“National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to advance medium and long-term adaptation planning in ” UNDP-GCF Project

ARMENIA ASSESSMENT OF AGRICULTURAL SECTOR VULNERABILITY TO CHANGE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION: LEGAL AND ISTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

Prepared by:

Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development

Contract Number: No: RFP 102/2019

YEREVAN 2020

CONTENT

1. INTRODUCTION ...... 4 2. THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ANALYSIS ...... 5 3. HIGHLIGHTS ON KEY POINTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 7 3.1 AGRICULTURE CONTEXT...... 7 3.2 CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE ...... 7 3.3 SETTING GOALS & PRINCIPLES – CC ADAPTATION STRATEGY ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 10 3.4 SETTING RULES – CC ADAPTATION LAWS, REGULATIONS AND STANDARDS ...... 11 3.5 IMPLEMENTING – CC ADAPTATION INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 13 3.6 IMPLEMENTING – ACTIONS, PROGRAMS AND PROJECTS ...... 16 4. ...... 20 4.1 AGRICULTURE SIZE, ROLE, AND STRUCTURE ...... 20 4.2 RESOURCE USE AND TECHNOLOGIES IN AGRICULTURE ...... 21 4.3 AGRICULTURAL MARKETS AND SUPPLY CHAINS ...... 28 5. AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 33 5.1 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE - GLOBAL ...... 33 5.2 IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON AGRICULTURE - ARMENIA ...... 34 5.3 IMPACT OF AGRICULTURE ON CLIMATE CHANGE ...... 43 6. STRATEGY FRAMEWORK ...... 44 7. POLICY AND REGULATORY (LEGAL) FRAMEWORK ...... 47 7.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW ...... 47 7.2 SPECIFIC SHORTCOMINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS - LEGAL FRAMEWORK ...... 49 7.3 INTERNATIONAL CONVENTIONS ...... 60 7.4 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCE USE/MANAGEMENT ...... 62 7.5 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES ...... 64 7.6 PLANT HEALTH ...... 64 7.7 ANIMAL HEALTH ...... 65 7.8 FOOD SAFETY ...... 66 7.9 CLIMATE DATA COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION ...... 67 7.10 DISASTER AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ...... 68 7.11 GENDER MAINSTREAMING ...... 68 8. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ...... 70 8.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW ...... 70 8.2 SPECIFIC SHORTCOMINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS – INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ...... 73 8.3 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCE USE/MANAGEMENT ...... 79 8.4 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES ...... 81 8.5 PLANT HEALTH ...... 82 8.6 ANIMAL HEALTH ...... 83 8.7 EXTENSION ...... 84 8.8 TESTING AND ANALYSIS CAPACITY ...... 86 8.9 RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIVITIES ...... 87 8.10 CLIMATE DATA COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION ...... 89 8.11 DISASTER AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ...... 90 9. PROGRAMS AND ACTIONS ...... 92 9.1 BRIEF OVERVIEW - STATE SUPPORT POLICIES AND PROGRAMS ...... 92 9.2 SPECIFIC PROGRAM/ACTION RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 94 9.3 AGRICULTURAL RESOURCE USE/MANAGEMENT ...... 103 9.4 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES AND PRACTICES ...... 104 9.5 PLANT HEALTH ...... 106 9.6 ANIMAL HEALTH ...... 107

9.7 EXTENSION SERVICES AND AGRICULTURAL CONSULTANCY ...... 108 9.8 CLIMATE DATA COLLECTION AND DISSEMINATION ...... 108 9.9 DISASTER AND EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT ...... 109 9.10 GENDER MAINSTREAMING ...... 110 10. INTERNATIONAL ADAPTATION EXPERIENCE AND CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE ...... 112 10.1 CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE (CSA) ...... 112 10.2 FARM-LEVEL CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE PRACTICES ...... 113 10.3 AGROFORESTRY AND AGRICULTURAL ADAPTATION ...... 115 10.4 AGROECOLOGY AND CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION ...... 115 10.5 LANDSCAPE APPROACHES TO CLIMATE CHANGE AND AGRICULTURE ...... 115 10.6 INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCES WITH CSA RELATED TO THE ARMENIAN CONTEXT ...... 116 10.7 CSA PLANNING IMPLICATIONS FOR ARMENIA ...... 117 11. ANNEXES ...... 120 ANNEX 1. FOOD PROCESSING INDUSTRY DETAILS ...... 121 ANNEX 2. CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT ON PESTS – DETAILS ...... 123 ANNEX 3. TESTING (LABORATORY) CAPACITY DETAILS ...... 124 ANNEX 4. LIST OF PUBLICATIONS/REPORTS ...... 129 ANNEX 5. DETAILS ON WIND-BREAK STANDARDS ...... 141 ANNEX 6. MAIN GENDER INEQUALITIES IN AGRICULTURE ...... 142 ANNEX 7. ADDITIONAL HIGHLIGHTS ON SELECTED ISSUES AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 146

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report on the assessment of agricultural sector vulnerability to climate change and climate change adaptation in Armenia was prepared by a team of consultants of the Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development (CARD), under the guidance of the UNDP Armenia country team (particularly, Gohar Hovhannisyan, NAP Project Coordinator; Aram Ter-Zakaryan, NAP Project Team Leader; and Diana Harutyunyan, Climate Change Program Coordinator UNDP Armenia). The team of consultants included: Gagik Gabrielyan (Team Leader, Development Consultant); Allison M. Chatrchyan (International Technical Advisor on Agriculture and Climate Change, Cornell University, USA); Nvard Shahmuradyan (Crop Production and Plant Selection Expert); Gayane Avagyan (Plant Diseases and Plant Protection Expert); Sergey Chakhmakhchyan (Animal Diseases and Livestock Production Expert). The CARD consultant team would like to thank UNDP Armenia country team members for providing necessary inputs as well as their guidance, comments and suggestions. The team would also like to thank all those public and private organisations and individuals that gave their time and expertise and thus contributed significantly to the report.

1 ACRONYMS

AMD (national currency) CARMAC Community Agricultural Resource Management and Competitiveness Project, a WB financed project in Armenia CC Climate change CEPA Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement between Armenia and the EU CFC Chlorofluorocarbon (an ozone depleting substance) CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIS Commonwealth of Independent States CSA Climate-smart agriculture CSO Civil society organizations EAEU Eurasian Economic Union EaP EU Eastern Partnership EBRD European Bank for Reconstruction and Development ECA Europe and Central Asia (region) EU European Union FAO UN Food and Agriculture Organization FLW Food loss and waste FREDA Fund for Rural Economic Development in Armenia GCRP Global Change Research Program USA GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse gas GOST State Standard (a Russian acronym for Госыдарственный Стандарт) GWP Global warming potential HCFC hydrochlorofluorocarbon HST Armenian Standard (acronym for ՀՍՏ – Հայաստանի ստանդարտ) ICT Information and communication technology IFC International Finance Corporation IFI International financial institution ILO International Labor Organization INDC Intended Nationally Determined Contributions IPM Integrated Pest Management IPPC International Plant Protection Convention ISO International Organization for Standardization IT Information technology NCCC National Communications on Climate Change NEEAP National Energy Efficiency Action Plan NREL National Renewable Energy Laboratory of Armenia POP Persistent Organic Pollutants PPP Public-private partnership

2 PSRC Public Service Regulation Committee of Armenia R2E2 Armenia renewable resources and energy efficiency SDG Sustainable Development Goals SEAP Sustainable energy action plans SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary SNCO State non-commercial organization TBT Technical Barriers to Trade UN United Nations UNDP UN Development Program UNFCCC UN Framework Convention on Climate Change USD United States Dollar USAID United States Agency for International Development VAT Value added tax WB The World Bank WHO World Health Organization WTO World Trade Organization WUA Water user associations (WUAs)

3 1. INTRODUCTION

This report was implemented within the framework of the Project “National Adaptation Plan (NAP) to advance medium and long-term adaptation planning in Armenia” UNDP-GCF/00104267 Project (NAP Project). The overall objective of the NAP Project was to support Armenia with developing a national plan for climate change adaptation that was iterative. Specifically, the project aimed to: (i) address the barriers identified during the stocktaking exercise; (ii) support the prioritization of adaptation options and investments in six priority sectors, include agriculture; and (iii) support the identification of financing options for the implementation of the prioritized adaptation options identified throughout the project. The specific objective was to assess the agricultural sectors’ vulnerability due to climate change that will serve as the basis for a roadmap for climate change adaptation planning for the agricultural sector in Armenia, including recommendations related to necessary changes in agricultural management and practices that could be brought about by making changes to address legal and institutional and data gaps and barriers. The focus of this report is to highlight the data gaps, strategy, policy, legal and institutional deficiencies and barriers that are directly and/or indirectly related to coping with the impact of climate change on agriculture. Where appropriate, the paper focuses on synergies with wider national and international strategic frameworks in the context of integrating climate change adaptation into development planning process, and synergies between climate change mitigation and adaptation projects in Armenia that may achieve co- benefits (such as soil health improvements). These synergies are critical for expediting the identification and the rapid adoption of solutions needed to address climate change and increased resilience and sustainability in Armenia. The analyses in this paper are based on primary and secondary data and information compiled and classified from the following sources, and using the following methods and tools: • National and international statistics and other data sources, including (i) data from official reports of the Statistical Committee of Armenia; (ii) data and information collected from various state agencies in the framework of preparation of the 4th National Communication on Climate Change; (iii) data from databases and reports of international organizations (United Nation’s Food and Agriculture Organization (UN FAO), World Bank, etc.) • Screening and analysis of scientific articles as well as papers/reports prepared by national and international professional organizations and specialists. Over two dozen papers/articles relevant to climate change and its impact in agriculture in global and Armenian context, climate change mitigation and adaptation strategies and technologies applied in other countries. • Interviews with public and private stakeholders. Interviews were held with (i) officials in relevant ministries and other public authorities, (ii) representatives of international organizations (World Bank, UN Development Program (UNDP), FAO, etc.), (iii) representatives of universities and scientific and research and development (R&D) institutions. • Focus groups with farmers (Kelly and Chatrchyan, Cornell University, 2020). Focus group with farmers meetings were held in various regions of Armenia, to discuss and highlight the main practical impacts of climate change on crop production and animal husbandry, and the strategies and practices used by farmers, and barriers to climate change adaptation.

