including availability of affordable and reliable charging services for mobile phones, thereby improving business transactions and communication and living standards at households and in the community through the opening up of the community to business activities. In addition, it was reported that young people would stay in the community and start business activities such as welding, tailoring, hair-dressing and computer-related ones that would use the electricity availed thereby creating employment opportunities in the community. The community, it was also reported, would have an opportunity to open factories that could process and preserve some of the community’s produce such as mangoes and tomatoes that currently gets wasted due to limitations in preservation means. Being a semi-arid area, the benefit of electricity on access of clean water for the community was also

highlighted by all the three groups responding in the group discussions. Figure 4.4 summaries the potential developmental-benefits of electricity if available in the study community.

Figure 4.4: Author’s summary of respondents’ perceived importance of adequate electricity supply and its link with development (Source: Qualitative data in Kitonyoni and Mwania, 2010) Areas of accelerated Use of electricity Development

Improvement of health 1. Health facilities can offer all health care ‐Improved health a. Maternal health/delivery care/caesarean section b. Other complicated surgeries ‐Improved quality c. Cold chains to store vaccines of life d. Cold chains to store medicine for dog and snake bites e. Offer 24‐hour health care 2. Households can use electricity to purify drinking water

Improvement of education ‐Improved literacy & 1. Learn skills requiring use of electricity e.g. computer – skills related studies, tailoring, welding and hair dressing ‐Improved human 2. Enable night preps at schools and at home capital 3. Schools and colleges able to teach courses requiring ‐Improved livelihoods electricity e.g. laboratory studies, tailoring & welding

Adequate Socio‐economic benefits electricity supply 1. Adequate and affordable mobile charging thereby improving communication and business transactions ‐Improved livelihoods 2. Open community to outside world and businesses ‐Improved economy 3. Improve living standards at the household level through ‐Improved standards creation of economic opportunities of living 4. Retain the productive population in community and reduce rural‐urban migration to crowded slums 5. Electricity could be used to pump water from boreholes

Economic benefits 1. Set up processing plants to preserve fruit and vegetables 2. Set up income generating activities that utilise electricity

Improvement in security 3. Confidence to invest in the community

4.9.1.6 Improvement in transport

It was further found from the study’s qualitative data that the communities of study were underserved with adequate and reliable means of transport making access to the community

difficult. There were also challenges accessing the neighbouring towns, especially Makueni County capital, Wote town (see Figure 3.2 for the distance between the villages and Wote town). Improvement of roads was therefore reported to have potential in advancing the development of the study communities as this was reported to potentially improve movement of people and goods to the markets in all seasons (Figure 4.5). It was reported that this would in turn shorten travel distance thereby enabling people to engage in other productive activities. Transportation of patients to access health care in a timely manner would also be quickened, cheaper and more comfortable. This would in turn enable households to save money that would have been spent on cost of transport, redirecting this to other development needs. Transportation of perishable goods to the markets would also be improved thereby minimizing wastage and increasing earning from the farm produce. Improved transport was cited as having potential to improve the connectivity of the community to other communities and towns

Figure 4.5: Author’s summary of respondents’ perceived importance of improved . transport and its link to development (Source: Qualitative data in Kitonyoni and

Mwania, 2010)

Areas of accelerated Development

Improved movement of people and connectivity to other areas

Improvement in movement of goods and supplies Improved transport 1. Better and vibrant trade and businesses 2. Improved standards of living

Improvement in access of medical care 1. Reduced cost of transport and time 2. Improved quality of life and increased participation in development activities

4.9.1.7 Personal/household development

Improving one’s status: The aspect of progress was overriding in the indicators of personal/household development. Those responding in the group discussions cited acquisition of an education, marriage, children and meeting one’s basic needs, acquisition of 99

property and improvement in one’s personal space as the indicators of personal development.

In addition, continued improvement on food consumption and clothing, property- ownership, and improvement in one’s housing as well as the improvement in the source of fuel and means of livelihood were reported to be important indicators of personal/household development. The importance assigned to progress in the various spheres of one’s life can be highlighted in this quote:

“…if I used to borrow a donkey from my neighbour, I stop and buy mine … If I was using kerosene for lighting then I buy solar” Female 25-40 FGD, Mwania.

Empowerment: It further emerged that personal economic development could only be achieved if one is empowered through the acquisition of quality and higher education as well as through acquisition of life-skills. Defined as the process of improving one’s autonomy in decision-making, self-reliance, direct democracy and social learning, most of the discussants in this study (regardless of age and gender) viewed education as an avenue to improve one’s communication and avail more economic opportunities (Friedmann, 1992). Given this definition, some discussants in this study considered themselves least-developed because they did not have adequate education to enable them to compete in the job market and often got oppressed by those with higher education. This is aptly captured in the following quotes:

“Like getting enough education because the education that we have is not enough that can give us development that can match the times we are living in” Female 41+ FGD, Mwania.

“Enough education is like going up to the university level and having the ability to communicate in any way because like now we have internet, the face book and you know, you can’t do such without having enough education” Male 25-40 FGD, Mwania.

The other form of empowerment that emerged as important in fostering personal development relates to parental nurturing (physically, morally, religiously and culturally) enabling one to become self-reliant. As emphasized in this quote, this is considered important due to its potential to empower young people to become independent and to care for themselves and their future families:

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“In my opinion, development is from the time I was born by my parents [sic], bringing me up and showing me what is right and what is wrong …what can harm me and what cannot, and they brought me up by teaching me how I can live in this Gods’ word…took me to school…” Female 18-24 FGD, Kitonyoni

Asset-acquisition at the household level, including having electricity, own water source, radio, mobile phone, a car and businesses were considered as indicators of progress. In some instances, the acquired assets were further used to meet other needs at the household-level. The importance of asset-acquisition cut across gender and across the various age-groups participating in the discussions, thus:

“I feel like I have some ‘development’ in my home because I have a small borehole that I have dug, and I use the water for my goats and irrigate a tree, so I feel I am doing well” Female 25-40 FGD, Mwania.

“…even moving from a grass thatched house to one that has corrugated iron sheets” Male 18-24 FGD, Kitonyoni.

Family: The most common measures of personal development highlighted, especially by the older male respondents included getting married, having children and having the ability to comfortably care for one’s family through education and provision of basis needs. Having a family was given high importance as it also accorded someone respect and a higher status among peers and in the community. Older male respondents emphasized this aspect of development, thus:

“As you have heard, all of us have wives so a man who doesn’t have a wife basically has nothing, what can he possibly discuss among men? He doesn’t have a child, no goat, no dog. So that man who does not have a wife has basically nothing because she [wife] is the pillar to that man, anything even if it is a child is always under the care of the woman because even in my home I don’t know the things that we have, but my wife does. So women are the foundation and pillars of us men in this area” Male 41+ FGD, Kitonyoni.

Having a wife was considered by most male respondents as an important asset at the household as women are initiators of development at the house/home. Interaction with other women and participation in small-scale development strategies, including membership in and saving through the rotating credit associations (ROSCAs) empowers women to

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adequately perform this developmental role. By associating with other women and visiting them, women were reported to be able to identify the areas of their homes needing improvement. Consequently, many aspects of home improvement are handled by women because these areas are considered to be ‘small-scale’ while the ‘bigger’ development efforts like schooling and investment are usually handled by men. To younger respondents, marriage and family were not frequently mentioned as important aspects of one’s personal progress.

4.9.1.8 Community development

The main aspects of community development were reported to result from a collective effort by all members of the community. As highlighted by this male respondent, it also emerged that community development emerges from the trickle-up effects of personal development:

“Development for me as a man from this community… I should be in a position to work and contribute something to this sub location for example, I am a businessman and I spend my profit just within the community…I also educate children and if they would perform well, they would come back and help the people of this community as a whole” Male 41+ FGD, Kitonyoni.

The prerequisites for community development that have potential to enable community members and households to achieve better standards of living, thereby contributing to both their and community development include improvement in infrastructure, access to quality education and engagement in businesses, manufacturing, trade and export of manufactured goods.

Infrastructure: Improvement in infrastructure including easily accessible and adequately equipped health facilities, good quality schools, accessible markets and good quality roads were consistently mentioned by all respondents as important indicators of community development. In addition to opening up the community to trade, accessible roads were reported to be important particularly being a farming community whereby farmers would easily get their agricultural produce to the markets on time. This sentiment was shared by both community respondents and government representatives responding in this study. A quote from one of these respondents sums up the importance of infrastructural development in community development in this quote:

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“Development to me means having education, roads, electricity, water, more income, market for agricultural commodities-this depends on the region, but in Makueni, this is a very important factor. If the infrastructure is correct, everything else will fall in place, because infrastructure opens up even the most of the remote areas, health care, poverty alleviation” KII Makueni District Government Official.

Further, a poor road network is an impediment to both personal/household and community development. It emerged that fruits and vegetables often rot on the way to market due to poor roads resulting in losses for farmers and retarding their progress, thus:

“R5: Then, the mangoes just get lost [they go to waste], because where will the vehicles pass? … that is a loss which would have brought profit to Kenya. They just end up rotting and yet they were to go to (be exported) to international countries” Female 25-40 FGD, Kitonyoni.

Yet, discussants were confident that better roads would provide easy access to health facilities:

“…and if it is someone who is unwell, they can be taken to the hospital through good roads so that they won’t suffer a lot by taking them to the hospital through the bushes” Female 18-24 FGD, Mwania.

The importance of having adequate and consistent supply of water as a route to development, as indicated in Figures i and ii was reported to achieve this if all households, health facilities and schools were connected to a water source. It was recounted that this would then enable households to irrigate their farms, thereby cultivating enough food and eliminating malnutrition and resultant illnesses. In addition, clean water in households would improve hygiene while at the same time ensuring a sanitary environment at health facilities. Further, households would be able to build bigger houses (which in itself was considered a form of development) and engage in businesses that require adequate water supply. Most importantly, it was reported that this could significantly reduce the cost of water, which was reported to be Ksh. 8-10 [Ksh. 80 is approximately equivalent to USD 1] at the time of study.

Absence of electricity in the community was highlighted as an impediment to the development of the community, as it is an obstacle to the acquisition and use of life-skills for the youth who miss formal higher education, forcing them to migrate to cities in search of opportunities. The situation also deters entrepreneurship and denies the community some

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important services such as photocopying and health services (maternal health, cold chains for vaccines and antidotes for snake and dog bites). The importance of electricity was articulated in these quotes:

“Yes! If electricity comes within our area, the women will not have to go and be cut [undergo caesarean section] at Wote [the nearest town, which is approximately 50km away] since our dispensary here will have the theatre section” Female, 25-40 FGD, Mwania.

“But if we had electricity just here around, such a person can work from within. They can weld doors and windows for people to buy and at the end of the day, that person will just go and sleep at his home [own his own home], no one will ask him for rent” Female, 25-40 FGD, Kitonyoni.

4.9.1.9 National development

Good leadership that can ensure sustained peace and progress for all Kenyans and credible facilities and institutions alongside poverty eradication efforts were mentioned as key factors that can drive national development. The characteristics of national development on the other hand included gender, age and regional balance in leadership and equitable development, particularly since Makueni was classed among the least-developed on infrastructure. Like community development, national development was mentioned as only possible once personal/household and community development was met.

4.9.1.10 Poverty as an indicator of lack of development

This section presents results of the perceptions of poverty as an aspect of development that acts as a barrier of development progress. The perceptions of poverty in this section are grouped into social, economic, health and socio-economic indicators are summarised in Figure 4.6.

Social indicators of poverty

Family: Just like in perceptions of personal development, lacking a family was overwhelmingly considered to be one of the most important social indicators of poverty, as the never married and/or childless were considered to be poor. However, the inability to comfortably take care of one’s family was also a sign of poverty. The other common social indicator of poverty in Makueni was reported to be widowhood and orphan hood, as those

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experiencing these, in most cases lose economic and social support and therefore often struggle to meet their most important needs.

Respect: The poor, it was reported, were often less respected in society and rarely got the chance to socially engage with the rest of the community, particularly in public debates and any attempt to do this caused them to be ignored and belittled. The most affluent members of the community on the contrary, were considered opinion leaders in the community, even if they were uneducated. They were also reported to be arrogant especially when relating to those considered poor.

Psychological stress: The inability to take care of one’s needs, coupled with other challenges, exposed the poor members of Makueni to psychological stress, which manifested in absent- mindedness and foul mood, making it difficult to interact with other members of the community. This point was candidly made by both male and female respondents and across the various age groups participating in the discussions:

“The poor person is always bitter, he is never happy because he is thinking about other things and you are seeing his problem. He thinks about what people will eat at my home before the sun set [sic]. You might think he is happy but he is very annoyed. You talk to him and he will not respond. He has not heard you because his mind is far” Male Youth FGD, Kitonyoni.

“His mind is very far because he is thinking about food and his children. What he will do and it is not his wish, is only that he is suffering [sic].” Female 25-34 years FGD, Mwania.

Economic indicators of poverty

Housing: the most glaring economic indicator of poverty regarding housing relates to the construction material used, for instance, those with grass-thatched and mud-walled houses were considered to be poor. In addition, the size of the house distinguished the very poor from the non-poor as the poor lived in very small and often crowded houses, indicating the inability to afford more adequate material. In addition, the very poor homesteads and houses are often dilapidated whereby walls may have gaping holes and may lack protective fences. Regarding household items, the poor lack basic household assets such as utensils and water jerry cans and often use calabashes for serving food, or borrow utensils from neighbours.

Livelihood: Compared to the more affluent in the community, most of who were reported to have formal jobs and therefore able to afford to purchase household items in bulk, the 105

poor were reported to often have limited choices in terms of livelihood hence rely on casual jobs in the farms and houses of the more affluent members of the community. Manual labour was however not limited to adults as children from poorer households were also sometimes compelled to work as casual workers in order to help support their families, thereby missing school or dropping out altogether. Consequently, the poor often bought household items in small quantities. As captured in this quote, the poor also generally earned less in formal employ, barely enough to cater for their needs:

“…a poor person...poverty depends on how much you earn. If you look at most people here ,let us take for example myself, I work for 150 shillings a day [Ksh. 80=1USD] and…I have like two wives and four children, so you find that if I calculate that 150 with the children [sic] I have because each child has to get a share, so you find that every child eats [sic] about 8 shillings so it means they do not get enough food so if you were dividing this 150 shillings among six people you will never find a chicken there [meaning the family is unable to afford even the most basic property]… dressing is by luck…” FGD Male 25-34, Kitonyoni.

Discussants in this study reported that children from poorer households often have poor dressing, including tattered clothes and are often dirty due to the inability to afford/access soap and a change of clothes. In addition, they often use locally-made attire, including Akala8 shoes. A majority of children from poorer households were also reported to drop out of school for lack of tuition fees, uniform and other schooling necessities. Children from affluent families were reported to lead luxurious lives and had most things they need and want, including mobile phones. Regarding food consumption and diet, poor families were reported to face challenges in accessing three meals a day and often had inadequate food, wanting in nutrition and amount. They were reported to just eat basic food for survival with very little variation in diet while more affluent households were reported to comfortably have meals rich in all the essential nutrients as well as eat food considered to be luxurious, for instance chapatti, rice, beef, milk and bread.

It also emerged that accessing a comfortable livelihood is a big challenge to poorer households who in most cases lack adequate education and skills to compete in the job market. Such families therefore find it difficult to escape poverty because they are also unable

8These are sandals locally made from old car tyres 106

to invest adequately for posterity. They also in most cases have poor access to other means of livelihood, for instance many poor families were reported to own small pieces of land that can barely sustain large-scale farming. They therefore face challenges in accessing the farm input necessary to improve farm output. In addition, the rich own more property including cars, bicycles, motor cycles, mobile phones, own land, cows (both indigenous and exotic), have a shop/business that is doing well, live in iron-sheet roofed houses, have solar power in their houses and have their own boreholes and toilet facilities. A quote from one of the FGDs supports this:

“There are families that lack resources and you may find that there is no educated child that can support the family. The only children who are available are in school and require school fees but in such a family there may lack a member who is earning income and all the members are present but they lack a big piece of land, it happened that they only own a small piece of land and they cannot carry out serious farming in the small piece of land. They only depend on digging terraces [manual labour] or that the man and the woman collects firewood to sell at the market and the little income that they get daily they are not in position to save” FGD Male 25-35 Mwania.

Affluent households were reported to own property that makes their lives easy or luxurious. Such facilities include water tanks, dairy cattle, electricity and refrigerators among other facilities.

This study further found that having some items like livestock and poultry is highly valued because this can be used as insurance during tough times. It was reported, especially by the women respondents that eggs, chicken or livestock could be sold and the money used to take care of emergency situations such as unexpected visitors, seeking health care or paying school fees or used as a meal. Seen as an investment, a normal household/homestead is expected to have them and those that lack them are considered poor.

These views on livelihood challenges as faced by the poor highlight the cyclic nature of poverty where the conditions are interrelated and therefore far-reaching to those caught in poverty.

Access and affordability: The state of despair of the poor in this community can further be captured in the ‘small economy’ that they engage in, by purchasing household items in smaller quantities, mostly from the small kiosks within the villages while the better-off families undertake huge purchases, mostly from larger outlet stores. In order to capture this group of 107

consumers, business people often have to repackage their products into smaller quantities in order to cater for poorer people in the community. Further, the poor, it was reported are often unable to afford adequate food and face cyclic episodes of starvation during the dry seasons. They face difficulties in accessing other essential services such as schooling and health care. Consequently, they depend on other people to meet their basic needs and on aid in times of drought and food scarcity. Regarding dressing, those from poorer households in the community of study did not seem to have many changes of clothes.

Health

Knowledge and access: The poor were reported to lack knowledge and access of essential health services and products including family planning methods and therefore always get more children than they can afford to care for. In addition, when sick, they are often unable to afford transport to hospital and the prescribed medicine because this is not given free at health facilities. Consequently, the poor often access health services and products made from unqualified sources.

Poor health outcomes: The inability to afford adequate food rich in all required nutrients often leads to poor health including under nutrition thereby exposing the community to other health issues. In addition, those with physical disabilities are considered poor because they are often unable to work in order to improve their situation or to access basic services including health and education. Those affected by HIV/AIDS are also considered poor, especially since they may lose the main income-earner, spend family savings on treating the illnesses arising from the condition or suffer psycho-social stress due to the illnesses or resultant loss of the family member or resources spent on their treatment. The poor’s inability to access family planning products and services often leads to bigger and unplanned families than can be comfortably cared for:

“…the rich person is capable of handling emergencies like sickness, such a person is capable of taking himself and his family to the hospital and potential to take care of his family” FGD Male adults above 35, Kitonyoni.

Psychological worries: Due to the many challenges that they face, the poor often develop psychological worries, depression and resort to alcohol and substance abuse and therefore rarely engage in positive social interaction with other community members.

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Socio-economic indicators of poverty

Schooling: It emerged that children from poor homes attend the local village schools, considered to be substandard while those from less poor backgrounds attend boarding schools which are better-equipped but expensive. In addition, children from poor families, although may be intellectually gifted, often drop out of school due to lack of fees or as a result of owing the schools money in form of unpaid fees and tuition. As a result, they may fail to get their school certificates that would aid advancement in life. New education policies, i.e. free-primary however requires all children to be in school, a task given to village administrators because children from poorer families often skip school to help meet family’s need. Children from poor households could also skip school due to the unaffordability of the other associated costs of education such as lunch and school uniform, resulting in poor performance. Children from more affluent background, although facing less challenges, equally perform poorly because they are not empowered to work hard; with access to money, opportunities can often be secured for them.

Education was viewed as an important avenue to escape poverty. This is because it enabled even the poor’s children to enable the families escape poverty by accessing opportunities arising from education. Those who educate their children, even if at the time considered as poor, were considered potentially rich.

Entertainment leisure time: The poor were reported to lack entertainment facilities including radio, television and electricity (to power the entertainment facilities). Their leisure time was therefore reported to be mainly during the early afternoon or evening, after work while the more affluent community members have more leisure time in the evenings. People from poorer households therefore often go to bed earlier than their more affluent counterparts:

“…when you pass by a homestead that is quiet and there is no lighting that is a poor family…They slept at seven o’clock because there was no money to buy paraffin…By eight o’clock you will find that most of the [poor] family’s people have already slept but there are those who go to bed at eleven [the rich] because they are satisfied [had dinner] and are discussing about [planning] the following days activities. They [rich] also listen to the radio [recreation]” FGD Youth Mwania.

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4.9.2 Linking poverty and development

Definitions of poverty not only highlight areas where development efforts may be focused, the link between poverty and development concepts gives a better idea of how the two interlink and the approaches to undertake in order to improve the wellbeing of Makueni residents. As shown in Figure 4.7, it emerged that development and poverty alleviation is a hierarchical issue that builds on from meeting the needs of individuals and households, who then contribute to community development and their collective efforts contribute to national development. It was reported that unless individual/household development is achieved, it may be difficult to achieve community and national development. Further, discussants in this study articulating perceptions of poverty and development although indicated some economic-related indicators, various non-economic related indicators were also highlighted, such as psychosocial aspects.

Figure 4.6: Author’s summary linking poverty and development indicators in Makueni

Development

National Poverty

Community

Personal

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Figure 4.7: Author’s summary of the perceived indicators of poverty in Makueni

1. Family Social  People of marriageable age or older without children are poor  Those who have never married (men & women) are considered poor  Those with too many children that they are unable to take care of are poor  Orphaned and widowed people are considered poor  The poor are often stressed due to various challenges they face “… they talk to themselves” 2. Lack of respect  Lack of respect from the community; often not allowed to contribute in public debates

1. Housing  The poor often live in houses constructed with mud and grass-thatched  They also live in small houses e.g. one-roomed and accommodate too many people  Poor households often do not have a well-protected homestead e.g. with a fence or a dog  Poor people’s houses often have gaping holes that outsiders can see through into the inside  They also lack household utensils and instead improvise e.g. use calabashes for eating  They also lack jerry cans for fetching and storing water and sometimes have to borrow Economic them 2. Livelihood  Poor people in the community are always only able to access non-formal and casual jobs  They therefore have irregular income due to the economic activities they partake in  They also earn low wages e.g. Ksh 150 per day, and most have many dependents  As a result of the low wages, the poor often engage in low-quantity purchases  Children from poor families often have to work to help sustain the family. As a result, they often miss school or drop out to get informal employment to support their families  The poor often wear torn clothes, akala* shoes and often have few changes of clothes (*Akala: sandals made from old car tires)  Poor households are unable to afford to own property, including land, car, own source of water and electricity and own toilets.  Those who do not own any livestock or poultry are considered poor 3. Access and affordability  Because of low income, the poor are often unable to afford enough food, hence they starve  They also cannot afford any luxurious food items like chapatti, rice, meat &milk  Purchase household items in low quantities  Child labor to sustain household-miss school  Poor dressing/less change of clothes

1. Knowledge and access  The poor lack knowledge and access of family planning methods - end up with more children than they can afford to care for  When sick, they are also often unable to afford transport to hospital and prescribed medicine  Poor access to health services and products makes them rely on unqualified advice or none at all 2. Poor health outcomes Health  Often eat food wanting in adequate nutrition leading to poor health e.g. malnutrition in children  Unable to afford adequate food, which leads to starvation and undernutrition  Most suffer from poor health, including HIV/AIDS because of lack of information/services  Those with physical disabilities are considered poor because they cannot fend for themselves  Poor family planning among the poor often leads to their having many children 3. Psychological worries  The poor often face many challenges leading to psychological problems like depression  As a result of the challenges faced, the poor are often unable to engage in positive social interaction with other community members

1. Schooling  The poor are often unable to afford tuition fees, uniform, other fees for school  Children from poor families sometimes miss/drop out of school to help fend for the family  Children from poor households are often unable to advance in secondary or tertiary Socio- education because their families cannot afford to pay the required fees and provide other items required economic  Children from poor households are more focused in school; seen as the option to improve status 2. Entertainment leisure time  The poor lack entertainment facilities including radio, television and electricity to power these  Therefore their leisure time is mainly during the day (early afternoon after work) while the less poor have more leisure time in the evenings 111

4.9.3 Best approaches to development

In addition to discussing the indicators of development, the best approaches to development were also discussed. Both male and female discussants in this study mentioned involvement of community members in projects implemented in their area, including providing constant information on the efforts and progress and asking for their contribution in monetary and in kind. The importance attached to community participation in development is aptly highlighted by one of the female respondents, thus:

“And in case of any contributions, they [should] call upon everyone, they [should] say what they are building, the progress in terms of finances and the requirement for each of us” Female 25-40 FGD, Mwania.

It also emerged that to ensure development progress is achieved in the study community, focus must also be paid on strategies that can help alleviate poverty. This study found that higher development status could only be achieved with reduction in levels of poverty, which were reported to be high at the time of study. A district development official remarked:

“Development is linked to the wellbeing of a society. If a society is poor, one cannot say that the society is developed” KII, District development official

Asked what strategies would be best be applied in order to achieve development, most of the respondents indicated sponsorship by the government and donors as the best approaches in achieving personal, community and national development, with achieving national development through government and donor-sponsorship ranking higher (Figure 4.8). For community development however, initiatives purely implemented by communities, those implemented in partnership with government and donors or those implemented purely as a partnership between the government and donors were considered important avenues through which development could be achieved.

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Figure 4.8: Perception of strategies through which development can best be achieved at household, community and national levels (source: author’s household survey data)

Sponsorship by government

60 Sponsorship by donors 50 40 Community partnerhsip 30 with government/donors 20 Partership between 10 government and donors 0

% of respondents% of reporting Personal/household Community National Partnership between development development development community, government and donors Purely through community initiatives

Increased funding through loans and subsidies as well as through other benefits were reported as important strategies that can foster development. This was reported by both community members and government officials who viewed development as best-addressed through partnerships among community, government and the international community. In addition, implementation of projects/programs that can take advantage of the community’s economic activities, including building a fruit processing factory to process and preserve farm produce were widely mentioned across age and gender as being important for the community’s progress. The study community is mainly served with poor dirt roads, making it difficult to get farm produce to markets, especially during the rainy seasons. Further, approaching development both as a sponsorship and a partnership where sponsors can fund development projects while community members contribute labour and other materials would help foster development. Community members could also be empowered through waiving of tuition fees for higher education and linking farmers to markets that offer better prices for their farm produce. The various sponsors or partners may include the government, through development projects like the Constituency Development Fund (CDF), Agricultural research institutions (in order to improve yields) and through non-governmental

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organisations which can help finance projects relating to food and water supply and also get support from individual philanthropists.

4.9.4 Development as a hierarchical affair

This study reveals development to be hierarchical where it trickles up from individual/household, to community and to national development. Figure 4.9 summaries this perception of development as a hierarchical affair. It emerged that unless individual/household development is achieved, it may be difficult to achieve community and national development. The trickle-up effect of development from the individual, to community and to the national level was highlighted by both community respondents and government leaders responding in the study. This quote from a community leader clearly outlines this importance: “It should be a personal issue because the development of a nation depends on the development of an individual, therefore if an individual is developed, then the nation too becomes developed. Also a personal issues so that collective efforts of each individual can bring about greater change. It will be pointless if there is development at the national level when the individual person is not developed” KII Community leader.

The study also finds that emphasis is placed on meeting different needs at these three levels. Development at the personal/household level for instance mainly revolved around improvement in capabilities in order to improve livelihoods and wellbeing. Having a family is one of the measures of development at this level, articulated during this study. The importance of a family, specifically a spouse and children was considered important as it raises one’s social status. The other areas of personal/household development considered crucial in improving capabilities include having an adequate education, good nutrition and adequate shelter. Community development on the other hand, is mainly perceived as revolving around improvement in, and access of community resources and services. Emphasis was placed on improving infrastructure, and the associated services such as health facilities, schools, electricity, roads and markets, all of which would in turn contribute to an improvement in the community’s wellbeing. The needs perceived to be important at the national level were mainly political, for instance an improvement in leadership that has potential to enhance national peace and equitable development.

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4.9.5 Gender involvement in development plans and initiatives

Gender emerged as an important component in regards to how development matters and priorities are perceived by residents of Makueni County. The study found that men and women perceive certain factors of development differently. The factors perceived differently at the personal/household level include eradication of diseases, improved access to health care, improved transport, reduced poverty. Men considered these factors most important compared to women. Women on the other hand considered the rearing of livestock, improved housing, nurture of children and ownership of property to be the most important factors that can signify personal/household development. This indicates that gender mainstreaming in development activities is important.

4.9.6 Development challenges in Makueni County

Poor infrastructure in Makueni was reported as a contributing factor to the community’s poor development due to its contribution to the community’s impoverishment as well as by denying community members access to vital services including health, water, electricity, education and markets for farm produce and therefore isolating the community and excusing them from the economy. It emerged that there have been attempts at improving infrastructure, particularly relating to the improvement of access to water in the community. The huge costs involved however acted as barriers to the implementation of the projects, thus:

“The main reason why there is persistence of underdevelopment in Ukambani region is the fact that there is a cycle of addressing calamities. This is because the investment needed to address these issues is huge. For example, in 2008, the government carried out a feasibility study conducted to construct a damn in Kitise location of Makueni district in order to pump water from Athi River and well as provide electricity to the region. The cost was however huge and was estimated at 10 billion and this project was suspended” KII, District development official.

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Figure 4.9: Author’s summary of Makueni community perceptions of development

Description of moving from one level (lower level) to another (higher level)

1. Improving one’s status (economic)  Improving one’s diet,  Owning shoes where one previously did not  Wearing new clothes where one previously wore second-hand clothes,  Owning a mobile phone where one previously did not,  Starting to rear livestock,  Owning a motor cycle and using it for transport where one previously used a bicycle  Moving from a grass-thatched house to an iron-roofed one  Switching to a more expensive and sophisticated fuel type  Switching to mechanised farming from simple farming methods Personal  Owning property, e.g. buying land, more livestock, businesses and other assets 2. Nurturing children  Parental care given to young children including moral, and religious guidance  Acquiring an education as a process of personal development 3. Having a family  Getting married and having children was considered an improvement in one’s life 4. Meeting basic needs  Those who are able to comfortably provide for their families were considered developed

4. Stems from personal development  All community members have a duty to contribute to their community’s development  Community development may only be achieved once personal development has been achieved 5. Infrastructural development  Includes having easily accessible and adequately equipped health facilities  Having good quality schools which are well-equipped and easily-accessible to all  Having accessible markets helps sell farm produce  Having good quality roads helps access of the main facilities needed by the community. They also help to open up the community for trade and other interactions with other communities Community  Having enough clean water in all households helps to improve community’s health and for other uses e.g. for construction. The cost of water would also be reduced,  Having electricity connected to the community helps create business opportunities, improve health services offered and improve education 6. Freedom of movement/engagement  This mentioned majorly by the youth entails being free to move and engage in business and development activities,  As a result of the challenges faced, the poor are often unable to engage in positive social interaction with other community members 7. Women as initiators of development  At the family level, women are considered to be the initiators of development

1. Good leadership  Good leadership can ensure peace and equitable progress for all Kenyans  Eradicating poverty among all Kenyans 2. Entertainment leisure time National  The poor lack entertainment facilities including radio, television and electricity to power them. Therefore their leisure time is mainly during the day (early afternoon after work) while the less poor have more leisure time in the evenings

3. Poor infrastructure  Poor roads hinder ease of transportation of farm produce to market, getting access to health care and attracting investors to the community.  Inadequate rainfall & water hinder cultivation of adequate food & contribute to undernutrition. Development  Inadequate rain/water hinders maintenance of good health and cleanliness at health facilities challenges &  Inadequately equipped health facilities 4. Corruption & nepotism priorities  Money allocated for development is embezzled & there is nepotism in allocating jobs 5. Development inequalities  Other regions are better equipped than Makueni 6. Development priorities and possible approaches  Community should be involved in planning, execution and management of new projects  Improvement of education is an important asset for development  Development should be both a sponsorship and partnership with community contributing 116  Improve infrastructure e.g. roads, health facilities & link farmers to traders even internationally  Involve women in leadership

4.9.7 Perceived custodianship of development

One of the factors of investigated in this study is the perceived custodianship of development as perceived by respondents in the study. These issues were investigated at the three levels; personal/household development, community development and national development (Figure 4.8). Data from the individual interviews show sponsorship by government and donors to be the main route through which personal, community and national development could take place. At the community level however partnerships with government and donors as well as community initiatives were mentioned as some of the channels through which the community could develop. The perception of partnership in development is also shared by the government officials interviewed. Overall, from all respondents of the study, the government was given as the main institution charged with development matters, thus:

“Although the government should be responsible for development, however, if it gets support from other quarters, it is still fine” KII Community leader.

Leaders interviewed viewed development as a partnership where community leaders worked with the government and the international community to bring about change in the areas of interest. The partnership in community development projects was also emphasized as a good approach to development. The community leaders interviewed highlighted the importance of involving all community members, including women to improve the development standing of the community, thus: “Whenever there is a project to be implemented, my office facilitates the coming together of community members to fundraise for the project. At such times, we may even approach the CDF, LATF etc. and we may also request well-wishers. At the same time, if the government has funds, we can access them. We may also bring women groups together where they plant trees in nurseries to sell so that this money can facilitate the projects” KII Community leader

The importance of partnership in the formative stages of development was also considered to be important, but one that need phasing out over time, such that the community would be fully in charge. These quotes from one of the government representatives interviewed summarises this viewpoint: “Development should be a partnership between the community, the government and the NGOs. This is important so that there is support in funds for development projects. The community may have 117

excellent projects that they wish to implement but they may lack funds, in this case, they can access funds form NGOs through the government” KII Community leader

“…the government might not be able to facilitate all the development projects, thus the need for international partnering and networking. International support to [should only] facilitate some projects which cannot be supported by the government, but should not be a permanent issue [international support]… Development is a process and there are various stages like embryonic, emerging, growing and maturity stages. Development in a particular community goes through all these stages and when this development reached the maturity stage, then international support can be faced out and the community should be able to stand on their own” KII Makueni District Government Official.

The qualitative data used in this chapter also indicated that development is majorly the responsibility of the government, working through the various government ministries to improve the living conditions of people in the various areas of jurisdiction. Community leaders further indicated that they were the representatives of the government t in development matters at the sub-location level. One of their job requirements was to coordinate development activities in their areas of jurisdiction. This included educating community members on development policies, conducted through sub-locational development committees (SLDC).

Despite respondents articulating development to be a partnership between the citizens, the government and development partners and the role of development partners was however given as only temporal, with the government remaining the constant institution that is preferred by a majority of the respondents, to spearhead development matters. This issue is captured by a community leader:

“When the GOK is able to facilitate its development, then the international community can pull out. As it is now, even though the government is trying, all these efforts are yet to be felt on the local level. But the governments’ efforts are better when reinforced by the other partners” KII Community leader

4.9.8 On-going community development activities

Although it overwhelmingly emerged that development is a partnership between communities, governments and the international community, the role of the community as

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a spear-header of development was highlighted as being crucial. This emerged from information from both the community and government officials.

This thesis also investigates the kinds of development activities on-going in the community at the time of the study. It emerged that community development initiatives such as water, roads, education and health are already being undertaken by the government, community members and non-governmental organizations. Community women and youth groups are some of the institutions reported to be involved in development initiatives. These however were reported to be in collaboration with either the government or non-governmental institutions.

Based on the ranking of community felt needs, most of the on-going community projects were geared towards improving the community’s living standards, enabling availability of adequate and safe drinking water through the construction of dams, bore-holes and other sources of water, enhancing youth and women employment through income generating activities and improvement of the community’s infrastructural outlook, including roads. This quote from a community leader indicates the amount of development initiatives and support reported to have been on-going in the study community:

“We also have groups which we have joined together and they have started some projects e.g. bee keeping, chicken, livestock etc. Other groups have been trained in microfinance. Facilitate the community to improve some infrastructural areas e.g. building of roads voluntarily. This may be donor through the Kazi Kwa Vijana initiative” KII Community leaders

Acknowledging the importance of gender mainstreaming in development activities, the district government officials interviewed cited the on-going efforts to ensure gender capacity building in development projects in the community, thus:

“…we do gender mainstreaming in development where we ensure that in all the projects gender concerns are well-addressed. These include planning convenient time to access services. So the issue is to include both men and women in planning. Also organize gender workshops and ensure all the activities are gender responsive e.g. when doing monitoring, budgeting etc. are gender sensitive and incorporate everybody” KII Makueni District Government Official.

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4.9.9 Community engagement in development activities

A range of community capacity building projects was reported to be on-going in Makueni County, incorporating community engagement strategies where communities are involved in determining their felt needs and supported to come up with action plans to implement these projects. In some instances, communities are linked up with either government funding agencies or international funding agencies supporting community development initiatives. The mode of operation adopted in some of these development projects entails a great involvement of community members in determining their needs as well as strengthening a partnership of operation with international support organizations and some government departments/agencies. A quote from one of the government officials interviewed in this study summed up this strategy:

“During the needs identification, started in 2000 after this, and after developing the action plans, now the communities develop proposals. [International Funding Agency] agreed to provide up to Ksh. 500, 000 [about 80Ksh=1$] funding per community…Most communities put up water, enhanced livestock, bee keeping, using the Bamako initiative where community health workers were identified from the community, trained and based on the proposals, the community set up a structure (pharmacy) and dispense drugs for cases that are not very serious, for the most serious ones, are referred to health facilities” KII Makueni District Government Official.

One of the community involvement strategies reportedly employed is the involvement of community in the identification of their needs is through the incorporation of the vulnerable groups in Makueni in providing data about their situation and using the information to design strategies for these groups. A case was given where orphans in the community were interviewed in order to determine the most important problems affecting them, upon which provision of shelter was established to be the most important intervention. In keeping up with the community’s culture, where these children were not removed from their communities, separate rooms were constructed for boys and girls at their homes and their families given donkeys, ploughs and oxen to aid in meeting some of the household needs like fetching water and ploughing the farms. In addition, their caregivers were assisted to start bee-keeping projects to cater from the orphans’ needs.

Project sustainability was given consideration in some of the projects implemented for the poor in the study community. This study found that the families were allocated some income

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generating activities in order to enhance the self-sustaining nature of the strategies implemented for these orphans. This quote confirms this decision:

“But because activities were not self-sustaining, goats were bought so that they can give milk and also can sell some to buy other essentials e.g. uniform. We started with 50 goats and now recently gave out 100 goats. Also once the goats deliver the households give one to a new household. There is also some poultry projects where chicken is kept to improve diet and sell some for income” KII Makueni District Government Official.

In addition, it was reported that support is provided to child-headed households in order to improve wellbeing. Some orphans have their school fees paid while at the same time linking them to some organizations which offer them job opportunities. Other services provided to the vulnerable in the community include psychosocial support, given through counselling sessions.

The other government plans implemented focus on addressing some of the other wellbeing problems experienced in the community by providing focused on providing support to mothers and guardians of children aged below 5 years, and who have poor nutrition. The mothers and guardians were given guidance on appropriate child feeding practices, farming activities with potential to enable adequate food supply in households with young children, food preservation for example through drying of vegetables, building and using local refrigerators, water purification and generally good child care practices.

There are also regular community engagement activities where sensitization is done through Participatory Educational Theatres and where people in the community are requested to perform some skits and involve the community. These drama activities are carried out in order to change the community behaviour.

4.10 Discussion

The purpose of this paper was to investigate how residents of Makueni County perceive poverty and development, with the view of informing development studies. This approach is particularly fitting in a sub-Saharan context where there exists unequal development and where a majority of the population still reside in rural areas and are rarely involved in decisions and actions regarding their felt needs (UN Population Division, 2010). This study,

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presenting results from a mixed-methods approach therefore provides a rich and dynamic understanding of poverty and development which has potential in helping development practitioners to focus on communities’ development priorities. This is particularly useful in a context like Kenya where these differences exist and where the new devolved governance structures indicate that development practitioners in Makueni County could greatly benefit from results of such a study (Muhula, 2009). Results of this study add to the understanding and conceptualizing of poverty and development by Makueni residents and thereby have potential in informing design of development efforts as inadequate data has been cited as an impediment in design of development initiatives (National Coordinating Agency for Population and Development, 2005).

While both poverty and development were perceived in social, economic, health and socio- economic aspects, those of development were specifically given at personal/household, community and national levels. On the social front, family emerged as key indicators of development where lack of children, failure to get married and the inability to care for one’s family were cited as indicators of poverty. Loss associated with orphan hood and widowhood was also reported to be a social contributor and indicator of poverty. Other social indicators highlighting an act of development included getting married, having children and nurturing them morally, religiously and through education/skills’ acquisition. Findings by other studies point to similar perceptions of poverty (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). This study also found psychological health to be an indicator of poverty, a finding which is consistent with a study conducted by Brock, in 23 countries, arguing that peace of mind is as important as wealth in assessing wellbeing (Brock, 1999).

The economic indicators of poverty on the other hand regarding housing, including having small and unkempt houses, and using non-permanent material as well as lacking household utensils constituted poverty. Regarding wellbeing, the poor were reported to: rely on low or irregularly-paying casual (short-term and irregular) work; having children work to help sustain the family, thereby missing or dropping out of school; either wearing torn clothes or not being able to afford these at all or relying on locally made traditional clothing; and lacking cattle and poultry as well as being unable to own any property/assets, including toilets, water- source and electricity. Some personal indicators of development corresponding with these economic indicators of poverty included improvement in food consumption, clothing, rearing livestock, moving from grass-thatched housing to more permanent housing, owning

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a mobile phone and other property, improving the household’s fuel type and improving farming methods. Other studies conducted to understand perceptions of poverty and development have made findings that are either similar to the present study or that slightly vary because of contextual factors (Barrett, Carter, & Little, 2006; Caizhen, 2010; Saunders, 2003; SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). A study conducted in Tanzania, to understand poverty perceptions in a rural community found that having children, enough food, good health, education, getting married, having adequate clothing and not needing to borrow cooking utensils or clothes, indicated higher wellbeing, although these indicators varied slightly in the various villages enumerated because of cultural and livelihood factors (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998; Tierney, 1997). Other studies present similar perceptions of poverty, including the inability to access adequate food, education, dressing, health care among other measures of deprivation (Narayan et al., 2000). This study’s findings reinforce some of the challenges articulated in the Makueni district development plan where orphan hood, disease, disability and environmental conservation are presented as some of the challenges faced (National Coordinating Agency for Popolation and Development, 2005). The present study however expands the list of challenges and further presents these in order of priority as articulated by the study’s respondents.

Similarly, as found in this present study, the importance of water has been reported in another semi-arid setting although water was not ranked as top-priority and also the pathway to development was not as clearly defined as is in this present study (Brock, 1999). Discussants in this study clearly outlined the pathway to development and poverty reduction in the presence of adequate water supply. Its importance was given as an asset that has potential to unlock development in the area, reduce poverty, improve the environment, aid irrigation and therefore enable the community to access adequate food supply, thereby reducing health-related challenges such as malnutrition.

Although the poor are all too often considered powerless in defining their development directions, this study finds that on the contrary, they are either already involved in efforts to improve their lives or would like to be involved in development projects implemented in their area, for instance through provision of ideas, locally available materials or labour. This study also found a well-organized community that carries out development projects using management systems that are determined democratically, including Rotating Credit Associations (ROSCAs) and a management committee that oversees development projects.

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Similar findings have been made elsewhere, for instance, in Tanzania, the community was found to engage in ROSCAs, giving evidence of an effective organization, cooperation and management of scarce resources (Tierney, 1997). It is due to such organization that respondents in this study recommend new development projects implemented in their community to be fashioned.

Perceptions of poverty and development vary by context

This study reinforces the existence of variations in perceptions of poverty and development, where the interpretations and indicators are influenced by context (Brock, 1999; Chambers, 2001; Devereux, 2003; M. Green, 2007; Narayan, Chambers, Shah, & Petesch, 2000; SHDRP & UNDP, 1998; Tierney, 1997). Both community members and government district development officials interviewed indicated that development varies by context. In comparison to other areas, Makueni County was reported to be of lower level of development because of high poverty levels, poor infrastructure development and poor health outcomes. Ownership of poultry and livestock as an indicator of wellbeing in Makueni for instance, is also found in Mongolia, the importance of these assets however varies because of different contextual factors (Ebdon, 1995). Makueni residents – being a farming community – consider livestock and poultry to be insurance assets while in Mongolia those having smaller herds were considered to be poor because they are exposed to risk of losing all their stock and were therefore vulnerable to a rapid decline into poverty. In Tanzania, livestock was considered an investment which can be converted into cash, food and other farm implements when needed (SHDRP and UNDP; 1998). Variations in the main means of livelihood therefore influence how poverty or wellbeing and development are perceived since the Mongolian community depends on livestock for subsistence while Makueni and Tanzanian communities engage in farming as a means of livelihood. One other variation can be observed in the reported exploitative nature of offering labour to non-poor households as a sign of poverty. Given the different contexts, in Mongolia, this exploitative type of labour entailed majorly herding livestock for the non-poor families while in Makueni, this centred around tilling the farms or doing home/household chores for the more affluent members of the community (Ebdon, 1995). Further, in Tanzania, it was found that indicators of wellbeing varied slightly in the various villages enumerated depending on their main economic activity (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). These varying views are therefore likely to also influence how

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development and wellbeing may be perceived, supporting the need to approach each context separately.

Lack of land was also considered a sign of poverty by Makueni residents, a finding similar to one in Tanzania where land ownership as a material asset determined an individual’s wellbeing (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). Regarding development, the progress in the mode of transport was considered a sign of progress, like was found in Tanzania (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). In the present study while some examples depicting developmental progress in transport including switching to a more expensive and efficient means of transport like owning a bicycle where one could previously just walk, or when one bought a motorcycle where they previously relied on a bicycle, or better still buying a car for personal transport where one previously walked, used bicycle or motor cycle, in Tanzania, these various forms of progression were not articulated, rather just the mere ownership of a car depicted one as being wealthy (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998). The size and quality of housing while depicting wellbeing in Makueni, is however influenced by the availability of water to construct bigger structures as most houses are made of mud or bricks. In Tanzania on the other hand, the fear of witchcraft discouraged households from constructing big houses. These findings emphasize the importance of considering culture and context in interpreting poverty and development indicators (SHDRP & UNDP, 1998).

The link between education, poverty and development as found in this study has been widely debated and documented elsewhere. This includes the role of poverty or underdevelopment as a constraint in accessing education as well as low education attainment as an indicator of poverty and therefore a development impediment (Blaug, 1972; Mason & Rozelle, 1998; Tilak, 2002; World Bank, 1995). Tilak (2002) for instance clearly conceptualizes the link between education and earnings through its role in the acquisition of skills and knowledge, employment and productivity (Tilak, 2002). He further illustrates how poor households and communities pay high costs in education attainment and engage in child labour and therefore often encounter opportunity-costs to education. These and poor school infrastructure as well as social and cultural factors at the community level often lead to low rates of participation in schooling, high drop-out rates and failures, low rates of continuation in school and therefore low rates of achievement (Tilak, 2002).

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4.11 Conclusion

Following the findings of this study, emphasis is placed on the multidimensionality of poverty and development as perceived by those responding to this study, highlighting the need to refocus attention not just on the monetary measures and indicators of the two phenomena, but also on employing non-monetary and non-quantitative measures and approaches to development plans. This is important for the study of development particularly because perceptions of poverty and development are not specific, rather they vary by context and strategies to address these need to be contextually tailored. It is therefore important for development practitioners to rethink development approaches and refocus on employing more participatory approaches in the understanding of both phenomena, particularly at a micro level and in a setting where variations between and within regions exist. Efforts planned to address poverty and drive development have therefore to first of all understand how these issues are seen by those experiencing them, or those that the efforts seek to benefit. This also helps highlight to development practitioners the importance of approaching each context as a separate entity, requiring more micro-level approaches in the strategies employed to reduce poverty and improve wellbeing. In addition, understanding how these two terms are perceived is important in helping development planners to learn what strategies development-beneficiary communities perceive to be best-suited to their situation and take advantage of the available local expertise and resources. These efforts are important in all aspects considered to be important to the community. This approach is best suited to Kenya and other developing countries where there are huge variations in the infrastructural development, resource availability and cultural orientation. This study therefore reinforces the need for development planners and practitioners to rethink development approaches to more community participatory approaches and employ more micro-level focused approaches in poverty alleviation and development projects in poor contexts like the sub-Saharan Africa.

Part of this paper is published in the Journal of African Studies and Development9. It ia also contained in Appendix 10.

9 Essendi, H., Nyovani, M. and Zoe, M. (2014). Perceptions of development by residents of a rural community in Kenya: A capability issue. Journal of African Studies and Development, 6(4), 67-77. DOI: 10.5897/JASD2014.0281 126

5 WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE PERCEPTION OF DEVELOPMENT IN RURAL KENYA? A STRUCTURAL EQUATION MODELING APPROACH

5.1 Abstract Data and methods: This chapter uses data collected from 275 individuals in Kitonyoni sub- location, analysed using structural equation modelling techniques to investigate the factors that influence how people perceive development. A perception of development index using 3 statements which relate to perceived development, including optimism about the future of the community and development as a collaborative issues between the community, the government and the international community was computed. This variable was then modelled against some select demographic, socio-economic and perceived variables to assess their influence on perception of development. These variables include perceived importance of electricity in development, perceived household wellbeing and perceived health, after controlling for demographic and socio-economic factors such as age, gender, education, household wealth, parity and health risk factors including alcohol use and smoking. Results: Gender, age, perceived household wellbeing and health risk factors (alcohol use and cigarette smoking) were found to significantly influence how people view development. Women and younger people were more optimistic about the prospects of their community’s progress. They were also more likely to view development as collaboration between the government, non-governmental community and community members rather than an initiative to be undertaken by one party and were more willing to participate in development initiatives compared to men and older people. Perceived household wellbeing and alcohol use and smoking were also positively associated with perceptions of optimism and collaborative development. Conclusions: These results support a participatory approach to development where everyone’s voice and input should be considered, as people’s perceptions will vary depending on their age, gender and perceived household wellbeing and social behaviour.

5.2 Background

This chapter investigates the socio-economic, demographic and well-being factors influencing perceptions of development. The analytical approach employed is structural equation modeling, considered relevant in this analysis because the main outcome variable,

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perception of development is a latent variable, which is unobservable and unmeasurable in the social world. Rather, this variable is computed using a variety of variables measured at the time of data collection. The analysis examines the relationships between perception of development and observed personal, socio-economic and wellbeing variables. Perception of Development was computed using 6 statements administered in the survey, most of which relate to perception of future development of the respondent’s community as well as perception of development as a collaborative initiative among various parties, including the government, the international community and the beneficiary community. The relationship between this perception of development and other perceived factors such as perceived importance of electricity in development, perceived household wellbeing and perceived health were examined, after controlling for demographic and socio-economic factors such as age, gender, education, household wealth, parity and health behavioural factors including alcohol use and smoking

5.3 Theoretical approaches

The theoretical approaches used in this study are adopted from the ideas of Sustainable Development Approach and Amartya Sen (Kates et al., 2005; Sen, 1999). In addition, a conceptual framework borrowing from the ideas of a model of financial wellbeing by Porter (1990) is used to guide this chapter (Porter, 1990).

5.3.1 Sustainable Development Approach

Defined as a development approach that seeks to meet the needs of the present populations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs, sustainable development is argued as the best approach with potential to reduce poverty and improve economies (Kates et al., 2005; Smith & Rees, 1998; United Nations, 1987, 2013a). This approach, arrived at by the World Commission on Environment and Development, having been initiated by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1982 and published in its report of 1987, is considered as an approach that ensures that environment and development are inseparable things in the quest for development (United Nations, 1987). The United Nations fronted this as the best approach to development following concerns of the continued deterioration of the human environment and the natural resources, making it impossible to achieve both current and future economic and social development. The

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organization believes that sustainable development that seeks to meet current needs, while preserving the environment for future generations’ needs should become the central guiding principle of development that should be adopted by not just the UN, but also by other development stakeholders, including governments and private institutions (United Nations, 1987, 2013a). It is now the main focus for the post -2015 millennium development goals, indicating its importance in future development approaches in eradicating poverty and helping transform economies (United Nations, 2013a).

This theory emphasizes the need for development actors to avoid the single-handed approaches to development where the quest to address certain needs fails to consider the impact of these actions on the other related aspects. It further emphasizes that consideration be always given on impact of development decision’s actions on the environment, the process, the social environment and the allocation of resources. The aim of the approach, it can be argued, is all-inclusive because it incorporates all the factors that are important in the development cycle. The approach also puts into consideration the roles of the various actors in development, in the different contexts to design strategies that are uniquely beneficial to the particular contexts. By default therefore, the approach incorporates the role of development beneficiaries in the development process. In addition, the approach emphasizes the need to balance three groups of objectives (social, economic and environment) in a sustainable development approaches, thereby employing an all-inclusive approach to development (Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000). This in turn has great potential to achieve sustainable development. Conversely, ignoring one of these aspects can threaten economic growth as well as the entire development process. In addition, following the argument for people-centred development, this approach incorporates a community element and also views development as both a process and an outcome (Kingsbury et al., 2004).

5.3.2 Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach

In addition to the Sustainable Development Approach, this paper employs the Capability approach as articulated in chapter 2, where Amartya Sen (1999) advocates for development to be understood as a process of expanding the real freedoms that people enjoy (Sen, 1999). To Sen, sustainable development can be addressed through the Capability Approach where people’s functionings and capabilities, or their freedoms can be improved. He argues heavily against looking at development as just the rise or fall in incomes. Rather, income should be

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considered to be valuable only in so far as it can increase people’s capabilities thereby aiding their functionings in society (Sen, 1999). Sen also advocates for ensuring that the role of an agent in development efforts and approaches is given importance. In this case, the agent could either be an individual or member of society, who becomes a participant in economic, social and political actions (Sen, 1999). This perspective points to the importance of community participation in development as it enhances empowerment of beneficiary communities (Sen, 1999).

5.3.3 Conceptual framework

The background and theoretical approaches point to a need to revisit the issue of participatory development approach that includes understanding of people’s perceptions of development, the factors influencing these perceptions and their participation in development activities in their context. This paper fits a model adapted from The Porter Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being (Porter & Garman, 1993). This model is adapted after reviewing literature by these and other research on the factors influencing well-being. Although no single approach exists focusing on the factors influencing the perceptions of development, there has been extensive research into the factors influencing the perceptions of well-being, ranging from objective factors such as demographic characteristics to socio- economic characteristics and subjective (perceived) factors (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Harris- Lacewell & Albertson, 2005; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Leach, Hayhoe, & Turner, 1999; Neil, Golden, Millet, & Coogan, 1980; Porter, 1990; Porter & Garman, 1990). Factors influencing perceptions of wellbeing are incorporated in the analysis of this chapter because although perceptions of wellbeing and development are different concepts, they are nevertheless both perceived concepts of improved livelihoods and factors influencing how they are perceived may be similar.

Gender: Among the demographic characteristics argued to have an influence on perceptions of well-being, is gender (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Mohamad, Hayhoe, & Goh, 2006; Neil et al., 1980). Bristor & Fischer (1993) argue that gender has a big influence on perception of economic well-being (Bristor & Fischer, 1993) due to the engendered roles that individuals are socialised in, hence the need to seek the views of both gender in wellbeing studies. Other researchers have also found gender to have a big impact on perceptions of wellbeing (Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Leach et al., 1999). Findings of these

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studies argue that, in order to clearly understand the perceptions of well-being, researchers need to put into consideration the role that gender plays, as these views are quite engendered (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Mohamad et al., 2006; Neil et al., 1980). These arguments support those fronted by gender and development theorists who advocate for a gender approach to development (Moser, 1993).

Age: Age of participant has been found to be a significant factor in the perceptions of one’s economic well-being. It has therefore been used as a background factor in studies investigating perceptions of well-being (Leach et al., 1999). Leach etal (1999), in their study investigating the factors affecting perceived economic wellbeing of college students found age to be significant in how female students perceived their economic wellbeing (Leach et al., 1999). In the same study, age was not found to be significant in male students’ perception of their economic wellbeing. Other perceptions studies focusing on community satisfaction have found age to be an important factor (Demps, Thornton, & Baker, 2012; Filkins, Allen, & Cordes, 2000). Filkins etal (2000) found age to be significant, such that as a person aged, they become more satisfied with their community (Filkins et al., 2000). Age is therefore an important demographic variable to be incorporated in running the analysis of the current study as it may influence how those in rural Kenya perceive development.

Other objective factors: While Hayhoe & Wilhelm focus on the variations in perceptions of wellbeing by men and women at the family setting, they also include other objective variables, that they argue, can potentially contribute to these perceptions (Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998). These factors are given both at the individual and household level. They include various factors such as education and health of the participant at the individual level and household income and size at the household level (Filkins et al., 2000).

Education has largely been found to influence one’s perceptions of various issues, including financial wellbeing, health risk and environmental risk. A study of perceptions of financial well-being found education to be a major predictor (Kratzer, 1991), while another in rural Nebraska found an increase in educational attainment to be associated with low community satisfaction (Filkins et al., 2000). Porter and Garman (1993) also found when testing a conceptual model of financial well-being, that education is one of the key personal characteristics that determine perceptions of financial wellbeing (Porter & Garman, 1993). Its influence on various aspects of risk-perceptions has also been reported (Chepngeno- Langat, 2013; Doss, Mcpeak, & Barrett, 2008). A study on perception of health vulnerability 131

in Nairobi for instance found that higher educational achievement influenced higher risk perceptions of contracting HIV (Chepngeno-Langat, 2013), while another study on environmental risk perception found education to have a modest influence on how people perceive different environmental risks (Doss et al., 2008). Although there are mixed results on the importance of education in studies on perceptions, most of the studies reviewed show that it has an influence, and it is therefore fit to test its influence on how those in rural areas of the developing world perceive development.

Health on the other hand is an important objective predictor of economic wellbeing. A study investigating perceived economic wellbeing and participation in financial decision-making found health to influence how husbands perceived their economic wellbeing, although it was not significant for women (Hayhoe, 1990). Hayhoe and Wilhelm (1998) also incorporated the perceived health computed into a latent variable, alongside age, in assessing perceived economic wellbeing in a family setting (Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998). The perceived variable measured using a 5-point Likert scale from Very Poor (scored as one) to Excellent (scored as five), is similar to that being used in the current study, also measured on a five-point Likert scale from Very Good (scored as one) to Very Bad (scored as five). This variable is therefore included in this analysis as it is likely to influence one’s perception of development in their context.

This chapter groups the factors that are likely to influence the perception of development into three blocks; personal characteristics, represented by age, gender, parity, religion, marital status and ethnicity; socio-economic characteristics focusing on household wealth status, respondent’s education level and place of residence; objective attributes represented by alcohol use, smoking, nutritional status and contraceptive use, and perceived attributes focusing on perceived health status, perceived household economic wellbeing, perceived neighbours’ and friends’ economic wellbeing, perceived measure of development (importance of electricity) and perceived general wellbeing (Figure 5.2). The chapter treats perceptions of the importance of electricity as a proxy for perceived development, based on the importance of electricity in socio-economic development (Kanagawa & Nakata, 2008) through such means as creating opportunities for growth (World Bank, 2001). Two community variables (place of residence-district and source of water) are also considered in the descriptive analysis of this paper, although they are not included in the model as these variables do not show variations for the respondents. Place of residence is used to give a

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context-background to the interpretation of the results. Source of water at the household on the other hand, is used to show the level of socio-economic status of the community. As postulated by Porter and Garman (1993), perceived factors are used as mediating factors on the effects of the personal and socio-economic characteristics on perception of development. Other studies have used mediating factors in assessing the effects of these primary factors on the outcome variable. Leach et all (1999) used two mediating variables (comparison of Economic Outcomes and Level of Financial Strain) as mediating factors on the effects of individual, socioeconomic and other study-specific variables on the outcome variable (Leach et al., 1999).

This chapter is therefore guided by the principles of the Sustainable Development approach and the Model of Perceived Development to answer thesis research question number 2, which is: “what socio-economic, demographic, community and wellbeing factors influence the perception of development? The study uses the sustainable development approach since it considers each context unique, as highlighted in its emphasis of the consideration of the resources, specifically environmental, community and nature. Anyone adhering to this approach would have to put into consideration the various unique resources in each context. This is in addition, informed by the highlighted intricate interrelationships between the various development issues, implying therefore that it is impossible to study them in isolation and in sequence (Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000), rather, it is important to investigate development issues together in an all-inclusive manner. In this way, it is easy to highlight how they impact each other and also how they combine to negatively impact the lives of the poor. The approach in this paper also views development at the household, community and national levels as interrelated. Further, community participation in development is crucial in the sustainability process and its suitability for this study also lies in the fact that community participation cannot fully be achieved without understanding the communities’ views of development in their contexts. In addition, this approach promises achievement of development that encompasses not just the quantity of income available to a country or a community, but also the distribution of these resources to communities and households. The people’s quality of life, including access to education and health care, employment opportunities, availability of clean air and safe drinking water, the threat of crime, among other aspects depicting the quality of life should be the expected ultimate outcomes in sustainable development.

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The model of perceived development used in this analysis is adapted from The Porter Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being (Porter & Garman, 1990). This model conceptualizes financial wellbeing as a function of personal characteristics, objective attributes, perceived attributes and evaluates the strength of these relationships (Figure 5.1). The choice of the variables in this model was informed by extensive literature review which concluded that perceptions of development, like financial wellbeing may not only be influenced by objective and subjective measures of one’s financial situation, rather, also by one’s perceived objective attributes after comparing these attributes against a standard of comparison previously used in other financial wellbeing studies (Porter & Garman, 1990).

Figure 5.1: The Porter Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being

Personal characteristics

Standards of

comparison

Objective Perceived Evaluated Financial attributes attributes attributes wellbeing

Source: Porter, 1990. Testing a model of financial well-being, Blacksburg, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.

The current study adapts the Porter conceptual model of financial wellbeing and comes up with a model of perceived development to guide the study (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Some changes were made to the Porter model in order to fit the current study. The modified model retained the personal characteristics block, represented by the respondent’s socio- demographic characteristics, including age, gender, marital status, number of children and religion. These socio-demographic variables were included in the model, following an extensive literature review of studies indicating that they influence how people perceive other aspects of wellbeing, as elaborated in section 5.3.3. The standards of comparison block was replaced by the socio-economic characteristics block comprising respondent’s education

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level and their household’s wealth status. These variables are included in the Model, in place of the standards of comparison as they have been found to influence perceptions of wellbeing. These variables have also been found to both influence and be influenced by the socio-demographic characteristics, in other studies, thereby being used as mediating variables in this chapter’s model. It is expected that an individual’s age, gender, marital status, number of children and religion would influence and in turn be influenced by their educational attainment and their household’s wealth, an effect that would then influence how they perceive development. The objective attributes block is represented by two objective health outcomes; the respondent’s nutritional status and their use of contraception, as one’s health has been hypothesised to influence how they perceive development. The perceived attributes block on the other hand has a mix of perceived variables relating to health and development. These are perceived health, perceived household wellbeing, perceived neighbours’ wellbeing, perceived general wellbeing and perceived importance of electricity in development. These variables, which are subjective measures, were selected, and included in the model following the assumption that the way an individual assesses their health, individual and household wellbeing and the wellbeing of those around them, is also most likely to influence what they consider important for development in their context. The evaluated attributes block was excluded from this new model as most of the variables included in the Porter Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being relate to one’s assessment of financial attributes judged against other factors. Since the financial attributes are closely related to wellbeing/development attributes, this present study does not therefore seek to make this assessment. The Conceptual Model for Perceived Development includes all the possible variables/factors that are likely to influence perception development.

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Figure 5.2: Conceptual Model of Perceived Development

Personal Characteristics: Community factors -District Age, Gender, Parity, Religion, Marital status & Ethnicity, -Source of water -infrastructural development

Perceived attributes: -Perceived health Socioeconomic -Perceived household characteristics: wellbeing -Education Objective attributes -Perceived importance of -Household (health factors): electricity in development SES -Alcohol use & -Perceived neighbours & -Dependents -Ever smoked friends wellbeing -Place of -Nutritional status -Perceived general residence -Contraception wellbeing (rural/urban)

Development

Perception

Adapted from: Porter & Garman’s Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being (Porter & Garman, 1993).

While seeking to understand beneficiary communities’ views regarding development, incorporating the factors that influence these views can greatly help the Kenyan government, county governments and development practitioners to apply focused approaches in understanding beneficiary communities’ felt needs and their perceptions and development priorities thereby designing sustainable strategies that meet the needs of rural communities.

The research presented in this paper seeks to understand factors influencing perceptions of development among members of Kitonyoni sub-location of Makueni County. This study hypothesise that if people think that their communities or country is developing and if they are happy with the approaches to development adopted in development initiatives, they are most likely to participate in development efforts designed for them, which in turn has potential to ensure implemented projects succeed. Based on the proposed model of perceived development (Figure 5.2), this chapter seeks to assess whether there is a significant relationship between the personal characteristics, socio-economic characteristics, heath risk 136

factors and perceived attributes and whether people are optimistic about the development of their community, view development as a collaboration or are willing to participate in development initiatives implemented (Figure 5.3) in order to achieve model fit and then assess the strength of the proposed relationships.

5.4 Data and methods 5.4.1 Data

The chapter uses individual-level data for 275 individuals interviewed in the 290 households sampled in Kitonyoni sub-location for this study. In these households, a total of 294 individual interviews were conducted (Table 5.1). Within the sampled households, a male and female of reproductive age; 18 and 49 years for women and 18 and 54 years for men were selected and interviewed in each household alternately. Questions were asked on household economic status, respondent’s education level, parity, perceived health, perceived household wellbeing and perceived importance of electricity in development, smoking and alcohol consumption habits. Out of the 294 individual interviews conducted, cases with missing information were excluded from the sample used in this analysis, bringing the total to 275.

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Table 5.1: Demographic and household socio-economic characteristics of sample

N=275 Characteristic n % Gender Male 135 49.1 Female 140 50.9 Educational status Pre-primary/Primary 201 73.1 Secondary+ 71 26.1 Age 18-24 years 74 26.9 25-29 years 57 20.7 30-34 years 44 16.0 35-39 years 37 13.5 40-44 years 33 12.0 45-49 years 30 10.9 Parity (number of children) None 60 21.8 1-2 43 15.6 3+ 172 62.5 Religion Christian 272 98.9 Other 3 1.1 Employment status None 228 82.9 Self 22 8.0 Other 25 9.1 Household income (Ksh)- Mean(SD) 5,935.82 (5392.25) Housing material (floor) Natural 183 66.5 Finished 92 33.5 Source of water at household Well (protected) 71 25.8 Unprotected (e.g. surface, unprotected 202 73.5 well) 2 0.7 Other

5.4.1.1 Variables in the model

Variables in the model are grouped into 4 as outlined in Table 5.2. These groups are:

1. Observed, endogenous variables 2. Observed, exogenous variables 3. Unobserved, endogenous variables 4. Unobserved, exogenous variables

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5.4.1.2 Dependent variable (unobserved endogenous variable)

The outcome variable is perception of development (PerDvlpt) also known as “unobserved endogenous variable” in structural equation modeling terminology. Unobserved endogenous variables are also known as latent variables. Latent variables are not directly measurable. In this study, the perception of development variable was computed using a set of progressive development statements focused on perceived optimism about the community’s progress as well as perception of development as collaboration among partners including the government, development partners, communities and beneficiaries. Partnerships and beneficiaries’ participation in development has been recommended as one of the approaches to achieve success in development initiatives, which are also sustainable (Kingsbury et al., 2004). It was therefore important in this study to understand the views of the community regarding partnerships for development as well their optimism about development in their community. These statements asked on a 5-point scale questions are listed in Table 5.2. They are observed endogenous variables P2, P3 and P7 and are described further:

1. P2: Community development in this area is majorly a responsibility of government. Responses to this statement were: (1.Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree). This statement was administered in order to capture perceived view of development custodianship. Since this statement aimed to capture whether respondents considered themselves and other development partners as important parties in development initiatives, at the analysis stage, the responses were reversed, since those strongly agreeing with the statement for instance, were less likely to perceive their participation or other partners contribution in development initiatives as important, while those strongly disagreeing were likely to hold the view that their participation or other partners’ contribution in development initiatives in their community are important. 2. P3: International community has a responsibility to help in development e.g. climate issues. Responses to this statement were: (1.Strongly Agree 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly Disagree). This statement sought to determine the perceptions held in regards to partnerships in development, specifically contribution from the international community. Those strongly agreeing with the statement were likely to be consider partnerships in development to be important compared to those strongly disagreeing with the statement.

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3. P7: How much do you think that development in your community will improve? (1.Very much 2. Quite a lot 3. Neutral 4. Not much 5. Not at all). This statement sought to assess optimism at the development progress of the study community. In addition to seeking opinion about development collaboration, this study also sought to understand whether those responding were happy with progress of development initiatives in their community.

5.4.1.3 Independent variables

Perceived variables (observed endogenous variables) The perceived independent variables used in this analysis are observed endogenous variables. In structural equation modeling terminology, endogenous variables are those that are caused by one or more variables in the model. These variables, may also cause other endogenous variables. For the case of observed endogenous variables, these were directly measured at the stage of data collection, using a questionnaire.

Perceived Health (Hgeneral): Perceived health was measured using one perceived health indicator that reflected the respondent’s assessment of own health. The question asked during data collection was: “How is your health in general? Would you say it is… very good, good, fair, bad, very bad? It was deemed important to assess respondents perceived health, and ultimately the association with perceptions of development as one’s health has been found to influence one’s perceptions of wellbeing (Filkins et al., 2000).

Perceived Family Wellbeing (HHWB): Perceived family wellbeing was measured using one scale variable reflecting perceived family position on a 10-point wellbeing ladder, where step 1 referred to being at the bottom of the ladder (perceived to be poor) while step 10 referred to those at the top (perceived to be wealthy). Studying perceived household wellbeing and its relationship with perceived development was considered important in this study as wellbeing in general captures other non-economic indicators of development that go beyond such economic measures as standard of living and income. Wellbeing is thus a good approach to understand the other non-economic factors of development as it captures the dynamic aspects of development, mostly non-economic, including the capabilities (Sen, 1999). Understanding how those in rural areas of sub-Saharan Africa perceive their households’ wellbeing was thus considered important in understanding their capabilities, as

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was found in the first qualitative analysis of this thesis. The initial findings of this thesis (Chapter 4), investigating perceptions of development from a qualitative perspective found that people considered improvement in their individual and household capabilities to be important in the eventual improvement/development at personal, community and national levels (Essendi et al., 2014). It was therefore important to understand these perceptions as well as the relationship between these perceptions and perceptions of development as this would also help understand how one’s perceived capabilities relate to their view of development in their context.

Perceived Development Factor (DvlptElec): This endogenous variable refers to whether the respondents perceived electricity to be important in the development of their community. Previous studies have found electricity to be considered a crucial aspect of rural development due to its ability to enable provision and access of crucial services, including health, education, training skills and other services such as clean energy (Ahenkora, 1999; Barnes, 1988). The initial qualitative analysis in this thesis found that the responding community considered electricity to be a crucial resource in facilitating development (Essendi et al., 2014). It’s perceived importance stemmed from its ability to help improve communication, and access to important services including health, education and life skills. Having it was also considered an improvement in one’s status, thus perceived to be more developed. This analysis therefore sought to understand, from a quantitative perspective, those considering it to be a crucial aspect of development.

Perceived Development (PerDvlpt): The three indicators of perceived development (Table 5.2) focus on perceived progressive development specifically, on optimism about the community’s development and development as a collaborative affair between the community, the government and the international community. All the variables contribute factor loadings to the latent variable (PerDvlpt). The statements used to compute this variable all represent a positive attitude towards the partnerships in development, including individuals, community, government and international communities’ involvement in development and on the future prospects of the community’s improvement.