4 2. THE LOGICAL STRUCTURE OF ANALYSIS

As set out in the TOR of this work, the focus of the analysis is climate change adaptation in agriculture. However, climate and agricultural adaptation projects will be most effectively achieved if they are planned alongside climate change mitigation, because of the synergies (such as a focus on soil health improvements) or possible tradeoffs (e.g. limited funding to address adaptation or mitigation projects) that may be required. Without addressing adaptation and mitigation policies and actions together, adaptation efforts may be less effective in achieving overall climate change goals. Therefore, throughout the report, we focus on these synergies (or tradeoffs). The analysis of legal and institutional framework was structured around the key functions and tasks necessary for designing effective climate change adaptation strategies and translating them into effective policy measures and actions in the field. The key functions subject to analysis in this paper include the following: . Setting goals and principles/policies, including: o design of strategies and policies o design of laws, regulations and standards . Planning for the implementation of goals and principles o control and inspection capacity (human, institutional, hard and soft infrastructure) o data collections, processing and dissemination o monitoring and evaluation of the implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation . Supporting the implementation of goals/principles o availability of enabling physical and soft infrastructure (irrigation networks, laboratories, hydrometeorological services) o government support programs (programs, tax and other incentives) o extension services o research and development. For effective design and implementation of strategies and policies, it is critical to ensure that they effectively capture all stages of the agri-food supply chain and establish synergies between all stages. Therefore, those functional lines are viewed in relation to key areas and factors of agri-food supply chain operation and regulation, including: . agricultural resource use/management, including the allocation, use and management of land, water, genetic resources (and biodiversity), and ecosystems . production technologies and practices, including the use of inputs (seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.), use of machinery and other technologies (e.g. drip irrigation, AI, precision agriculture), and good farming practices (grazing, animal management, orchard management) . plant and animal health, i.e. prevention and fight against pests and diseases . natural disaster management, including prevention of and protection from hail, heavy rains and flood, drought, frost, and winds . data formation and flow, including data about climate change impact (on temperature, precipitation, natural disasters, harvesting season), data on animal identification, data on prevalence of pests and diseases, etc. . knowledge and skills, including the capacity of public sector institutions to incorporate Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) approaches in the design and implementation of strategies and projects, as well as knowledge and skills of farmers and other the private sector stakeholders about sustainable farming technologies and practices, and climate change impact, mitigation and adaptation. The matrix below (Table 1) provides a visualization of the logic and perspectives of the analysis of the legal and institutional framework for this report.

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Table 1. Framework for legal and institutional analysis Key areas/topics Setting Setting the rules Supporting the Monitoring and goals/principles implementation control Agricultural resource • Design of long-term • Design of laws, • Availability of • Control and use/management and comprehensive regulations and enabling physical and inspection capacity strategies and standards established soft infrastructure (human, programs to support by the state to (irrigation networks, institutional, hard Agri-food production climate change enable the laboratories, HM and soft technologies mitigation and implementation of services, state support infrastructure). adaptation. climate change institutions). Plant health mitigation and • Government support adaptation goals. • Data collections, • Establishing (programs, tax and processing and effective synergies other incentives) to dissemination. Animal health promote climate- between sector • Design and strategies and policies application of smart investment and practices. • Monitoring and Data management to achieve higher climate-smart efficiency and standards by the evaluation of the implementation of effectiveness. private sector • Business/investment Disaster management operating in agri- climate change environment. mitigation and food supply chains. • Design of Climate- adaptation. Knowledge and skills Smart Agriculture • Agricultural service (CSA) plan. providers and Market operation consultancy

• R&D. • Extension services.

6 3. HIGHLIGHTS ON KEY POINTS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

3.1 Agriculture context

Agriculture plays a key role in economic and social life of Armenia. In 2018, about 37% of Armenia’s Armenia, structure of agriculture, 2018, % population lived in rural areas, and 1/3 of the total labor force was employed in agriculture. Agricultural production accounted for 13.6% of total GDP. , Wool, 0.1 12.2 Agriculture’s contribution to foreign trade is also Other, 16.8 notable - ~ 28% of total exports, and 18% of imports. Eggs, 4.4 Agriculture is dominated by inefficient smallholders. Melons, 1.6 The average size of agricultural landowners is 1.3 ha. , 4.4 Meat , 26.8 Vast majority of farmers are non-professional, and Cereals, 4.2 lack knowledge and skills necessary for viable commercial agri-food production. Cooperation , 6.7 among farmers is weak and not widespread. Fruits, Milk , 12.1 10.7 Unsustainable and low-productivity farming is widespread. Smallholder farmers have low capacity, motivation and incentives to invest in sustainable Figure 1. Armenia, structure of agricultural production and climate-smart farming technologies & practices. Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia Emerging medium- and large-scale farmers. There is an ongoing, though slow, process of formation of medium- to large-size commercial land owners/farmers who apply modern farming technologies, i.e. vineyards and orchards, plantations, animal farms and dairy farms, and greenhouses. Agricultural markets are evolving but still are inefficient. Market operations are strongly affected by the prevalence of small-scale, fragmented, and informal farmers. Markets are not conducive to investing in productivity and quality. Farmers are unable to get a good price for their products, while processors and retailers do not get regular supply of good quality products from farmers. This is caused by a mix of multiple factors: limited bargaining power of small and fragmented farmers, lack of storage infrastructure, low willingness of processors to pay extra price for high quality, existence of a large informal sector, etc. Food-processing and retail is developing dynamically but is constrained. The development of the food processing industry is constrained by low supply of primary agricultural products. For instance, export oriented dairy processors (especially cheese producers) are constrained by irregular and insufficient supply of milk from dairy farmers. There is a similar situation with the meat supply chain. Women in agriculture. In 2018, the labor force in agriculture included 48% women and 52% men. Women are more engaged in informal agricultural activities and are less secure. They are more engaged in low skill field work such as harvesting, sorting, and packaging. 53% of women aged 15-75 had no job and did not look for a job, mainly being engaged in household’s unpaid activity. Women have low access to land, technologies, knowledge, and finance. They are paid over 35% less than men for their work. Women have less involvement in decision making both in the public and in private sectors. Due to low access to resources, traditional practices and stereotypes, women are less likely to own and run their private farm. The Ministry of Agriculture was dominated by men, i.e. 62% men compared to 38% women. Women have limited representation among deputy heads of provinces and community municipalities (19% and 14%, respectively).

3.2 Climate change and agriculture

Armenia’s typical climate is a dry highland continental climate, with four distinct seasons. The average annual temperature ranges from -8°C in high-altitude mountainous regions (> 2,500 m) to 12-14°C in valleys. Climate

7 change, with an increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation, will accelerate desertification processes, adversely affecting the development of the crop production sector, including pests and diseases. Climate changes will lead to shifts of the steppe zone 250-300m up to forest ecosystems. At the same time, the movement of the forest zone will lead to a reduction in the area of meadow ecosystems, resulting in significant overall changes in the structure of ecosystems. Armenian farmers are already experiencing increased temperatures during the day and night, an increase in more variable precipitation, changes in disease and pest pressure, and more frequent and intense extreme weather events such as floods, drought and untimely frosts. Overall, Armenia is highly vulnerable to climate change, especially in relation to high risks of climate-related natural disasters affecting livelihoods, economic and social sustainability. The geographic distribution of vulnerability of the regions of Armenia to natural disasters is depicted in the Figure 2. Overall, Armavir, , and Vayots Dzor regions are the riskiest ones with regard to natural disasters. Temperature related impacts are expected to be particularly severe in the Ararat Valley, due to the fact that temperatures are already relatively high in this area. The Ararat Valley (Ararat, Armavir, and provinces) are especially vulnerable to droughts and late-spring frosts, while Shirak, Lori, Tavush and and Vayots Dzor are more vulnerable to hail and floods. Hot winds are more frequent in Syunik, Vayots Dzor, Armavir, Ararat and Aragatsotn provinces. The Ararat Valley, compared to other regions, is better protected against droughts, since most of in the valley is irrigated. Overall, the climate change impacts on agriculture in Armenia will cause significant productivity reduction, increased pressure by pests and diseases, loss of resources due to desertification and soil degradation and erosion, and food safety challenges. . reduced productivity of irrigated land by about 24% . reduction of the total area of and their productivity by 4-10%, by 2030 . decrease of the grass yield by 7-10%, which in turn will lead to a decrease in the volume of fodder production . deterioration of agricultural lands, and intensification of degradation of natural pastures, . unstable weather coupled with heavy storms, strong winds and heavy rains will damage crops, crop yields and reduce yields by 8-14% by 2030 . additional demand for irrigation water totaling about 202 million m3 . increased pressure of diseases and pests of plants and animals