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Other variables (observed exogenous variables)

The other variables used in this analysis are observed exogenous variables, defined as those not influenced by others in the model. The observed exogenous variables in this chapter include wealth, household income, gender, age, parity, education, alcohol use and smoking.

The unobserved exogenous variables, are the residual (error) terms added on every endogenous variable in the model.

The results of this analysis are best understood within the context of the study based on two community factors; place of residence (district) and source of drinking water (Figures 5.2 & 5.5 and Table 5.1). The two community variables indicate a lack of variation in the community. More than a third of household interviewed used an unsafe source of drinking water, indicating the existence of minimal variation in households’ socio-economic status. All the respondents also hailed from the same district and were from the Akamba ethnic community. About 99% of the respondents were Christian. Their perceptions were therefore most likely to be influenced by other community members from the same district, ethnic community or religious group.

5.4.2 Methods

This paper uses structural equation modelling (SEM) using the IBM SPSS Amos 20 package (Byrne, 2010). SEM is used in this paper because of the latent nature of the perception of development variable. This is a complex and multi-faceted variable that is neither observable directly nor adequately captured by the use of one variable. SEM’s two main assumptions, that the causal processes under investigation are presented by a series of structural (regression) equations; and that these structural relations can be modelled pictorially to enable a clearer conceptualization of the theory under investigation, this paper models the personal, socio-economic and wellbeing factors hypothesised to influence perceived development (Byrne, 2010). The process statistically tests the hypothesised model in a simultaneous analysis of all the variables in the hypothesis to determine the extent to which it is consistent with the data (Byrne, 2010).

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5.4.2.1 Running SEM

This was done using a two stage approach. The first model run was Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). This was run to test the measurement model (that is, the model specifying the relationships between the latent variable, in this case PerDvlpt, and the measured variables) and was run first before proceeding with the structural equation model. Running CFA was done in the first stage in order to test whether the relationships specified between the latent variable and the observed variables give a good fit. This is a crucial part of the structural equation models as it gives an indication of how well the proposed model fits the data (Byrne, 2010). If the proposed model fails to fit the data, adjustments have to be made in order to improve the model fit before the proposed relationships can be estimated. Once this was done, Latent Variable Path Analysis (LVPA) which incorporates the relationships between the observed variables and latent variable and the error/residuals, was done.

5.4.2.2 Assessment of model fit

The initial step in this analysis was to assess the model’s fit, as assessing how best a structural equation model fits the data is one of the most important steps in structural equation modeling (Yuan, 2005). In this study several tests were done to assess how the proposed model fits the data being used in this analysis, based on the recommendations of several researchers (Bentler & Bonnett, 1980; Joreskog, 1993). Chi-square test is one of the recommended goodness of fit tests. The chi-square value in this paper, at 188.809 (df=53) with p=0.000, indicates that the model is not a good fit. However, it is also recommended not to only rely on chi-square as the measure of a good fitting model, rather to include other measures such as the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Incremental Fit Index (IFI) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI) (Byrne, 2010). This is because chi-square tests tend to depend on sample sizes while RMSEA takes into account this approximation error (Byrne, 2010). These other goodness of fit tests indicate that the model is a good fit for the data. The (RMSEA) value was 0.045 [0.035, 0.058] indicating that the model is an acceptable fitting model. A RMSEA value of less than .05 is considered an indicator of a good model fit while a value between 0.05 and 0.08 is considered an acceptable fit (Bentler & Bonnett, 1980). The goodness of the assessment of fit was also supported by the high Incremental Fit Index (IFI = 0.834) and Comparative Fit Index (CFI = 0.866) as proposed by Bentler and Bonnett (Bentler & Bonnett, 1980). The CFI and IFI values normally range

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from 0 to 1 with 0 indicating the absence of model fit and 1 indicating perfect model fit. A CFI/IFI value of approximately 0.9 can be interpreted as a good model fit. These approaches have previously been used to test model fit in other structural equation models (Gursoy, Jurowski, & Uysal, 2002).

Using these tests of model fit, the model was revised in order to ensure it fitted best by also dropping variables that had correlations of >1.00 and those with negative variances and covariance.

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Figure 5.3: Fitted model of perceived development and factors influencing perception of development

The characterization of variables in the model have been simplified (Figure 5.3) by making an assumption that there is no correlation among the predictor variables, that is, among the observed exogenous variables. This assumption can however be checked. 145

5.5 Descriptive results

Table 5.2: Acronym definitions of variables in the model

Variable Description/interview question Mean Median (SD)/%10 Observed, endogenous variables (Scale-level data)

1. P2 Community development in this area is majorly a responsibility of 1.96 (0.72) 2 government (5.Strongly agreed 4. Agree 3. Neutral 2. Disagree 1. Strongly Disagree) 3 2. P3 International community has a responsibility to help in dvlpt e.g. climate 2.95 (1.01) (1. Strongly agreed 2. Agree 3. Neutral 4. Disagree 5. Strongly 2 Disagree) 3. P7 How much do you think that development in your community will improve? 1.73 (0.77) 2 (1.Very much 2. Quite a lot 3. Neutral 4. Not much 5. Not at all) 4. Hgeneral How is your health in general? Would you say it is…? 2.20 (0.29) 2 (1. Very good 2. Good 3. Fair 4. Bad 5. Very bad) 5. HHWB Position of respondent’s household on a 10-step ladder where the least- 2.32 (0.04) developed are on step 1 while most developed on the 10th step. 6. DvlptElec Whether supply of electricity would constitute development 68.7%

Observed, exogenous variables 7. Wealth If respondent’s household is wealthy (2 upper wealth quintiles) 40.4% 8. Income Average household income in Ksh @Ksh.85=1$ 5,935.82 4,000 (5,392.25) 9. Gender Respondent’s gender (Male) 49.1% 10. Age Respondent’s age (continuous variable) 31.17 (9.08) 30 11. Parity Number of children (If has 1 or 2 children) 15.6% 12. Education If respondent had secondary or higher education 26.1% 13. Alcohol If respondent uses alcohol 9.8% 14. Smoking If respondent had ever smoked 17.1%

Unobserved, endogenous variables 15. PerDvlpt Latent (Outcome variable) computed using P2, P3 and P7 observed variables

Unobserved, exogenous variables Eί Where ί corresponds to variables 1-6 & 15

A majority of those interviewed agreed with the statement that community development in that area was purely the responsibility of the government (Mean of 1.96 and Median of 2) while the response for the international community’s responsibility in development was neutral (Mean of 2.95 and Median of 3). As found in the initial qualitative analysis, this quantitative analysis also found that despite the overwhelming agreement that development

10 The figures in bold are percentage values of the corresponding variables 146

was a responsibility of the government, people were willing to participate in development projects (Essendi et al., 2014).

Respondents in this study were almost divided equally, on gender (Table 5.1), with most having only basic education (73.1% had a pre-primary or a primary level of education) and most being 30 years or younger. Other socio-economic assessments of the respondents show that most earned their livelihoods by depending on farming/subsistence agricultural activities from their farms (82.9%) and had an average family income of Ksh. 5,935.85. Most houses had natural finishing on the flooring and the source of water mainly used was the unprotected ones, specifically surface water and unprotected wells.

5.10.1 Model’s parameter estimates

This section presents results of the parameter estimates of perceived development and the statistically significant independent characteristics in the model. The estimated coefficients and associated p values for these variables which have either a direct or indirect effect on perception of development are reported in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3: Parameter Estimates of perceived development and independent characteristics

Parameter Estimate (SE) Direct effect Indirect effect Perceived household wellbeing -0.078 (0.076)* Age -0.006 (0.003)* Gender -0.126 (0.058)** Alcohol consumption 0.076 (0.055)** Ever smoked 0.214 (0.068)*

* Significant at 5% level (p<.05) ** Significant at 1% level (p<.01) ***Significant at 0.1% (p<.001)

Perceived household wellbeing (HHWB) had a significant effect on perceived development. This effect however indicated a negative direction, where the total effect of household wellbeing on Perception of Development was -0.078 implying that when household wellbeing (HHWB) goes up by 1 measurement scale value, Perception of Development reduces by 0.078 scale values (this is on a scale of 1 to 10). Perceived health (Hgeneral) household wealth and perceived importance of electricity in development on the other hand did not have a significant effect on perceived development. The various effects are: perceived health (0.024), wealth (0.049) and perceived importance of electricity (0.055. These variables

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do not have such big effects on perception of development; as perceived health (Hgeneral) and perceived importance of electricity on development (DvlptElec) go up by 1 measurement scale value on a 5-point measurement scale; perception of development (PerDvlpt) goes up by 0.024 scale values and 0.049 measurement scale values respectively.

Gender, age and alcohol consumption were the only exogenous (personal and socio- economic characteristics) variables that had significant effects on perception of development (PerDvlpt) with gender having highly significant effect on perceived development. The direct effect of gender on perceived development was -0.126, indicating that women had higher perceptions of development compared to men while that of alcohol consumption on was 0.076.

The effects of age and smoking on perception of development were borderline significant. The effect of age was in the negative direction, at -0.006. This result indicate that the effect of age on perception of development is on a small scale and in the reverse, such that 1 year’s increase in age reduces the measurement scale value of perception of development by 0.006 scale values. Younger respondents were therefore likely to report higher perceptions of development regardless of gender, level of education, perceived household wellbeing, perceived health and health risk factors, including cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption. Smoking on the other hand had a 0.214 effect on perception of development.

5.10.2 The determinants of perceptions of development

This section summarises the results of this analysis by presenting both the direct determinants of perceptions of development, as represented by Figure 5.4. There were no indirect determinants from this analysis

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Figure 5.4: Determinants of perceptions of development

An analysis of both the direct and indirect determinants of perceptions of development was undertaken. Figure 5.4 gives a summary of the variables that were found to significantly and directly impact perceptions of development. None of the indirect relationships were significant. A direct association was found between age, gender, household wellbeing and

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health risk factors (alcohol consumption and smoking), and perceptions of development. One’s perceived household wellbeing, that is, the perceived household’s position on a wellbeing ladder significantly impacts how they view development, although this effect is in a negative direction. The effect of perceived household wellbeing on Perception of Development was -0.078 implying that respondents who viewed their household to be richer were less likely to be optimistic about development in their community. They were also less likely to consider development as a collaboration where government, international institutions, the community and beneficiaries should all engage. This finding implies that as people viewed their households to be getting richer, their optimism about improvement of their community diminished. Individuals perceiving their households’ wellbeing to be improving are also less likely to view development as a partnership where they could participate or where the government would work with other partners, including the beneficiaries to improve their situation (Figure 5.4 and Table 5.3).

The effect of alcohol use on perceived development on the other hand was 0.076 while smoking had a 0.214 effect on perceptions of development. This means that respondents engaging in smoking and alcohol consumption are likely to be optimistic about the development of their community, they are more likely to be ready to contribute to development efforts and they also view development as collaboration between the government, non-governmental organizations, including the international community and development beneficiaries. The effect of alcohol use and smoking on perceptions of development is best understood within the context of study. An assessment of the socio- economic status of the community shows that most had low educational achievement, lived in basic households and used unprotected water sources at their households (Table 5.1). These factors point to a rural community that has limited exposure and one that is therefore likely to also have limited entertainment opportunities. This means that those engaging in smoking and alcohol consumption are therefore likely to congregate in social circles where ideas could be discussed, including development issue, thereby improving their awareness levels and knowledge base regarding development matters in their community. Other than the health risks involved in smoking and alcohol use, these habits are therefore likely to reflect, in part, rural communities’ socialization, which improves enables mingling and sharing ideas, and therefore improvement in awareness levels regarding development, and consequently influence their willingness to participate in development initiatives in their community. Those engaging in socialization activities where they congregate with other 150

members of the community-in the case of this study, this refers to those who used alcohol or smoked- are more likely to be optimistic about development, while also recognizing it as a collaborative effort where results could be best achieved when governments, development partners, communities and beneficiaries all contribute.

Figure 5.4 also shows that men are less likely to view their households to be well-of compared to women and that these men are also less likely to be optimistic about the development of their community, and also less likely to be willing to participate in development initiatives and compared to women, they are less likely to view development as a partnership where the government, international organizations, the community and beneficiaries could work together to improve the status of the community.

Regarding one’s socio-demographic characteristics and perceptions of wellbeing, the number of children an individual has, their education level, their households’ wealth and views regarding their health do not influence their views of development. These factors do not determine one’s views regarding progress in their community or whether they valued partnerships in development or whether they were satisfied with their level of involvement in development efforts.

5.10.3 Revised Model of perceived development

After fitting the initial model for perceived development and once the results were analysed, some amendments were made to the original model fitted. The decision to amend the model was arrived at after assessing how well the original model fits the data. To do this, the source of misfits in the model had to be identified as proposed by Byrne (2010) where she proposes that a focus be made on the adequacy of the parameter estimates and the model as a whole (Byrne, 2010). Variables that had correlations of >1.00 and those with negative variances and covariance were dropped from the hypothesised model, and a new one done (Figure 5.5) before the model was re-run. Whereas the initial model contained age, gender, parity, religion, marital status and ethnicity in the block of personal characteristics, the final model only contained age, gender and parity. The variable, dependents was eliminated from the socio-economics characteristics block. Further, while nutritional status and contraception were removed from the objective attributes block, the perceived attributes retained four of the original five variables, dropping perceived neighbours wellbeing from the final model.

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Figure 5.5: Revised Model of perceived development

Community factors

Personal Characteristics: -District Age, Gender & Parity -Source of water

Perceived attributes: -Perceived health Socioeconomic -Perceived household characteristics: - wellbeing Education -Perceived measure of Objective -Household SES development attributes (wealth/income) -Perceived general WB (Health factors): -Place of residence -Alcohol use (district) -Smoking

Development Perception

Adapted from: Porter & Garman’s Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being (Porter & Garman, 1993).

5.6 Discussion

This study found gender to be highly significant in its association with perceived development; compared to men, women were are more optimistic about development in their community. This emphasizes the importance of gender in perceived studies as found elsewhere, especially those investigating factors influencing perception of economic wellbeing (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Leach et al., 1999; Mohamad et al., 2006; Neil et al., 1980). All these studies highlight the importance of gender as they argue that socialization engenders the viewpoints that men and women have and would therefore influence how they perceived their economic situations. In some of these studies, these analyses are even conducted separately, which differs from the analysis in the present study which had very few data to run the model once the data was split by gender.

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Age was also found to be an important determinant of the way people perceive development. Results of the analysis show that as one gets older, they become less optimistic about development in their community. They are also less likely to want to participate in development projects in their communities and do not view development as a partnership where the government, the international community, the local communities and beneficiaries work together to improve their community. Older respondents however had different views regarding important factors that are likely to drive development-compared to younger respondents, older people responding in this study viewed electricity as an important resource in development efforts. Age has been found to be an important determinant of people’s views regarding other aspects of wellbeing. Various studies investigating the relationship between age and perceptions of wellbeing have found a significant relationship between one’s age and their views of wellbeing (Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998). Other perceptions studies focusing on community satisfaction have found age to be an important factor (Demps et al., 2012; Filkins et al., 2000). Filkins etal (2000) found age to be significant, such that as a person aged, they become more satisfied with their community (Filkins et al., 2000).

Although household wealth status in this study did not have a significant effect on perception of development, the same variable, objective economic wellbeing, measured using household income or wealth status has been found to have an impact elsewhere (Bookwalter & Dalenberg, 2004). A study looking at the impact of household factors on subjective wellbeing in South Africa found that different factors were important among groups based on socio-economic status (Bookwalter & Dalenberg, 2004). Although the theme of this paper was not directly related to the present study (perceived development), it nevertheless points to the importance of household wealth. This current study finds the average perceived family position on a 10-step development ladder to be 2.32 with a standard deviation of 0.04 and median of 2, indicating that most people responding in this current study viewed their household’s wealth status as being low. In addition, other socio-economic characteristics including access to water, household income, housing material and education status (Table 5.2) point to a poor community. Consequently, these results may influence one’s perception of development. Other studies, although focusing on perceptions of one’s economic wellbeing have found perceived financial situation, in comparison to friends or neighbours to have a significant effect on one’s perceived economic wellbeing (Hayhoe, 1990; Porter & Garman, 1993). 153

There is need to conduct further research on the wellbeing factors affecting perception of development in a more culturally and economically diverse community in order to adequately assess the impact of these factors on perceived development. This is because some of the studies investigating the factors influencing perceived economic wellbeing do find culture, social class, and ethnicity as important factors in how one perceives their situation because the personal values they hold often lead to differences in these perceptions (Ferree, 1990; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Porter & Garman, 1990). A further investigation is therefore needed to develop greater understanding on this important aspect of perceived economic well-being in a culturally, ethnically and economically diverse environment. In addition, further studies putting gender into consideration are needed. This is because since women do report a higher likelihood of economic adversity, it is important to determine what factors contribute to this gender difference. It also is important to study economic adversity’s role in affecting perceived economic well-being and to determine if economic adversity, rather than differences in gender values, is the underlying factor affecting perceptions of development.

5.11.1 Limitations of this analysis

The sample size used in this analysis was small and therefore the results need to be interpreted and generalised using caution. In addition, the community of study is quite homogenous in many aspects, making it difficult to have any statistical differences in some of the findings. The community is not diverse culturally, ethnically and religiously, since almost all respondents share the same religion, language and most had not lived outside the community. This would therefore imply that respondents in this study may share similar outlook towards life and their preferred development priorities, as was found in a study in a similar environment (semi-arid) where food security was ranked highest in a semi-arid area (Doss et al., 2008). Indeed Makueni constituency, where the study community lies, being a semi-arid area, contributes the highest percentage of national poverty compared to other constituencies in Eastern province (CBS et al., 2005). The semi-arid nature of the community is likely to have an impact on perceived development, as environment has been found to have a link with people’s perceptions of wellbeing, especially in an area such as Makueni, where rainfall variability has been widely recorded (Doss et al., 2008; Gichuki, 2000; Nzioka, 2000). The community also engages in similar livelihood activities, which are predominantly farming, used for subsistence, which could also influence their development priorities

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(Nzioka, 2000). Other studies have found culture to be important in perceptions of development, economic wellbeing and in development progress (Harrison & Huntington, 2000; Yeniyurt & Townsend, 2003). A study by Dorn D et al (2007), although conducted in a developed context, found culture as measured by language to have an impact on subjective well-being (Dorn, Fischer, Kirchgassner, & Sousa-Poza, 2007).

As gender has a highly significant relationship with perception of development, it would be important to assess the impact of the factors in the model on perception of development separately for males and females. The size of the data in this study was however not sufficient for the model to run when the data are split by gender. Gender indeed has been found to have significant relationship with economic wellbeing in other studies, and the data for males and females were analysed separately (Leach et al., 1999).

This study adapts a model focusing on factors influencing perceived wellbeing as postulated by Porter & Garman’s in their Conceptual Model of Financial Well-Being (Porter & Garman, 1993) and incorporating other ideas after reviewing other literature on factors influencing perceived economic wellbeing. This decision is taken because of the absence of an approach on factors influencing perceptions of development. The literature reviewed show that various factors influence well-being including objective factors such as demographic characteristics to socio-economic characteristics and subjective (perceived) factors (Bristor & Fischer, 1993; Harris-Lacewell & Albertson, 2005; Hayhoe & Wilhelm, 1998; Leach et al., 1999; Neil et al., 1980; Porter, 1990; Porter & Garman, 1990). This could be one limitation of the study because perceptions of wellbeing and development are different concepts, which although both highlight aspects of improvement in livelihood, they may also be different because they may represent these concepts at two levels: individual for perceived wellbeing and community for perceived development. This therefore means that more community level- factors would be more fitting in a perception of development model.

5.7 Conclusion Despite some of the limitations, this study adds to the voice advocating for increased community participation in development, including individuals’ perceptions of development in their context. The study contributes to the study of development through the revised model (Figure 5.5) by indicating factors found to be important in the way the rural poor in a developing country context perceive development. This study highlights the importance of

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personal, socio-economic and other factors in how the rural poor perceive participation in development, anticipated development outcomes and custodianship of development. It is clear from the results of this study that progress in the community (development) is perceived differently by men and women. This is an important finding for development researchers and students, development planners and implementers as well as policy makers who design projects to benefit communities. The study does not only emphasize the importance of employing participatory approaches in understanding poverty and development among poor communities of developing countries, but also the consideration of the various personal and socio-economic factors of the beneficiaries. Understanding the influencers of perceptions of development that are unique to men and women has potential in informing approaches and development plans that can cater for the needs of both gender separately. This is likely to enhance efficiency in the design of approaches for these groups when encouraging participation in development activities. This would help improve success outcomes of development strategies and development projects implemented in rural poor communities.

This study also has potential to inform development planners, practitioners and policy makers of development on the importance of age in perceptions of personal and community participation in development, future development prospects and custodianship of development. This understanding would help incorporate the views of people of various ages in development projects that have potential to have a great and quick impact on the lives of everyone in a community, regardless of age. In addition, development approaches may need to be tailored to age when encouraging participation in development.

Further, since one’s perceptions of household economic wellbeing also have an influence on their perceptions of community development/progress, this result point to the need to incorporate this approach in the understanding of development among the rural poor. It would be important for development actors therefore to design development approaches that would suit community members based on how they view their household’s wealth/economic standing.

These findings therefore seek to ensure that development plans are prioritised based on communities’ felt needs, but most importantly, the findings offer focus in understanding how the rural poor perceive development. This emphasizes the multidimensionality of development as perceived by respondents in this study, supporting the view that

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development goes beyond monetary and quantitative values. And that the concept is a complex one, requiring the need to use non-specific and contextual measures to understand and plan policies focused on communities’ perceptions, needs and anticipated development outcomes given their individual and socio-economic characteristics.

In conclusion, this study could be applied to other more culturally diverse contexts and on a larger population where the analysis can be done for men and women separately in order to improve the understanding of the factors influencing development perceptions on gender lines. The same analysis could also incorporate the views of other younger (15-17 years) and older (above 49 years for women and above 54 years for men) persons since age was a factor influencing these perceptions and leaving out the younger or older respondents is effectively shutting them out of development matters, yet the strategies designed for the community would ultimately impact them.

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6 DO PERCEPTIONS OF PARTICIPATION IN DEVELOPMENT INFLUENCE FERTILITY CHOICES? EVIDENCE FROM RURAL KENYA

6.1 Abstract

Using data collected from 294 individuals in Kitonyoni sub-location, this chapter seeks to assess the relationship between perceptions of participation in development and fertility (contraceptive use and desired fertility), while controlling for other socio-economic and demographic factors. A perception of participation in development index is computed using three spontaneous responses to the question: “What does development mean to you?” while fertility is defined using contraceptive use and desired fertility. Binary and multinomial logistic regression analyses are used. The study found the odds of using a method of contraception and desiring to have fewer children to correspond with perceptions of participation in development. Individuals viewing development as a participatory approach were significantly more likely to be using at least one modern method of contraception (OR=2.668). In addition, they were significantly more likely to desire to have fewer children; either 1-3 children (OR=2.870) or 4 children (OR=2.040) instead of desiring to have 5 or more children. The baseline total fertility rate in Makueni is 5.1 children per woman. These findings indicate that people who view development to be a participatory engagement where both men and women are involved and when people are satisfied with their communities’ level of involvement in development are likely to make better fertility choices. These findings support the continued involvement of people in development initiatives as this is also likely to lead to improvement of their wellbeing. This approach could be adopted as one of the non-economic indicators and measures of development; it can be used to both measure people’s satisfaction with development initiatives as well as indirectly use it to assess the success of development initiatives.

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6.2 Introduction

6.2.1 The state of world development

Despite reports of strong economic growth in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, an evaluation of the achievement of the MDG goals puts the region well behind other regions (United Nations, 2011a). Rural areas of the region fare even worse. Child health in general is still poor, with rural areas bearing a bigger burden (United Nations, 2012). Although there has been slight improvement in the number of children dying before their 5th birthday in the region, from 174 deaths per 1000 live births to 121 deaths per 1000 live births between 1990 and 2008, this remains high especially in rural sub-Saharan Africa (United Nations, 2012). The pattern is similar in regards to child malnutrition. Rural areas of the region continue to register more cases of child malnutrition, such that children in these areas are twice as likely to be underweight as their urban counterparts (United Nations, 2011a). The percentage of children found to be underweight outweighed that of the urban areas of the region, at 22% and 15% respectively (United Nations, 2012), a challenge exacerbated by the constant food shortages implying that nutritional intake among the already poor and those residing in rural areas of the region is consistently poor (Maxwell, 2001).

Other measures of wellbeing also show poor progress. Fertility decline in the region for instance, has also been slow, despite the proven links between lower fertility and improvement of general wellbeing and ultimately the contribution to sustainable development (Potter, Schmertmann, & Cavenaghi, 2002; Todaro & Smith, 2006). Uncontrolled population growth has been found to impact development through its pressure on creation of wealth at the household, community and national levels, as well as its limiting of the expansion and access to education, health care and other opportunities including children’s educational development (Todaro & Smith, 2006; United Nations Development Program, 2005b). Unsustainable population growth also makes it difficult for governments to cater for the needs of the increasing population (Ahlburg, Kelley, & Mason, 1996; Brockerhoff & Brennan, 1998; Global Futures Studies & Research, 2013). An improvement in reproductive health services and choices on the other hand has potential to advance development by helping meet the MDGs #1, #2 and #4 seeking to eradicate poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education and to reduce child mortality respectively (Todaro & Smith, 2006; United Nations Development Program, 2005b). It has been argued

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that smaller families can enable adequate child nutrition and investment in education, which would ultimately enable faster social and economic development at the family, community and national levels (United Nations Development Program, 2005a). In addition, the ability for women to have choices on their reproductive health matters has potential to promote gender equality and women empowerment (MDG #3), while at the same time improving maternal health (MDG #5) and helping combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. Improved fertility also has potential to enable access to adequate food, water, housing, sanitation facilities as well as improvement in health and education (United Nations, 2012).

Despite this recognition, many countries in the region still experience poor fertility choices and outcomes. Consequently, most of the countries are either experiencing high fertility or a stall in the decline of their respective fertility rates, yet they also experience the least development progress and poverty decline. Fertility in the region was 5.1 births per woman between 2005 and 2010, a figure that exceeds its replacement level by more than two times (United Nations, 2011c). This fertility’s contribution to an increase in the region’s population is likely to make it impossible for the countries in the region to advance in development and improve the capabilities of its people, including improving incomes, health education, self- esteem, respect, dignity and freedom to choose (Todaro & Smith, 2006).

6.2.2 Development and wellbeing in Kenya

Kenya is one of the countries in the region showing slow progress not only in the control of its population growth, but also in its development progress. Although the country recently rebased its GDP growth for 2014, revising it from the earlier projected value of $44.10 billion to $56.3 billion, the other measures of social development and wellbeing are still poor (World Bank, 2014). It’s gross national income (GNI) per capita was estimated to be US $ 1,246 in 2013 (World Bank, 2014), while its Human Development Index (HDI), a composite measure of three basic dimensions of human development: health, education and income was 0.535 in 2013 (UNDP, 2011). Consequently, the country is not only ranked 147th out of 187 countries in human development, it also faces regional inequalities in development including in infrastructure, health and education (CBS et al., 2005; World Bank, 2009). The country was indeed reported to have one of the highest Gini co-efficient in Africa in 2009, with nearly a half of its citizens living in poverty (World Bank, 2009). These development inequalities go beyond the regions and are clearly pronounced between rural and urban Kenya where fertility outcomes also show inequalities. These outcomes persist despite the implementation of 161

various programs to reduce fertility and improve the use of contraception (United Nations Development Program, 2005a).

6.2.2.1 Fertility and development

While the Kenyan government has attempted to resolve fertility through various strategies, including creating government agencies to specifically handle population issues separately from other health issues, the results have been quite slow. Although family planning was incorporated in the country’s 1965 development agenda, a step that ensured that total fertility rate reduced from 8 children in 1980s to 4.7 in 1990s, these gains were however eroded when this focus and funding was shifted from fertility to other health issues, including HIV/AIDS (Republic of Kenya, 2007b). Consequently total fertility rate (TFR) started to rise again, reaching 4.9 children per woman in 2000s, while contraceptive prevalence rate which had been increasing annually at 6% also stalled at 39% (Republic of Kenya, 2007b). Although additional efforts to improve the state of fertility in the country, including starting government departments specifically focusing on reproductive health and fertility issues have been strengthened, there are still some weaknesses in these efforts. There are some gaps in the current development policy approaches which have failed to explicitly incorporate strategies directly targeting fertility. Kenya’s Vision 2030, one of the important current development strategies which comprises a set of strategies seeking to drive the economy to a middle income status by 2030 for instance, does not have plans to address population issues (Republic of Kenya, 2007b). This is despite the association between the country’s population growth rate and the achievement of the goals in this plan. The other newer government policy documents and guidelines have attempted to address these gaps, however the contribution of the community in development efforts is still missing (National Council for Population and Development, 2013). Gender, another important factor in the success of fertility/population programs in the country has not been adequately incorporated in the design and implementation of these programs. Although both men and women are users of contraceptive products in the country and despite the important role that men play in decision-making regarding birth control measures, male involvement has not very prominent in decisions, opinions and perceptions regarding the products and services (Omondi- Odhiambo, 1997). Yet the country’s population continues to increase at an unsustainable rate which may make it difficult to achieve these development plans.

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6.2.2.2 Why focus on fertility and development?

Fertility is therefore a major focus in this study as population is both a facilitator and beneficiary of development whereby uncontrolled population growth has been found to negatively impact development progress and poor development progress also impacts fertility (Gilles et al., 1996; Ray, 1998; Todaro & Smith, 2006). A look at the fertility rates of most developing countries and developed countries demonstrates this link. While most developed countries can be said to have completed fertility transition with crude birth rates of below 20 and less than 1% of natural increase, many developing countries still grapple with high population growth rates (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). Currently, developing countries account for the greatest increase in population growth worldwide, where crude birth rates are still high and where fertility decline has either stalled or is yet to happen and where most of the population is young, putting a strain on the available resources (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). In addition, many of the developing countries with high population increase are the poorest, facing such challenges as low incomes, high economic vulnerability, and poor human development indicators such as low life expectancy at birth, very low per capita income, and low levels of education (Haub, 2012). While some regions such as Asia have made the greatest effort in fertility decline, 33 of the 48 poorest countries experiencing high fertility are in sub-Saharan Africa (Haub, 2012). The continent has experienced high population growth rates in the last few decades, a situation that has impacted the ability of many African governments to cater for the increasing populations by providing adequate health, education, housing and infrastructure and employment opportunities resources (Population Reference Bureau, 2012). The continent is further expected to contribute the greatest percentage increase of population by 2015. This therefore necessitates an urgent need to mitigate this unprecedented increase especially since only 20% of married women in sub-Saharan Africa use a modern form of family planning, the lowest rate in the world (Population Reference Bureau, 2012).

To achieve sustainable development and improve wellbeing as proposed by the United Nation’s millennium development goals, there is need to work at reducing population growth, as well as investing in universal health care including providing adequate reproductive health services as well as investment in education and gender equality (United Nations Population Fund, 2013). The United Nations Population Fund cites various ways in which sustainable development could be achieved with reduction in fertility. Figure 6.1 gives 163

a summary of the factors considered to be potential outcomes of reduced fertility, thereby impacting development.

Figure 6.1: Potential benefits of reduced fertility on development

 Enabling people to have fewer children contributes to upward mobility and helps to stimulate development.  When women can negotiate their reproductive health decisions with men, this exercise of their rights leads to an increased decision-making role within families and

communities that benefits all.  Because smaller families share income among fewer people, average per-capita income increases.  Fewer pregnancies lead to lower maternal mortality and morbidity and often to more

education and economic opportunities for women. These, in turn, can lead to higher family income.  As women become more educated, they tend to have fewer children, and participate more fully in the labour market.

 Families with lower fertility are better able to invest in the health and education of each child. Spaced births and fewer pregnancies overall improve child survival.  Investments in reproductive health, particularly in family planning, that result in lowered fertility can open a one-time only 'demographic window' of economic opportunity. This is characterised by fewer dependent children and a large and healthier workforce.

Source: (United Nations Population Fund, 2013)

Despite the potential for reduced fertility to spur economic growth (development) and improvement in wellbeing (Figure 6.1), a significant population of women in the reproductive age and who require contraception, do not use any, particularly in developing countries. The World Health Organization reports that about 222 million women in developing countries who report a desire to delay or stop child-bearing do not use any method of contraception (World Health Organization, 2013a). This gap exists despite the proved benefits including the potential of contraception to improve the women and children’s wellbeing. Access to reliable and effective modern methods of contraception can contribute to reduced abortion incidences, reduced maternal morbidity and mortality and reduced child morbidity and mortality and consequently a reduction of the burden of disease, all factors that can contribute to the development of the households, communities and countries (World Health Organization, 2013a). However, many women in developing countries continue to die because they lack access to contraception forcing them to either

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undertake unsafe abortions or putting their lives and those of the unborn babies at risk of maternal and new-born morbidity and mortality (UNFPA, 2013a).

6.2.3 Refocusing development approaches

This persisting situation therefore calls for more innovative approaches that could help address both development and fertility, given the relationship between the two issues. There is need to revisit development and look into alternative development approaches that have the potential to drive development and ensure an improvement in Wellbeing. Considering the poor development progress of many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the gaps in the development approaches employed, this study focuses on people’s involvement in development, through the seeking of their perceptions of participation in development and links these perceptions with their fertility choices. This approach could thus help inform the design of development and wellbeing programs, particularly for countries in sub-Saharan Africa.

Given all the benefits of improved fertility highlighted in the background, this paper focuses on the relationship between perceptions of development and fertility choices as a possible alternative approach to development. The paper lobbies for the incorporation of more non- monetary measures, indicators and approaches to development, including participatory development as this may have potential in improving people’s worldview as well as enabling make better choices in regards to their fertility. We hypothesize that people perceiving development to be participatory are more likely to also participate in development if given a chance, and are also likely to make better fertility choices. This study adopts the definition of community perceptions of development as the empowerment and involvement of the socially and economically marginalized peoples in decision making over their own lives (Chambers, 2005; Guijt & Shah, 1998; Kingsbury et al., 2004; Sen, 1999). This definition is informed by Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach where the improvement of people’s capabilities through empowerment, enabling them lead better lives is viewed as a prerequisite in development and in the improvement of a people’s wellbeing (Sen, 1999). Proponents of the community perceptions approach which also has potential to promote community participation in development projects argue that this has potential to reduce communities’ dependence on donor-supported programmes while understanding and making use of the communities’ resources and capacities needed to drive development on a

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sustainable basis (Chambers, 1981, 1983). Outcomes of such an initiative have potential to ensure that communities’ views and opinions are incorporated in development plans and initiatives and that these plans and initiatives are sustainable (Kingsbury et al., 2004).

6.3 Data and methods

6.3.1 Data

This chapter uses data collected from 290 households in Kitonyoni sub-location to answer this thesis’s research question number 3: “Are perceptions of development associated with wellbeing outcomes, specifically fertility choices?”. A total of 294 individuals from these households were interviewed and their data used in this analysis. Within the sampled households, a male and female of reproductive age were selected and interviewed in each household alternately, making a total sample of 150 men and 144 women (Table 6.3). These respondents were aged between 18 and 49 years for women and 18 and 54 years for men. Questions were asked on household economic status, respondent’s education level, parity, perceived health, perceived household wellbeing and perceived development.

6.3.2 Methods of data analysis

Descriptive statistics are used to assess the distribution, frequency of responses and the range of values for all the variables used in the study. The study also employs bivariate analysis to investigate the relationship between the variables of interest in the chapter. In the bivariate analysis, chi-square test is used to assess the independence of these variables. This chapter also uses logistic regression to assess the relationship between the predictor and outcome variables. Logit models are fitted to assess the relationship between perception of development and contraception use, as the contraception variable is binary. The study also employs the multinomial logistic regression to assess the relationship between perception of development and desired fertility, a nominal variable with more than two categories.