8 . food safety issues. Flood Drought Flood Hail Flood Hail Animal husbandry. Prolonged droughts Avalanche Hail Fog due to climate change create serious Blizzard Fog Fog risks for animal husbandry by negatively Wind Drought affecting grass and forage production. Avalanche Drought Hail Based on climate change scenario Flood Blizzard analysis, there will be 4-10% Frost Wind Blizzard Fog Avalanche contraction of pastures and grasslands Hail in Armenia, including 19-22% Drought contraction of alpine and sub-alpine Flood Druught Frost pastures. The grassland productivity is Frost Blizzard estimated to decline by 7-10%, leading Hail Fog to reduction of feed production. Increased temperature and variable Drought Flood Drought Drought Frost precipitation will increase the pest and Flood Flood Blizzard Frost Hail Fog disease pressure on animal husbandry Hail Frost Hail by causing frequent and intensive Fog Avalanche disease outbreaks. The scale of risk Aquaculture. Aquaculture in Armenia is concentrated in the Ararat Valley, and is a major user of underground fresh Figure 2. Vulnerability of Armenia’s regions to natural disasters Source: Hydrometeorology and Monitoring Service water. Aquaculture facilities consume fresh underground water, and often there is competition and even conflict for water use between aquaculture, agriculture and rural community population. Aquaculture farms use underground fresh water unsustainably (with a single pass system, without water circulation). Climate change will increase the need for irrigation water, and the conflict between fish farms and crop farms and neighboring communities will intensify. Horticulture. The lion’s share of horticulture is concentrated in the Ararat Valley and other lowland areas (for instance, Tavush and lowlands in Syunik), which are more vulnerable to drought. The climate change effects will include: (i) wider spread of pests and diseases, and the emergence of new pests and diseases; (ii) more frequent and severe natural disasters such as hail, frost, winds and droughts; (iii) higher transpiration. Climate change and increased temperature may negatively affect the production of berries (strawberries, raspberries) in lowlands, and make farmers to move the production of berries to highlands. For the same reason, the Ararat Valley may become favorable for production of sub-tropical fruits (figs, , dates). There will be also a shift the time of harvesting seasons. For adaptation, it will be critical to apply smart orchard and plant management techniques, i.e. regular review of orchard irrigation schedules and norms, application of proper doses of fertilizers and nutrients, etc. Viticulture. Climate change will affect production in Armenia, but will not change key features and/or factors. For instance, in the Ararat Valley winter temperatures will continue to be low (up to -16oC), which requires winterizing grapevines via covered with soil, and the grapevine formation system to be low-trunk or no-trunk. In pre-mountainous regions early maturing and/or super-early-maturing grape varieties will be suitable. North-eastern regions of Armenia are favorable for growing grape varieties for dessert wines. In the southern () region, with frequent frosts, grapevines are formed with high trunk system. The increase of temperature may allow growing grapevine with even higher trunks (6-8 rings). Effective adaptation means may include smart vineyard management practices to increase high quality yield per unit of area, e.g. drip irrigation, high density in vineyards, enlargement of vineyards with traditional grape varieties. Gender issues. Climate change will exacerbate problems related to gender inequality and women’s vulnerability in agriculture. Reduced productivity in agriculture will negatively affect the food security situation of vulnerable groups such as women headed single-parent families in rural areas. Natural disasters and weather conditions will create more difficult working conditions, and, thus will require higher knowledge and skills for climate change adaptation.

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3.3 Setting goals & principles – CC adaptation strategy issues and recommendations

It is critical that climate change adaptation measures in agriculture are based on the risks and other relevant peculiarities of each region and/or climatic zone of Armenia. Such targeted solutions may help to increase the efficiency of resource use, i.e. achieve better results with smaller investments. Armenia is committed to international climate change initiatives. Armenia has ratified the UNFCCC (including the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement. Under the UNFCCC, Armenia prepared and submitted three National Communications on Climate Change (NCCC) and two Biennial Update Reports. The first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) was submitted in 2015. Currently, the fourth NCCC is under preparation. In 2018, Armenia released a Road Map for the Development of Climate Change Related Statistics, addressing statistical measuring of , their source and impact. Armenia needs to enhance the integration of climate change mitigation and adaptation into agriculture development strategies. While at declaration level there is an overall acceptance about the importance of sustainable development and priority of CC mitigation and adaptation, national agriculture plans do not yet include comprehensive integration of the concept of CC mitigation and adaptation. At the same time, strategies in other relevant sectors (environment, CC, emergency, hydrometeorology) often do not address the issues of agriculture. Agriculture Development Strategy 2020-2030 is the overarching strategy document for agriculture. Among its seven principles, the strategy includes the principle of “climate change adaptation, resistance and environmental sustainability”. The strategy includes a number of important priorities and measures to support CC adaptation in agriculture, such as the enhancement of agriculture and climate data and forecasting systems, promotion of investment in natural-disaster protection systems (e.g. anti-hail), selection of drought resistant crop varieties, and promotion of modern smart-farming technologies. However, these priorities and measures are fragmented and partially cover CC mitigation and adaptation. Critically, the Strategy is not supported by adequate financial resources to be impactful. In this context, it is important also to revise sub-sector strategies to integrate provisions on climate change impacts, and climate change mitigation and adaptation, for instance, in the draft the National Plant Protection Program, before its adoption by the Government. Allocate adequate financial resources for climate change adaptation. Limited financial resources planned for the implementation of the Strategy 2020-2030 may not allow achieving high impact and significant long- lasting effects. For the next four years, the total budget of the strategy is around USD 43.2 million (pre-COVID crisis estimates), e.g. which amounts on average to USD 10 million per year. This is apparently a low figure for the ambitious reforms and transformation intended in the Strategy and for supporting effective CC mitigation and adaptation in Armenia. Establish effective links to strategies with other sectors. Climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture include multiple inter-related areas such as farming technologies, disaster prevention and management, environmental protection, resource (water, soil, etc.) allocation and management, rural development, etc. Therefore, concerted action by multiple players in establishing synergies between strategies in these various areas is critical. For instance: o Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDC) under the UNFCCC Paris Agreement. In Armenia’s first NDC, there was very little focus on issues related to agriculture, even though the agricultural sector makes up a large percentage of the economy. The second NDC which is to be submitted in 2020, may include many more details on adaptation in the agriculture sector. Develop a national Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) Plan. Armenia has not yet developed a national Climate- Smart Agriculture (CSA) Plan, and climate change is only reflected in general terms in policies (noted above), but not with specific action plans and timetables. Armenia could develop a CSA plan with the involvement of all relevant authorities and private sector stakeholders. The development of an CSA plan is critical for practical guidance, and more effective and focused use of resources towards climate change adaptation in agriculture.

10 Become a member of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO), which is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health within the Euro- Mediterranean region. Its objectives are to protect plants, by developing international strategies against the introduction and spread of pests, which are a threat to agriculture, forestry and the environment, and to promote safe and effective pest control methods. EPPO promotes the exchange of information between its member countries by maintaining information services and databases on plant pests. Water management and land tenure. There should be a concerted, long-term effort by the government to make real improvements to the water distribution and irrigation infrastructure in Armenia. Similarly, there needs to be systematic changes to land-tenure to promote the development of larger-scale farms that can efficiently produce agricultural products sustainably. Among farmer focus groups conducted in 2020, the lack of consistent access to water, and/or enough water when needed, was the number one constraint related to climate change that farmers note is increasingly affecting their ability to farm sustainably. Gender equality should be guaranteed in practice. The Constitution and the legal framework of Armenia guarantee and promote equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of gender. Armenia undertook commitments under a number of international conventions on gender equality, including the UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women; CEDAW Optional Protocol, ILO Conventions, SDGs, etc. Women and men are guaranteed equal rights for education, employment, and ownership. However, in practice women are not able yet to fully benefit from equal opportunities provided by the law and enjoy gender equality.

3.4 Setting rules – CC adaptation laws, regulations and standards

• Overall, the laws, regulations and standards in Armenia focus on climate change mitigation and have little focus on climate change adaptation. A significant body of legal acts in Armenia promote sustainable production practices that contribute to CC mitigation, while less attention has been focused on CC adaptation issues. In addition, there are inefficiencies in translating (or transforming) the strategy or general level provisions into practical rules and measures that can be implemented at the local level. The sources of the challenges in the legal framework include: • High level general provisions on CC adaptation are often not cascaded down properly to secondary and tertiary legislation (regulations, standards, or incentives, etc.) for enabling the translation of the principles and objectives into practical implementation. This applied to not only agriculture, but also to other relevant areas: environment, climate change, and sustainable use of agricultural resources (land, water, biodiversity, etc.).

o A large set of agriculture-related laws and regulations do not effectively integrate climate change or the concepts of climate change mitigation and adaptation.1 For instance, in the Law Phytosanitary, the climate change factor does not appear in the provisions about forecasting, diagnosis and prevention of pest and disease outbreaks, risk management, research work, etc. The legislation on management does not include clear and enforceable requirements about sustainable, climate-smart pasture management. o Pasture management procedures (Government Decree No 389, and No 1477) are not conducive to the promotion of climate-smart agricultural practices, and lack monitoring and control mechanisms. It would be justified to revise pasture renting terms and requirements, with a view to increase the maximum contract duration, and define clear and enforceable requirements for climate-smart pasture management by farmers.

1 These include, among others, the Law on Phytosanitary; Law on Flora; Law on Veterinary; Law on Food Safety; Law on Organic Agriculture; Law on Beekeeping; Law on Agricultural Machinery Exploitation; Water Code, Law on Fundamental Provisions of the National Water Program; Law on National Water Program. 11 o The Concept on prevention of damages in agriculture caused by natural disasters (Government Decree No 15, 13 April 2017), recognizes the potential effects of climate change on extreme events and on agriculture. However, general climate change provisions need to be supported by enabling legal acts to include CC adaptation itself and relevant practical CC adaptation measures.

o The Program for Monitoring of Pesticides, Nitrates, Heavy Metal Residues and GMOs in Products of Plant (Government Decree, No 6, of 15 February, 2018) lack mechanisms for effective implementation reflecting the structure of agriculture in Armenia, i.e. large number of smallholders. • For effective promotion of CSA practices, policies should utilize outcome-based incentives. Policies that aim to address climate change should emphasize outcome-based farmer incentives and knowledge transfer systems that enhance farmers’ capacity to achieve sustainable productivity growth while adopting climate change mitigation and adaptation practices. Untargeted incentives can encourage farmers to adopt measures that have high upfront costs, or that are socially beneficial, but costly at the private level. • Enhancement of the irrigation system and procedures with due consideration of climate change effects. Concepts of climate change mitigation and adaptation are not effectively integrated in the water regulations. Climate change may result in higher evaporation and loss of water in the irrigation system, making water saving and accurate measurement critical. Armenia needs incorporate climate change mitigation and adaptation provisions in water regulations, to support the enhancement of the irrigation system (in secondary and tertiary systems) to reduction of water loss, as well as to ensure accurate measurement of the water used by farmers. • There are gaps in terms of effective inter-agency coordination and cooperation required for mainstreaming CC mitigation and adaptation issues into sector specific laws and regulation as well as concerted action by all relevant agencies. For instance: o Armenia’s agri-climatic zoning maps and agri-chemical maps in Armenia are incomplete and/or outdated. For proper mapping there is a need for concerted action by a number of agencies (e.g. Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), Agri-chemical Service Agency, Cadaster Committee, Ministry of TAI, Statistical Committee, Ministry of Environment, communities).

o Water legislation (Water Code Law on Fundamental Provisions of the National Water Program, Law on National Water Program) does not effectively integrate CC mitigation and adaptation concepts. No incentives are envisaged for encouraging and/or obliging efficient irrigation and water use technologies, and water reuse. Cooperation of multiple agencies (Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), Water Committee, Ministry of TAI, Ministry of Environment) is needed for better alignment of water legislation with CC mitigation and adaptation needs. • There is lack of high quality, timely and user-friendly data available to policy makers, Extension service providers, agricultural consultants and farmers. This is critical for effective planning and decision making, monitoring and control of CC mitigation and adaptation by public and private stakeholders. Legislation needs further enhancement to establish clear and enforceable practical requirements, standards and procedures for effective collection, processing and dissemination of up-to-date climate change-related indicators on soil and water conditions, pests and diseases, resource-use efficiency, and weather forecast and natural disaster risk management. To this end: o Agrochemical maps of Armenia are outdated and need to be updated, based on soil analysis (Government Decree No 1371-A, 5 December, 2013, and No 442-N, 12 April 20102). It is necessary to carry out agrochemical study of lands (incl. lab test of soil and water) for agrochemical maps. o Agri-climatic zoning maps are incomplete, and Cadaster data is outdated. Many land plots are engaged in agricultural production, but still mapped as non-agricultural land.

o The agricultural plants pest distribution maps for Armenia are not available, therefore it is necessary to carry out relevant study in this field to prepare such maps.

o Animal Identification and Registration (AI&R) system (Government Decree No 10, of 13 March 2014) is of profound importance for animal husbandry and food safety. The AI&R program does not integrate effectively the CC risk, mitigation and adaptation issues. It is important to enhance provisions ensuring availability and access the AI&R data is available for various stakeholders directly

12 or indirectly involved in CC mitigation and adaptation activities. o Armenia also lacks administrative registries and a system of farmland, farm and farmer registration. • There is need for strengthening the knowledge and skills among public authorities, in terms of streamlining climate change issues into laws and regulations in agriculture and related sectors. This is important for ensuring that the general and sector-specific legislation can effectively support climate change adaptation strategies and practices such as: altering what is produced; modifying the inputs used for production; adopting new technologies; adjusting management strategies. • There is a need also to enhance the legislation to include effective incentives necessary for promoting investment in research and development (R&D), and extension services related to climate change impact in agriculture, and Climate-Smart Agriculture • Gender equality and ownership rights. The Law on Provision of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, which regulates the issue of ensuring equal rights and equal opportunities to women and men in the fields of politics, public administration, labor and employment, entrepreneurship, health care and education. However, in practice women are not able yet to fully benefit from equal opportunities provided by the law and enjoy gender equality. Especially in the agricultural sector.

3.5 Implementing – CC adaptation institutional issues and recommendations

• Armenia established a dedicated inter-agency climate change institution. Armenia undertook significant reform efforts to develop its institutional base for the effective implementation its commitments under international conventions related to climate change, and sustainable agricultural production, plant protection, and animal husbandry. Armenia participates, through its ministries, in the activities of international institutions governing the implementation of those conventions. The Inter-agency Council on Climate Change was created (in 2012) to coordinate Armenia’s efforts toward climate change mitigation and adaptation. The Climate Change Information Center was established in 1997 under a UNDP/GEF Project. It aims at strengthening the climate change-related information exchange and ensuring transparency in the context of obligations of the Ministry of Environment as a UNFCCC coordinating entity in Armenia. • Armenia joined the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI). The EITI is a global Standard to promote the open and accountable management of natural resources such as oil, gas, metals and minerals. Countries implementing EITI are guided by the EITI Standard that requires that countries disclose the complete information on the value chain of the mining industry. Armenia's first Validation process was started on 9 September, 2019. The EITI is related to agriculture and climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture in a number of ways, since mining directly affects the land use (sometimes causing destruction of agricultural land, deforestation), and may cause soil, water and air degradation and pollution. • CC mitigation and adaptation functions not yet effectively integrated into the institutional setting. A number of institutions are in place to support the improvement of agricultural productivity and the promotion of sustainable farming practices in agriculture. However, overall, the climate change aspect, including the functions related to climate change mitigation and adaptation in the agriculture sector, still need significant enhancement and better integration into the institutional framework. This relates not only to agriculture related agencies, such as the Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), but also other agencies relevant to monitoring climate change and its impact on agriculture, sustainable use of agricultural resources (land, water, biodiversity, etc.), and introduction and promotion of climate smart technologies and practices. There are institutional gaps in terms of effective inter-agency coordination and cooperation, since climate change mitigation and adaptation require mainstreaming climate change issues into sector specific strategies and policies, and concerted action by all relevant agencies. Below are some examples:

o Despite the fact that the tasks of the Ministry of TAI are directly and indirectly related to the development of agriculture and may affect climate change mitigation and adaptation, there is little to no focus in its activities on climate change mitigation and adaptation issues. There are no effective mechanisms for climate-smart management of pastures and forage lands.

o There is confusion and overlap between functions of the FS Department of the MoE and the Food 13 safety Inspection (earlier called State Service for Food Safety (SSFS)). This results in inefficiencies in designing policies and regulations in climate change mitigation and adaptation issues, as well as other cross-cutting issues in the sector of food industry, food production, food safety and food security. o Communities are responsible for the maintenance and allocation (renting, and sale) of land for agricultural and other purposes, and need considerable improvement of capacity in terms of knowledge about Climate-Smart Agriculture and sustainable pasture management. o The functions the Phytosanitary Department do not include explicit provisions on climate change and impacts of climate change. It is important that the scope of the functions of the Department of Phytosanitary include an examination of the impact of the global climate change on the development of harmful organisms and plant health, and these impacts must be taken into account during development of public policy or targeted plant protection programs on risks mitigation.