6.3.2.1 Measurement of perception of development (main predictor variable)

This study’s main predictor variable is the perception of development, measured using three questions/statements administered in the study and which refer to the respondent’s perception of participation in development. Three development related questions were administered. These include “What does personal development mean to you?”, “And now,

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what factors are important for your community’s development or what does community development mean to you?” and “And now, what factors are important for your country’s development or what does national development mean to you”. As this chapter investigates the perceptions of development and relates these with a personal health issue (fertility), this analysis focused on the responses relating to personal development to which three of the responses directly relating to perception of participation in development and which sought spontaneous responses were used in this analysis. The responses are:

i. Development entails involving everyone in development (1. Yes 0. No) ii. Development entails involving women in leadership (1. Yes 0. No) iii. People in the community are normally involved in community development (1. Yes 0. No)

These three variables are then used to compute a perception of development index that depicts respondents’ perceived participation/involvement in development. The index, computed using factor analysis was then assessed against the main wellbeing variables under investigation in this study, which are use of contraception and desired fertility.

6.3.2.2 Other explanatory variables

Table 6.3 below gives a description of the variables used in the analysis in this paper and their frequency distributions.

6.3.2.3 Outcome (dependent) variables in the analysis

This paper comprises 2 main outcome predictors of fertility choices; contraception use and desired fertility. These variables are detailed below:

Contraceptive use: This referred to use of any modern means of birth control, including combined or progesterone only oral contraceptives (or the pill), combined or progesterone only injectables, implants, intrauterine copper or hormonal devices, male and female condoms, male (vasectomy) and female (tubal ligation) sterilization, lactational amenorrhoea method and emergency contraception (World Health Organization, 2013a).

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while those without children were asked what their desired number of children was before their start of child bearing.

6.4 Results 6.4.1 Descriptive statistics

Predictor variable

Principle components analysis was used to compute the perception of development index. Table 6.1 presents the eigenvalues, which shows that the first factor explained 42% of the variance, the second factor 33% of the variance, and a third factor 25% of the variance. Further, Table 6.2 presents the index’s factor loading matrix and communalities.

The first part of the analysis presents results of descriptive statistics of the various wellbeing factors in the analysis, including a description of the variables and the frequency distribution of the accompanying responses.

Table 6.1: Total Variance of perception of development index explained

Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings

Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative %

1 1.261 42.041 42.041 1.261 42.041 42.041

2 1.003 33.420 75.461 1.003 33.420 75.461

3 .736 24.539 100.000

*1= Development entails involving women

2= Development is involving everyone

3= People in the community are normally involved in development matters

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Table 6.2: Factor loadings and communalities of perception of development index Component Communa lity 1 2

Development entails involving women -.128 .983 .984

Development is involving everyone .782 .186 .646

People in the community are normally involved in development .796 -.025 .634 matters

Explanatory variables The variables are categorised into three; socio-demographic factors, socio-economic factors and health factors (outcome variables). The socio-demographic factors used in this analysis include sex and age of respondents. It was expected that perceptions of development would indirectly operate through respondent’s sex and age to influence health outcomes. Indeed the second paper in this thesis (chapter 5) found sex and age to have a major influence of perceptions of development and it was expected that these two variables would therefore be vital in fertility outcomes, given the respondent’s perceptions of development. Socio-economic factors include educational status of respondents, household income, employment status and source of water for drinking at the household. These factors were expected to influence how perceptions of development impact health outcomes as found by various researchers. Factors found to influence fertility include socio-economic factors such as wealth and educational attainment as well as socio-demographic factors such as age and parity (Bongaarts, 1978). It was therefore found necessary to include these factors in both the binary and multinomial logistic regression models.

Desired fertility was categorised into; 1, if respondent had 1-3 children, 2, if respondent had 4 children and 3, if respondent had 5+ children while contraception use was a binary variable, categorised into 1: Yes, if any modern method of contraception was used and 0: No if no modern method of contraception was used.

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Table 6.3: Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of respondents (Source: Household survey data, Kitonyoni 2011 & 2012)

N=294 Description Characteristic n % Socio-demographic factors Sex Dichotomous variable of males (18-54 yrs.) Male 150 51.0 and female (18-49 yrs.) adult respondents Female 144 49.0 Age of respondent Adult respondent’s age categorised into 10 18-24 years 76 26.0 year age groups, except the 18-24 age group. 25-34 years 101 34.6 The last group was either 45-49 years for 35-44 years 70 24.0 female respondents or 45-54 for males 45+ years 45 15.4 Socio-economic factors Educational status The highest education level attained coded Pre-primary/Primary 215 74.9 as; pre-primary/ primary and secondary+ Secondary+ 72 25.1 Parity (no. of children) Respondent’s number of children None 63 21.4 1-2 children 46 15.7 3+ children 185 62.9 Desired parity Desired number of children 1-3 children 60 20.4 4 children 141 48.0 5+ children 93 31.6

Household income (Ksh)- Mean(SD) 5,935.82 Household income was a continuous (5,392.25) variable whose mean and standard deviation was computed and then categorised into;

The distribution of adult respondents by gender was almost equal (Table 6.3). In addition, less than a third of the population (25.1) had acquired either a secondary or higher education. The mean household monthly income was about Ksh. 6,000 (1£=Ksh. 130), while only 25.5% of households used a protected source of drinking water such as protected wells.

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6.4.2 Results of the logistic regression analysis

6.4.2.1 Perception of development and fertility

Contraceptive use

This study hypothesised that perceptions of participatory development have an association with better fertility choices, specifically use of contraception and the desire to have fewer children. Table 6.4 presents the odds of using any method of contraception when holding perceptions of participatory development, based on the perception index computed. This relationship is highly significant. The study finds the odds of using a method of contraception to be high with an improvement in the perception of development (OR=2.668). These odds increase further when demographic, socio-economic and fertility factors are controlled for in the model (OR=3.036). With the exception of parity, none of these additional variables were significant in the use of contraception. Female respondents however had higher odds of using contraception (OR=1.000 VS. OR=0.775 for men). The odds of using contraception reduced with age (OR=0.995) while married respondents were more likely to use contraception compared to the unmarried (OR=1.171 vs. OR=1.000 for unmarried respondents).

Regarding the influence of socio-economic factors, those with primary education were less likely to use contraception compared to those with secondary or higher (OR=1.000 compared to the OR=1.629 for those with secondary education). Income had a big influence on whether respondents used contraception. For every unit increase in income (Ksh.), the odds of using contraception increased (OR=2.237). Those using a protected source of drinking water at the household were about 6 times more likely to use contraception compared to those who did not use a protected water source (OR=5.999).

When parity was considered, respondents who had ever had a child were more likely to use contraception compared to those without any child. Those who had between 1 and 3 children were about as likely to use contraception as those without (OR=1.116 vs. OR=1.000 for those without children) while those with 4 children or more were about one a half times more likely to use contraception compared to those without (OR=1.402).

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Table 6.4: Results of logistic regression analysis on the effects of perception of development on the use of contraception (Source: Household survey data, Kitonyoni 2011 & 2012)

Model With Perception Full Model Determinants Only P-value P-value Odds ratios significance Odds ratios significance Intercept 2.851 *** 3.465

Perception of development 2.668 *** 3.036 **

Socio-demographic factors Sex (Female) 0.775 NS Age 0.995 NS Married 1.171 NS Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Primary) 1.629 NS Use of protected source of water at the household 5.999 NS

Household income 2.237 NS Parity (Ref: No child) 1.000 1-3 children 1.116 *** 4+ children 1.402 *** Model χ2 66.239 Df 9 P-value 0.000 N 294 R2 0.304 Significance levels *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05 NS- Not significant

Desired fertility Multinomial logistic regression to assess the association between perception of development and desired fertility was done using the multinomial logit model in IBM SPSS version 20. The choice to use multinomial logistic regression was made because the outcome variable (desired fertility) was grouped into three categories: desire to have 1-3 children; desire to have 4 children and desire to have 5 or more children.

This analysis uses desired fertility instead of achieved parity because out of the respondents in the study, 21.4% had no children (Table 6.3). From the descriptive statistics in Table 6.3, about 50% of respondents indicated 4 as the desired number of children, hence the three categories. The regression model compares the multinomial logistic regression results of those who desired to have either 1-3 children or 4 children with those who desired to have more than 4 children (Table 6.5). Respondents who perceived development to be participatory were about 3 times more likely to desire to have 1-3 children as opposed to 5

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or more children (OR=2.870). Those who held these views of development were also significantly less likely to desire to have 4 children instead of 1-3 children (OR=0.348 vs. 1.000). Similarly those with perceptions of participatory development were about two times likely to desire 4 children instead of 5 or more children (OR=2.040). In addition, among those respondents with perceptions of participating in development, women were more likely to desire fewer children than men; (OR=1.000 for women vs. OR=0.565 for men) desiring to have 1-3 children, (OR=1.000 for women vs. OR=0.493 for men) desiring to have 4 children and OR=1.000 for women vs. OR=1.771 for men amongst those desiring to have 4 children instead of 1-3. As respondents got older, the desire to have fewer children diminished; OR=0.950 for those desiring to have 1-3 children instead of 5 or more, OR=0.965 for those desiring to have 4 children instead of 5 or more and OR=1.053 for respondents desiring to have 4 children instead of 1-3. The unmarried respondents were significantly more likely to desire to have 1-3 children and not 5 or more (OR=1.000 for unmarried respondents compared to OR=0.246 for married respondents) compared to the unmarried ones. Although not significant, the pattern was the same for those desiring to have 4 children as opposed to 5 or more children, whose odds ratio was 1.000 for the unmarried and odd of 0.415 for married respondents. The odds of desiring to have 4 children or less, instead of 5 or more also varied by education, with those with secondary education desiring to have fewer children than those with only primary level of education (OR=1.053 for those desiring to have 1-3 children and OR=1.656 for those desiring to have 4 children instead of 5 or more). An increase in household income also corresponded with the desire to have fewer children (OR=1.347 for those desiring to have 1-3 children and OR=1.038 for those desiring to have 4 children instead of 5 or more). Using safe drinking water at the household corresponded with the desire to want fewer children. The odds of wanting to have only 1-3 children instead of 5 or more when a respondent used a safe source of drinking water were 1.000 vs. 0.739 for those without a safe source of drinking water. The pattern was the same for those desiring to have 4 children instead of 5 or more (OR=1.000 for those with a safe source of water vs. OR=0.315 for those without a safe water source). Respondents using contraception were more likely to desire to have fewer children compared to those not using any form of birth control method. The odds of desiring to have 1-3 children as opposed to 5 children was 1.693 while those of desiring to have 4 children as opposed to 5 or more was 1.414 when a modern method of contraception was used.

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Table 6.5: Results of multinomial logistic regression analysis on the effects of perception of development on desired fertility

95% Confidence Intervals for Odds Ratio Determinants P-value Odds Ratio significance Lower Upper Odds of desiring 1-3 children vs. 5+ children Intercept *** Perception of participatory development 2.870 ** 1.251 6.584 Socio-demographic factors Sex (Ref: Female) 0.565 NS 0.264 1.206 Age 0.950 *** 0.915 0.985 Marital status (Ref: Married) 0.246 * 0.061 0.992 Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Primary) 1.053 NS 0.439 2.525 Household income 1.347 NS 0.437 4.152 Use of water at household (Ref: Protected) 0.739 NS 0.094 5.836 Other factors Use of contraception (Ref: No contraception) 1.693 NS 0.534 5.366 Odds of desiring 4 children vs. 1-3 children Intercept NS Perception of participatory development 0.348 * 0.152 0.799 Socio-demographic factors Sex (Ref: Female) 1.771 NS 0.829 3.783 Age 1.053 ** 1.015 1.093 Marital status (Ref: Married) 4.066 * 1. 008 6.390 Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Primary) 0.950 NS 0.396 2.276 Household income 0.743 NS 0.241 2.289 Source of water at household (Ref: Protected) 1.352 NS 0.171 1.674 Other factors Use of contraception (Ref: No contraception) 0.591 NS 0.186 1.873 Odds of having 4 children vs. 5+ children Intercept ** Perception of participatory development 2.040 ** 0.999 4.163 Socio-demographic factors Sex (Ref: Female) 0.493 * 0.268 0.905 Age 0.965 * 0.937 0.993 Marital status (Ref: Married) 0.415 NS 0.128 1.339 Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Primary) 1.656 NS 0.828 3.314 Household income 1.038 NS 0.389 2.766 Source of water at household (Ref: Protected) 0.315 NS 0.063 1.577 Other factors Use of contraception (Ref: No contraception) 1.414 NS 0.587 3.410 Significance levels *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05; NS-Not Significant Model χ2 38.00 Df 16 P-value 0.002 N 294 R2 0.146

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6.5 Discussions and conclusions

6.5.1 Discussion

The study found perceptions of participation in development to be positively associated with fertility choices under investigation, including contraception use and desired fertility. Adult respondents who viewed development to be participatory were also found to be using at least one method of contraception. These respondents were also more likely to have fewer children (4 children or less and not more than 4 children) compared to those without participatory development views.

An investigation of people’s perceptions of development and how this relates to their fertility choices is an area of research that is yet to be widely undertaken. Although understanding people’s perceptions has been applied in various other studies, including in other health research, research into people’s perceptions of development is an area that is yet to be widely undertaken. Even more important, the approach has yet to be utilised in the area of perceptions of development and fertility choices. Yet, the approach has been found to be beneficial where it has been applied. The health and environmental studies where research into people’s perceptions of their environment and various health issues has been undertaken have found that people’s perceptions are important in the actions taken to in either addressing health issues or conserving their environments (Behrman, Kohler, & Watkins, 2003; Zulu & Chepngeno, 2003).

Findings of the analysis in this study reinforce the United Nations’ definition of development adopted in the study. The United Nations Development Fund (UNDP) defines development as the progressive act of making a better life for everyone, by meeting their basic needs, ensuring everyone has enough food to lead healthy lives, having a safe and healthy place to live, ensuring that everyone has affordable services and ensuring that everyone is treated with dignity and respect (United Nations Development Program, 2010c). This study focuses on the idea of involving people in the determination of their development needs through the understanding of their perceptions and how these relate with their wellbeing. This approach and the UNDP’s definition is reinforced by other scholars who view development as a phenomenon that needs to go beyond monetary/economic indicators. Amartya Sen for instance views development as the art of improving people’s capabilities so that their functioning in the lives and society can also be improved (Sen, 1999). By modeling the

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relationship between people’s perceptions of development (focusing specifically on perceptions of participation in development) and their fertility choices is aimed at demonstrating that people’s capabilities can be improved if their fertility choices improve and likewise. The findings of this study demonstrate the existence of a relationship between improvement in wellbeing and people’s views of development. People’s views of development, participation in development and future development prospects are related to their fertility choices, an indication that these two issues may influence each other.

One of the most important goals of development is to ensure that progress in the improvement of people’s lives is sustainable, an approach that the international community strongly recognizes such that it forms the main agenda in the post-2015 Millennium development goals (United Nations, 2013a). To achieve this, it has been proposed by various scholars that development efforts need to involve beneficiary communities in development initiatives in order to improve sustainability of these development efforts (Chambers, 2005; Guijt & Shah, 1998; Sen, 1999). This chapter proceeds at highlighting the connection between enlargement of the capacity of the socially and economically marginalised to participate in decisions relating to the development projects implemented for them and the resultant improvement in their wellbeing. The rural populations can be given a platform to participate in development initiatives, thereby refocusing development priorities from the perspectives of the non-rural, most of who determine the development initiatives for the rural populace (Chambers, 1983). Focusing on this group is important as the rural poor in the region are in most cases disadvantaged, thereby experiencing worse wellbeing outcomes.

Results of this study emphasize the importance of prioritizing and implementing population policies by governments in the region in order to reverse the stall in fertility decline being experienced in a majority of countries in the sub-Saharan Africa (Ezeh, Mberu, & Emina, 2009; David E. Sahn & David C. Stifel, 2003). This is urgent since population/fertility policies have previously been relegated to the periphery, yet to advance development and feel the gains of these efforts, lower fertility in the country and the region will have to be achieved (United Nations Population Fund, 2013). One of the areas of focus should be on reducing parity progression. Even most important, is the incorporation of both women and men since this study found women to be significantly more likely to desire to have fewer children than men, yet in reality, they may not be the decision-makers in the eventual determination of their attained fertility. Although policies incorporating men in family

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planning programmes in various settings in the region are being undertaken (Bayray, 2012; Kim, Marangwanda, & Kols, 1996; Rusatira & Kyamanywa, 2013), these need to be stepped if more progress in changes in fertility is to be experienced. Indeed efforts to address fertility would have better results if both men and women are involved since in the region, men are considered to be the main decision-makers on family size, access to care and contraception (Drennan, 1998). Implementation of these efforts is even more urgent since a majority of the respondents in this study still desire to have many children (48.4% and 31.7% of respondents were found to desire to have 4 and 5+ children respectively), indicating the need to also have policies and programmes ensuring adequate supply and access of contraception in place. Further, since contraceptive use and parity determinants span the socio-economic and other aspects of lives such as education and poverty, there is need to focus not only on economic, but on social advancement as well, if the uptake of contraception and reduction in the desire to have large families is to be achieved (Bongaarts, 2011; Notestein, 1945, 1953). Indeed poverty and low educational achievement in the region are some of the leading factors promoting the desire for many children, who are perceived to be important in cushioning families in times of need (Bongaarts, 2011). This demonstrates how inter-twined development and fertility are both in causes and outcomes, making the focus on both a priority.

6.5.2 Limitations of study

Similar to the analysis in chapter 5, the community of study is quite homogenous in many aspects, making it difficult to have any statistical differences in some of the findings. Culturally, ethnically and religiously the community is not diverse, since almost all respondents share the same religion, language and most had not lived outside the community. This would therefore imply that respondents in this study may share a similar outlook towards life and their preferred development priorities as was found in a study in a similar environment (semi-arid) where food security was ranked highest in a semi-arid area (Doss et al., 2008). Other studies have found culture to be important in perceptions of development, economic wellbeing and in development progress (Harrison & Huntington, 2000; Yeniyurt & Townsend, 2003). A study by Dorn D et al (2007), although conducted in a developed context, found culture as measured by language has an impact on subjective well-being (Dorn et al., 2007).

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6.5.3 Conclusion

Despite some of the limitations, this study adds to the voice advocating for increased community participation in development, by focusing on their perceptions of development. This is because as highlighted in the results, individuals perceiving development to be participatory are likely to make better fertility choices. This approach could therefore be adopted as one of the non-economic indicators and measures of development that could be utilised in measuring people’s satisfaction with development initiatives as well as indirectly using this to assess and monitor the success of development initiatives in improving people’s wellbeing outcomes.

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7 MAIN FINDINGS AND CONCLUSIONS

7.1. Main findings

This chapter provides a summary of the thesis by highlighting the key findings and a discussion of the anticipated use of the study findings for sustainable development policies in Makueni County and as a guide for development approaches in other counties in Kenya as well as in other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The policy and program implications of this study are also outlined, followed by priorities for future research in the area of public perceptions of development and relationship with wellbeing. The chapter also outlines the study’s limitations and the planned publication of research findings.

Neo-classical approaches to development, most of which are still currently being applied in many development initiatives focus on development largely as an economic issue, where progress is assessed in economic terms, for instance, by using such measures as standard of living and income. These approaches have led to an increasing use of these income-focused assessments of development which although are important in assessing countries’ progress in development, they are not adequate in highlighting non-economic aspects of development. Income-based measures are indeed considered important in assessing development progress at the macro level. However, other non-monetary indicators are increasingly being recognised as equally important, as they help in understanding the dynamics of socio- economic development (Ledwith, 1997; Ray, 1998; Sen, 1999, 2010; Todaro & Smith, 2006). There is an increasing appreciation of development as a phenomenon that goes beyond just the monetary measures, to also include the empowerment of development-beneficiaries to determine their development needs and take part in development initiatives implemented to benefit them. This has led to the incorporation of both monetary and non-monetary measures of assessing development by various institutions involved in development matters. These include the World Bank’s inclusive growth where focus is paid on reducing development disparities within and between countries (Ray, 1998). The United Nations also incorporates other measures of development in its assessment of human development, which it views as entailing much more than incomes or economic growth to also include expanding people’s choices (United Nations Development Program, 2010c).

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Despite this recognition and the increasing incorporation of these additional assessments in development, the situation of wellbeing for a majority of people living in developing countries and especially the rural areas of these countries has improved only marginally, even reversing in some cases (United Nations, 2011a; World Bank, 2010b). Even more worrying is the persistence of poor development progress and poor wellbeing outcomes despite the implementation of many development initiatives in these countries. One of the worst affected regions is sub-Saharan Africa, whereby a majority of its rural population continues to grapple with challenges around health, education and wellbeing despite a global improvement in these wellbeing issues.

This study therefore aimed to seek an alternative approach to development that may ensure faster and more sustainable development. It was deemed worth undertaking as there have been numerous initiatives to address development, poverty and wellbeing which have unfortunately failed to achieve the intended improvement in people’s lives. Some of the reasons given for this poor progress has been the poor prioritization of people’s development needs, as there has been minimal involvement of people in determining their development needs, an omission that has contributed to poor identification/prioritization of people’s needs. In seeking to demonstrate that involving people in determining their needs has potential in ensuring the improvement of their wellbeing as well as sustainability of the initiatives implemented, this study explored the public perceptions of development and relationship with wellbeing, using two rural communities of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya as a case study. This is the first study that has investigated how members of a rural community in a developing country perceive development, factors influencing these perceptions and how these perceptions relate with their wellbeing outcomes. Very few studies and development initiatives have sought to incorporate participatory development in their initiatives, despite this approach having potential to ensure sustainable development. This thesis therefore seeks to reverse this view, by arguing towards a shift in development approaches from those solely viewing development as an economic approach to a more participatory one that incorporates both the economic approaches as well as the opinions and actions of those that the development efforts are intended for.

The investigation was undertaken using qualitative and quantitative data collected from youth, women, men and leaders from the two sub-locations. The initial investigation was aimed at understanding how those responding in the study conceptualise development, how

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they rank their development needs in order of priority and how they articulate possible strategies to address these development needs. The study found that definitions of development and strategies to address a community’s felt needs are multidimensional and go beyond the monetary measures and context. When ranking of development needs was done, it emerged that respondents were able to articulate their needs. Access to adequate water, followed by availability of electricity, improvement of transport and health care facilities were considered important development needs. On the other hand, access to credit, absence of disease and improved security were ranked as least important in development priority needs. Responses from the government development officials concurred with the community members’ views, where development was summarised as entailing the measure of a society’s wellbeing including social, political and economic aspects. The analysis also found poverty to be a major indicator of lack of development as it denotes the level of development achieved and could therefore be used to assess development progress. These findings add to the limited number of studies investigating approaches that could be used to drive sustainable development. This idea feeds into the theoretical framework used in the study whose main argument is to approach development from a holistic perspective, an undertaking that could be achieved by involving those who are likely to benefit from the implemented initiatives. Seeking to understand people’s views of development, their development needs and possible approaches to meet these needs is likely to contribute to an all-inclusive sustainable development since it is viewed as the first step towards participatory development (Soubbotina & Sheram, 2000).

In defining development, poverty emerged to be a strong indicator of lack of development highlighted by social, economic, health and socio-economic aspects of want. Some of its social indicators include not having a spouse or children once one attained the age of marriage as well as the inability to care for one’s family. Lack of respect from fellow community members including uninvolement in important community decisions and psychological worries resulting from a myriad of problems were also reported as signs of social poverty. Emerging economic indicators of poverty include poor housing, poor livelihoods as well as the inability to access and/or afford most essential goods and services needed for survival. Lack of knowledge and access to essential health services, leading to poor health outcomes and poor psychological health are the main indicators of health poverty. Socio-economic indicators of poverty highlighted include inability to access good- quality and regular schooling and unavailable leisure time and activities. These indicators of 181

poverty highlight areas where development efforts may be focused, in order to improve the wellbeing of Makueni residents. This finding reinforces the existence of variations in perceptions of development, where the interpretations and indicators are influenced by context (Brock, 1999; Chambers, 2001; Devereux, 2003; M. Green, 2007; Narayan, Chambers, Shah, & Petesch, 2000; SHDRP & UNDP, 1998; Tierney, 1997).

This study also found that those responding defined development as a progressive act denoting improvement in all spheres of life. It emerged that these improvements/progress were hierarchical with improvement in personal/household sphere leading to improvement in community affairs and then to national improvement was reported to be the pathway to development. It further emerged from those responding that unless individual/household development is achieved, it would be difficult to achieve community and eventually national development, implying a trickle-up effect of development from the individual, to community and to the national level. This finding contributes to the empowerment of development beneficiaries to determine their needs and to provide ideas on how best to be involved in development initiatives. Viewing development as a hierarchical issue shows that consideration is given first in meeting personal/household needs/development before collectively contributing to community and then to national development. This demonstrates how clearly those benefiting from development initiatives are able to rank their development needs, an undertaking that shows a population that both empowered and willing to partake of development initiatives in their environ. The approach could also act as a way of community-empowerment, thereby improving capabilities and functionings as demonstrated by Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach (Sen, 1999).

Guided by the gender and development theories and the theoretical framework applied in this study and others emphasizing the planning and implementation of development from a gender perspective, this study also investigated the gender differentials in the perception of development. Gender theories of development emphasize the importance of involving both men and women in development plans and initiatives at personal/household, community and national levels. To adequately involve both men and women in development however, understanding their views of factors they consider to be important in development was deemed paramount. This study found statistical differences in the way men and women perceive the factors that are important in development at the personal/household, community and national levels. Gender was also a main influencer on whether people were

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optimistic about their community’s development, whether they viewed development as collaboration or whether they were likely to be willing to participate in development initiatives implemented in their communities. These findings indicate that involvement of both men and women in development is important for sustainability of the initiatives implemented while also helping empower the community and ultimately improve their wellbeing and capabilities (Sen, 1999).

A further investigation of the relationship between perceptions of development and wellbeing outcomes found perceptions of participation in development to be positively associated with the wellbeing outcomes under investigation, that is, fertility choices (contraception use and desired fertility). Adult respondents who viewed development to be participatory were found to be using at least one method of contraception. These respondents were also more likely to desire to have fewer children compared to those not viewing development as a participatory approach. These findings indicate that involvement of people in determining their needs makes them more likely to make better choices regarding their fertility, a finding that supports the proposed approaches to development which incorporate participation as a key component and which has potential to improve people’s wellbeing. Those involved in development initiatives are likely to be more proactive about their lives, making informed decisions about such matters as using contraception and birth control.

7.2. Conclusion

Although many studies acknowledge that the involvement of local communities in development initiatives designed to benefit them is an important step in sustainable and equitable development, very rarely do those implementing these development initiatives employ this approach. This study sought to demonstrate the importance of approaching development from a participatory approach where beneficiaries of development efforts are involved in decision-making and actions regarding development efforts intended to benefit them. This study highlights the importance of this approach in ensuring that development initiatives utilise local resources and expertise, as well as prioritizing development efforts based on the beneficiaries’ felt needs. The study also demonstrates that involving the communities in development has a positive effect on their wellbeing outcomes, and that when participatory approaches are used in development efforts and approaches, all members

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of the community, regardless of age, gender, household wealth status and wellbeing need to be involved in these initiatives. This is because all these factors influence their opinions of development in their community as well as their health outcomes.

The study uses two types of concepts; subjective (perceptions of development) and objective (wellbeing outcomes) and demonstrates how the two are linked. This approach was informed by the gap in previous studies and approaches, which have investigated the perceptions of development and studied people’s wellbeing in isolation without linking the two. The argument for this approach was that people’s perceptions of development has a relationship with their socio-economic, demographic and wellbeing outcomes. The study broadens our understanding of people’s perceptions of development, including the most important factors demonstrating development progress as well as a ranking of these needs in order of priority, which is influenced by their most felt needs. Findings of the study therefore demonstrate that perceptions, although a subjective measure, has a bearing on other measurable/objective measures, in the case of this study, socio-economic and demographic factors and objective health outcomes. The results show that if people are involved in development initiatives designed for them, they are more likely to register better wellbeing decisions, choices and ultimately, health outcomes. Being a study at a micro-level, this approach may therefore be useful in prioritising development needs and plans at such a micro-level e.g. at Makueni County level while at the same time using these approaches as a yard-stick in the assessment of the success of the implemented development initiatives. The approach therefore has potential to help assess the progress of development and the achievement of the MDGs, due to the analysis of the relationship between how development is perceived and wellbeing outcomes. Results of this study, implemented in two communities of Makueni County can thus be applied to, and replicated in the greater Eastern region, and in the rest of Kenya and sub-Saharan Africa. This study’s findings carry strong policy and programmatic implications especially as Kenya seeks to achieve the Vision 2030 goals, which are hinged on progress in development driving the country to the middle-income status by the year 2030, and which if achieved, the country would also progress in meeting the MDGs, and consequently the general wellbeing of the residents.

Efforts to advance development and the improvement of wellbeing in developing countries, in sub-Saharan Africa and in Kenyan in particular, continue to be undertaken. Traditionally, most of these efforts have focused on neoclassical definitions and quantitative approaches

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and assessment of development, where emphasis is placed on the improvement of incomes and standard of living. At the national level, traditional indicators of development have focused on the ability for nations to expand their output at a rate faster than the growth rates of their populations (per capita income) as with the alternation of modes of production and employment, for instance from agriculture to rapid industrialisation. More recently however, there is the increasing appreciation of both these economic and other non-economic factors that can be used as indicators of development, including dynamic aspects of socio-economic development. These include the removal of unfreedoms that leave people with little choice and little opportunity of exercising their reasoned agency, thereby improving their capabilities to live fulfilling lives, including participation in matters affecting their lives, such as development. Despite the acknowledgment of the multidimensional nature of development, few development studies in the country and in sub-Saharan Africa apply this approach. Most especially the involvement of development recipients in decisions relating to their needs has not been widely undertaken. And yet, the massive development efforts have failed to yield satisfactory development progress. The levels of poor wellbeing are also clearly reported, which include poor educational attainment, poor health outcomes, high poverty levels, as well as slow infrastructural development. These observations point to the need for alternative approaches to development.

The recognition of both monetary and non-monetary as well as quantitative and non- quantitative measures of development sought to reinforce the multidimensionality of this phenomenon. To better understand development in Makueni County, a setting similar to others in the region, the study sought to enquire how members of the study communities perceive development. The study also went further to link these perceptions (which are subjective or non-economic measures) with the people’s wellbeing outcomes (which are objective or quantitative indicators of wellbeing). This approach was used in order to show that there exist a link between involvement of communities in their development efforts and outcomes of development, in this case their wellbeing outcomes.

The study recognises the importance of incorporating other non-monetary and non- quantitative measures especially as perceived by those responding to this study, highlighting the need to refocus attention on not just the monetary measures and indicators of development, but also on employing non-monetary and non-quantitative measures and approaches to development plans. This is supported by this study’s finding which recognises

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that perceptions of development are not specific, rather they vary by context and strategies to address these need to be contextually tailored as these perceptions and priorities are likely to be influenced by such factors as resources and climatic conditions. This is best demonstrated by the ranking of water as the greatest priority in Makueni, a situation that is likely to be different in other settings of the country, especially the non-arid areas or other settings of the region. Perceptions of poverty by respondents in this study for instance go beyond monetary or economic measures and indicators. The word development is derived from the verb ‘develop’ which means “to unfold, expand, strengthen, spread, grow, evolve, become more mature, elaborate, exploit the potentialities, make or become larger (Waite, 1979). The main characteristic of development highlighted in this definition is the aspect of change for the better, in this case progress. This idea of progress transcends levels and refers to change at individual/households, communities and nations. This study not only looks at the concept of progress as perceived by those responding in the study, but also on the impact of the progress as defined, hypothesized and perceived in this study, on the lives of people and communities. These areas included poverty, capabilities and health outcomes.

7.3. Limitations of the research

Various factors were put into consideration at the time of data collection in order to ensure that the data collected was of high quality. Before data collection commenced, the questionnaires were pre-tested in order to ensure that the pre-selected responses were valid and captured all the possible responses. This was especially important because the tools of data collected and the questions implemented in this study had yet to be applied in other studies, hence the need to check their content and consistency. In addition, since the data was collected in the local Kamba language (the language spoken by the residents of Makueni County) all the tools of data collection had to be translated. At the time of data collection, care was taken in order to ensure that the data collected met high standards. For instance, random spot-checks were done by the supervisor in order to verify the responses. In addition, before the data were submitted for data entry, it was edited three times, first by the field research assistants, then by the field supervisor and finally by the researcher. Any questions that were unclear or which had inconsistent responses were sent back to the field for clarification before the data was entered.

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Despite all these precautions, there are some limitations to this study that the reader should be made aware of. This study employed the mixed-methods approach where data was collected at the household level using questionnaires and at the community level using focus group discussions and key informant interviews with community members and leaders respectively and development partners. The sample of households and individuals to be interviewed was drawn from a list of the study area’s population, listed during the Energy project’s baseline assessment conducted in between March and May 2011. Visits were made to these households during the day in order to secure the interviews and where the selected respondents were missed after four visits, replacements were made. It is therefore possible that those found at the households were those not engaged in employment outside the home, including the migrants to towns and cities. For this reason, this group of the community’s residents could have been systematically excluded from the sample.

The other limitation of the study is that the sample size was small and therefore the results need to be interpreted and generalised using caution. This limited some analysis for instance, as gender has a highly significant relationship with perception of development, it would be important to assess the impact of the factors in the model on perception of development separately for males and females. The size of the data in this study was however not sufficient for the structural equation model to run when the data were split by gender. Gender indeed has been found to have significant relationship with economic wellbeing in other studies, and the data for males and females were analysed separately (Leach et al., 1999).

The homogeneity of the study community could also impact the results of this study. The community of study is quite homogenous in many aspects, making it difficult to have any statistical differences in some of the findings. Culturally, ethnically and religiously the community is not diverse, since almost all respondents share the same religion, language and most had not lived outside the community. Further, in relation to livelihoods, most of the households visited used the same source of water (open source of water such as open wells) indicating that these households may not have great variations in their socio-economic statuses. The community also engages in similar livelihood activities, which are predominantly farming, used for subsistence, which could also influence their development priorities. This would therefore imply that respondents in this study may share similar outlook towards life and their preferred development priorities, as was found in a study in a similar environment (semi-arid) where access to water was ranked highest (Brock, 1999).

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Other studies have found culture to be important in perceptions of development, economic wellbeing and in development progress (Harrison & Huntington, 2000; Yeniyurt & Townsend, 2003). A study by Dorn D et al (2007), although conducted in a developed context, found culture as measured by language has an impact on subjective well-being (Dorn et al., 2007).

7.4. Policy and programme implications

This study is expected to inform policy by:

1. Emphasizing that definitions of development are multidimensional and vary according to context. The study therefore recommends that strategies to address development should encompass both monetary and non-monetary measures and be contextually-tailored.

2. Emphasising that development should be approached using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. Participatory approach is particularly an important approach where beneficiaries of development efforts are involved in decision-making and in actions regarding development efforts intended to benefit them. This is informed by the results of this study which indicate that even within the same community, people’s perceptions will vary depending on their age, gender, perceived household wellbeing and health behavioural factors. The study therefore advices that development practitioners rethink development approaches and refocus on employing more participatory approaches in the understanding development at a micro level. One of the ways that communities can be involved in development is the utilization of indigenous knowledge.

3. Highlighting the importance of participatory approach in development particularly where communities are asked to rank their development priorities, thereby designing development programmes based on the communities’ most felt needs. This would help maximise impact of development while maximising the available resources.

4. Emphasising that decentralising development is the best approach if Kenya is to achieve equitable and sustainable development and achieve the Kenya Vision 2030 goals. This is because local expertise is employed in designing development strategies

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based on local culture, environment and resources in the various regions and districts. This approach is also best suited for other countries in the region who face similar conditions in regards to challenges to development.