o The recently established Center for Agricultural Services (CAS), is responsible for the control of the epidemic situation via regular vaccination of animals; laboratory control to determine the quality and quantity of residual fertilizers in plant products; and animal identification and registration. The CAS needs to strengthening the capacity of its personnel in general, and, particularly on CC mitigation and adaptation issues. In the framework of implementation of the AI&R system, it is critical to cooperate with CAS to collect proper specific data and information through AniPas System, to support CC mitigation and adaptation activities. • Armenia needs significant capacity building for effective mainstreaming of CC adaptation. There is a need to design and provide special training programs for public officials, including local community officials about mainstreaming climate change mitigation and adaptation into development strategies, policies and programs and agriculture (and related, i.e. water, infrastructure, pasture management, soil management, HydroMet, disaster and emergency management, etc.) sector specific policies. • Establish a national CSA committee with all stakeholders, including farmers (gender inclusive); and establish regional CSA committees for development and implementation of regional plans. • The agri-climatic zoning and agri-chemical mapping capacities need enhancement. Agr-chemical maps and agri-climatic zoning maps of Armenia are incomplete and/or outdated and need to be updated. For this, there is a need to strengthen capacities of the Ministry of Agriculture, Agrochemical Service Agency, Cadaster Committee, and other agencies (soil testing capacity, GIS technology, drones, satellite imaging, land plot identification and registration system, etc.). In addition, it is important to enhance the methodology for land classification and zoning. Create effective platform for cooperation between agencies in designing and updating agri-climatic maps, and ensuring access to data for relevant public and private stakeholders, including local communities. • The Hydro-Meteorological monitoring and forecasting capacity (HM Agency) has been improved notably, but needs further enhancement to better reflect climate change impacts and support climate change adaptation in agriculture. This relates particularly, to (i) enlarging and improving the network of hydro-meteorological station across Armenia; (ii) making available climate change and agriculture toolkits and data portals or early warning systems) for Extension staff and farmers (in each province and community), linked to the general system and weather forecast communities; (iii) linking modern meteorological stations located on private farms to the general system , to get access to data from those stations; (iv) Creation of mobile meteorological stations to carry out monitoring and analysis, and for dissemination of data. • There is a need for enhancing early-warning systems in a way to provide timely forecasts about the development, migration and outbreaks of the most dangerous harmful pests and diseases for key crops to Extension staff and farmers, based on which they may implement their pest management decisions and activities. At present, the data collection and monitoring of diseases and insect pests relies mainly on a field visit, sampling, and analysis carried out by the plant protection staff, which hinders and slows down the accuracy of early warning analysis. • Research and development works are weak and does not reflect real needs in CC mitigation and adaptation. The main R&D work in agriculture and climate change is carried out by the ANAU and its departments as well as a dozen other scientific institutions under the Ministry of Economy (Agriculture). Research generally focuses on climate change effects on agriculture, i.e. crop productivity, pest and disease situation, etc, if at all. In terms

14 of climate change adaptation, the main focus is on selecting pest, drought and frost resistant crop varieties – but there are little to no field trials of new varieties. Most of the agricultural research conducted in Armenia does not effectively address the real needs of the agricultural sector for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Therefore, the results of research do not find practical application among farmers and/or other stakeholders for climate change adaptation. The results of research work are not readily available for farmers, agricultural service providers, and other stakeholders. In order to remedy this situation, there needs to be much stronger emphasis on. o Training research personnel and specialists on climate change, and Climate-Smart Agriculture. o Improvement of mechanisms of selection of research topics (to be practical and demanded by the market). o Providing funds and support for long-term field trials and evaluation for applied agricultural research related to climate change adaptation, e.g. new varieties, cover crops, soil health, IPM, or infrastructure changes (irrigation or controlled environment agriculture) o Improvement of cross-disciplinary cooperation among research institutions in Armenia and globally. o Enhancement of financing mechanisms for R&D; and creating of fiscal and other incentives to promote R&D by public as well as private institutions o Creation of an online portal in the agricultural department of the MoE, to maintain all the research works and innovative suggestions. The online consultancy section should be coordinated by an independent body – the Ministry - in order not to become an advertisement platform for some project or organization. • Extension services are weak and unable to effectively meet the demand for agricultural consultancy on sustainable agriculture, and CC mitigation and adaptation technologies and practices. Agricultural Support Centers (ASC) in marzes (under the Ministry of Economy (Agriculture)) lack human capacity and technical means to provide high quality and timely advice. ASCs need capacity improvement: o Training personnel and specialists on climate change issues, and Climate-Smart Agriculture technologies and practices; develop a specific CSA curriculum for Extension. o To the possible extent, make design and marketing of Extension services financially viable o Ensure sufficient public financing for carrying out Extension services o Ensure a strong connection between Extension and the applied research taking place at the agricultural university; Armenian Exstein staff should not be supplying corporate information, but supplying non-biased, research-based and updated information to farmers o Establish effective cooperation with private sector service providers. • Armenia’s laboratory and testing/analysis capacity (public and private) has been improved considerably, but there are a number of issues to be addressed urgently. Testing capacity is critical for disease control, animal and plant health, soil and water analysis, and effective animal feeding. All these aspects contribute to effective planning and control of agricultural production, and assessment of CC risks and impact. Armenia needs to increase considerably the number of laboratories to meet the market demand. There is a need for creating a laboratory for certification of organic agriculture. Laboratory management needs improvement: laboratories often run out of testing reagents and other materials due to poor management. Due to the fragmented structure of agriculture in Armenia, there is a need for mobile rapid response laboratories. • The Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), including its agencies responsible for overall agriculture policy design and implementation, need further enhancement of their institutional and human capacity, in a number of aspects, particularly: o Strengthening the knowledge and skills in terms of mainstreaming climate change issues into the strategy and policy design and implementation in agricultural sector. o Improving the provision and dissemination of relevant and up-to-date (and non-biased/research- based) information on resource use efficiency and risk management to help farmers and other private agents make informed investments in adaptation and mitigation measures. o Enhancing Extension and advisory services, and mainstreaming climate change adaptation advisory actions into existing institutions and co-ordinate such actions with the private sector. o Increasing investment in research and development (R&D) by the research university to spur innovation that can improve sustainable productivity growth, not only by state-run agencies but also

15 the private sector. o Improving the infrastructure for more accurate and timely monitoring of weather conditions, soil and water quality, which will help farmers to make more informed decisions and properly adapt to the effects of climate change in agriculture. • It is critical to enhance the knowledge and skills among private sector stakeholders (farmers, agricultural service providers, etc.). To this end it is actions should be taken to promote (i) Climate-Smart Agriculture practices, e.g. IPM practices; use of drought- and heat-resistant species and hybrids; soil agrochemical analyses; change (optimize) fertilizer use; modern irrigation technologies that conserve water, modern plant protection equipment, disease- and pest-resistant crop species, seeds and planting materials, develop and introduce early warning system etc. Farmer Field Schools (FFS) and other participatory approaches may be applied to support farmers in implementing Climate-Smart Agriculture practices.

3.6 Implementing – actions, programs and projects

• Overall, the state support to agriculture is limited, and CC mitigation and adaptation projects are low in scale. State support to agriculture is limited. Total budgetary allocation to agriculture is around USD 10 million. Other than general services in agriculture, the government support is focused on the provision of (i) subsidized loans and leasing for investing in machinery and modern production technologies; (ii) state supply of inputs (seeds, fuel) at low price; (iii) support to the irrigation water system. • Armenia benefited significantly from support from IFI and the donor community to implement projects related to CC mitigation and adaptation, but projects are fragmented and not replicated or scaled up. These projects address a broad set of agriculture and climate change challenges and opportunities and promote the introduction of sustainable and climate-smart practices in agriculture and related areas. In addition to large scale projects financed by the World Bank, IFAD, USAID, the EU, etc. many small- to medium-scale project were implemented with the support of donor of organizations. These projects helped significantly to develop agricultural resource management (e.g. pasture, soil) and infrastructure (irrigation), and demonstrate advanced sustainable technologies and practices. Examples of such projects:

o World Bank’s CARMAC Project to enhance livestock sector in selected communities of Armenia, including the productivity and sustainability of pastures, and participatory community development (in 190 communities). o IFAD projects on infrastructure development and promotion of advanced production practices in various regions of Armenia. o EU ENPARD project to promote agricultural cooperation, the production of higher value crops, and use of modern agricultural production technologies. o FAO projects of emergency assistance, and technical assistance to promote effective and sustainable practices of production. o Identification and implementation of adaptation response to Climate Change impact for Conservation and Sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in arid and semi-arid ecosystem of South Caucasus (2011- 2014), financed by the EU, GIZ, and BMZ, and implemented by Regional environmental center (REC). • Targeted demonstration projects involving Climate-Smart Agriculture technologies and practices may be an effective tool to promote sustainable and CSA technologies and practices (irrigation, variety selection, sustainable use of inputs). For higher effectiveness, practical projects should be combined with R&D from the agricultural university. To this end, effective incentives need to be provided (financial, tax incentives, etc.) to promote R&D in cooperation with the private sector (e.g. to create climate change resistant/adapted varieties, and technologies, IPM, etc.). Such incentives should be provided also to farmers to innovate and introduce CSA tactics and technologies. • Due consideration should be given to integration of climate change mitigation and adaptation concepts into agriculture development programs/projects. Synergies shall be established between projects. For instance: o Organic agriculture, including organic beekeeping can be viewed as a way to enhance climate change adaptation capacity of Armenia. Organic agriculture is in early stage of development. The further enlargement of the sector is constrained by (i) low competitiveness in international markets; (ii) weak

16 marketing strategies; (iii) lack of knowledge and skills; and (iv) high investment and time requirements for organic farming. Armenia should consolidate the strategic and policy efforts at the national level to promote organic agriculture. In addition, consideration shall be given to establish synergies between ongoing, but fragmented donor led efforts to promote organic agriculture. It is important to strengthen farmer capacity and support farmers in the organic certification process, and ensure availability of laboratory and other quality monitoring/control services. o Program on state support to livestock breeding 2019-2024. The Program is to support farmers engaged with pedigree breeding (e.g. interest rate subsidy). However, the Program does not incorporate sustainability and climate change mitigation and adaptation issues. A possible solution could be: (i) the eligibility criteria to include the application of climate-smart practices; (ii) CSA indicators to be achieved by farmers. o Incorporate the concept of “One-Health” in programs to fight against diseases, particularly the program to fight against brucellosis. o Animal Identification and Registration (AI&R) program shall be effectively linked to climate change adaptation activities. Currently, there is no proper coverage of climate change issues and climate change-related initiatives by the Government and donor community. In addition, the program also does not effectively build on the opportunities for interdepartmental cooperation, particularly in the climate change and environmental protection sectors. • To the possible extent, improve the financial viability of Extension services related to CSA. Public financing for Extension services needs to be increased, and the mechanisms of support need to be revised. Extension needs to be trained in effective outreach methods (organizing farmer field days, coffee meetings, or farm visits to share information with groups of farmers). In parallel, the Government may consider creating incentives for farmers to use Extension services (e.g. through subsidizing the services). Farmers are often guided by short-term profit-making strategies and ignore climatic conditions, land specifications and the cultivation requirements of a selected crop. Even large investments may be without relevant knowledge and consultancy. This results in failure because farms selected an incorrect crop variety and/or planted it in an incorrect zone. Farmers usually do not seek agricultural consultancy until they are facing serious risks of failure, when it may be too late. • Universities need timely review of relevant curricula to properly incorporate climate change issues, taking into account the needs in public and private sectors for knowledge and skills in climate change mitigation and adaptation, organic farming, Integrated Pest management (IPM), and Climate-Smart Agriculture. Knowledge and climate smart technology transfer may be facilitated via creating and developing demonstration farms, farmer-field schools, with researchers and the extension service. • Strengthening of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) approaches would support climate adaptation. In general, IPM is not applied in Armenia, and Armenia has not developed an IPM management plan. Policies are needed to promote the use of IPM. The use of IPM by farmers contributes to improving the phytosanitary situation, and reduction in the adverse effects of pesticides on human health and the environment. IPM, as a part of CSA practices, helps to reduce crop vulnerability to pests, diseases, abiotic stresses, and improve the ability to adapt to climate change. The use of IPM may be promoted also by demonstration of the results of successful projects of designing and applying IMP plans. For instance, an FAO ENPARD project (UNJP/ARM/007/UNO) included the development of an IPM plan against grapevine pests for 3 demonstration farms in Tavush marz in 2020. Those farmers who made the best use of the basics of integrated pest management (IPM) such as field monitoring, pest forecasting, recordkeeping, and choosing economically and environmentally sound control measures will be most likely to be successful in dealing with the effects of climate change. • Stronger connections between agriculture and forestry (agroforestry) and agroecology need to be built into strategies and projects in Armenia. Both of these strategies are primary methods of achieving climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector. The forestry sector has traditionally been a strong focus of protection in Armenia, but so far there is no agroforestry plan that could protect forested land but also increase opportunities for agricultural production. Similarly, there has been a strong focus on utilizing an ecosystem- based approach to climate change projects in Armenia, but little focus yet on how agroecology approaches and practices can be strengthened. The two areas could become a strong focus of new government strategies; teaching and research with the agricultural University, and practical donor-led projects in Armenia.

17 • Limited supply of forage/fodder is a key factor constraining the development of the animal husbandry sector, which will be exacerbated with climate change if proper adaptation measures are not taken. Actions shall be undertaken to promote investment and good practices: (i) to improve natural and cultivated forage lands and meadows, and increase the productivity of forage lands and hayfields to mitigate the harm caused by unsustainable grazing; (ii) improve pastures and apply sustainable and climate-smart grazing and pasture management practices – such as using no till or low till and widespread adoption of cover crops (that can also be used for forage. The government can provide incentives or support purchase of cover crop seeds to reduce costs. • Lack of access to water is a critical barrier facing farmers in Armenia. Water losses along distribution channels are huge; and aquifers are being depleted. The situation is not sustainable and will have real, immediate impacts on the sustainability of agriculture and food security. The government needs a long-term concerted effort with multiple stakeholders (farmer groups, water management agencies, Ministry of Environment and Agriculture, and donors) to make real improvements in water availability, conservation methods, distribution, storage and irrigation infrastructure • Soil salination is a serious challenge the Ararat Valley, due to poor irrigation practices and insufficient drainage and soil improvement works. Climate change will exacerbate this problem. An integrated and unified approach is needed for effective recovery and improvement of community owned salinized lands. To this end, a long-term saline land improvement strategy is needed, accompanied with effective state support package (co-financing, other financial incentives) for the improvement of community and private saline lands. Active involvement of communities in soil monitoring and soil situation data collection activities is critical, as well as awareness raising among farmers about rules of agricultural management of salinized lands. • Strengthening the resilience against natural disasters, which will intensify with climate change, shall include both: (i) enhancement of the system of protection against natural disasters, and (ii) learning and using climate- smart practices to increase the resilience of agriculture to natural disasters. More specifically:

o The Concept of preventing damages of natural disasters to agriculture (Government Decree No 15, 13 April, 2017) needs to be effectively translated into a comprehensive set of practical measures with special attention given to climate change adaptation. Some of the ongoing measures/activities need to be scaled up and/or completed, including: (i) the development of the anti-hail system and the state support program to promote the investment in anti-hail nets by private farmers; (ii) the enhancement of the forecasting capacity and information sharing and notification system about hail risks. o These government programs for hail prevention measures need to be extended to drought and flood damage from extreme rainfall events. o For proper development and wider use of windbreaks, it is necessary to (i) design methodological guidelines for windbreak establishment (indicating the minimum size of agricultural lands which should have a windbreak); (ii) prepare maps for windbreak establishment for each community, taking into account historical data, and potential climate change impact; (iii) include windbreak planting in development strategies of communities. • Gender mainstreaming. A large number of projects financed by IFIs and the international donor community, include a gender component and aim at ensuring equality and inclusion of women in agriculture and rural life. In addition to humanitarian assistance to vulnerable groups of women, these projects promoted entrepreneurship among women in rural areas, by providing technical assistance, training, and access to resources (capital, animals, etc.) and markets. The Gender Policy Concept Paper (with its Action Plan) 2019- 2023, to facilitate gender mainstreaming in all spheres of socio-economic life. While these projects contribute to achieving gender equality and promoting women’s active inclusion in agri-food value chains, they remain fragmented and of low-scale for making a transformation in the society and in agriculture. For better gender mainstreaming, Armenia needs to:

o adopt a gender-responsive approach to CSA, to assure gender equality in agriculture o increase capacity to develop and execute gender-responsive policies, implementation plans, and budgets in the agricultural sector o expand and replicate donor-led projects that encourage women’s participation in agribusiness and establish synergies between those projects; in particular, work with the UNDP small grants program, or other initiatives, to provide many small-scale community funded CSA projects for women, that can

18 generate income and be replicated o design tailor-made training courses for women to enhance their knowledge in agriculture and agribusiness.

19 4. AGRICULTURE IN ARMENIA

4.1 Agriculture size, role, and structure Table 2. The role of agriculture, 20182

Total population, million people 3.0 This section discusses key features of agriculture and Rural population, % of total 36.2 climate of Armenia, and climate change and its effect on agriculture. Attention is given also to the effects of Employment in agriculture, % of total 32.2 agriculture on environment and climate. GDP, current international $, billion 12.4 The size and role. Agriculture and rural communities GDP, international $, PPP, billion 30.5 play a very important role in Armenia’s economic and GDP per capita, current international, $ 4,212.1 social life. In 2018, about 37% of Armenia’s population GDP per capita, international $, PPP 10,324.9 lived in rural areas. There are around 230-250,000 households living in villages. Approximately one third Agriculture/GDP, % 13.7 of the county’s total labor force is employed in Agriculture in total export, % 27.9 agriculture. Agriculture in total import, % 17.8 In 2018, the agricultural production of Armenia was $ Average monthly, wage, AMD 166,004* 1.7 billion, accounting for 13.6% of total GDP. Average monthly rate, $ 343.9* Agriculture’s contribution to foreign trade is also Unemployment rate, national estimate, % 20.5* notable - more than the quarter of total exports (~28%), and 18% of imports. See table 2, for more Unemployment rate, ILO estimate, % 19 details. Poverty, national poverty lines, % 23.5 The food security role of agriculture becomes Rural poverty, % 21.3 increasingly important having in mind possible risks Poverty, at $3.2 a day, PPP (2011), % 12.3* due to climate change, and possible reduction of crop yields and impacts to livestock.3 This situation is being exacerbated due to loss of markets and upheavals with supply chains due to the global COVID-19 pandemic (World Food Prize committee). The structure. Armenian agriculture is characterized by a large number of small-scale family farms or, more accurately, rural households involved in farming activities, and a small number of larger corporate farms. The farming (land) structure is very fragmented. There are about 340,000 rural households (land owners), each owning an average of 1.3 ha of agricultural land. Key products. As of 2017, 51.6% and 48.4% of agricultural output was from the crop production and animal husbandry sectors, respectively. The crop production sector includes: . vegetables (tomatoes, carrots, onions, garlic, cabbage, cucumbers, etc.) . fruits and nuts (apricots, peaches, apples, , plums, melons, cherries pomegranates, walnuts, etc.) . grapes (wine and table grapes) . cereals (, corn, , oats) . potatoes . tobacco The animal husbandry sector includes: . Beef (cattle farming for meat) . Dairy (cattle farming for milk) . Pork . Poultry (meat and eggs) . Aquaculture and fish