5. Highlighting that participatory development holds the key not only in sustainable and equitable development, but also in the improvement of the participating communities’ wellbeing. This is demonstrated from results of this study where perceptions of participation in development are related to wellbeing outcomes, including use of contraception, access of services and women’s health. Respondents with positive perceptions of development reported better outcomes. This emphasizes the importance of involving rural communities in decisions and actions relating to development in their communities.

This study’s findings also carry a number of programme implications, one of the most important relating to gender mainstreaming in development matters.

7.4.1 Gender mainstreaming in development projects

The study finds gender to be an important determinant of how development is perceived as men and women were found to view development differently. In addition, health outcomes arising from these perceptions were also established in regards to contraception, fertility as well as on child health. Gender is therefore important in the health outcomes at the household level, indicating the need to ensure that it is given consideration in planning and execution of development studies, an approach that could also be applied to other counties and regions of the country. This has potential in ensuring that there is a gender equality in health and wellbeing outcomes. This recommendation is particularly informed by the acknowledgement that women and children bear the disproportionate burden of poverty and poor development progress as women make up the largest majority of the world’s poor (UNDP, 2013). The impact of these conditions on their health and wellbeing is also unprecedented, including on such issues as poverty, child undernutrition, maternal morbidity and mortality, poor access to health care when needed, poor sanitation, illiteracy, early marriages, and lower wages among other factors (Tinker, 1990; UNDP, 2013). The relationship between poor development progress and gender inequality has been well

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established whereby the two are an outcome of each other. Countries with unequal distribution of human development have been found to also have huge inequalities between men and women, and likewise, huge gender inequalities have been found to also be accompanied with huge unequal distribution of development (UNDP, 2013). Despite the importance of reducing the gender gap, gender mainstreaming in development initiatives in the developing world is still not widely done. Kenya has attempted to achieve this.

The Kenyan government has policies and programmes that ensure that gender and development are core aspects of development. There is a ministry delegated to this role. The Ministry of Gender and Social Development which provides life skills to women and persons with disabilities is dedicated towards improving wellbeing through the gender perspective. The Ministry facilitates those in their development programmes in improving their living standards, through giving of seed money to start up income generating activities. These funds are allocated from the Women Enterprise Fund. This support is diverse and may include provision of cash and tools including wheelchairs, tailoring machines and irrigation machines. In addition, the recently adopted constitution of Kenya, implemented from March 2013 has tried to ensure that women are represented in positions of power. The Constitution allows for a provision of 290 seats directly elected by geographic constituencies and 47 seats for women county representatives (Akech, 2010). It is therefore evident that following these provisions, the Kenyan government has sought to promote gender empowerment and specifically offer women and girls an opportunity autonomy in development and health matters as well as in education and leadership opportunities. There are however still major differences in public service opportunities for men and women in the country. For instance, despite the provision in the constitution reserving 47 seats for women, the March 2013 elections had a disappointing level of participation by women. Of the 232 candidates for the 47 governor seats, only 6 (2.58%) were women, while only 20 (8.3%) out of the total number of 240 candidates of the 47 senate seats were women (Lisek, 2013). In addition, the country still experiences adverse health outcomes mainly affecting women and children (KNBS & ICF Macro, 2010). Efforts to include both men and women’s voices in development through gender inclusivity in development planning and implementation therefore need to be stepped up in order to uplift theirs wellbeing outcomes. Involvement of men in fertility programs is also vital if contraception and fertility decline, both of which have a bearing on development, are to be improved.

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7.4.2 Social protection programmes

The importance of initiating social protection policies and programmes particularly for the very poor in developing countries has been reported to be an area that development efforts need to focus on (Barrientos & Hulme, 2008; Conway, de Haan, & Norton, 2000). This argument arises from the established role of social protection strategies as providers of effective response to poverty and vulnerability, through the public actions taken in response to vulnerability, risk and deprivation (Conway et al., 2000). Based on the outcome of the analysis in this study, the community of study can be termed as one which faces high poverty and vulnerability levels, necessitating measures to cushion those in desperate situations against falling into deeper crises. Interviews with government officials revealed that efforts were on-going to cushion the very poor through various social protection policies. One of these efforts relate to the provision of tuition fees for those unable to cater for this. It was reported that the Constituency Development Funds (CDF) in constituencies across Makueni County had set up a kitty to support gifted secondary school students from the County whose families were unable to afford fees for secondary school education. There were also various programmes targeting persons with disabilities living in the county. These included trainings on vocational rehabilitation where these members are then referred to relevant government departments where they receive life skills in various trainings, then are allocated funds through the ministry of Gender and Social Development’s National Fund of the Disabled. Further, at the time of study, the government was implementing a pilot project where cash transfers are given to people with severe disabilities while the elderly in the community were receiving cash transfers. Despite these efforts being put in place, this analysis revealed that a majority of the community’s residents are vulnerable, indicating that efforts need to be stepped up in order to improve the living standards of the most vulnerable members.

7.5. Planned publication of research findings

Publicity of results of this research will be done through presentation to policy makers, development experts and other experts in development work as well as to the community. It is expected that views elicited from these dissemination exercises will be used to improve on future development research.

This study is also expected to build the academic research knowledge by publishing papers derived from the thesis in peer-referred journals. A paper from chapter four is published in 191

the Journal of African Studies in Development (Essendi et al., 2014). A second paper from chapter five is being revised for resubmission while a third, from chapter six is undergoing a second review in PLOS One journal. This research can thus be accessed by those involved in, and interested in development research.

7.6. Areas for further research

A few areas for further research are suggested in this study. There needs to be continued research incorporating additional measures of wellbeing and the relationship with perceptions of development. This will enable monitoring of the progress of development or participation in development and improvement in human development in the various counties of Kenya.

There is also need to expand this approach to other areas of the country. This study was conducted in an ethnically, culturally and economically homogenous rural poor community where significant effects were not found between perception of development and some socio-demographic and perceived variables. Further studies need to be conducted that can study perceived development separately for males and females and also in a community that shows some economic, cultural and social variations. This would help tease out the differences in perceptions of development, which could not be adequately established in this study.

More studies investigating perceptions of development and participatory development need to be carried out in order to improve the benefits of development where the beneficiaries are involved in the development process, spanning development planning and execution. This has potential to help achieve sustainable development while minimising the cost and at the time maximising the local expertise and resources.

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Appendices Appendix 1: Kenya ethical approval for the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project

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Appendix 2: University of Southampton ethical approval_ the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project

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Appendix 3: Ethical approval _University of Southampton

From: Boak S.L. Sent: 15 December 2011 09:54 To: Essendi H. Cc: Johnson Martina; Madise N.J.; Matthews Z. Subject: Ethical submission - Essendi (SSEGM-11)

Dear Hildah

I am pleased to let you know that your recent ethics committee application on ‘Public perceptions of development, participation and relationship with wellbeing: the case of Makueni district in Kenya' has now been given ethical approval by the Faculty Ethics Committee (ref: SSEGM‐11)

Please note that this email will constitute evidence of ethical approval.

We wish you every success with your research.

All best wishes Sarah

Sarah Boak Senior Research Support Officer Research and Innovation Services Faculty of Social and Human Sciences Building 44, Room 2055 [email protected] x28101 T: 02380 598101

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Appendix 4: Research authorization

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Appendix 5: Research permit

Appendix 6: Community leader key informant interview guide

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Public perceptions of development, participation in development, and relationship with wellbeing KII Guide Community Leader

Consent form

Explanation of Research Project:

PURPOSE OF STUDY: Hello, my name is ______. The purpose of this discussion is to gain an understanding into the way people in this community understand poverty and development in their context. We want to know your views and opinions about poverty, the concept of development in your context, what constitutes development, your views about the development strategies being undertaken and community contribution to this development. You were selected for this discussion as a community leader in this community.

PROCEDURES: We will also be talking to other opinion leaders in Makueni and also those involved in development at the national level. This discussion will take about 30 minutes of your time and we may contact you again later in the study to participate in another discussion in follow-up studies. During the discussion, feel free to interrupt me at any time with something you think is important. I do not want to trust my memory so I will ask your permission to take down notes, and tape-record. Your views are important and there is no right or wrong answer. If you feel uncomfortable having any portion of the interview recorded, please inform me to switch off the tape.

RISKS/DISCOMFORTS: We do not expect the discussion to cause you any harm but if you feel uncomfortable with some of the questions, you can choose not to answer them.

BENEFITS: The results of the study will be used for educational purposes and will be used to understand community members’ views regarding development.

WHOM TO CONTACT: If you want to talk to anyone about this research study, or if you think you have been treated unfairly; contact Hildah Essendi on 0720334239 or The National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) on 020-310571/020-2213123.

If you agree to participate in this study, please sign your name below. 198

______Subject's signature or fingerprint

______Witness to Consent Procedure

______Signature of Investigator

______Date

Note: Signed copies of this form must be retained on file by the PI and a copy of the consent form given to the participant

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Questions (Answer any questions that respondent may have and begin the discussion) Meaning of Development I would like us to begin by discussing the meaning of development from your perspective 1. What is development? Probe: Whether it’s a personal, national or international issue Probe: poverty alleviation Probe: Improvement in health and demographic outcomes 2. What does development mean to you as a Kenyan? Probe the things that constitute development: education, roads, electricity, water, more income, market for agricultural commodities, health care, poverty alleviation. Probe: Ask respondent to rank what they have mentioned in order of importance and give reasons for this ranking. 3. What does development mean to you as a leader/stakeholder in development? 4. Do you view development as a sponsorship or partnership? Probe: Sponsorship by the government Sponsorship by donors Partnership between community members and the government Partnership between the government and the international community/donors Partnership between the government/the community and the international community/donors Development policies in the country/community Now I would like us to discuss the various development policies initiated in the country/in this community 5. Please give me a brief overview of the development policies in Kenya since independence. Probe: policies on education, health, infrastructure (roads, electricity), water, agriculture etc. Probe: National, regional, local policies Probe: the achievements of these policies Probe: their shortcomings 6. How can these development efforts be reinforced? Probe: By whom? Development efforts in the community/country Now I would like us to discuss the various development efforts in the country/in the community 7. What development initiatives is your organization involved in, in Makueni district? 8. Who should be responsible for development in the country? Why?

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9. Whose responsibility is it regarding development currently being undertaken by international aid organizations? 10. For how long should international aid be given to aid rural development? Probe: reason/s for their responses 11. What should international funding be supporting? Probe: Health, education, agricultural development, water, climate change etc. Probe: Reasons for these responses 12. Should such funding be supporting programs like climate change and why?

Is there anything that you would like to add to our discussion?

Thank you for taking the time to talk with me today. What you have shared has been extremely helpful. I’ve been asking so many questions – do you have any questions for me?

[Answer any questions that the respondent has]

END

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Appendix 1

Appendix 7: Focus group discussion guide Public perceptions of development, participation in development and relationship with wellbeing FGD Guide (Men, Women and Youth) English/Kamba version Consent form

Explanation of Research Project:

PURPOSE OF STUDY: PURPOSE OF STUDY: Hello, my name is ______. We are conducting a study in this community to learn how people understand development. We would like to know your views and opinions about development, for instance the things that you consider to be important in the development of this community, development efforts being undertaken in this community and community members' contribution to these efforts. We would also like to gain an understanding into the health of people in this community in relation to their views on development. You were selected for this discussion as a group (youth, women, men) with similar experiences and social background in this community. This study is being conducted as part of the requirement for the MPhil/PhD degree in Social Statistics by Ms. Hildah Essendi, studying at the University of Southampton in the United Kingdom.

PROCEDURES: We will also be talking to other similar groups in this community. About 8 -12 people will be involved in the discussion and it will take about one and a half hours of your time. We may contact you again later in the study to participate in another focus group or in other follow-up studies. During the discussion, feel free to interrupt me at any time with something you think is important. I do not want to trust my memory so I will ask your permission to take down notes, and tape-record. One person would speak at a time. Everyone’s view is important in this discussion. There is no right or wrong answer. If you feel uncomfortable having any portion of the interview recorded, please inform me to switch off the tape.

NZIA ILA TU TUUMIA Nitukwithia tuineena na ikundi ingi ovaa kisioni kii. Andu ta nyanya nimekwithiwa maikulwa mokulyo vandu vya isaa yimwe na nusu. Nitutonya kwenda kuneena na nenyu ingi itina wa keneena nenyu umunthi. Iwai mwi eanie ivinda yila tukwithiwa tuikulania mokulyo, kulya ikulyo ona yiva. Nitumukulya mwanya wa kuandika na kurecord undu tuendee na kuneena. Tunengane mwanya wa kuneena umwe kwa umwe. Mawoni ma kila mundu ni ma vata.Vayi usungio museo kana muthuku. Ethiwa nukwiwa utemwianie ivindani ya uneeni witu, vatonyeka no udavye ngavosya imasini ya kwosa wasya.

RISKS/DISCOMFORTS:

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Appendix 1

We do not expect the discussion to cause you any harm but if you feel uncomfortable with some of the questions, you can choose not to answer them. MIISYO YA KUUSIKA Tuikwikwatya ta vena muisyo ona umwe nthini wa uneeni witu, indi weewa utemwanie ni makulyo amwe wi muthasye kulea kumasungia

BENEFITS: The results of the study will be used for educational purposes and will be used to understand community members views regarding development. Masungio ala mekuma na ukunikili uu makatumika kwa kisomo kwa kuelewa maeendeo ni kyau kisioni kii……??????

CONFIDENTIALITY: Your responses will be private and confidential. Your name will not be attached to the answers. The tapes will be translated into English will be kept under lock for ten years at AFIDEP offices, after which they will be destroyed. The tapes will not be made available to the community or to other parties not involved in the project. When reports and papers/publications are done, anonymous quotes, without the respondents names will be used. KIMBITHI Mosungio menyu makeethwa mema kimbithi. Masitwa menyu maikskwatany’a vamwe na masungio menyu. Tevu ila syina uneeni witu ikaluulwa siandikwe na kisungu na ikavingwa nesa, vandu vya miaka ikumi nthini wa ovisi wa (AFIDEP) na itinani ikaanangwa. Tevu iikaonanywa kana kumilwa kwa andu ma ndua kana andu angi mata konanitwe na ukunikili uu. Malivoti na mathangu ala maandikwa kumana na uneeeni uu maikethiwa na masyitwa menyu.

VOLUNTARINESS: Your participation in this research project is voluntary. You have the right to withdraw from the research study at any time without any problem. Your participation in this study will not affect your access to services in and around this community. Kwithiwa wi nthini wa ukunikili uu nikwa ngenda yaku. Wii muthasye kutia/kueka/ kuma ukunikilini uu vate na thina. Kwiyumia kwaku ukunikilini uu kuiananga kana kuthuthya wia waku kana kukwata motethyo kwaku kisioni kii.

WHOM TO CONTACT: If you want to talk to anyone about this research study, or if you think you have been treated unfairly; contact Ms. Hildah Essendi on telephone number 0720334239 or The National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) on 020-310571/020-2213123.

ULA UTONYA KUKUULYA Ethiwa nuenda ukululya yiulu wa uneeni witu, ethiwa niwithiwa utanakuwa nesa, noukunie Ms. Hildah Essendi on telephone number 0720334239/ The National Council for Science and Technology (NCST) on 020-310571/020-2213123.

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Appendix 1

If you agree to participate in this study, please sign your name below.

______Subject's signature or fingerprint

______Witness to Consent Procedure

______Signature of Investigator

______Date

Note: Signed copies of this form must be retained on file by the PI and a copy of the consent form given to the participant

If you agree to participate in this study, please sign your name below.

______Subject's signature or fingerprint

______Witness to Consent Procedure

______Signature of Investigator

______Date

Note: Signed copies of this form must be retained on file by the PI and a copy of the consent form given to the participant

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Appendix 1

Questions (Answer any questions that participants may have and begin the discussion)

Perceptions of poverty 1. How would you identify a poor person in this community? Utonya kumanya mundu ng’ya ata kisioni kii ?

Probe.Kuliilya

2. How would you identify a rich person in this community? Utonya kumanya mundu muthwii ata kisioni kii?

Who owns the land around the village?

Meaning of Development I would like us to begin by discussing the meaning of development from your perspective 3. What is development? Probe: Whether it’s a personal, national or international issue Probe: poverty alleviation Probe: improvement in health (maternal, child, other) Probe: improvement in demographic outcomes Nienda twambiisye na kuneena yiulu wa maeendeo, kumana na mawini menyu. Maendeo ni kyau? Probe: Kimundu mwene(binafsi) va nthi kana nthi sya nza ingi ni ta meva? Probe: Ni maeendeo ta meva makumina ukya? Probe: Ni maeendeo ta meva matonya kuukilya uima wa mwii (mandu ma usyai, syana etc) Probe: Ni maeendeo ta meva matonya kuukilya kila mundu

4. What does development mean to you as a resident of Kitonyoni/Mwania? Probe the things that constitute development: education, roads, electricity, water, more income, market for agricultural commodities, health care, poverty alleviation. Probe: Ask them to rank what they have mentioned in order of importance and give reasons for this ranking. Maeendeo ni kyau kwaku ta mtui wa Kitonyoni/Mwania? Probe: Maeendeo ta kisomo, malelu, stima, kivu,kwongeleka kwa ukwati, soko ya usyao w anima, uima wa mwii, kumina ukya. Probe: Kwa ndavyei kati wa maeendeo(miradi) ila mwaweta (mentioned) ni yiva yi vata muno mbee wa ila ingi? ( give reasons for this ranking) Niki? (Mention no 1) kya vata? Niki? (Mention no 2) kya vata?

5. What does development mean to you as a (young person/ woman/ man) in this community? Ta wi muika, kiveti/mutunia maeendeo ni kya kwaku kisioni kii?

6. What does development mean to you as a (young person/ woman/ man) in Kenya? Ta wi muika /kiveti mutumia maeendeo ni kyau katika nthi yitu ya Kenya

7. Do you view development as a sponsorship or partnership? Probe: Sponsorship by the government Sponsorship by donors Partnership between community members and the government Partnership between the government and the international community/donors

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Appendix 1

Partnership between the government/the community and the international community/donors Kwa mawoni menyu, maendeeo ni utethyo kana ni ngwatanio? Probe: Utethyo kuma ki silikali Utethyo utewa wa silikali Ngwatanio kati wa andu ma kisio na silikali Ngwatanio kati wa silikali na nthi sya nza Ngwatanio kati wa silikali/ kisio na nthi sya nza

Development in Kitonyoni/Mwania Now I would like us to discuss the level of development in this community 8. What would you say is the level of development in this community? Probe: Ask respondents to rank the community’s level of development on a scale of 1-5 with 1= referring to highly developed 2= moderately developed 3=developed 4=less developed 5=not developed Probe: Ask them to give reasons for the selected answer MAENDEEO KITONYONI/MWANIA Yu nienda tuneenee kwango kya maendeeo vaa Kitonyoni/Mwania kwa ujumla kivite va? ( Ki yiulu , katikati kana kii nthi?) of 1-5 with 1= referring to highly developed 2= moderately developed 3=developed 4=less developed 5=not developed

9. What efforts are being made to drive/aid development in this community? Ni mivango myau yi endee kwikwa kuthetya maendeeo kisioni kii? Probe: Kitonyoni/Mwania, Makueni, Ukambani region 10. What efforts are being made to drive/aid development in the country? Ni mivango myau yi endee kwikwa kuthethya maendeeo kati ya nthi yitu ya kenya? 11. What is your role as a (young person/woman/man) in development of your community? Ta muika/Kiveti/Mundu ume wia waku ni mwau kati ka kisio kyaku? 12. What is your role as a (young person/woman/man) in development of the country? Ta muika/Kiveti/Mundu ume wia waku ni mwau kati ka maendeeo ma nthi yitu ya Kenya? How can these development efforts be reinforced? Probe: By whom? Maendeo aa matonya kulululmiliilwa ata? Probe: Na nuu?

Development efforts in the community/country Now I would like us to discuss the various development efforts in the country and this community Yu nienda tuneenee yu=iulu wa maendeeo ma kivathukany’o kati ka Kenya na kisio kii 13. What are the roles of development committees (DDCs? Wia wa komiti sya maendeeo ni mwau? 14. How do development committees contribute to development? Komiti ithi sya maendeeo isangiaa ata kati ka maendeeo? 15. What are the roles of Local Authorities in development? Wia wa kanzu ni maendeeoni ni mwau? 16. What is the government’s contribution to rural development? 206

Appendix 1

Probe: Funding, LATF, CDF, Musango wa silikali kati ka maendeeeo(rural) Probe: Funding, LATF, CDF, (council initiative) 17. What development initiatives are currently ongoing in your community? Ni matambya meva ma maendeeo maendee kisioni kyaku? 18. What development initiatives are currently ongoing in the country? Ni matambya meva ma maendeeo maendee kati ka nthi yitu ya Kenya? 19. Who should be responsible for development in your community? Probe: reason/s for their responses Nuu ula wailite kwithiwa ee muungami wa maendeeo kisioni kyaku? Probe: Niki? 20. Who should be responsible for development in the country? Why? Nuu ula wailitwe kwithiwa ee muungamii wa maendeeo kati ka nthi ya Kenya? Na niki? 21. Whose responsibility is it regarding development currently being undertaken by international aid organizations? Ni jukumu yau kati ka maendeeo ala maendee ni kwikwa ni nthi sya nza? 22. For how long should international aid be given to aid rural development? Probe: reason/s for their responses Ni ivinda yi ana ata utethyo wa nthi sya nza wailitwe unenganwa kutethya maendeeo rural? Nikii? 23. What should international funding be supporting? Probe: Health, education, agricultural development, water, climate change etc Probe: Reasons for these responses Utethyo wa kuma nza(international funding ) wailite uitethya kyau? Probe: Uima wa mwii, kisomo, uimi,kiwu, kusenzya kwa nzeve(masingira) kwaa mbua Probe: Reasons for these responses 24. Should such funding be supporting programs like climate change and why? Utethyo usu ni wailite ni kutethya kana kuthetheesya kusenzya kwa nzeve9masingira) kwaa mbua Is there anything that you would like to add to our discussion? Yu twii minia ve undu ungi mwinawo mutonya kuweta ukonetye kila twa neenea umuthi? Thank you for taking the time to talk with me today. What you have shared has been extremely helpful. I’ve been asking so many questions – do you have any questions for me? Ni muvea muno kwa kuosa mwanya uso na kuvika vaa. Kila mwaneneea ni kya vata muno. Nimutonya kwithiwa mwina makulyo mukulya?

[Answer any questions that the participants have]

END

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Appendix 1

Appendix 8: Questionnaire for the survey on perceptions of development

ENGLISH UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON Questionnaire no. Public perceptions of development, participation in development and relationship with wellbeing Household no. Oct-12 Women's (18-49 years) and Men's (18-54) questionnaire Village

Consent Form

PURPOSE OF STUDY: VATA WA UKUNIKILI UU: Hello, my name is ______. We are conducting a study in this community to learn how people understand development. We would like to know your views and opinions about development, for instance the things that you consider to be important in the development of this community, development efforts being undertaken in this community and community members' contribution to these efforts. We would also like to gain an understanding into the health of people in this community in relation to their views on development. You were selected for this study because your HH is one of the 390 in Kitonyoni and Mwania sub locations selected for this study. This study is being conducted as part of the requirement for the MPil/PhD degree in Social Statistics by Ms. Hildah Essendi, studying at the university of Southampton in the United Kingdom.

Uvoo, kwa isyitwa nitawa______. Tuendeesye ukunikili tumanye undu andu ma utuini uu maelewa ni maendeeo. Twiukulya kwa ndaia utumanyithye mawawoni maku iulu wa maendeeo, kwa muelekana, maundu ala utalaa ta ma vata muno kwa maenedeeo ma kisio kii, maendeeo ala methiitye utuini uu, na mitalatala ila yikiitye ni andu ma kisio kii kulingana na maendeeo. Twooka kwaku nundu musyi waku ni umwe wa misyi ingi 390 kisioni kya Kitonyini na Mwania ila syasakuiwe nthini wa ukunikili uu. Ukunikili uu niwavata muno kwa Ms. Hildah Essendi ula ukusomea degree ya Professor (PhD), sukulu nene Southampton Ungelesa (UK) PROCEDURES: If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked questions about your personal details, your health, and that of your children. The interview will take approximately 20 minutes of your time. In addition, we will take your height and weight and that of your children. Questions on measures of fertility and reproductive health are among those that will be asked about your health. Asking these questions is important because they will help the researcher to understand your wellbeing.

MUTALATALA WA UKUNIKILI UU Twi ukulya kwa ndaia unenge ndatika 20. Nthini wa ukunikili uu, Twienda kumanya iulu waku, uimu waku wa mwii(afya) na ula ya syana syaku. Twikuthima uasa, uito waku na wa syana syaku. Makulyo iulu wa usyai na umanyi iulu wa usyai nimeukulya nthini wa uima wa kimwii. Makulyo aa metonyethya kumanya iulu wa uimu waku wa mwii.

RISKS/DISCOMFORTS:

This interview is not expected to cause you any harm but if you feel uncomfortable with some of the questions you can choose not to answer any question(s) but can decide to continue with the interview.

Ukunikili uu tiwa kuuthatithya lakini wina uthasyo kulea kusungia makulyo ala matekwendeesya.

BENEFITS: The results of the study will inform policy makers on the community's understanding of development and the important aspect in the development of this community. The D.O, Chief, Assistant Chief and the community will be informed of the findings when the study is completed. The data may also be used for further academic publications and for further studies on the community development.

Mawoni ma ukunikili uu makamanyintya and ala maseuvasya miao undu andu maelewa ni maendeeo na maendeeo ala me vata kision kii. Mawoni ma ukunikili uu makamathithya kwa D.O, kyivu, na and on the ma kisio kii na maituimika kwa vata wa kisomo iulu wa maendeeo.

CONFIDENTIALITY: Your responses will be private and confidential. The information you give will be kept under lock for 10 years at the University of Southampton, after which they will be destroyed. The data may be used by others, interested in this topic, for secondary analysis, but the data will be stripped of individual identities before being given out, and that all who wish to access the data will sign a confidentiality clause and agree to use the data for research purposes only. KIMBITHI KYA UKUNIKILI UU Mawoni maku makethiya kimbithi. Mawoni na mausungio ma ukunikili uu makaiwa kwa myaka Ikumi memavingie sukulini munee wea Southampton, itina mayanangwa. Mausungio aa makatumika kwa vata wa kisomo lakini masyitwa maku makethiya kimbithi. Andu ala maketikilwa kusoma mawoni uu makatumia mawoni aa kwa vata wa kisomo kikyoka.

VOLUNTARINESS Your participation is voluntary and you have the right to stop the interview at any time without a problem. However, your views are important and we hope that you will agree to the interview. KWIYUMYA Mawoni maku ni ma vata muno nthini wa ukunili uu na twiikwatya nukwitikila kusungia makulyo maitu. Wina luusa wa kuungamilya kuendeea na ukuniliki uu nundu undu uu ni wa kwiyumya.

WHOM TO CONTACT If you want to talk to anyone about this research study, or if you think you have been treated unfairly or joining this study has hurt you, contact Ms. Hildah Essendi on telephone number 0720334239 or National Council for Science and Technology on telephone number 02 2241349 or 02 310571. NAMBA SYA SIMU Wendeewa kuneena naitu iulu wa ukunikili uu, kethiwa wina manunguniko wina luusa wa kuneena na Ms Hildah Essendi; Namba ya simu 0720334239, kana National Council fo Science and Technology, kwa namba ya simu; 02 2241349/ 02310571. Supervisor: Professor Nyovani Madise, Tel No. +44 (0)23 8059 2534, Email: [email protected] Muungamii: Professor Nyovani Madise, Tel No. +44 (0) 23 8059 2534, Email: N.J [email protected]

If you agree to participate in this study please sign your name below. Ikia saii kethiwa nukwitikila kwithiwa Nthini wa ukunikili uu

Subject's signature or fingerprint/Saii Witness to Consent Procedure/Ngusi ya Kuiikithya

Signature of Investigator Saii ya Mukunikili Date/ Matuku 208

Appendix 1

START TIME

Section 1 Kilungu kwa Mbee 1a Respondent's Socio Demographic Characteristics

1.1 Respondent's ID CODE FW: GET THIS FROM THE E4D HH SCHEDULE OF SAMPLED HOUSEHOLDS

1b Health State Descriptions. Uimu wa mwii Now, I am going to ask you one question regarding your general health. Ikulyu iulu wa uimu waku wa mwii 1.2 In the last 12 months, would you say your health has on the whole been…...? Uimu waku wa mwii withiitwe ata kwa myai ikumi na ili mivitu 1. Very Good 2. Good 3. Fair 4. Bad 5. Very Bad 1. Museo Vyu 2. Museo 3. Ti Museo 4. Muthuku 5. Muthuku Vyu

1.3 How is your health in general? Would you say it is… Uimu waku wa mwii uilye ata? 1. Very Good 2. Good 3. Fair 4. Bad 5. Very Bad 1. Museo Vyu 2. Museo 3. Ti museo 4. Muthuku 5. Muthuku muno 1c Health risk factors Maundu maetaa wonzu Mwiini Tobacco/Kilaiku 1.4 Do you currently smoke any tobacco products such as cigarettes, cigars, Yes ………………………………………………………………………1 or pipes? No …………………………………………………………………………21.7 Nutumiaa syindu sya kilaiku ta sikala kana mbaki?

1.5 How often do you smoke? Daily ………………………………………………………………………1 Kila Muthenya…………………………………………………………. Utumiaa keana? Once every few days ……………………………………………………21.7 Mithenya imwe……………………………………………………….. Occassionally ……………………………………………………………31.7 Mauta ma utala………………………………………………………. 1.6 On average, how many of the following products do you smoke daily? Manufactured cigarettes Sikala sya ndukani kwa muthenya muthenya utumiaa syindu ii keana? Hand-rolled cigarettes Sikala sya musokoto wa moko Pipefuls of tobacco Sikala sya Muvaivo Other Ingi Alcohol 1.7 Have you ever consumed a drink that contains alcohol (such as beer, Yes ………………………………………………………………………1 wine etc)? No……………………………………………………………………… 2 Waanywa uki kana Mbinyu?

1.8 During the past 7 days, how many standard drinks of any alcoholic Monday/wakwambiliilya beverage did you have each day? Tuesday/wakeli Unywite uki wiana ata nthini wa kyumwa kimwe kivitu(Suva/Makovo/Nzele/Makombe) Wednesday/Wakatatu Thursday/Wakana Friday/Wakatano Saturday/Wanthanthatu Sunday/wakyumwa

1d Reproductive and sexual health care I would like to talk with you about reproductive health, birth history and expectations. I would like to assure you that this information is all completely provate and anonymous and cannot be linked to you or any partner in any way. Nienda tuneene uilu wa maundu ma usyai na uimu wa mwii uilu wa maundu asu, usyai na syana na wendi waku. Uvoo ula uunenga wiithiwa kimbithi na isyitwa yaku yikethiawa kimbithi. 1.9 Do you have any sons or daughters that are now living with you? Yesi ………………………………………………………………………1 Wina syana ukueya kana wikalaa nasyi? No……………………………………………………………………… 2

1.10 How many sons live with you? Anake/Imwana ni siana ila wikalaa nasyo? SONA AT HOME

And how many daughters live with you? IF NONE, RECORD '00'. DAUGHTERS AT HOME Eetu ni mieana ala wikalaa namo? 209

Appendix 1

1.11 Do you have sons or daughters who are alive but do not live with you? Yes……………………………………………………………………… 1 1.13 Wina syana ila Itekalaa naku No.……………………………………………………………………… 2

1.12 How many sons do you have that are alive but do not live with you? Ni anake meana ala utekalaa namo? SONS ELSEWHERE/Anake

And how many daughters do you have that are alive but do not live with you? DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE/Eetu Ni eetu meana ala utekalaa namo? IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1.13 Have you ever had a son/daughter who was alive but later died? Yes ………………………………………………………………………1 Waitthya na syana lakini syeetwa? No ….…………………………………………………………………… 2 2.0

1.14 How many sons have died? Anake ala meetiwe nimeana? BOYS DEAD/Anake ala Meetiwe

And how many daughters have died? DAUGHTERS DEAD/Eetu ala meetiwe Eetu ala meetiw nimeana IF NONE, RECORD '00'.

1.15 SUM ANSWERS TO 1.10, 1.12 AND 1.14, AND ENTER TOTAL. Ongelania mausungio 1.10, 1.12 na 1.14 TOTAL BIRTHS IF NONE RECORD '00'.