2 Source: World Bank Data, if not otherwise specified. https://data.worldbank.org/ 3 http://www.fao.org/state-of-food-security-nutrition 20 Key export products and markets. Key exported products include: o Vegetables and fruit (tomatoes, cucumbers, apricots) – fresh and preserved o Alcohol (Armenian brandy (cognac), vodka and wine) o Tobacco products (cigarettes) o Meat (mostly lamb) o Confectionery products (chocolates) The main export market for agricultural products is the Russian market, which receives the lion’s share of export of alcohol, and vegetables and fruits. The key market for lamb is Iran, followed by Qatar. Tobacco products are exported to a wide range of countries, including Middle Eastern countries. Gender issues in agriculture. The gender composition of labor force in agriculture of Armenia is 48% women and 52% men.4

4.2 Resource use and technologies in agriculture Resource use efficiency and effectiveness are critical for the development of sustainable and resilient agriculture in Armenia. Overall, agriculture in Armenia is characterized with inefficient use of precious land and water resources, as well as low use of advanced farming technologies and practices. This makes agriculture more vulnerable to climate change, and leads to low productivity and competitiveness of agricultural production in local markets, and causes negative environmental problems.

Natural resource use in agriculture

Land/soil: There is a scarcity of arable land resources, and, at the same time, a low utilization Agricultural land structure, 2018, 000 ha. Total agricultural land - 2.04 million ha of those scarce resources by the populations. Total area of agricultural land is 2.04 million hectares (figure 3). Arable land covers an area of 446,000 Arable land, 446, ha.5 There have been no significant changes in the Other, 391, 22% structure of agricultural lands for many years. 19% Overall, there is low level of agricultural land Perennial g- utilization in Armenia. Only 32% of total land, 36, 2% agricultural land (including arable land, pastures, Grassland, etc.) is utilized. Utilization of arable land is 79%, 121, 6% while less than 30% the utilized arable land is irrigated (as of 2018). Pastures, 1052, 51% In Armenia, most of the arable crop land and perennial land is privately owned. Over 72.7% of arable land, 93.6% of perennial land (including orchards and vineyards). In contrast, pastures are owned mainly by the state and communities. Only Figure 3. Armenia, agricultural land structure 7.2% of pastures is under private ownership. A number of persistent environmental challenges in Armenia are related to unsustainable crop production and livestock production practices that lead to soil degradation and pollution, and desertification. The main causes of land pollution and degradation in Armenia are unregulated and unsustainable grazing and grassland

4 Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia Employed Population by Major Sectors of Economic Activity, 2018 5 Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia. https://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_booklet_2018.pdf 21 turnover, poor land management, unsustainable crop rotation, inefficient water resource management and irrigation, and deforestation. These practices have resulted in the reduction of organic matter and nutrients in the soil, soil depletion due to changes in its chemical and physical properties, soil instability, and increased soil erosion (figure 4). Soil quality has deteriorated over many decades due to poor crop production and animal husbandry practices. Crop production has negatively affected soil quality through the unsustainable use of fertilizers and pesticides polluting the soil, e.g., excess application of TYPES OF SOIL Mountain-meadow nitrogen fertilizers, and overuse of lower- Meadow-steppe Forest quality pesticides. In parallel, overgrazing Black soil (sheep and cattle) and poor pasture Brown soil Semi-desert gray management have resulted in soil degradation Irrigated-meadow gray Salinized – alkaline and desertification. Rocky soil grounds More than 165,000 hectares of agricultural land has been damaged due to various LAKE LIGHT EROSION RIVER MEDIUM EROSION environmental impacts (erosion from water TOWN HEAVY EROSION BORDER and wind, salination, overhydration, SALINIZED- ALKALINE 6 Institute of Soil Science, Agri-chemistry and desertification, stone and waste pollution), Scale 1:750000 Soil Improvement under the ANAU affecting over 8% of the total 2 million hectares Figure 4. Armenia, Soil erosion. of the country’s agricultural land.7 Source: Center of Soil Science, ANAU Desertification is a key challenge in Armenia, and agricultural activities are among the main contributors to desertification. It is estimated that about 7,233 km2 (25.4 %) of Armenia’s territory are at risk of desertification (according to all parameters of the natural conditions), while an area of 14,519 km2 (50.9 %) is currently in the process of desertification,8 and these processes will be accelerated under the influence of climate change. Desertification processes are not pronounced only within an area of 6,742 km2 (22.6 %).9 Soil salinization. In addition, Armenia faces soil salination problems, especially in the Ararat Valley, due to poor irrigation practices and insufficient drainage and amelioration (soil improvement) works. Salinized soils are concentrated in the land areas where ground waters are allocated at the depth of 0.5-2.5 m. Of the total 81,000 ha of irrigated land in the Ararat Valley, the area of salinized soil is 24,000 ha. Salinized lands may be used for agricultural purposes only after soil improvement activities (with chemical treatment), see table 3. Note that salinized lands are under the ownership of communities.

Table 3. The soil salinization in the Ararat Valley, 201810 Degree of salinization at Degree of alkalization Irrigated Salinized & Province Region 0-1 m depth at 0-1 m depth land alkalized Weak Average Strong Weak Average Armavir 23.74 1.63 0.8 0.55 1.48 0.92 2.97

6 Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia. https://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_book_2017_2.pdf 7 Source: State Cadaster Committee, Armenia, https://www.cadastre.am/storage/files/pages/pg_4062968307_22.pdf 8 In Lori and Tavush marzes on elevations of 900-1000 to 2000-2200 m and in the inner regions on 1500-1600 to 2800-3000m. 9 Source: National Strategy and Action Program to Combat Desertification in Armenia, Ministry of Nature Protection of Armenia, http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/1551885091anapat_eng-1.pdf 10 Source: The use of water from fish farms for irrigation purposes, Center for Environmental Studies NGO, GEF SGP and UNDP, 2017. http://www.sgp.am/res/Publications/LD/Recommendations%20on%20fish-farm%20water%20use%20for%20irrigation.pdf 22 Table 3. The soil salinization in the Ararat Valley, 201810 Degree of salinization at Degree of alkalization Irrigated Salinized & Province Region 0-1 m depth at 0-1 m depth land alkalized Weak Average Strong Weak Average ARMAVIR Edgmiadzin 19.35 1.37 0.27 0.06 0.83 0.19 1.75 Armavir total 43.09 3.0 1.07 0.61 2.31 1.11 4.72 Ararat 15.62 3.26 0.22 0.4 1.22 0.51 3.92 Artashat 13.84 1.0 0.27 0.02 0.9 0.29 1.24 ARARAT Masis 8.37 2.83 0.15 0.16 2.24 0.28 3.17 Total Ararat 37.83 7.09 0.64 0.58 4.43 1.08 8.33 TOTAL ARARAT VALLEY 80.92 10.09 1.71 1.19 6.74 2.19 21.92

Soil erosion. Practices causing soil erosion include: the use of slopes without technical structures, violation of plowing, irrigation rules on slopes, poor condition of irrigation system, vehicle’s regular entry into fields, overgrazing of mountainous and rural areas and irrelevant use of grasslands, absence of crop rotation, violation of sowing structure, agricultural plants consuming nutrients, insufficient or one-sided fertilization, absence of forest melioration activities, unregulated (not sanitary) tree felling, poor social conditions of rural population (especially in mountainous and border areas), etc. Long term observations show, that soil loss because of erosion in mountainous steppe zones of the republic, in the system of wing-plowing, where humus - the most valuable part of the soil is concentrated, annually makes 1.5-24.0 t/ha and more.11 Soil section capacity, the number of humus and main nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) and waterproof aggregates (› 0.25 mm) decreases in parallel with higher soil erosivity, specific and volume weights augment, the overall porosity and available humidity for plants decrease, which results in reduction of agricultural soil types’ productivity. Particularly, the growth of plants is poor on eroded soils, productivity is reduced and products lose their qualitative features. Soil health and quality has also been severely affected by the expansion of infrastructure and mining activities and (often illegal) dumping of chemical waste products, causing soil and water pollution. There is a lack of statistical and analytical data, and understanding about the importance of soil health, soil characteristics and conditions, soil testing, and good soil practices in regions and communities of Armenia.