1.16 What do you think is the ideal number of children that one should have? Woni waku namba ila Nzeo ya syana ni yiva? BOYS GIRLS

1.17 How many children do you/did you desire to have? Ni syana siana iala winasyo kana ila weenda withwe nasyo BOYS 1.19 What methods of contraception are you aware of? KU Ni nzia syiva sya kuvanga usyai ila wisi? GIRLS CIRCLE ALL MENTIONED UNDER COLUMN MARKED 'K' Pill/Dawa ya kila Muthenya ……………………………………………11 1.18 Do you support the use of contraceptives to limit birth? Yes ……………………………………………………………………Injectable/Singano ………………………………………………………1 …22 Nuungamia kutumia nzia sya kuvanga usyai? No …………………………………………………………………………2 Which methods of contraception are you using? Condom/Mivila ………………………………………………………… 3 3 Ni nzia syiva ila we utumiaa? CIRCLE ALL MENTIONED UNDER COLUMN MARKED 'U' IUD/coi/koili ………………………………………………………………44 Female sterilization/Tubal ligation/Kutuwa kwa uka ……………… 5 5 Male sterilization/vasectomy/Kutuwa wa uume …………………… 6 6 Implants/Dawa ya kwikia kwoko ………………………………………77 Female condom/Mivila ya aka …………………………………………88 Lactational Amenorrhea Method (LAM) 9 9 Rhythm method …………………………………………………………10 10 Withdrawal/kuekela kati ……………………………………………… 11 11 Emergency contraception/Dawa sya Itina wa Kun=manyana kimw12 12 Abstinence/ Ndimanyanaa Kimwii…………………………………… 13 13 Other (Specify)Nzia ingi ______99 99 None/Nditumiaa….………………………………………………………98 98 1.20 FOR THOSE WHO HAD NEVER USED CONTRACEPTIVES, ASK: Do not know the methods to use …………………………………… 1 Ndwisi nzia ila sya kutumia…………………………………………… Why do you not use contreceptives? Methods not available or accessible …………………………………2 Nzia sya kuvanga usyai iyaavika kuu kana syivaasa……………….. Niki utatumiaa Nzia sya kuvanga usyai? Unable to afford methods ………………………………………………3 Nzia sya kuvanga usyai syi ngalama nene ya mbesa……………….. Had a bad experience with contraception ……………………………4 Nzia sya k uvanga usyai ninthuaa k imwii Relatives or friends had a bad experience with contraception ……5 Anyanyawa na atui nimathuawa ni dawa sya kuvanga usyai………. Worried about side effects or health problems ………………………6 Ningiaa kuthuwa ni nzia ya kuvanga usyai………………………………….. Contraception against religious faith …………………………………7 Nzia sya usyai nivatanitwe ndini yakwa……………………………………. Partner is against use of contraception ………………………………8 Mwendwa wakwa ndetikilanaa na nzia sya kuvanga usyai…………... Doctor has asked not to use contraception …………………………9 210 Ninavatiwe sivitalini…………………………………………………… Other reason (Specify) ………………………………………………….. Tavana kitumi kingi………………………………………………………98 Yes ……………………………………………………………………. 1 Do you intend to use contraceptives in future? No …………………………………………………………………………2

Section 2 Kilungu Kya Keli 2.0 DEVELOPMENT IN THE COMMUNITY MAENDEEO KISIONI

Now I would like to ask you some questions regarding your perception of development for you as a person and in this community ASK Q 2.1a AND 2.2a BEFORE GOING TO Q2.1b AND 2.2b. FINISH WITH Q2.1c AND2.2c 2.1a 2.1b 2.1c Niukulya makulyo iulu wa mawoni maku iulu wa maendeeo

2.1a What does personal development mean to you? GO TO Q 2.2a Improved diet/adequate food 1 1 1 Liu wa afya/ Liu mwianu Maendeeo ma mundu nikyau? Eradicating disease 2 2 2 kumina mowau CIRCLE ALL THAT ARE MENTIONED Improved access to health care 3 3 3 Kwithiwa na masivitali maingi Owning new assets eg mobile phone 4 4 4 Kwithiwa na syindu sya maendeeo 2.1b And now, what factors are important for your community's development or what does community development Improved dressing 5 5 5 mean to you? GO TO Q 2.2b Mwikiile museo wa ngua CIRCLE ALL THAT ARE MENTIONED Starting to rear livestock 6 6 6 Kwambiisya kuithya indo Improved transport means 7 7 7 Maendeeo ma malelu Improved housing 8 8 8 Maendeeo ma nyumba Improved fuel type 9 9 9 Maendeeo ma syindu sya miuwile(Stima, Ngu, Mauta taa) 2.1c And now, what factors are important for your country's development or what Improved farming methods 10 10 10 Nzia nzeo sya uimi does national development mean to you? GO TO Q 2.2c Proper nurturing of children i.e enough food, Maendeeo ala maseo kwa nthi yaku? education, moral and religious guidance 11 11 11 Kueya syana nesa, k wa muvano, liu mwianu, CIRCLE ALL THAT ARE MENTIONED kisomo, tavia nzeo, na kutongoewa ik anisani Having/getting a family 12 12 12 Kwithwa na musyi na familia Owning property 13 13 13 Kwithwa na Mali Able to meet family's basic needs 14 14 14 Kwianisya mavata ma familia Reduced poverty 15 15 15 Ukya muoleku Well-equipped & accessible health facilities 16 16 16 Kwithiwa na sivitali nzeo na syina miio ya utakitali Well-equipped and accessible schools 17 17 17 Masukulu make nesa, mena symiio ya kisomo na matonya kuvikika Improved roads 18 18 18 Malelu maseo Accessible markets for farmers' produce 19 19 19 Masok o mevakuvi mauteea syindu sya uimi Having enough & clean water in all HH 20 20 20 Kwithiwa na k iw'u k ianiu na k itheu k ila musyi Electricity connection 21 21 21 Kwithiwa na sitima Freedom of movement and expression 22 22 22 Kwithiwa na uthyasyo wa kuneena na k wiyielesya High self-esteem 23 23 23 Kwithiwa na ukumbau wa k iimundu Involvement of women in leadership 24 24 24 Aka kulikwa maunduni ma utongoi Good leadership that ensures peace & development among everyone 25 25 25 Utongoi museo ula uk uikiithya muuo na maendeeo kwa kila umwe. Having enough leisure time & facilities 26 26 26 Kwithiwa na mavinda ma sitalee na k undu kwa sitalee Involvement of all in development matters 27 27 27 kulik wa kwa k ila umwe nthini wa maundu ma maendeeo Progress in life 28 28 28 Maendeeo ma maisha Other (Specify)/Maundu angi Q 2.1a ______98a Other (Specify)/Maundu angi Q 2.1a ______98b Other (Specify) /Maundu angi Q 2.1a ______98c

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RANK RANK RANK 2.2a 2.2b 2.2c 2.2a Of the factors mentioned above as constituting your development, please rank Improved diet/adequate food them in order of importance. Eradicating disease Improved access to health care REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED AND ASK THE RESPONDENT TO Owning new assets eg mobile phone RANK THEM. ONLY REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED IN 2.1a ABOVE AND Improved dressing ONLY RANK THOSE MENTIONED IN Q. 2.1 ABOVE Starting to rear livestock Improved transport means 2.2b Of the factors mentioned above as constituting the development of your Improved housing community, please rank them in order of importance. Improved fuel type Improved farming methods Proper nurturing of children i.e enough food, REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED AND ASK THE RESPONDENT TO education, moral and religious guidance RANK THEM. ONLY REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED IN 2.1b ABOVE AND Having/getting a family ONLY RANK THOSE MENTIONED IN 2.1b ABOVE Owning property Able to meet family's basic needs Reduced poverty Of the factors mentioned above as constituting the development of your Well-equipped & accessible health facilities country, please rank them in order of importance. Well-equipped and accessible schools Improved roads Accessible markets for farmers' produce 2.2c REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED AND ASK THE RESPONDENT TO Having enough & clean water in all HH RANK THEM. ONLY REPEAT THOSE MENTIONED IN 2.1c ABOVE AND Electricity connection ONLY RANK THOSE MENTIONED IN 2.1c ABOVE Freedom of movement and expression High self-esteem Involvement of women in leadership Good leadership that ensures peace & development among everyone Having enough leisure time & facilities Involvement of all in development matters Progress in life Other (Specify) Q 2.2a ______98a Other (Specify) Q 2.2b ______98b Other (Specify) Q 2.2c ______98c

PC N 2.3 Through what things can development be achieved____? Through sponsorship by the government … 1 1 1 Through sponsorship by the donors ……… 2 2 2 Personally? Through community partnership with government/donors ………………………… 3 3 3 Through partnership between government At the community level? and the donors ……………………………… 4 4 4 Through partnership of community, government and donors ……………………. 5 5 5 Nationally? Purely through community initiatives ……. 6 6 6 Through poverty alleviation………………… 7 7 7 P=Personally Access to credit …………………………… 8 8 8 C=At the community level Access to a market place ………………… 9 9 9 N=Nationally Having trees to change the environment … 10 10 10 Enough schooling facilities ………………… 11 11 11 Improved transport facilities ………………. 12 12 12 Access to water ……………………………. 13 13 13 Progress in life (social mobility) ………….. 14 14 14 Poverty alleviation ………………………….. 15 15 15 Other (Specify) P______98P Other (Specify) C______98C Other (Specify) N______98N

2.4 On a scale of 1-5, (with 1 referring to Highly Developed, 2=Moderately Developed, Highly Developed ……………………………………………………… 1 3=Just Developed, 4=Less Developed and 5=Not Developed), what would you Moderately Developed ………………………………………………… 2 say is the level of devepment of thi community? Just Developed ………………………………………………………… 3 Less Developed ………………………………………………………… 4 Not Developed …………………………………………………………… 5

2.5 Please give me the most important reason for your answer in Q 2.4 above? Answer: ______212 ______

2.6 IF ANSWER FOR Q 2.4 is 4 or 5, PLEASE ASK, Poor planning by the government …………………………………… 1 What is the most important factor for underdevelopment in this community? Lack of community participation in development …………………… 2 Inadequate resource allocation ……………………………………… 3 CIRCLE ONLY ONE Inadequate infrastructure ……………………………………………… 4 Retrogressive cultural practices e.g witchcraft ……………………… 5 Dependency syndrome ………………………………………………… 6 Harsh weather conditions ……………………………………………… 7 Other (specify) 98

2.8 You have said that the most important factor for underdevelopment in this Very much ……………………………………………………………… 1 community is (REPEAT ANSWER GIVEN AT Q2.6), how much do you want to Quite a lot ……………………………………………………………… 2 solve this development problem? Not bothered either way ……………………………………………… 3 Not much ………………………………………………………………… 4 Not at all ………………………………………………………………… 5

2.9 How helpful is the government in solving these problems? Very helpful ……………………………………………………………… 1 Fairly helpful …………………………………………………………… 2 Neither helpful nor unhelpful …………………………………………… 3 Fairly unhelpful ………………………………………………………… 4 Very unhelpful …………………………………………………………… 5

2.10 How interested is the government towards developing your community? Very helpful ……………………………………………………………… 1 Fairly helpful …………………………………………………………… 2 Neither helpful nor unhelpful …………………………………………… 3 Fairly unhelpful ………………………………………………………… 4 Very unhelpful …………………………………………………………… 5

2.11 How interested is the international community/donors towards developing your Very helpful ……………………………………………………………… 1 community? Fairly helpful …………………………………………………………… 2 Neither helpful nor unhelpful …………………………………………… 3 Fairly unhelpful ………………………………………………………… 4 Very unhelpful …………………………………………………………… 5

2.12 How much do you think the government can help solve these development Very much ……………………………………………………………… 1 issues that you have mentioned? Quite a lot ……………………………………………………………… 2 Don't know/either way ………………………………………………… 3 Not much ………………………………………………………………… 4 Not at all ………………………………………………………………… 5

2.13 How much do you think the international community/donors can help solve Very much ……………………………………………………………… 1 these development issues that you have mentioned? Quite a lot ……………………………………………………………… 2 Don't know/either way ………………………………………………… 3 Not much ………………………………………………………………… 4 Not at all ………………………………………………………………… 5

2.14 Would you prefer for development matters in this community to be handled by… YN The community? The community …………………………………………………… 12 The government? The government …………………………………………………… 12 The international community/donors The international community/donors …………………………… 12 Others? Others (specify) ______12

2.15 Now I would like to read you some statements regarding your participation in development in this community. Please tell me how much you agree or disagree with the following statements. The responses are 'Strongly Agree', 'Agree', 'Disagree', and 'Strongly Disagree' SA A NAD DSD 1. People in this community are normally involved in decision-making of development projects in this community 1 2 3 4 5 2. Community members' opinions are always incorporated in development matters in this community 12 3 4 5 2. Both men and women's opinion is given equal consideration in development matters in this community 1 2 3 4 5 3. Your individual development is a responsibility of the government 12 3 4 5 4. Community development in this area is the responsibility of the government 12 3 4 5 5. The international community has a responsibility to help with our national development eg climate conditions 1 2 3 4 5 6. The Kenyan government is able to facilitate its own development with minimal assistance from the international community 1 2 3 45

Now I would like to get your opinion about the involvement of community members in community development projects

PC 2.16 How satisfied are you with the level of your personal involvement in community Very satisfied …………………………………………………………… 11 development activities? Fairly satisfied ………………………………………………………… 2 2 Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied ……………………………………… 33 2.17 How satisfied are you with the level of community involvement in community Very satisfied …………………………………………………………… 44 development activities?

2.18 How do you feel about being asked to participate in development activities in Very happy ……………………………………………………………… 1 your community? Fairly happy …………………………………………………………… 2 Neither happy nor unhappy …………………………………………… 3 Fairly unhappy ………………………………………………………… 4 Very unhappy …………………………………………………………… 5

2.19 How much do you think that development in your community is actually going Very much ……………………………………………………………… 1 to improve? Quite a lot ……………………………………………………………… 2 Don't know/either way ………………………………………………… 3 Not much ………………………………………………………………… 4 Not at all ………………………………………………………………… 5

2.20 Imagine a 10-step ladder where on the bottom, the first step, stand the least developed people, and on the highest, 10th stand the most developed [SHOW THE RESPONDENT THE LADDER] 10 On which step are you today? 09 On which step is your 08 HH today?

07 On which step are most of your neighbors today? 06 213 On which step are most 05 of your friends today?

7.0 Nutritional Assessment WEIGHT AND HEIGHT MEASUREMENT Now I am going to take your height and weight

RESPONDENT'S ANTHROPOMETRY

7.8 ENTER THE HEIGHT OF THE WOMAN/MAN IN CM (TO THE NEAREST 0.1CM) .

7.9 ENTER THE WEIGHT OF THE WOMAN/MAN IN KG .

7.10 RECORD ANY GENERAL COMMENTS ON WOMEN/MEN ANTHROPOMETRIC MEASUREMENT ______

8.0 END TIME

8.1 RECORD ANY GENERAL COMMENTS ON QUESTIONNAIRE ______

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Appendix 9: Household questionnaire for the Replication of Rural Decentralised off-grid Electricity Generation through Technology and Business Innovation Project

ENGLISH Questionnaire No. UNIVERSITY OF SOUTHAMPTON/IMPERIAL COLLEGE/AFIDEP SOCIO-ECONOMIC IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF RURAL DECENTRALISED OFF-GRID ELECTRICITY GENERATION SCHEMES IN RURAL KENYA Apr-11 Baseline Survey-Household questionnaire Village Utui Consent Form PURPOSE OF STUDY: Hello, my name is ______. I am working for AFIDEP as a Research Assistant. We are conducting a study in this community to gain an understanding into the way people live. We would like to know your views and opinions about the state of health and povertry in this community. Your HH is one of over 400 HHs in ______sub location selected for this study. The University of Southampton, Imperial College with and the African Institute for Development Policy (AFIDEP) are undertaking this study.

Uvoo waku, nitawa______. Nithuk umaa na AFIDEP. Twiika uk unik ili nduani ino nik ana tuelewe yiulu wa mik alile ya andu. Twienda umanya mawoni ma uima wa mwii na uk ya nduani (community) ii. Usak uiwe ta umwe wa ala meuk ulw'a makulyo aa nundu musyi waku numwe katik a misyi 400 sub location uu wa______ula usakuitwe kwoondu wa k isomo k ii na usakuiwe k wisila nzia ya kutha k alata na wavalukilwa withwe wi umwe wa ala meutumik a nthini wa k wosany'a k wa umanyi uu. University ya Southampton, Imperial College matetheanisye na African Institute for Development Policy (AFIDEP) nimo mekwithiwa maitethya wia uu.

PROCEDURES: If you agree to take part in this study, you will be asked questions about your HH income, source of livelihood and sources of energy for lighting and cooking. In addition, we would like to ask questions about children's schooling and the health of women and children in this HH.We would also like to take the weight and height of women and children in this household. The interview will take about 45 minutes of your time. You will not be paid any money by taking part in this study and we would like to contact you again in the future for a follow-up study. MUTALATALA WA MAUNDU Ethiwa nuk witikila uusik e nthini wa uthiani wa umanyi uu, wikulw'a mak ulyo makonetye maundu makonetye ukwati wa musyi k wenyu, umo wa kyauya kya kila ivinda na umo wa ngu k uvuva mwaki na k uua. Vamwe na ou nituuk uk ulya mak ulyo makonetye kusoma k wa syana syak u na uima wa mwii wa andu nyumba ino. Nituuthima uasa na uito wa ak a na syana vaa musyi k waku. Mak ulyo mekua vandu va ndakika syaku 45. nduk uivwa mbesa kwoondu wa k witikila kuk ulwa makulyo na notwendeew'e nikuwasiliana nak u ivinda yukite k woondu wa uthiani wa k uatiiya uu.

RISKS/DISCOMFORTS: This interview is not expected to cause you harm but if you feel uncomfortable with some of the questions you can choose not to answer them but may continue with interview.

MIISYO YA KUUSIKA: Wia uu wa makulyo uik wikwatiw'a k uk uetea muisyo o na umwe indi weew'a utemwianie ni mak ulyo amwe wina uthasyo wa k ulea kusungia ik ulyo kana mak ulyo indi no usakue we mweene k uendeeya na kusungia mak ulyo.

BENEFITS: The results of the study will inform policy makers on the issues that people in this community face regarding poverty, health, education and use of energy. The results will also help implementers assess impact of electricity on poverty, health and education. The D.O, Chief, Assistant Chief and the community will be informed of the findings when the study is completed.

UUNIKO: Mosungio ala mekumana na uthiani uu wa maundu mak atetheesya andu ala mavangithasya maundu ma maendeeo yiulu wa mathina ala andu ma ndua ii makomanaa namo mak onetye uk ya, mathina ma uima wa mwii, k isomo na mitumiile ya ngu (ngu sya uvuva mwaki, sitima, vetulo na mauta ma taa). Vamwe na uumosungio asu mak atetheesya andu ala mekaa k ianisya k ila k ivangithye k wikuua na k umanya maendeeo makonetye sitima yiulu wa ukya, uima wa mwii na kisomo. Ndioo, Munini wa k ivu na andu ma ndua mak aelew'a yiulu wa mosungio aa uthiani uu wa umanyi wathela. CONFIDENTIALITY: Your responses will be private and confidential. They will not be shared with anyone other than members of this team. The information you give will be kept under lock for 10 years at the AFIDEP offices after which the forms will be destroyed.

KIMBITHI: Mosungio mak u mekuwa kwa nzia ya kimbithi. Mosungio maku maitavw'a andu angi ateo andu ma kik undi k ii. Maundu ala uututavya mak avingiwa vandu na k ivuli vandu va myaka 10 movisini ma AFIDEP na itina wa ivinda yiu mavoomu may'anangwa.

VOLUNTARINESS: Your participation is voluntary and you have the right to stop the interview at any time without any problem. However, your views are important and we hope that you agree to answer all the questions.

KWA NGENDA Kuusika k waku ni k wa ngenda na wina uthasyo kuungamya mok ulyo ivinda o yonthe vate na thina. Ateo, mawoni maku ni ma vata muno na twiik watya nukwitik ila tuuk ulye makulyo. WHOM TO CONTACT: If you want to talk to anyone about this research study, or if you think you have been treated unfairly or joining this study has hurt you, contact Dr. Eliya Zulu, Director, AFIDEP at telephone number 0722523198 or Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) at telephone number 2722541, 0722205901 or 0733400003.

ULA UTONYA KUWASILIANA NAKE: Ethiwa nuk wenda k uneena na mundu yiulu wa uthiani uu, k ana ethiwa woona ta wak uwa nai kana k uusik a nthini k usungia mak ulyo aa ni kwa kuetea uthuk u, nouwasiliane na Ndakitali Zulu, Munene wa AFIDEP uk itumia namba ii sya simu 0722523198 k ana Kenya Medical Research Institute nambani ii ya simu, 2722541, 072225901 k ana 0733400003

If you agree to participate in this study please sign your name below. Weetik ila k uusik a kusungia makulyo k wa ndaiya mbik iiya saii vaa

Subject's signature or fingerprint Saii wa kalamu k ana wa k yaa Witness to Consent Procedure Ngusi ya k uik iithya mutalatala

Signature of Investigator Saii wa muthiani Date Matuk u

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START TIME . IDENTIFICATION

SUB LOCATION NAME ______NAME OF HOUSEHOLD HEAD ______NAME OF VILLAGE ______HOUSEHOLD NUMBER ______GPS COORDINATES _____

INTERVIEW VISITS 123 FINAL VISIT

DATE ______DAY MONTH YEAR INTERVIEWER'S INT. NUMBER NAME ______RESULT RESULT* ______NEXT VISIT: DATE ______TIME ______

*RESULT CODES: TOTAL PERSONS IN HH 1 COMPLETED 2 NO HOUSEHOLD MEMBER AT HOME OR NO COMPETENT RESPONDENT AT HOME AT TIME OF VISIT TOTAL ELIGIBLE WOMEN (18-49) 3 ENTIRE HOUSEHOLD ABSENT FOR EXTENDED PERIOD OF TIME 4 POSTPONED 5 REFUSED TOTAL ELIGIBLE CHILDREN (0-5) 6 DWELLING VACANT OR ADDRESS NOTA DWELLING 7 DWELLING DESTROYED 8 DWELLING NOT FOUND 9 OTHER ______ID CODE OF RESPONDENT (SPECIFY) TO HH QUESTIONNAIRE

SUPERVISOR FIELD EDITOR OFFICE EDITOR KEYED BY NAME ______NAME ______NAME ______NAME ______CODE CODE CODE CODE

HOUSEHOLD SCHEDULE

B01 B02 B03 B04 B05 B06 B07 B08 NAME What is [NAME]'s relationship SEX What is What is What is How old is [NAME]? to the HH Head? We [NAME]'s [NAME]'s religion? [NAME]'s [NAME]'s aileny'e/atainie ata na mwene musyi? Ndini ya employer? date of birth? I MAKE A COMPLETE LIST OF ALL HEAD 1 [NAME] ni yiva? We [NAME]'s (NAME) IF 6 YEARS OR OLDER, D INDIVIDUALS WHO NORMALLY LIVE SPOUSE 2 aandikitwe ni? asyaiwe GIVE YEARS ONLY. AND EAT THEIR MEALS TOGETHER IN SON/SON-INLAW 3 1=None 1=Private Co. matuku meanaIF LESS THAN 6 YEARS C THIS HOUSEHOLD, STARTING WITH DAUGHTER/D-INLAW 4 2=Traditional 2=Private indivi IN AGE, GIVE YEARS O THE HEAD OF HOUSEHOLD FATHER/MOTHER 5 3=Islamic 3=Government AND MONTHS D SISTER/BROTHER 6 4=Catholic 4=State-owned E (CONFIRM THAT HOUSEHOLD HEAD GRANDCHILD 7 5=Protestant enterprise/ 97 AND OVER, CODE 97. IS SAME AS HOUSEHOLD HEAD OTHER RELATIVE 8 6=Other religion parastatal AGE IS NOT KNOWN, LISTED ON COVER) (SPECIFY) MALE=1 (Specify)______5=Self CODE 98 SERVANT (live-in) 9 FEMALE= 6=None NOT STATED, CODE 99. OTHER NON- 2 7=Other RELATIVE (SPECIFY) 10 Specify YEARS MONTHS

1 ______2 ______3 ______4 ______5 ______6 ______7 ______8 ______9 ______10 ______11 ______12 ______13 ______14 ______15 ______

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EDUCATION KISOMO IF AGE 5 YEARS OR OLDER I IF AGE 5-24 YEARS D EVER ATTENDED SCHOOL CURRENT/RECENT SCHOOL ATTENDANCE C 16 17 18 19 O Is [NAME] currently attending school or During this school year, what Has [NAME] ever attended did [NAME] attend school in 2010? We level and grade is/was [NAME] D school? What is the highest level of school [NAME] has attended? [NAME] yu niuendeeye na suk ulu? attending? Mwakani uu, E We [NAME] aathi suk ulu Ni k iwango kya yiulu k iva [NAME] uvik ite? Kana [NAME] aathi suk ulu mwakani uu [NAME] e kilasi k ana ethiitwe e wa 2010? k ilasi k ya keana? SEE CODES BELOW

What is the highest grade [NAME] completed at that level? Ni k ilasi kya yiulu kiva [NAME] wavikie na ak avula? SEE CODES BELOW Y N LEVEL GRADE Y N LEVEL GRADE

NEXT LINE NEXT LINE Y N LEVEL GRADE Y N LEVEL GRADE

NEXT LINE NEXT LINE Y N LEVEL GRADE Y N LEVEL GRADE NEXT LINE NEXT LINE Y N LEVEL GRADE Y N LEVEL GRADE

NEXT LINE NEXT LINE Y N LEVEL GRADE Y N LEVEL GRADE

NEXT LINE NEXT LINE

CODES FOR Qs 17 AND 19: EDUCATION LEVEL GRADE 1= Primary 3= Higher 8= Don’t know 00= Less than 1 year completed (USE '00' FOR Q 17 ONLY. THIS CODE IS 2= Secondary 6= Pre-primary NOT ALLOWED FOR Q 19) 98= Don’t know

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1.0 HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS: WATER, SANITATION AND ENERGY USE MAUNDU MAKONETYE MISYI: KIW'U, UTHEU NA MITUMIILE YA NGU

WATER (ASK HH HEAD OR KNOWLEDGEABLE MEMBER OF HH) 1.1 What is the main source of water for members of your HH Piped water Kiw'u k ya muvelek i for the past 1 month for ___ Piped into dwelling Kietetwe nyumba nthini …………………………. 1 1.4 Mwithiitwe muik wata kiw'u kyautumia vaa musyi kuma va muno muno? Piped to yard/plot Kietetwe nza ……………………………………….. 2 Public tap/stand pipe Muvelek i wa andu onthe …………………………… 3 Tube well or borehole Kithima k ya muvaivo k ana koo ……………………… 4 Dug well Kithima k inzitwe Protected well Kithima kyakiie……………………………………. 5 Unprotected well Kithima kite kyakiie ………………………………. 6 Water from spring Kiw'u k ya nthongo Protected spring Nthongo mbakiie …………………………………. 7 Unprotected spring Nthongo ite mbakiie……………………………. 8 Rainwater Kiw'u k ya mbua ……………………………………………… 9 1.4 Tanker truck Kiw'u kya iloli ………………………………………………….. 10 Cart with small tank Ikasya yina iviva/katangi k anini …………………. 11 Surface water (river/dam/lake/pond/ stream/canal/irrigation channel ………………………………………… 12 Kiw'u k ya nthi (usi/silanga/iia/ kasilanga/k anda/mutau wa kiw’u/ mutau wa unyithya Bottled water Kiwu kya suva ………………………………………. 13 Other Vangi ______98 (Specify) (Va, kwaweta)

1.2 Where is that water source located? In own dwelling Nyumba kwitu ……………………………………. 1 1.4 Vala muk wataa kiwu ni va? In own yard/plot Nza k witu/vulotini …………………………………………… 2 Elsewhere Vandu vangi (Specify) ………………………………………….. 3

1.3 How long does it take to go there, get water, and come back? Muk uaa ivinda yiana ata k uthi vo? Minutes Matak ik a …………….. Don’t know Ndyisi ……………………………………………………………… 96

1.4 Do you use this source for your drinking water____ All year Mwaka uk athela ……………………………………………………… 1 1.6 All year? Only during the rainy season? Only dry season Ivinda ya thano yok a ………………………………………… 2 Only during the dry season? Ivinda ya mbuani yok a? Only rainy season Ivinda ya mbuani yoka …………………………………… 3 Kiw'u kya unywa mutavaa o vau____ Mwaka muima? Kana ivinda ya thano/munyao? IF RESPONSE IS 1 SKIP TO 1.6

1.5 In the other season, what is your main source of drinking water? USE CODES FOR 1.1 Mavinda ala angi k iw'u k ya unywa mutavaa va?

1.6 How do you normally store water at home? Do not store any water at home Tuyiaa k iw'u musyi ……………………. 1 Kiw'u mwonoasya va musyi? Bucket/jerry can/drums Ndooni/mutungini/iviani ……………………….. 2 Water tank Itangi ya k iw'u ……………………………………………………… 3 Other Vangi ______98 (Specify) Va, kwaweta

1.7 How many 20 litres jerry cans does the HH on average consume per day? Number Kwa muthenya mutumiaa mitungi yiana vaa musyi?

1.8 How much does one jerrycan of water cost on average by your HH? KSH Mutungi umwe uthooaa mbesa siana?

1.9 Are there atleast 20 litres of water per person available per day Yes ……………………………………………………………………………. 1 (for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene etc) in the household? No ……………………………………………………………………………… 2 Nivethiawa ta mutungi wa lita ta 20 wa kila mundu kila muthenya

1.10 What was the total cost of water for your household last month for__ KSH Mbilu k ana thooa wonthe wa kiw'u musyini kwenyu mwai usu unavitie ni mbesa siana Drinking? Kya unywa? FW: IF NONE, ENTER ZERO Bathing? Kya uthamba? Cooking? Kya kuua? Washing Livestock? Kya unyithya indo? Total cost of water

Number 1.11 Approximately how many jerry cans (20 litres) of water does this Drinking Kya unywa payment cover per month? Mbesa isu wandavya ni ta sya mitungi yiana kwa mwei? Bathing Kya uthamba

Cooking Kya kuua

Washing Kuvua

Livestock Kya unyithya indo

Total

1.12 Do you do anything to the water to make it safer to drink? Yes ……………………………………………………………………………. 1 Ve undu mwik anaa na ik iw'u ni kana k withiewe k i k iseo kwa unyuwa? No ……………………………………………………………………………… 2 1.14 Don’t know …………………………………………………………………… 96

1.13 What do you usually do to make the water safer to drink? Boil Kutheuk ya …………………………………… 1 Wikanaa na ikiw'u ata ni kana k ithiwe ki kiseo k wa unyuwa? Add bleach/chlorine Kwikia ndawa ya kilolini …………… 2 Anything else? Strain through a cloth Kusunga na k itambaa ………………. 3 Ve undu ungi wikanaa na k yo? Use water filter (ceramic/ sand/ RECORD ALL MENTIONED.218 composite etc Kusunga (na mbisu/kithangathi/muthanga) ……………… 4 Solar disinfection Kuthesya na sola …………………… 5 Let it stand and settle Kweteela kikalika……………… 6 Other Undu ungi ______98 (Specify) mwau, k waweta Don’t know Ndyisi ………………………….. 96

SANITATION (ASK HH HEAD OR KNOWLEDGEABLE MEMBER OF HH) 1.14 What kind of toilet facility do members of your household usually Flush or pour flush toilet(Kyoo kya ukuna /kwita kiwu use? Flush to piped sewer system …………………………………….. 1 Mutumia muthemba wiva wa k yoo vaa musyi kwenyu? Flush to septic tank ……………………………………………….. 2 Flush to pit latrine ………………………………………………….. 3 Flush to somewhere else …………………………………………. 4 Flush, don’t know where …………………………………………… 5 Pit latrine (kyoo kya iima Ventilated improved pit latrine …………………………………….. 6 Pit latrine with slab …………………………………………………. 7 Pit latrine without slab/open pit …………………………………… 8 Composting toilet ……………………………………………………. 9 Bucket toilet(Kyoo kya ndoo) ………………………… 10 Hanging toilet/hanging latrine ………………………………………. 11 No facility/bush/field( Kithekani/makuthuni) ……………….. 12 1.17 Other ______98 (Specify)

1.15 Do you share this toilet facility with other households? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Nimutumianiaa kyoo kii na andu ma misyi ingi? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 1.17

1.16 How many HHs use this toilet facility? No. of households Ni misyi yiana ila itumiaa kyoo kii If less than 10 ………………………………. 10 or more households …………………………………………………….. 95 Don’t know ………………………………………………………………….. 96

ENERGY (ASK HH HEAD OR KNOWLEDGEABLE MEMBER OF HH) 1.17 What type of fuel does your household mainly use for cooking? Collected firewood ………………………………………………………….. 1 Muuaa na mwaki wa muthemba mwau muno muno vaa k wenyu musyi? Purchased firewood ………………………………………………………… 2 Grass ………………………………………………………………………… 3 Parafin ……………………………………………………………………….. 4 Electricity ……………………………………………………………………. 5 Gas/LPG …………………………………………………………………….. 6 Charcoal …………………………………………………………………….. 7 Biomass residue …………………………………………………………… 8 Biogas ……………………………………………………………………….. 9 Straws/shrubs/grass ………………………………………………………. 10 Agricultural crop …………………………………………………………….. 11 Animal dung …………………………………………………………………. 12 No food cooked in household ……………………………………………… 95 1.19 Other ______98 (Specify)

1.18 What is the se cond type of fuel used for cooking? USE CODES FOR 1.17 Ni muthemba ungi wiva wa mwaki mutumiaa kwa kuua? NA ………………………………………………………..

1.19 What type of fuel does your household mainly use for lighting? Collected firewood ………………………………………………………….. 1 Ni muthemba wiva wa mwaki mutumiaa vaa musyi kwa kumulik a/k uk watya taa? Purchased firewood ………………………………………………………… 2 Grass ………………………………………………………………………… 3 Parafin ……………………………………………………………………….. 4 Electricity ……………………………………………………………………. 5 Gas …….…………………………………………………………………….. 6 Biogas ……………………………………………………………………….. 7 Straws/shrubs/grass ……………………………………………………….. 8 Agricultural crop …………………………………………………………….. 9 Dry cell (torch) ………………………………………………………………. 10 Candles ……………………………………………………………………… 11 Rubber bands ……………………………………………………………….. 12 Other ______98 (Specify)

1.20 What is the se cond type of fuel used for lighting? USE CODES FOR 1.19 Ni muthemba ungi wiva wa mwaki mutumiaa kwa kumulik a/k uk watya taa? NA......

1.21 Does household have installed solar panels in the dwelling? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Vaa musi kwenyu nimwikiite solar No …………………………………………………………………………….. 2 1.23

1.22 What is the size of solar panels in watts? W ATTS Solar ila mutumiaa ni ya vinya (watts) wiana ata?

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1.23 Does household get power from KPLC? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Vaa musyi kwenyu nimukwataa sitima kuma k wa KPLC? No …………………………………………………………………………….. 2

1.24 Does household get electricity from generator? Own generator ………………………………………………………………. 1 Vaa musyi kwenyu nimukwataa sitima wa k atuma? Neighbor's generator ……………………………………………………….. 2 No …………………………………………………………………………….. 3 1.26 Other ______98 (Specify) 1.25 How is the generator powered? Diesel ………………………………………………………………….. 1 Katuma k aumasya mwaki va? Petrol …………………………………………………………………… 2 Solar ……………………………………………………………………. 3 Other ______98 (Specify) 1.26 Does household get electricity from car or motorcycle battery? Car ……………………………………………………………………… 1 Vaa musyi kwenyu nimukwataa sitima wa mbetili ya ngali k ana ya k amota? Motorcycle ……………………………………………………………. 2 Both ……………………………………………………………………. 3 No ……………………………………………………………………… 4

1.27 What is household's main source of electricity? KPLC ………………………………………………………………….. 1 Vaa musyi kenyu mukwataa sitima muno muno kuma va? Community generator(Katuma ka ndua) ……………………………………… 2 Solar panels …………………………………………………………… 3 Own generator ………………………………………………………… 4 Car/motorcycle battery ………………………………………………. 5 No electricity in the HH ………………………………………………. 6 1.29 Other (Specify) ______98

FOR HOUSES WITH ELECTRICITY AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY ELSE, SKIP TO 1.31 1.28 What was the total cost for electricity in the household over the last month? Mbilu ya sitima vaa musyi mwei ula unavitie inai mbesa siana?

IF THE HOUSEHOLD RECEIVED AN ACTUAL BILL, REFER TO THE LAST KSH . BILL RECEIVED. INCLUDE OTHER PAYMENTS/COST OF ELECTRICITY WHICH DO NOT COME ON A WRITTEN BILL.

1.29 What is the total cost of lighting last month (excluding electricity)? KSH . Mwai usu unavitie munatumie mbesa siana kwa kwakany'a taa (eka sitima)? IF HH HAS NO ELECTRICITY, GO TO 1.31

1.30 Does HH usually have any electricity working in the dwelling? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 1.32 Sitima vaa kwenyu musyi nutumik aa? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2

1.31 Although you do not have electricity here, are there HH connected within Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 100m from the dwelling? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 Onavala vaa kwenyu vaii sitima, ve misyi vaa vakuvi na k wenyu yi sitima ta matambya 100 kuma vaa kwaku?

1.32 Did household use small torch batteries (dry cells) in the last one month? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Vaa kwenyu musyi nimunatumiie mavia ma tosi mwai umwe muthelu? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 1.35

1.33 How many small torch batteries (dry cells) did household use in the past one month? NUMBER Ni mavia meana ata ma tosi munatumiie vaa k wenyu musyi mwai umwe muthelu?

1.34 What is the value of these batteries (dry cells) used in the past one month? KSH Mwatumiie mbesa siana ata kuua mavia mwei usu uthelilie? YN ENERGY SOURCES. a Collected firewood Kuna ngu …………………………………………… 12 COMPLETE 1.29- 1.37 FOR EACH ENERGY SOURCE b Purchased firewood Kuthooa ngu ……………………………….. 12 BEFORE PROCEEDING TO THE NEXT ENERGY SOURCE. c Animal waste (Biomas residue) Kyaa kya ng'ombe …………………… 12 d Straw/stalk (Biomas residue) Mavya/mavuti …………………………… 12 1.35 In the last 12 months, has your household used [ITEM]? e Charcoal Mak aa …………………………………………………………… 12 Vaa musyi k wenyu mwaatumia syindu ii nthini wa myei 12 mithelu [ITEM]? f Kerosene/parafin Mauta ma taa ………………………………………… 12 gGas/LPG Ngasi yakuuw'a ………………………………………………… 12 h Electricity Sitima…………………………………………………………… 12

YN 1.36 In the last 1 month, has your household used [ITEM]? a Collected firewood Kuna ngu …………………………………………… 12 Vaa musyi k wenyu mwaatumia syindu ii nthini wa mwei umwe mithelu [ITEM]? b Purchased firewood Kuthooa ngu ……………………………….. 12 c Animal waste (Biomas residue) Kyaa ng'ombe ………………………… 12 d Straw/stalk (Biomas residue) Mavya/mavuti …………………………… 12 e Charcoal Mak aa …………………………………………………………… 12 f Kerosene/parafin Mauta ma taa ………………………………………… 12 gGas/LPG Ngasi yakuuw'a ………………………………………………… 12 h Electricity Sitima…………………………………………………………… 12

1.37 What was the main purpose of this use? Vata munene wa mitumiile isu unai mwau? abcdefgh Boiling 1 Lighting 4 Heating 2 Other 5 Cooking 3

1.38 What unit(s) of measure and quantity do you use for abcdefgh Mutumiaa kithimi kiva kuthima syindu ii? [ITEM]? Bunch 1 Sack 6 Other (specify)______Bundle 2 Debe 7 Heap 3 Gorogoro 8 Log 4 Tin 9 Piece 5 Other(specify) 10

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1.39 During the last month, how many units of [ITEM] did you use? NUMBER Mwai muthelu munatumiie k ithimi k iana ata k ya k indu k ii? FOR LPG (GAS), USE 1 DECIMAL AS NEEDED abcdefgh 3 KG cylinder 1 6 KG cylinder 2 12.5 KG cylinder 3 UNITS 13 KG cylinder 4 a b c d e f g h 15 KG cylinder 5 Other (specify) 6

LITRES for f (keroesene/parafin) WATTS for h (electricity)

1.40 What was the total cost of these units that you used KSH abcdefgh during the last month? Mwatumiie mbesa siana ata kuthooa (ITEM) mwei usu muthelu?

1.41 Where is the nearest source for this [ITEM]? SOURCE Vala vakuvi mutonya ukwata syindu ii ni va? CODES abcdefgh 1. Kitonyoni 4. Kathonzweni 7. Wote 2. Mwania 5. Kwa Kavisi 8. Machakos 3. Kitise 6. Maueli 9. Other

1.42 How long would one take (walking one-way) to the nearest source to get item? MINUTES WRITE DISTANCE TRAVELLED TO GET [ITEM] IN MINUTES? a b c d e f g h Mundu atonya uk ua ivinda yiana ata (matak ik a) k uthi vau muk wataa syindu isu k uthi kwoka?

1.43 How many minutes per week was used to get MINUTES [ITEM] by members of your household? a b c d e f g h Ni ndak ik a siana ata kwa kyumwa sinatumiiwe k uthi k uthooa syindu Men isu ni andu ma musyi vaa kwenyu?

abcdefgh Women

abcdefgh Children

1.44 Where is cooking usually done? In a room used for living or sleeping ………… 1 Muuw'iaa va? In a separate room used as kitchen ………… 2 In a separate building used as kitchen …….. 3 Outdoors ……………………………………….. 4 Other ______6 (Specify)

1.45 Please show me where members of your household often wash their hands OBSERVED ………………………………….. 1 Nutonya umbonia vala andu vaa musyi k wenyu mathambaa mok o? NOT OBSERVED, NOT IN DWELLING/ YARD/PLOT …………………………………. 2 NOT OBSERVED, NO PERMISSION 1.48 TO SEE ………………………………………. 3 NOT OBSERVED, OTHER REASON ……… 4

1.46 OBSERVATION ONLY: Water is available ………………………………………………………….. 1 OBSERVE PRESENCE OF WATER AT THE PLACE FOR HANDWASHING Water is not available ……………………………………………………… 2

1.47 OBSERVATION ONLY: Soap or detergent OBSERVE PRESENCE OF SOAP, DETERGENT OR OTHER (Bar, liquid, powder, paste) ……………………………………………… 1 CLEANSING AGENT Ash, mud, sand ……………………………………………………………. 2 None ………………………………………………………………………… 3

1.48 MAIN MATERIAL OF THE FLOOR Natural floor Earth/sand ………………………………………………………………... 1 RECORD OBSERVATION. Dung …………………………………………………………………………... 2 Rudimentary floor Wood planks …………………………….………………………………… 3 Palm/bamboo ………………………….…………………………………. 4 Finished floor Parquet or polished wood ……………………………………………….. 5 Vinyl or asphalt stripes ………………………………………………….. 6 Ceramic tiles ……………………………………………………………… 7 Cement ……………………………………………………………………. 8 Carpet ……………………………………………………………………… 9 Other ______98 (Specify)

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1.49 MAIN MATERIAL OF THE ROOF Natural roofing No roof …………………………………………………………………….. 1 RECORD OBSERVATION. Thatch/palm leaf ………………………………………………………….. 2 Sod ………………………………………………………………………… 3 Rudimentary roofing Rustic mat ………………………………………………………………… 4 Palm/bamboo …………………………………………………………….. 5 Wood planks ……………………………………………………………… 6 Cardboard …………………………………………………………………. 7 Finished roofing Metal/iron sheets …………………………………………………………. 8 Wood ………………………………………………………………………. 9 Calamine/cement fiber …………………………………………………… 10 Ceramic tiles ………………………………………………………………. 11 Cement …………………………………………………………………….. 12 Roofing shingles ………………………………………………………….. 13 Other ______98 (Specify)

1.50 MAIN MATERIAL OF THE EXTERIOR WALLS Natural walls No walls …………………………………………………………………… 1 RECORD OBSERVATION. Cane/palm/trunks ………………………………………………………… 2 Dirt …………………………………………………………………………. 3 Rudimentary walls Bamboo/sticks with mud …...…………………………………………… 4 Stone with mud …………………………………………………………… 5 Uncovered adobe …………………………………………………………. 6 Plywood ……………………………………………………………………. 7 Cardboard …………………………………………………………………. 8 Reused wood ……………………………………………………………… 9 Finished walls Cement …………………………………………………………………….. 10 Stone with lime/cement ………………………………………………….. 11 Bricks ……………………………………………………………………… 12 Cement blocks ……………………………………………………………. 13 Covered adobe ……………………………………………………………. 14 Wood planks/shingles …………………………………………………… 15 Other ______98 (Specify)

1.51 How many rooms in the household are used for sleeping? Ni lumu siana itumiawa k wa kukoma vaa musyi? ROOMS

1.52 Does your household own any mosquito nets that can be used to protect Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 against mosquitoes while sleeping? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 Vaa kenyu musyi ve neti sya umuu itumiawa kwisiia kuumwa ni umuu yila Don’t know ………………………………………………………………….. 8 mukomete?

1.53 Does the HH own a title deed for the land on which your house is built? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Musyi uu wina title deed ya kithek a kii mwakite? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.0

1.54 In whose name is the house title deed Head of the HH …………………………………………………………….. 1 Title isu yiandik ithitw'e isyitwa yau? Spouse to the HH head …………………………………………………… 2 Son to HH head ……………………………………………………………. 3 Daughter to HH head ……………………………………………………… 4 Brother to HH head ………………………………………………………… 5 Sister to HH head ………………………………………………………….. 7 Father to HH Head …………………………………………………………. 8 Other ______98 (Specify)

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2.0 FAMILY ASSETS Now I would like to ask you questions regarding the assets that your HH or members of this HH own Yu nienda kuukulya makulyo makonetye syindu ila mwinasyo vaa musyi kana sya andu vaa musyi kwenyu? YN 2.1 A. Does this HH or any member of your HH own: Electricity Sitima …………………….. 12 A radio letiu ……………………….. 1 2 Vaa kwenyu k ana andu ma vaa kwenyu mena: A television Televiseni ………………… 12 A mobile telephone Simu ya kw'oko … 12 B. How many such items does the HH or members of this HH own? A non-mobile telephone Simu ite ya kw 12 Mwina (ITEM) siana ata? A refrigerator vulingyi ……………… 12 A bicycle Kisululu …………….. 12 C. If these item/s (specific items) were to be sold today, how much money A car/truck Ngali ………………… 12 would be generated from this sale? EXCLUDE ELECTRICITY A borehole/well Ndovoi ……………… 12 (ITEM) ithi ikatewa syuma mbesa siana? A watch Saa …………………. 12 A motorcycle/motor scooter Kamota 12 IF RESPONDENT DOES NOT KNOW THE VALUE OF THE ITEM, An animal-drawn cart Ikasya ……….. 12 ASK THEM TO ESTIMATE A boat with a motor Isiwa yina mota 12 A House Nyumba …………………… 12 Land Kitheka ……………………. 12 Business/Entreprise Viasala ………. 1 2 Hoe/jembe muo/yiembe ……….. 1 2 Axe Ithoka ………………. 12 Sickle/machete/panga Sikuu/k ivanga 12 Chairs/sofa Kivila/sova …………. 12 School uniform for children univomu ya syana sya sukulu ………… 12 Utencils Miio ya kaikoni …………… 12 Lantern Taa wa kyavuni …………… 12 Wheelbarrow Kamii ……………….. 12 Bed Kitanda ……………… 12 Mattress Kondolo …………….. 12 Animal-drawn plough (Mulau ) ………… 12

2.2 What was the average cost of your (or any other HH member's) mobile phone? KSH . Thooa wa simu yaku ya kwoko (kana ya mundu wa musyi k wenyu) yai ta mbesa NA ……………………………………………………………………………. 99 2.5 siana?

2.3 How did you (other HH members) access their mobile phones? YN PROBE FOR ANY OTHER. CIRCLE ALL THAT APPLY Bought by relatives in other towns ………………………………………… 1 2 We (k ana ya mundu wa musyi wenyu) wak watie simu isu ata? Donation from relatives ……………………………………………………… 1 2 Bought from Kitonyoni/Mwania TC ………………………………………… 1 2 Bought from bigger TC's near Kitonyoni/Mwania ………………………… 1 2 Other ______1 2 (Specify)

2.4 Where do you (other HH members) mostly charge their mobile phones? Using own electricity ……………………………………………………….. 1 We (k ana ya mundu wa musyi wenyu) wik iaa simu mwaki muno muno va? Using neighbor's electricity ………………………………………………… 2 At Kitonyoni/Mwania TC ……………………………………………………. 3 Other (Specify)______98

2.5 How often does someone from this HH go to Kitonyoni/Mwania TC? Several times a day ………………………………………………………… 1 Andu ma vaa musyi kwenyu maenda ta k eana Kitonyini/Mwania TC? Once a day ………………………………………………………………….. 2 A few days in a week ………………………………………………………. 3 Once a week ………………………………………………………………… 4 Once a month ………………………………………………………………. 5 Rarely ………………………………………………………………………… 6 Never …………………………………………………………………………. 7

2.6 How long does it take one to walk to Kitonyoni/Mwania TC from this HH? MINUTES Muk uaa ndatik a siana k uthi na maau Kitonyini/Mania TC k uma musyi?

2.7 Does this HH mostly purchase its HH items at Kitonyoni/Mwania TC? Yes ……………………………………………………………………………. 1 2.10 Andu ma vaa musyi kwenyu ni makothaa k uthooa syindu sok o ya Kitonyini/ No ……………………………………………………………………………… 2 Mwania?

2.8 Where are HH purchases mostly done? Specify ______Muthooaa syindu sya vaa musyi k wenyu va muno muno?

2.9 Why does HH not purchase most of its items from Kitonyoni/Mwania? Long distance to the TC ……………………………………………………. 1 Nik i musyi uu wenyu utathooa syindu syoo muno muno Kitonyini/Mwania? Lack of the necessary HH items …………………………………………. 2 Presence of other TCs closer to the HH ………………………………… 3 Other ______98 (Specify)

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Now, I would like to ask you questions regarding ownership of agricultural land and the crops grown on the land Yu, nienda ukukulya makulyo makonetye kumesya kitheka kya nima namimea ila ivandawa vo 2.10 Does any member of this household own any agricultural land? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Ve mundu musyi uu wi kitheka k yak e kya kuima? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.22

2.11 Does the household own a title deed for this land? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Musyi usu wi title deed ya k ithek a k iu? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2

2.12 What is the land ownership structure for land owned by this HH? YN Kitheka k iu k imeetwe ni andu musyi uu k wa nzia yiva? Rented ………………………………………………………………… 1 2 Leased ………………………………………………………………… 1 2 Free Family …………………………………………………………… 1 2 Free Comunal ………………………………………………………… 1 2 Other (specify) ______1 2

2.13 How many hectares of agricultural land (total) do members of this household own? . hectares Ni eka siana ata syonthe sya andu ma musyi uu?

2.14 If all the land was to be sold today, how much money (Kshs) would it fetch ? KSH Kitheka k yu k yonthe k ik atewa k itonya k uma mbesa (KShs) siana? .

2.15 What crops does the household grow? Ni mimea ya muthemba mwau ila muvandaa? INSERT CODE OF THE CROP

2.16 Do you sell some of the crops you grow? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Ni muthooasya mimea imwe ila muk ethaa? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.20 2.17 Which crops do you sell? Ni mimea yiva ila muthooasya?

2.19 Annually, how much income is generated from the sale of these crops annually? KSH Ni mbesa siana syumanaa na uthoosya wa mimea isu kila mwaka? .

CODES FOR 2.15 AND 2.17 Maize 1 Rice 7 Onions 13 Mangoes 19 Cotton 25 Beans 2 Cowpeas leaves 8 Carrots 14 Water melon 20 Coffee 26 Millet 3 Avocadoes 9 Cabbages 15 Green grams 21 Trees 27 Sorgum 4 Arrow roots 10 Sukumawiki 16 Bananas 22 Other crops 98 Peas 5 Cassava 11 Tomatoes 17 Oranges 23 (Specify) ______Pawpaws 6 Sweet potatoes 12 Groundnuts 18 Nappier grass 24

2.20 Do you irrigate your own land? Yes …………………………………. 1 Ni munyithasya muunda wenyu? No …………………………………… 2 2.22

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2.21 How do you irrigate your own land? YN Munyithasya muunda wenyu ata? Using water from a borehole/well ………………………………………… 1 2 Using a hand pump ……………………………………………………….. 1 2 Using a motorised pump …………………………………………………. 1 2 With water drawn using a bucket from borehole/well …………………. 1 2 Using a gravity pipeline …………………………………………………… 1 2 Using water fetched from a river …………………………………………. 1 2 Using water from a diverted stream ……………………………………… 1 2 Other (Specify) ______1 2

Now I would like to ask you some questions regarding ownership of livestock, their usage and value Yu, nienda ukukulya makulyo makonetye kumesya indo, mitumiile na thooa wasyo 2.22 Does this household own any livestock and poultry? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Vaa musyi kwenyu mwi indo k ana nguk u? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.27 2.23 How many of the following livestock/poultry does this household own? NUMBER Musyi uu wi nguk u/indo siana? Milk cows? ………………………. Bulls? …………………………….. Calves? …………………………… Horses, donkeys or mules? ……. Goats? ……………………………. Sheep? …………………………… Chickens? ……………………….. Rabbits? …………………………. Bee-hives? ……………………….. 2.24 Do you use livestock for domestic consumption? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Nimuthinzaa indo mukaya nyama? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.25 Do you sell your livestock? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Nimuthooasya indo syenu? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 2.27

2.26 How much money (Kshs) would you recieve for the sale of all these__ Ni mbesa siana utonya k wosa k wa kuthoosya syonthe sya__ KSH

Milk cows, bulls or calves? Moi kana nzau? Horses, donkeys or mules? Mbalasi, mang'oi k ana nyumbu? Goats? Mb ui? Sheep? Malondu? Chickens? Nguku? Rabbits? Honey from one bee-hive?

Now I would like to ask you questions regarding ownership of a bank account and engagement in savings activities Yu, nienda ukukulya makulyo makonetye kumesya akaundi ya vengi na kwithiwa wiite mbesa 2.27 Does any member of this household belong to a chama ? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Ve mundu wa musyi uu wenyu wi nthini wa k yama k ya mbesa? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2

2.28 Does any member of this household own a bank account? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Ve mundu wa musyi uu wenyu wi akaundi ya vengi? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 Don’t know ………………………………………………………………….. 8

2.29 Does any member of this household belong to another savings group? Yes ………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Ve mundu wa musyi uu wenyu wi kik undini kya kwia mbesa? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 3.0

2.30 Specify name and type of saving group that household member belongs to? Specify name Andu asu me kuk ik undini k iva? Specify type YN 2.31 What are the conditions required for joining saving group You have to own title deed of land where your house is built ……….. 1 2 Ni maundu mau mendek aa ni kana mundu eyiunge na k ik undi k ya k wia mbesa? You have to own title deed of agricultural land ………………………… 1 2 You have to own livestock ……………………………………………….. 1 2 You have to have a bank account ………………………………………. 1 2 You need to be related to the village elder …………………………….. 1 2 You need to be older than 18 years ……………………………………. 1 2 You need to be younger than 50 years ………………………………… 1 2 You need to be married ………………………………………………….. 1 2 You need to be male/female ..…………………………………………… 1 2 You need to have good reputation in the village ………………………. 1 2 Other reason (specify) ______1 2

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3.0 COMMUNAL ASSETS Now I am going to ask you some questions regarding communal/community assets Yu, nienda ukukulya makulyo makonetye syindu ila ikwataniwe/itumianiwa ni andu vaa utuini kwenyu?

3.1 Does your village have communal assets? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Utui uu wenyu wi syindu ik wataniwe/itumianiwa ni andu onthe? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 4.0

YN 3.2 What communal assets does your village have? a Dam(Silanga) ……………………………………………………………… 12 Ni syindu myau ikwataniwe/itumianiwa ni andu ma utui uu wenyu mwi nasyo? b River ………………………………………………………………………… 12 c Community Centre ………………………………………………………… 12 d School ……………………………………………………………………… 12 e Health Clinic ……………………………………………………………… 1 2 f Forest ……………………………………………………………………… 12 g Common farmland ………………………………………………………… 12 h Garden ……………………………………………………………………… 12 i Borehole/well ……………………………………………………………… 12 j Stored Water ……………………………………………………………… 12 k Cattle dip …………………………………………………………………… 12 l Church 1 2 m Other ______1 2 Specify 3.3 Do you have ease of access to these communal assets? ab c d e f g h i j k l

Ni withiawa na ulaisi wa kuvik ia syindu isu ikwataniwe/itumianiwa? 1=yes 2=No FOR THOSE WITH 'YES' RESPONSE, SKIP TO 3.5

FW: ASK ONLY OF ASSET WITH RESPONSE 2 ABOVE 3.4 What is the main obstacle in accessing each of these communal assets? Ni kisii k yau k inene k ila k itumaa mutavikiia (syindu) ikwataniwe/itumianiwa? 1 Long distance from house a b c d e f g h i j k l 2 Restricted access 3 Hilly location 4 Payment needed to gain access 5 Other

3.5 Do you have ease of social access to the communal a b c d e f g h i j k l assets? Ni withiawa na mwanya wa kiimik alile wa k utumia syindu isu ik wataniwe/itumianiwa? 1=Yes 2=No FOR THOSE WITH 'YES' RESPONSE, SKIP TO 3.7

FW: ASK ONLY OF ANY ASSET WITH RESPONSE 2 ABOVE 3.6 What is the main obstacle in accesing each of these assets? Ni kisii k yau k inene k itumaa mutavikia k imwe kya ii? 1 Age limit 3. Income a b c d e f g h i j k l 2 Gender 4. Occupation 5 Other (Specify) ______

3.7 Now I would like to read you some statements regarding the communal assets. Please tell me how much you agree or disagree with the followiung statements. The responses are 'Strongly Agree', 'Agree', 'Disagree', and 'Strongly Disagree' SA A NAD D SD Yu nienda kuusomea maundu maandikitwe makonetye syindu isu ikwataniwe/itumianiwa. Kwangelesya undu ukwitikila kana kuleana na asu maandikitwe. Mosungio aa ni 'nuitikila muno,nuitikila, nduitikila, nduitikila ona vanini

1. If you use communal resources/assets the expectation is that you contribute to village/community leadership 1 2 3 4 5 Watumia syindu ii ik wataniwe/itumianiwa wik watiaw'a k unengane k indu kwa utongoi wa ndua 2. If you use communal resources/assets the expectation is that you pay money 1 2 3 4 5 Watumia syindu ii ik wataniwe/itumianiwa wik watiaw'a k ana ukaiva mbesa. 3. If you use communal resources/assets the expectation is that you contribute time for village/community activities 1 2 3 4 5 Watumia syindu ii ik wataniwe/itumianiwa wik watiaw'a k umia masaa maku k wa kwik a maundu ma ndua.

4.0 INCOME, EXPENDITURE AND ENTERPRISE Now I am going to ask you some questions regarding the income, expenditure and enterprises for this HH Yu, nienda ukukulya makulyo makonetye ukwati wa mbesa, mitumiile vaa musyi kwenyu 4.1 Now, thinking about all HH members who contributed an income to this family in the last one month please, give me the names of these family members, the monthly income that they ontributed last month and the number of days they worked in the month to earn this income: Yu, uisuania yiulu wa andu ma musyi wenyu ala maumisye mbesa k woondu wa musyi wenyu mwai umwe muthelu, k wandavye masitwa ma andu asu ma musyi, mbesa manaumisye mwai usu unavitie na mithenya ila mathukumie mwaini usu nikana akwate mbesa ii: IF THERE IS NO INCOME, SKIP TO 4.2

Occupation Monthly contribution to HH Estimation of other Total contribution at HH Total no. of HH MEMBER in Kshs (Last month) contribution to HH (in kind) days worked ID CODE 1 2 3 4 5 6 TOTAL

Month Income Kshs Income Kshs What is the month of year when income is highest? Ni mwai wiva wa mwaka ula uk wati wa kii-mbesa withiawa mwingi vyu? What is the month of year when income is lowest? Ni mwai wiva wa mwaka ula uk wati wa kii-mbesa withiawa munini vyu?

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4.2 What was the HH expenditure in the last 1 month ? Monthly expenditure Kshs? Ksh. Munatumiie mbesa siana ata vaa kwenyu mwai umwe muthelu? Mbesa ila munatumii? Check if income>expenditure If income>expenditure then how much did the HH save last month? Ksh. Ethiwa uk wati ni mwingi mbee wa mitumiile ni mbesa siana munaiie mwai usu unathelile? If income

4.4 What is the type of entreprise/business? Specify type ______Ni utandithya/viasala mwau?

4.5 What was the main source of capital for starting the entreprise? Loan from family/friends……………………………………………………. 1 Mbesa sya k wambiiya utandithya usu muno muno mwaumisye va? Gift from family/friends ..…………………………………………………… 2 Sale of assets owned ……………………………………………………… 3 Proceeds from another business …………………………………………. 4 Own savings ………………………………………………………………… 5 Loan from SACCO ...………………………………………………………. 6 Loan from a bank/other financial institutution …………………………… 7 Loan from money lender …………………………………………………... 8 Inheritance ...………………………………………………………………… 9 Other (Specify) ______96

4.6 Is the revenue from the business enough to cover operation and Yes …………………………………. 1 4.8 maintenance costs of the entreprise? No …………………………………… 2 Mbesa ila muk wataa k umana na utandithya usu ni mbianu k wa k wianisya mavata ma kiimbesa ma utandithay usu?

4.7 What is the main source for covering operation and maintenance costs? GET CODES FROM 4.5 Ni va mumasya mbesa sya kwianisya mavata ma k ii-mbesa ma utandithya usu?

4.8 Does the household recieve income from family members in another HH or in big Yes …………………………………………………………………………... 1 towns like Nairobi or any other town? No ……………………………………………………………………………. 2 4.11 Musyi uu wenyu nukwataa mbesa kuma k wa andu angi menyu mathuk umaa taoni ta Nairobi na o taoni ingi/nthi sya nza?

4.9 How much income (in total) did the HH get from family members in the last month? KSH . Ni mbesa siana (syonthe) andu ma musyi uu wenyu matumaa k wa mwai?

4.10 What means is used to send/receive this money? YNDK Ni nzia yiva mutumiaa kutuma/kutumiwa mbesa? Hand delivery …………………………………………………………………. 1 2 8 Bank transfer …………………………………………………………………. 1 2 8 M-pesa ………………………………………………………………………… 1 2 8 Zap …………………………………………………………………………….. 1 2 8 Yu cash ………………………………………………………………………. 1 2 8 Orange money ……………………………………………………………….. 1 2 8 Western Union ……………………………………………………………….. 1 2 8 Moneygram …………………………………………………………………… 1 2 8 Other (Specify) ______12 8

4.11 Has the HH experienced any of these shocks in the last 3 years? YNDK Andu ma musyi wenyu nimethwa maak omana na imwe sya maundu aa myaka 1 Drought Munyao/yua ……………………. 1 2 8 itatu mithelu? 2 Floods mbua mbanangi …………………………………….. 1 2 8 3 Crop disease or crop pests mowau kana tusamu twa mimea ………… 12 8 4 Livestock death/theft Kuk w'a/ung'ei wa indo …………………………… 12 8 5 HH business failure Kuvaluk a k wa viasala ya musyi ………………… 12 8 6 Loss of salaried employment Kukosa wia wa musaala……………… 1 2 8 7 Non-payment of salary Kulea kuivwa musaala ………………………… 12 8 8 End of regular assistance, aid, or remittances ……….. 1 2 8 Kutilika k wa vala mbesa k ana utethyo umaa 9 Large rise in price of food Kuvanda k wa thooa wa maliu ……………… 12 8 10 Large rise in agricultural input prices …….. 1 2 8 Kuvanda kwa mathooa ma syindu sya uimi 11 Went elsewhere to find work for more income ………… 1 2 8 Kuthi vandu vangi kumantha wia kwoondu wa ukwati mwingi 12 Chronic/severe illness or accident of HH member ……. 1 2 8 Uwau utavoaa/uwau munene kana mbanga kwa mundu wa musyi 13 Birth in the HH Isyawa ya k ana vaa musyi …………………………… 1 2 8 14 Death of HH head Kwitwa k wa ndongoi ya musyi …………………… 1 2 8 15 Death of working member of household ……………….. 1 2 8 Kwitwa kwa mundu wa musyi unathuk umaa 16 Death of other family member Kwitwa k wa mundu o ungi wa musyi … 12 8 17 Break-up of the HH Kutaanisya k wa musyi …………………………… 12 8 18 Incarceration/getting jailled Kwikw'a yela ………………………... 1 2 8 19 Fire Mwak i …………………………………………………………. 1 2 8 20 Robbery Ungei ……………………………………………………. 1 2 8 21 House damaged Kwanangik a nyumba ………………………………… 12 8 22 HIV/AIDS Muthelo …………………………………………….. 1 2 8 23 Fight with neighbour Kau na mutui ……………………………………… 12 8 24 Alcohol Unywi ……………………………………………………. 1 2 8 98 Other Ingi ______1 2 8

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4.12 What is the estimated value of loss in Kshs due to all the shocks that the HH has experienced? KSH . Ni ta mbesa siana sinaaie k umana na mauito asu manakitikiie musyi uu?

4.13 How much has the household spent in the last three years for following KSH Ni mbesa siana musyi wenyu utumiite kwoondu wa syindu ii: Wedding Mutwaano ……………………………… Funeral Mathiko ………………………….. Medical expenses for family Mbesa sya kuitithia ……………………………… Medical expenses for friends …………………… Mbesa sya k uiva mbilu sya anyanyau

ASPIRATION AND RISK-TAKING Now I am going to ask you questions about your future aspirations regarding income-earning/livelihood Yu niukulya makulyo yiulu wa mivango yaku ya mithenya yukite ya mikwatile ya kii-mbesa na mikalile 4.14 Looking to the next three years, what do you anticipate your HH Lower than current income ………………………………………………. 1 income to be? Same as current income …………………………………………………. 2 Wasisya myak a itatu yuk ite wiikwatya musyi wenyu utonya kwithiwa na ukwati Double than current income ……………………………………………… 3 wa k ii-mbesa wiana ata? More than double of current income …………………………………….. 4

4.15 Now I am going to read you some statements regarding the actions that you are willing to take over the next three years in order to improve your personal income. Please tell me whether you agree or disgree with the statements. YN Yu niusomea mithia ikonetye maundu ala utwite kwika vandu va myaka itatu yukite ni kenda useuvye mikwakitile yaku ya mbesa. Kwandavye kana nuitikila kana nduitikilana na maundu aa: 1. You are willing to endanger your health ……………………………… 1 2 Nukuumisya mwii waku 2. You are willing to leave your family for sometime ………………….. 1 2 Ni wiyumitye kutia musyi waku kwa ivinda 3. You are willing to move around the country a lot …………………… 1 2 Ni wiyumitye kutembea vaa k enya muno 4. You are willing to leave your community ……………………………. 1 2 Ni wiyumitye kutia andu ma utui wenyu 5. You are willing to leave your friends …………………………………. 1 2 Ni wiyumitye kutia anyanyau maku 6. You will give up leisure time ………………………………………….. 1 2 Nukuiekana na ivinda yak u ya k uthumua 7. You will keep quiet about political views …………………………….. 1 2 Nuukiliilya mawoni mak u ma k isiasa 8. You are willing to learn a new routine ……………………………….. 1 2 Niwiyumitye k usoma maundu meu 9. You are going to work harder than you are now …………………… 1 2 Nuuthukuma muno mbeange wa undu uuthuk uma oyu 10. You are going to take on more responsibility ……………………… 1 2 Nukwosa mawia maingi

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4.16 Now I am going to read you some statements regarding your personal-income risk taking. Please indicate how much you agree or diagree with the statements. The responses are 'Strongly Agreee', 'Agree', 'Disagree', 'Strongly Agree' Yu niusomea mithea ikonetye undu utonya kwosa itambya yi mwanya. Nutonya kundavya undu ukwitikila kana kuleana na mithia ii. SA A NAD D SD N/A 1. In comparison with your friends, you seem to be more of a risk taker Uyisianisya na anyanyau, nutonya kutatithya maundo muno kumavituka …………………… 1 2 3 4 5 2. In comparison with your family, you seem to be more of a risk taker Uyisianisya na andu ma musyi waku, nutonya kutatithya maundo muno kumavituka…………12345 3. In comparison with your business partner/s, you are more of a risk taker Uyisianisya na atandithya angi ma viasala, nutonya kutatithya maundo muno kumavituka 1 2 3 4 5 6

4.17 What is your preferred occupation ? Agriculture Uimi ………………………………………………………………… 1 Ni wia wiva ula wendaa kuthukuma Labour Kivalua………………………………………………………………….. 2 Trader Uk uni wa vaita ……………………………………………………. 3 Entrepreneur Utandithya ………………………………………………………… 4 Other (Specify) Ingi (weta) ______98

4.18 Within the next 3 years do you expect to change occupations? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Nukwik watya kusenzya wia ula uthuk umaa ivinda ya itatu yuk ite? No …………………………………………………………………………….. 2 5.0

4.19 What occupations do you expect to change to? Agriculture Uimi …………………………………………………………… 1 5.0 Ni wia wiva ula uenda k usenzya wike? Labour Kivalua ………………………………………………………….. 2 5.0 Trader Ukuni wa vaita………………………………………………………. 3 Entrepreneur Utandithya ………………………………………………………… 4 Other (specify) Ingi (weta) ______98 5.0

4.20 Is there a business idea that you already have? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Wina muvango/kisuanio k ya viasala withiwa ukwatite? No …………………………………………………………………………….. 2 5.0

4.21 What is your business idea? Muvango wak u wa viasala ula winaw'o ni mwau? Specify ______

4.22 Have you taken steps to start developing your business idea? Yes …………………………………………………………………………… 1 Niwosete itambya ya k wika kana kwianisya muvango usu wak u wa viasala? No …………………………………………………………………………….. 2 5.0

4.23 What steps have you taken /are you taking to start developing your business idea? Sell land ……………………………………………………………………… 1 Take loan …………………………………………………………………….. 2 Ni itambya yau wosete/uendeeye na k wosa k wambiiya kwianisya muvango waku Arrange for loan …………………………………………………………….. 3 wa viasala? Borrow from family ………………………………………………………….. 4 Borrow from friends …………………………………………………………. 5 Sell another business ………………………………………………………. 7 Sell house……………………………………………………………………. 8 Sell other assets ……………………………………………………………. 9 Saving ………………………………………………………………………… 10 Other ______98 (Specify)

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5.0 Now, I would like to ask you on your opinion regarding your HH's standard of living Yu nienda ukukulya woni waku iulu wa kiwango kya mwikalile wa musyi waku.

5.1 a. Over the last week, how many meals has your HH eaten per day, on average? Vandu va k yumwa kithelu, vaa musyi muisaa liu keana kwa muthenya?

12 34 5 6 7 Concerning your Concerning Concerning Concerning Which of the following is true? In terms of In terms of household's your your the standard of your current income/livelihood… your household your household food housing, household's of health care READ economic wellbeing, economic wellbeing, consumption which of clothing, you receive Allows you to build your are you in a year over the past the which of for household savings 1 better off, the from now do one month, following is the members, Allows you to save just a same as, or you expect to which of the true? following is which of the little 2 worse off than be better off, following is true? true? following is Only just meets your this same time the same as, true? expenses 3 a year ago or worse off Is not sufficient, so you need than now? It was less than adequate for household needs 1 to use your savings to MUCH BETTER 1 MUCH BETTER 1 It was just adequate for household needs 2 meet expenses 4 BETTER 2 BETTER 2 It was more than adequate for household needs 3 Is really not sufficient, so you NO CHANGE 3 NO CHANGE 3 (NOTE THAT 'ADEQUATE' MEANS NO MORE OR NO LESS THAN need to borrow to meet WORSE OFF 4 WORSE OFF 4 WHAT THE RESPONDENT CONSIDERS TO BE THE MINIMUM expenses 5 MUCH WORSE 5 MUCH WORSE 5 CONSUMPTION NEEDS OF THE HOUSEHOLD.)

5.2 How satisfied are you with your current financial situation? Wiiwa wianiwe ata k i mbesa saani uu?

FULLY SATISFIED …………. 1 NOT AT ALL SATISFIED ………. 4 Mwianie Vyu Utemwianie ona vanini RATHER SATISFIED ………. 2 DON'T KNOW …………………… 5 O mwianie Ndyisi LESS THAN SATISFIED ….. 3 REFUSE TO ANWER …………. 6 Utemwianie muno Alea k usungia

5.3 Do you feel that your financial situation in the past three years has….. Nukwona kana maundu ma mbesa maku k wa myaka itatu mithelu niyithiitwe yi.... IMPROVED A LOT …………. 1 SOMEWHAT DETERORIATED.. 4 REFUSE TO ANWER ….. 7 Iseuvite mumo Nithuk ute ovanini Alea kusungia SOMEWHAT IMPROVED …. 2 DETERORIATED A LOT ………. 5 Iseuvite ovanini Nithuk ite mumo REMAINED THE SAME …… 3 DON'T KNOW …………………… 6 Nyaavinduk a Ndyisi

5.4 Do you think that in the next 12 months, your financial situation will be…. Nuisilya myei 12 yukite, ukwati waku ukeethiwa..... IMPROVED A LOT …………. 1 SOMEWHAT DETERORIATED.. 4 REFUSE TO ANWER ….. 7 Museo muno Wimuthuk u Alea kusungia SOMEWHAT IMPROVED …. 2 DETERORIATED A LOT ………. 5 Museo ovanini Wimuthuk u muno REMAINED THE SAME …… 3 DON'T KNOW …………………… 6 Undu umwe Ndyisi

5.5 How concerned are you about being able to provide yourself and your family with food and basic neccesities in the next 12 months? Uusik ite ate k wa k wianisya mavata mak u na ma musyi waku ma liu na maundu ala ma vata kwa myei 12 yuk ite? VERY CONCERNEDNiusikite muno 1 NOT CONCERNED AT ALL ..Ndiusuk 4 A LITTLE CONCERNED Niusikite … 2 DON'T KNOW ndyisi………………. 5 NOT TOO CONCERNED Niusikite van 3 REFUSE TO ANSWER Alea usungia 6

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5.0 SUBJECTIVE ASSESSMENT OF WELL-BEING

5.6 Imagine a 10-step ladder where on the bottom, the fisrt step, stand the poorest people, and on the highest, 10th stand the rich Kwa suania ngasi yina iliso ik umi vala ya nthi yambee ni ya andu ala ngya vyu na ya yilulu vyu ni ya ala athui

[SHOW THE RESPONDENT THE LADDER]

10 On which step is your HH today? Musyi waku 09 wi ngasi yiva?

08 On which step is most of your neighbors today? 07 Atui mak u me ngasi yiva umunthi?

06 On which step are most of your friends today? 05 Anyanyau ala aingi me ngasi yiva?

5.7 How satisfied are you with your life? Wiiwa wianiwe ata maishani maku? VERY UNSATISFIED Ndi mwianie ona vanini……… 1 SATISFIED Ni mwianie …………………………… 4 UNSATISFIED Ndi mwianie…………………………… 2 VERY SATISFIED Ni mwianie vyu ……………… 5 NEITHER SATISFIED NOR UNSATISTIED Nio kati 3

5.8 What is the current aspect of your life that concerns you the most? Ni undu mwau uk onetye maisha maku oyu ula usuaniaa muno? MONEY mbesa ………….. 1 OTHER (SPECIFY)_Ve undu ungi______5 JOB SECURITY Ulumu wa wia…. 2 DON'T KNOW Ndyisi……………………………… 6 HEALTH Uima wa mwii………….. 3 REFUSE TO ANSWER ……………………….. 7 SAFETY Usalama…………. 4

Now I would like to ask you questions regarding the HH's willingness and ability to pay for new services if they were made available to this community Yu nienda ukukullya mokulyo makonetye mawoni iulu wa wendi wa andu ma musyi wenyu na utonyi wa kuivia syindi ii mukaetewe nduauani ino

5.9 Please tell me if your HH would be willing to pay for improved Willingness to pay Ability to pay access to __Nutonya undavya k ana musyi wak u nowithiwe na Y N DK Y N DK wendi wa k uiva nik ana matonye k ukwata_ Water 1 2 8 1 2 8 Roads 1 2 8 1 2 8 5.10 Now, please tell me if your HH would be able to pay for Electricity 1 2 8 1 2 8 improved access to ______Health care 1 2 8 1 2 8 Nutonya undavya kana musyi waku nowithiwe utonyi wa Mobile phone charging 1 2 8 1 2 8 kuivia_ Schooling 1 2 8 1 2 8 Market for agricultural produce 1 2 8 1 2 8

Now, I am going to read you some statements relating to affordability of food by your HH in the past 30 days Yu nienda ukusomea mithia ikonetye maundu ma kuthooa liu vaa kwaku musyi vandu va mithenya 30 mithelu

5.11 In the past 4 weeks, did you or any HH member go a whole day and night without eating anything Vandu va syumwa inya 4 nthelu, we kana mundu wa musyi uu wenyu aatinda na ak akoma ataite? Yes ………………………………………… 1 No …………………………………………. 2 5.13

5.12 How often did this happen? Uu weekik ie ta keana? RARELY (1-2 TIMES)………………………. 1 SOMETIMES (3-10 TIMES) ……………….. 2 OFTEN (MORE THAN 10 TIMES) ………… 3

5.13 How was food availability in your HH during each of the last 12 months? Was it sufficient, in some shortage, or in extreme shortage? Vaa musyi kwaku liu wak watik anie ata k wa myei 12 mithelu? Mwianiu, munini, munini vyu?

March April May June July August Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb March

2010 2011

SUFFICIENT……………….. 1 IN SOME SHORTAGE……. 2 IN EXTREME SHORTAGE.. 3

5.14 How many servings of fruit do you eat on a typical day? NUMBER Uisaa matunda keana kwa muthenya?

5.15 How many servings of vegetables do you eat on a typical day? NUMBER Uisaa mithemba ya mboka keana kwa muthenya?

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5.16 Now I would like to ask you about the overall state of well being in your household. Please indicate how much you agree or disagree with the following statements. The responses are 'Strongly Agree', 'Agree', 'Disagree' and 'Strongly Agree' Yu nienda ukukulya iulu wa uima wa mwii wa andu ma musyi uu waku. Vatonyeka ndavye kana nuitiila, nuitikila muno kana nduitikila , kana nduitikila ona vanini.

SA A NAD D SD 1. You are a respectable member of this community Wi munenge ndaia vaa utuini uu ………………………………………………………………. 12 345 2. Your family is able to afford most basic needs Musyi waku nutonya kwiyiungamia mavata ala ma lasima …………………………………. 12 345 3. You are able to comfortably take care of your family Nutonya kusuvia nyumba yaku vate thina ona wiva ……………………………………….. 12 345 4. Your family is able to afford health care and other emergencies Musyi waku nutonya kwiyiungamia mavata ma uima wa mwii na mbanga ingi……………… 12 345 5. Your family is able to afford enough fuel needed for lighting Musyi waku nutonya kwiyiungamia kwakania taa ……………………………… 12 345 6. Your family is able to afford enough fuel needed for cooking Musyi waku nutonya kwiyiungamia mwaki wa k uua …………………………………………… 12 345 7. Your family eats a balanced diet always Musyi waku nutonya kuya liu ula waile ……………………………………………………….. 12 345 8. Your family can afford to hire extra labour when in need eg househelps Musyi waku nutonya kwiyiungamia kuiva andu ma ivalua/k utetheesaya nyumba ………. 12 345 9. You are always able to afford new uniform for your children Nutonya k uungamia k uthooa univomu ya syana syak u ……………………………………. 12 345 10. You are able to comfortably pay for your children's schooling Nutonya k uivia syana syaku ila syi sukulu viisi vate thina …………………………………. 12 345 11. You have enough clothes to change everyday Wina ngua syianite sya kuvinduania k ila muthenya ………………………………………… 12 345

Now I would like to ask you some questions regarding your perception of development in this community Yu nienda ukukullya mokulyo makonetye mawoni iulu wa maendeeo nduani ino 5.17 What is development? Having enough disposable income ……………………………………… 1 Meendeeo ni kyau? Absence of disease ………………………………………………………. 2 CIRCLE ALL THAT ARE MENTIONED Access to adequate food ………………………………………………… 3 Access to quality health care services …………………………………. 4 Availability of electricity …………………………………………………… 5 Employment ………………………………………………………………… 6 Improved security ………………………………………………………….. 7 Access to credit …………………………………………………………… 8 Access to a market place ……………………………………………….. 9 Having trees to change the environment ……………………………….. 10 Enough schooling facilities ………………………………………………. 11 Improved transport facilities ……………………………………………… 12 Access to water …………………………………………………………... 13 Other (Specify) ______14

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Appendix 10: Papers drafted from this study and either published or submitted to peer-referred journals

1. Essendi H, Madise N & Matthews Z 2014. Perceptions of development by residents of a rural community in Kenya: A capability issue. Journal of African Studies and Development, 6, 67-77. Available online at: http://academicjournals.org/article/article1407239330_Essendi.pdf 2. Factors influencing perception of development in rural Kenya: Structural Equation Modeling approach. Paper submitted to Development in Practice journal 3. Do positive perceptions of development influence fertility choices? Evidence from rural Kenya. Paper undergoing a second review in PLOS ONE

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10.1: Perceptions of development by residents of a rural community in Kenya: a capability issue

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10.2: Factors influencing perceptions of development in rural Kenya: a structural equation modeling approach

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10.3: Do perceptions of development influence fertility choices? Evidence from rural Kenya

Hildah Essendi11 and Nyovani Madise1 Abstract

Despite implementation of many development initiatives, the progress in economic development and fertility outcomes in Kenya, the situation especially for the rural poor in the country in many instances continues to fare worse than that of the urban residents. The rural residents continue to register poorer economic and fertility choices and outcomes, despite evidence indicating that improvement in fertility has potential to improve development and achievement of the millennium development goals. This paper attempts to argue towards alternative approaches to addressing poor development and wellbeing, one of which is participatory development.

Using data collected from 294 individuals from 294 households in Kitonyoni sub-location of Makueni County in Eastern Kenya, the paper seeks to assess the relationship between perceptions of development, and fertility outcomes, specifically focusing on contraception and desired fertility, while controlling for other socio-economic and demographic factors. We use binary and multinomial logistic regression analyses.

The study found the odds of using a method of contraception and desiring to have fewer children to correspond with perceptions of participation in development. Individuals viewing development as a participatory approach were significantly more likely to be using at least one method of modern contraception (OR=2.668). In addition, they were significantly more likely to desire to have fewer children; either 1-3 children (OR=2.870) or 4 children (OR=2.040) instead of desiring to have 5 or more children. The baseline total fertility rate in Makueni is 5.1 children per woman.

These findings indicate that people who view development to be a participatory activity or those who participate in development are also likely to make better fertility choices. These findings support the argument towards continued involvement of people in development initiatives as this is also likely to lead to improvement of their wellbeing. This approach could be adopted as one of the non-economic

11 Social Sciences, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, University of Southampton. Southampton SO17 1BJ United Kingdom.

For correspondence: Hildah Essendi, Social Sciences, Faculty of Social and Human Sciences, University of Southampton, Southampton SO17 1BJ United Kingdom. (E-mail: [email protected] ). Tel +44 23 80594748; Fax +44 23 80593858.

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indicators and measures of development; it can be used to both measure people’s satisfaction with development initiatives as well as indirectly use it to assess the success of development initiatives geared at improving people’s wellbeing.

Key words: Development, Wellbeing, Fertility, Perceptions of Development & Wellbeing, Participatory Development, Rural Kenya, Sub-Saharan Africa Introduction

The state of world development Although there has been significant progress in development at the global level within the last decade, there still exist inequalities on the regional front and between urban and rural areas [1-4]. Development, reflected by the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) shows that there has been progress, however, some pockets of the world’s population are still yet to experience this progress [2]. A quarter of humanity for instance still lives on less than $1.25 a day [4], while on the health front, a quarter of all children in developing countries are malnourished [4]. Worse still, development indicators are expected to worsen among the poorest such that, although global poverty is expected to fall by 15% between 1990 and 2015, this mainly reflects results from rapid growth in Eastern Asia, especially China and less progress in two of the poorest regions; South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa [2]. Despite the strong economic growth in most countries in the region in the last decade, an evaluation of the achievement of the MDG goals puts sub-Saharan region well behind other regions [2].

Some efforts to reverse the slow progress has seen an implementation of various approaches to enable quicker achievement of the MDGs. These have included the design and implementation of programs and initiatives targeting fertility choices and outcomes. The decision to target fertility by expanding reproductive health choices and services arises from the view that it is one of the ways to control population growth, ultimately impacts the achievement of the MDGs and overall development of the region [5]. Family size and family formation decisions resulting from poor reproductive health in the region are indeed reported to impact the slow progress in the region. For instance, 13% of maternal deaths occurring annually result from unsafe abortions, which could otherwise be addressed if better reproductive health services such as contraceptive use were available [6]. The choice to procure abortions by the 42 million women with unintended pregnancies, a half of which are unsafe, could be avoided if adequate fertility choices existed [6]. This is particularly important as a significant number of women have an unmet need for modern family planning, 29% of which are in developing countries, with the highest proportion (46%) hailing from sub- Saharan Africa [7].

An improvement in reproductive health services and choices also has potential to help meet the MDGs #1, #2 and #4 seeking to eradicate poverty and hunger; achieve universal primary education and to reduce child mortality respectively. It has been argued that smaller families can enable adequate child nutrition and investment in education, which would ultimately

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enable faster social and economic development at the family, community and national levels [5]. In addition, the ability for women to have choices on their reproductive health matters has potential to promote gender equality and women empowerment (MDG #3), while at the same time improving maternal health (MDG #5) and helping combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases.

This evidence points to the need to pay more attention to fertility as population growth ultimately impacts the achievement of the MDGs, improvement of wellbeing and development in general. Uncontrolled population growth may have an effect on development through its pressure on creation of wealth at the household, community and national levels, as well as its limiting of expansion and access to education and health facilities and other opportunities, such as limiting opportunities for children’s educational development [8]. Improved fertility also has potential to enable access to adequate food, water, housing, sanitation facilities as well as improvement in health and education [9]. Efforts to control fertility should therefore be stepped up in areas recording high population growth rates and poor improvement of wellbeing, such as sub-Saharan Africa.

Development and wellbeing in Kenya Kenya is one of the countries in the region showing slow progress both in the control of its population growth as well as in its development progress. Although the country recently rebased its GDP growth for 2014, revising it from the earlier projected value of $44.10 billion to $56.3 billion, the other measures of social development and wellbeing are still poor [10]. It’s gross national income (GNI) per capita was estimated to be US $ 1,246 in 2013 [10], while its Human Development Index (HDI), a composite measure of three basic dimensions of human development: health, education and income was 0.535 in 2013 [11]. Consequently, the country is not only ranked 147th out of 187 countries in human development, it also faces regional inequalities in development including in infrastructure, health and education [12,13]. The country was indeed reported to have one of the highest gini co-efficients in Africa in 2009, with nearly a half of its citizens living in poverty [12]. These development inequalities go beyond the regions and are clearly pronounced between rural and urban Kenya where fertility outcomes also show inequalities, despite the implementation of various programs to reduce fertility and improve the use of contraception [5]. While the Kenyan government took several steps to improve its fertility, the results have been quite slow. The incorporation of family planning in its 1965 development agenda for instance contributed to a decline of the total fertility rate, from 8 children in 1980s to 4.7 in 1990s. These gains were however eroded when this focus and funding was shifted from fertility to other health issues, including HIV/AIDS [14]. Consequently TFR started to rise again, reaching 4.9 children per woman in 2000s, while contraceptive prevalence rate which had been increasing annually at 6% also stalled at 39% [14]. Although more efforts to improve the state of fertility in the country, including starting government departments specifically focusing on reproductive health and fertility issues have been implemented since, there are still some weaknesses in these efforts. There are some gaps in the current development policy approaches which have failed to explicitly incorporate strategies directly targeting fertility. Kenya’s Vision 2030, one of the important current development strategies 263

which comprises a set of strategies seeking to drive the economy to a middle income status by 2030 for instance does not have plans to address population issues, yet the country’s population growth rate has an implication on the achievement of the goals in this plan [14]. The other newer government policy documents and guidelines have also attempted to address these gaps, however the contribution of the community in development efforts is still missing [15]. Gender, another important factor in the success of fertility programs in the country has not been adequately incorporated in the design and implementation of these programs. Although both men and women are users of contraceptive products in the country and despite the important role that men play in decision-making regarding birth control measures, male involvement has not very prominent in decisions, opinions and perceptions regarding the products and services [16]. Yet the country’s population continues to increase at an unsustainable rate which may make it difficult to achieve these development plans.

Definition of development This background therefore points to the need to revisit development and look into alternative development approaches that have the potential to ensure equity in participation in development, a strategy that has potential to help improve development and wellbeing outcomes [17]. Considering the poor development progress not only in Kenya, but also in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the gaps in the development approaches implemented in these countries, this study focuses on people’s involvement in development, through the seeking of their perceptions of participation in development, and links these perceptions with their fertility choices. Fertility is a key focus due to its important association with development outcomes and in the achievement of the MDGs. To achieve sustainable development and improve wellbeing as proposed by the United Nation’s millennium development goals, there is need to work at reducing population growth, as well as investing in universal health care including providing adequate reproductive health services while at the same time investing in education and gender equality [18].

Given all the benefits of improved fertility highlighted in the background, this paper focuses on the relationship between perceptions of development and fertility choices, specifically contraceptive use and desired fertility. The paper lobbies for the incorporation of more non- monetary measures, indicators and approaches to development, including participatory development as this may have potential in improving people’s worldview as well as enabling make better choices in regards to their fertility. We hypothesize that people perceiving development to be participatory are more likely to also have better fertility perceptions, and consequently, as well as make better fertility choices. This study adopts the definition of community perceptions of development as the empowerment and involvement of the socially and economically marginalized peoples in decision making over their own lives [17,19-21]. This definition is informed by Amartya Sen’s Capability Approach where the improvement of people’s capabilities through empowerment, enabling them lead better lives is viewed as a prerequisite in development and in the improvement of a people’s wellbeing [20]. It is also argued that this approach has potential to promote community participation in development projects argue that this has potential to reduce communities’ dependency on donor-supported programmes while understanding and making use of the communities’ 264

resources and capacities needed to drive development on a sustainable basis [22,23]. Outcomes of such an initiative have potential to ensure that communities’ views and opinions are incorporated in development plans and initiatives [21]. This study therefore seeks to assess whether perceptions of participatory development influence fertility choices, that is, contraceptive use and desired fertility. Data and methods

Study setting The study was conducted in Kitonyoni sub location of Kathonzweni district in Makueni County in 2012. The rural sub-location, an area covering 27.1 sq km and Density of 96 has a total population of 2,500; 1,284 males and 1,306 females [24]. Makueni County is a semi- arid area where residents traditionally depend on farming as the primary means of livelihood [25]. The sub-location and the whole of Makueni County experiences minimal rainfall between November and December which contributes to the semi-arid nature of the study area. Those engaging in farming often grow such crops as maize, beans, green grams, chickpeas, cowpeas and pigeon peas most of which are used for subsistence, while in some instances, they are grown and sold as a main income earner. Besides predominantly engaging in farming, some members of the community also practice beekeeping, small scale trade and subsistence goat, sheep and cattle farming [26]. The minimal rainfall often results in constant food shortage such that the community has to often rely on government food aid [27]. Being a semi-arid area, most of the households in the sub-location rely on water from streams, springs, wells or boreholes [28]. Only a few households in the whole County (13.1%) are connected to the country’s main electricity grid while a majority (81.2%) use paraffin for lighting [29].

The sub-location is located about 27KM from the County headquarters at Wote and about 13KM from the closest town, Kathonzweni (Fig. 1). Most residents of the community travel to either of the two towns for important purchases, businesses and to access referral health services from Makueni County hospital and Kathonzweni district hospital. As 95% of the roads in the community are untarred, the community is mainly served by dusty roads. The main means of transportation within the community are motorcycle taxis, while commutes to the two towns are done using mini buses which operate twice daily, in the mornings and evenings. The sub-location is not connected to the country’s main electricity grid and households mainly rely on paraffin for lighting and firewood for cooking. There is no piped water serving homes and community members rely on water from boreholes, streams, rain and shallow wells. Access of health care is also challenging as the community is served by one level-5 dispensary which can only provide basic outpatient services. The contraceptive choices available from this facility are limited to pills and injectables, while those requiring storage in cold chains and surgical procedures to administer can only be accessed from Makueni and Kathonzweni facilities. Like the rest of the sub-location, the facility is not connected to the country’s main electricity grid. As a consequence of the difficult livelihoods

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and access of important infrastructure, health outcomes in the County are poor such that 41.9% of children aged below 5 years are stunted [30].

Fig. 1. Map showing study site and nearby towns

Development in the sub location is now handled by the county government of Makueni. This followed the enactment of the new constitution where the governance system was devolved. Consequently, various development projects focusing on improving access to safe water, roads, health facilities, education, farming methods and information communication & technology have been undertaken by Makueni County government [31]. Some projects, for instance, those on fertility and reproductive health are implemented in collaboration with some non-governmental organizations. The focus on the County’s fertility is especially important as it has one of the highest fertility rates in the country. Makueni County’s fertility rate is 5.1 children per woman compared to the national figure of 4.6, while its contraceptive use is still quite slow, at 40% [32].

Data The study uses individual and house-level data collected from a sample of 275 of the 487 households in Kitonyoni sub-location. Within the sampled households, a male and female were selected and interviewed in each household alternately, making a total sample of 150 men and 144 women. These respondents were aged between 18 and 49 years for women and 18 and 54 years for men. Questions were asked on household economic status, respondent’s education level, parity, contraception, perceived health, perceived household wellbeing and perceived development. The analysis in this paper comprises 294 respondents; 150 men, 144 women (Table 1). Ethical approval of the study was obtained from the University of Southampton’s School of Social Sciences Ethics Committee and from the Kenya National Council for Science and Technology (NCST). Informed written consent was obtained from participants before the discussions were held. Before consent was given, information on the study, including the procedures to be followed, any risks and benefits and confidentiality assurance was read to the participants. Those who agreed to participate in the study were asked to sign the consent form and an information sheet for further reference given to them. Both the university and the Kenyan ethics bodies approved this consent procedure

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Table 7.1: Demographic, socio-economic and health characteristics of respondents (18-54 years)

N=294 Description Characteristic n % Socio-demographic factors Sex Dichotomous variable of males (18-54 yrs.) Male 150 51.0 and female (18-49 yrs.) adult respondents Female 144 49.0 Age of respondent Adult respondent’s age categorised into 10 18-24 years 76 26.0 year age groups, except the 18-24 age group. 25-34 years 101 34.6 The last group was either 45-49 years for 35-44 years 70 24.0 female respondents or 45-54 for males 45+ years 45 15.4 Socio-economic factors Educational status The highest education level attained coded as; Pre-primary/Primary 215 74.9 pre-primary/ primary and secondary+ Secondary+ 72 25.1 Employment status Respondents were asked who their employer Employed 28 9.6 was and responses categorised into; Employed, Self 23 7.9 None & Self None 241 82.5 Household income Household income was categorised into;

Contraceptive use 217 73.8 Use of any birth control method

Methods of data analysis This paper employs cross-sectional quantitative data analysis given the cross-sectional nature of the data. The first quantitative analysis is descriptive statistics, used to assess the distribution, frequency of responses and the range of values for all the variables used in the study. The study also employs bivariate analysis to investigate the relationship between the variables of interest in the paper. In the bivariate analysis used in this paper, chi-square test is used to assess the independence of these variables. This paper also uses logistic regression to assess the relationship between the predictor and outcome variables. Logit models are fitted to assess the relationship between perception of development and contraception use, a binary variable. The study also employs the multinomial logistic regression to assess the relationship between perception of development and desired fertility, a nominal variable with three categories.

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Measurement of perception of development (main predictor variable) This study’s main predictor variable is the perception of development, measured using three questions/statements administered in the study and which refer to the respondent’s perception of participation in development. The question administered was “What does development mean to you?” to which three of the responses directly relating to perception of participation in development and which sought spontaneous responses (1. Yes 0. No) were used in this analysis. The responses are: ‘development entails involving women in leadership’; ‘development entails involving everyone in development’ and ‘people in the community are normally involved in community development’. Using factor analysis, these three variables were used to compute a perception of development index that depicts perceptions of participation in development activities (Tables 2 and 3). Logistic regression was then run where this index was assessed against the main outcome variables in this study, that is, use of contraception and desired fertility.

Table 2: Total Variance of perception of development index explained Component Initial Eigenvalues Extraction Sums of Squared Loadings Total % of Variance Cumulative % Total % of Variance Cumulative % 1 1.261 42.041 42.041 1.261 42.041 42.041 2 1.003 33.420 75.461 1.003 33.420 75.461 3 .736 24.539 100.000 *1= Development entails involving women 2= Development is involving everyone

Table 3: Factor loadings and communalities of perception of development index Component 1 2 Development entails involving women -.128 .983 Development is involving everyone .782 .186 People in the community are normally involved in development matters .796 -.025

Other explanatory variables

Table 1 gives a description of the variables used in the analysis and their frequency distributions.

Outcome (dependent) variable in the analysis This paper comprises 2 main outcome predictors of fertility; contraceptive use and desired fertility.

Contraceptive use: This variable referred to use of any modern or traditional means of birth control. The modern methods include combined or progestogen only oral contraceptives (or the pill), combined or progestogen only injectables, implants, Intrauterine copper or 268

hormonal devices, male and female condoms, male (vasectomy) and female (tubal ligation) sterilization, lactational amenorrhoea method and emergency contraception [33]. Contraception is a binary variable, categorised into 1. Yes, if any modern method of contraception was used and 0. No if no method of contraception was used.

Desired fertility: This was defined as the reported number of children that a respondent desired to have. This applied both to those with and without children. Those with children were asked to give their initial desired number of children before the start of their child- bearing. This variable was categorised into three; 1-3 children, 4 children and 5+ children. No respondent indicated desire not to have any children. Results

Descriptive statistics

Predictor variable

Principle components analysis was used to compute the perception of development index. Table 2 presents the eigenvalues, which shows that the first factor explained 42% of the variance, the second factor 33% of the variance, and a third factor 25% of the variance. Further, Table 3 presents the index’s factor loading matrix and communalities. This perception of development index was used to compute a histogram with age and gender (Figs. 2 and 3). These histogram show a distribution slightly skewed towards the left, showing that a slight majority of respondents viewed development as non-participatory. Further, there exist a few outlier values in both gender and age relations with the index.

Fig. 2. Histogram of perception of development and gender

Fig. 3. Histogram of perception of development and age

Explanatory variables

The variables are categorised into three; socio-demographic factors, socio-economic factors and health factors (outcome variables). The two socio-demographic factors used in this analysis are sex and age while educational attainment, household income, employment status and source of water for drinking at the household were the main socio-economic factors used in this analysis, as they have been found to influence fertility [34].

The distribution of adult respondents by gender was almost equal, while a majority of adult respondents were between 18 and 34 years. Less than a third of the population (25.1) had acquired either a secondary education or higher with even fewer heads of households (17.2%) having attained this level of education. The mean household monthly income was about Kes. 269

5,935.82 (1£=Kes. 130) which was much lower the country’s average of Kes. 17,172 and rural Kenya’s Kes. 10,055 [35]. Only 25.5% of households used a protected source of drinking water such as protected wells.

Regarding the description of the fertility indicators, about 50% of the adult respondents reported a desire to have 4 children but an almost equal number actually had more, that is, 4 or more while less than a third of the population (26.2%) reported not using any method of birth control.

Results of the regresssion analyses

Contraceptive use

This study hypothesised that perceptions of participatory development have an association with better fertility choices, specifically use of contraception and the desire to have fewer children. Table 4 presents the odds of using any method of contraception when holding perceptions of participatory development, based on the perception index computed. This relationship is highly significant. The study finds the odds of using a method of contraception to be high with an improvement in the perception of development (OR=2.668). These odds increase further when demographic, socio-economic and fertility factors are controlled for in the model (OR=3.036). With the exception of parity, none of these additional variables were significant in the use of contraception. Female respondents however had higher odds of using contraception (OR=1.000 vs. OR=0.775 for men). The odds of using contraception reduced with age (OR=0.995) while married respondents were more likely to use contraception compared to the unmarried (OR=1.171 compared to OR=1.000 for unmarried respondents.

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Table 4: Results of logistic regression analysis on the effects of perception of development on the use of contraception

Model With Perception Full Model Determinants Only P-value P-value Odds ratios significance Odds ratios significance Intercept 2.861 *** 3.465

Perception of development 2.668 *** 3.036 **

Socio-demographic factors Sex (Ref: Female) 0.775 NS Age 0.995 NS 1.171 NS Married

Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Primary) 1.629 NS Use of protected source of water at the household 5.999 NS Household income 2.237 NS

Parity (Ref: No child) 1.000 *** 1-3 children 1.116 *** 4+ children 1.402 *** Model χ2 66.239 Df 9 p-value 0.000 N 294 R2 0.304 Significance levels *** <0.001; ** <0.01; * <0.05 NS- Not significant

Regarding the influence of socio-economic factors, those with primary education were less likely to use contraception compared to those with secondary or higher (OR=1.629 compared to the OR=1.000 for those with secondary education). Income had a big influence on whether respondents used contraception. For every unit increase in income (Ksh.), the odds of using contraception increased (OR=2.237). Those using a protected source of water at the household were about six times more likely to use contraception at OR=5.999.

When parity was considered, respondents who had ever had a child were more likely to use contraception compared to those without any child. Those who had between 1 and 3 children were about as likely to use contraception as those without (OR=1.116 vs. OR=1.000) while those with 4 or more children were about one and a half times more likely to use contraception compared to those without any child (OR=1.402).

Desired fertility Multinomial logistic regression to assess the effects of perception of development on desired fertility was done using the multinomial logit model in IBM SPSS version 20. The choice to use multinomial logistic regression was made because the outcome variable (desired fertility)

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was grouped into three categories: desire to have 1-3 children; desire to have 4 children and desire to have 5 or more children. The baseline fertility is 5+ children.

This analysis uses desired fertility instead of achieved fertility because 21.4% of the respondents in the study had no children (Table 1). In addition, desired fertility gives a beter perception of the estimated desired number of children because this information is easy to interpret and it also impacts fertility outcomes [36]. In addition, about 50% of respondents indicated 4 as the desired number of children, hence the three categories. The regression model compares the multinomial logistic regression results of those who desired to have either 1-3 children or 4 children with those who desired to have more than 4 children (Table 5). Respondents who perceived development to be participatory were significantly about 3 times more likley to desire to have 1-3 children as opposed to 5 or more children (OR=2.981). Similarly those viewing development as a participatory process were about two times likely to desire to have 4 children instead of 5 or more children (OR=2.186). In addition, among those respondents with perceptions of participating in development, women were more likely to desire to have fewer children than men; (OR=1.777) desiring to have 1-3 children and OR=2.034 desiring to have 4 children. Younger respondents were also significantly more likely to desire fewer children compared to older respondents. The unmarried respondents were significant more likley to desire to have 1-3 children and not 5 or more (OR=4.460) compared to the unmarried ones. Although not significant, the pattern was the same for those desiring to have 4 children as opposed to 5 or more children, whose odds ratio was 2.482. The odds of desiring to have 1-3 children compared to 5 or more did not vary greatly by education (OR=1.094 for those with primary education vs. OR=1.000 for those with secondary education). This however changed in regards to the desire to have 4 children as opposed to 5 or more children, where those with primary education were less likely to desire to have fewer children (4 children compared to 5 or more children). Respondents from households with higher monthly income were more likely to desire to have 1-3 children as opposed to 5 or more (OR=1.000 for those whose income is More than Kes. 10,000, and OR=1.036 for those with income ranging between Kes. 5,000 and Kes. 9,999). There was little variation in the odds of desiring to have 4 children (OR=0.940) compared to 5 or more children based on the source of drinking water at the household. Respondents using contraception were more likely to desire to have fewer children compared to those not using any modern form of birth control method. The odds of desiring to have 1-3 children as opposed to 5 children was 0.548 while those of desiring to have 4 children as opposed to 5 or more was 0.680.

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Table 7.2: Results of multinomial logistic regression analysis on the effects of perception of development on desired fertility

95% Confidence Intervals for Odds Ratio Determinants P-value Odds Ratio significance Lower Upper Odds of having 1-3 children vs. 5+ children Intercept *** Perception of participatory development 2.981 ** 1.274 6.973 Socio-demographic factors Sex (Ref: Male) 1.777 NS 0.811 3.895 Age (Ref: 45+ years) 1.000 18-24 years 9.218 *** 2.422 35.085 24-34 years 3.773 * 1.057 13.466 35-44 years 4.393 * 1.171 16.485 Marital status (Ref: Married) 1.000 Unmarried 4.460 * 1.076 18.476 Socio-economic characteristics Education level (Ref: Secondary) 1.000 Primary 1.094 NS 0.443 2.700 Household income (Ref: Kes. 10,000+) 1.000

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Discussion

The study found perceptions of participation in development to be positively associated with both contraceptive use and desired fertility. Respondents who viewed development to be participatory were found to be using at least one method of contraception. These respondents were also more likely to have fewer children (4 children or less) compared to those who did not view development as a participatory approach. Based on the predictor variable, these findings emphasize the importance attached to participatory development, whose initial step is to understand people’s perceptions of development and then involve them in development activities designed for them. These findings show that those perceiving development to be a participatory process where everyone, including women are involved in development make better choices in relation to their fertility. They are most likely to use contraception and also to desire to have fewer children. This approach to development is yet to be undertaken in development and wellbeing studies although it has been incorporated in other fields of study, including health, environmental and agricultural research [37-44]. More specifically, this approach is yet to be applied in assessing the relationship between perception of development and fertility decisions.

Despite this approach rarely being used in these studies and interventions, the findings of the present paper emphasize the importance of considering alternative approaches to development, as this has potential in enhancing the general improvement of wellbeing, as well as the meeting of MDGs. This study shows that involvement of people in the determination of their development needs and assessing how these relate with their fertility choices can greatly help improve not only fertility outcomes, but also ultimately, development and other wellbeing outcomes, and hence meet the MDGs. These results are timely for sub-Sahara Africa where fertility remains high, pointing to the need to step up efforts and if possible look into alternative approaches to address this. This finding corroborates the total fertility rate reported in the region whose average for 2005–2010 exceeded 5.1 births per woman [36]. Although the national average for Kenya (4.6 children per woman) is lower than this reported desired fertility, this varies by region and efforts are needed to expand and equalize fertility reduction countrywide. In addition, although the trends for desired children in Kenya has decreased over the last three decades, from more than 7 children to less than 4 [30], this decline has stalled, calling for more effort to be stepped up if these gains are to be maintained. Population experts recommend a focus on addressing desired fertility if the goal to change the high fertility in sub-Saharan Africa region to replacement level is to be achieved [36].

Results of this study emphasize the importance of prioritizing and enacting population policies by governments in the region in order to reverse the stall in fertility decline being experienced in a majority of countries in the region [45,46]. This is urgent since population/fertility policies have previously been relegated to the periphery, yet to advance development and feel the gains of these efforts, lower fertility in the region will have to be achieved [18]. One of the areas of focus should be on reducing parity progression. Even 274

most important, is the incorporation of both women and men since this study found women to be significantly more likely to desire to have fewer children than men, yet in reality, they may not be the decision-makers in eventual determination of their attained fertility. Although policies incorporating men in family planning programmes in various settings in the region are being undertaken [47-49], these need to be stepped if more progress in changes in fertility is to be experienced. Indeed efforts to address fertility would have better results if both men and women are involved since in the region, men are considered to be the main decision- makers on family size, access to care and contraception [50]. Implementation of these efforts is even more urgent since a majority of the respondents in this study still desire to have many children (48.4% and 31.7% of respondents were found to desire to have 4 and 5+ children respectively), indicating the need to have awareness programs, accompanied by policies and programmes that can ensure adequate supply and access of contraception in place.

Further, since contraceptive use and fertility determinants span the socio-economic and other aspects of lives such as education and poverty, there is need to focus not only on economic, but on social advancement as well, if the uptake of contraception and reduction in the desire to have large families is to be achieved [36,51,52]. Indeed poverty and low educational achievement in the region are some of the leading factors promoting the desire for many children, who are perceived to be important in cushioning families in times of need [36]. This demonstrates how inter-twined development and fertility are both in causes and outcomes, making the focus on both a priority. Conclusion

This study investigated the relation between perceptions of development and fertility, specifically contraceptive use and desired fertility. These two factors have been considered to be important in wellbeing and in development whereby reduced fertility impacts and is also impacted by development or lack of it (poverty) [18,53,54]. Some of the benefits of reduced/controlled fertility include increased education and empowerment for women, averting unintended pregnancies, increasing birth spacing, improved maternal and child health, thereby improving livelihoods and ultimately economic development [18]. Despite this link between fertility and development, countries with high population have the lowest contraception rates and most are the least developed, implying that the uncontrolled population puts a huge strain on their already deprived services, resources and opportunities [55]. Results of this study therefore highlight the importance of giving development beneficiaries, especially the rural populations, a platform to participate in development initiatives, thereby refocusing development priorities from the perspectives of the non-rural, most of who determine the development initiatives for the rural populace [23], as the benefits on wellbeing are highly likely to occur. The results show that if people are involved in development initiatives designed for them, they are more likely to register better wellbeing decisions, choices and outcomes. This approach can thus be adopted as one of the non- economic approaches to development which has potential to measure people’s satisfaction

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with development initiatives as well as enable the assessment of the success of development initiatives on the improvement of wellbeing.

The proposed perception of development index can be used by agencies involved in development and fertility programs to monitor both development initiatives and assess the progress of programs focused on reducing fertility and increasing contraceptive use. This approach is therefore best applied when assessing both development perceptions and other outcomes, while assessing community satisfaction and success of these initiatives. References

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