11 Source: Soil Science center, Armenia. 23 Water/irrigation use is characterized by (i) Box 1. Water stress inefficient use of water resources in crop production and in aquaculture; (ii) high level of Water stress refers to freshwater withdrawal as a water loss due to poor condition of irrigation proportion of available freshwater resources - the ratio infrastructure and inefficiencies in irrigation water between total freshwater withdrawn by major economic management; (iii) low quality of irrigation water sectors and total renewable freshwater resources, after (polluted water with fertilizers, pesticides and taking into account environmental water requirements. dumped wastewater). This indicator is also known as water withdrawal intensity and will measure progress towards Sustainable Despite the reduction of water withdrawals over Development Goal (SDG) Target 6.4. the last decade, Armenia still remains a water- According to the FAO’s methodology, countries are stressed country (see box 1). In 2018, total water classified as “water-stressed” if they withdraw more than 3. withdrawal was 2,714.4 million m The largest 25% of their renewable freshwater resources; share of water withdrawals is attributed to “approaching physical water scarcity” when more than agriculture. Agricultural water withdrawal 60% is withdrawn; and “facing severe physical water (including agriculture, aquaculture and forestry) scarcity” when more than 75% is withdrawn. In 2017, comprises over 83% of total water withdrawal in Armenia withdrew 36.6% of its total freshwater resources, the country, including losses (figure 3), while and the level of water stress in Armenia was 57.43%. drinking water and industrial use accounted for Source: FAO Aquastat. Available at: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/didyouknow/index2.stm 9.6% and 7.3%, respectively.12,13 Due to various inefficiencies with the irrigation infrastructure as well as with the management of irrigation water, water losses in the irrigation system were significant. More than half of irrigation water is lost and does not reach the farmer and the field, while the other half is used inefficiently. In addition to crop production, water use efficiency is affected also by aquaculture - one of Water withdrawal/use, 2018 the most dynamic, developing and export- total 2714.4 m3 million oriented sectors in Armenia. Aquaculture, however, exploits significant amounts of Drinking water, underground freshwater resources. Most of the 260.6, 10% Industrial and fish farms in the country (which are located in the municipal, Ararat Valley) still use underground water with a 198.15, 7% single-pass system, where water is not recycled and is used only once. Aquaculture facilities consume fresh underground water, and often there is competition and even conflict for water use between aquaculture, agriculture and rural Agriculture, aquaculture, 2255.7, 83% community population. In terms of geographic distribution of water use, the largest share of water is consumed in Ararat and Armavir marzes (about 64% of total water use), where Armenia’s crop production is focused. Figure 5. Armenia, water use, 2018 The level of water loss is especially high in Ararat, Kotayq and Armavir marzes, and in city (table 4). By the basin management area, largest losses are seen in basin, followed by and Araratyan water basins (table 5). It is important to note that the cleaned/purified wastewater may become a potential source of irrigation water. According to official information, the volume of discharged waste water in 2018 was over 612 million

12 Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia https://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_book_2017_9.pdf and FAO AQUASTAT: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html 13 Source: FAO AQUASTAT: http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html 24 m3, of which 63.6% was pure according to standards (without purification), while 11% was polluted without purification, and 25.3% was insufficiently purified.14

Table 4. Volume of water use and losses, 2018, million m3 Water of which: by purpose Losses during transit use drinking industry, municipality and agriculture, fish breeding transportation construction and forestry Yerevan city 201.7 29.1 14.9 157.7 235.3 Aragatsotn 61.5 5.7 11.8 44.0 20.9 Ararat 520.4 3.5 4.9 512.0 68.8 Armavir 703.1 89.6 17.8 595.7 132.6 Gegharkunik 30.2 11.1 1.6 17.5 23.6 Lori 18.3 8.9 8.9 0.5 46.2 Kotayk 188.1 12.3 7.6 168.2 141.7 Shirak 63.1 12.1 4.8 46.2 63.9 Syunik 110.8 8.5 67.5 34.8 33.7 Vayots Dzor 16.6 2.8 0.9 12.9 13.6 Tavush 12.7 1.5 0.7 10.5 7.6 TOTAL 1 926.5 185.1 141.4 1 600.0 787.9

Table 5. Volume of water use and losses by the basin management areas, 2018, million m Water use of which: by purpose drinking industry, communal and agriculture, fish breeding Losses during transit construction and forestry transportation Akhuryan 769.5 100.2 20.7 648.6 182.8 Araratyan 237.7 5.7 5.1 226.9 80.0 South 123.6 8.6 77.9 37.1 33.7 North 30.3 9.9 9.6 10.8 53.6 Hrazdan 734.6 49.0 26.6 659.0 415.2 Sevan 30.8 11.7 1.5 17.6 22.6 TOTAL 1 926.5 185.1 141.4 1 600.0 787.9

Use of inputs, technologies, and practices

Machinery and equipment: Agricultural machinery and equipment in Armenia is mostly old and outdated, leading to higher cost of operation, low productivity and food loss. Moreover, old machines are also ineffective in terms of fuel use, resulting in high excessive fuel and air pollution. The dominant form of access to machinery is purchasing such services from owners of agricultural machinery, i.e. outsourcing machinery services. Around 95% of farmers outsource tractor services, and 99% - harvesting machine services15. Only around 5% of farms operate their own cultivating machinery, and 1% - their own

14 Statistical Committee of Armenia, The Environment and Natural Resources of Armenia, 2019. https://www.armstat.am/file/article/eco_book_2018_9.pdf 15 Data from the 2014 agricultural census show forms of access for tractors, combines and a range of tractor-drawn implements. Across all tractor-related operations, 5 % of farmers use their own equipment, 92 % use contractors and 3 % are recorded as “renting” their machines. In practice, it seems extremely rare for someone to rent out a machine for another person to operate, so this rental 25 combines. This percentage includes also large farms (which cultivate large plots of land), meaning that the share of land worked by farmers with their own machines may be considerably higher. According to the administrative statistical register,16 there were 15,239 units of tractors in Armenia, as of January 1, 2017, of which: 1,351 combine harvesters, 6,195 tractor trailers, 2,112 mowers, 421 forage harvesters, 1,738 press pickers, 422 seeders, 1,884 drill seeders, 3,900 plows, 2,316 cultivators. The average operability level of agricultural machinery/equipment is around 79%. Almost 93% of the equipment is more than 20 years old and is morally and physically outdated. The majority of machines and equipment were produced during the Soviet period, between 1976-1991. Less than 1,000 tractors (885 units) of different models of tractors and 116 units of combine harvesters are modern and imported during 1997-2010 from Japan, China, India, mostly with the assistance of international donor community and IFIs. In 2013-2015, in the framework World Bank’s CARMAC17 project, 1,044 units of agricultural machinery were provided to 125 agricultural cooperatives in many communities of Armenia, including 215 tractors, 146 press pickers, and 683 units of other agricultural equipment. In 2017-2018 115 beneficiaries received 245 units of agricultural machinery from within the program if state support (see details about the state program in the section Brief Overview - State Support Policies and Programs). The use of outdated agricultural machinery results in higher costs for repair and maintenance, and, thus, overall higher cost of services. Moreover, the use of outdated and old machinery results in a number of negative impacts on agricultural productivity and the environment, including: o increased fuel-oil costs by 25-35% in automated agricultural activities o increased (multiple times) emissions during agricultural machinery exploitation ((including emissions from sprayers of pesticides), o violation of agrotechnical requirements during cultivation and harvesting, o 50-65% increase of repair and maintenance costs, o 30-45% increase of automated activity (plowing, sowing, cultivation, treatment, harvesting, etc.) costs o 8-12% overall increase of the cost of agricultural produce, which deteriorates the price competitiveness of agricultural produce in the domestic and foreign market. Fertilizer and pesticides: The level of fertilizer use in Armenia, in terms of fertilizer quantity per hectare of arable land, was 110 kg/ha in 2016. This is lower than the average level in world (140 kg/ha in 2016) and in the EU (158.4 ka/ha in 2016). However, fertilizer application by farmers has been unsustainable causing soil pollution. Farmers apply fertilizer without knowledge of the characteristics of the soil. Often only one type of fertilizer (nitrogen fertilizers) is applied every year no consideration being given to the needs of the soil and the cultivated crop. In 2016, the structure of the use of fertilizers in terms of nutrient was as follows: nitrogen 18 (N) – 146,300 tons, phosphate (P2O5) – 324 tons, and potash (K2O)– 915 tons. Armenia imports virtually all of the fertilizer used in agriculture. Until 2018 the market of fertilizer was dominated by a few (or, as argued by some experts, by one importer with a market share of 80%-90%) large importers. After 2018, the market of fertilizers became more open for entry by small traders. Currently organic and mineral fertilizers are imported from Russia, Iran, , Italy, Spain, Israel, India, China, and other countries. This is expected to lead to reduction of fertilizer prices and, hence, to a change in the volume of fertilizer use. There is one organic fertilizer producer in the country – ORWAGO, which produces bio humus and several mixtures on the basis of manure. Pesticide use in Armenia is not high in terms of total volume used, compared to peer countries. In 2017, Armenia used in total around 280 tons of pesticides. For comparison, Austria used 4655 tons of pesticides in 2017, – 543 tons, Belarus – 3558 tons, Cyprus – 1006 tons, Israel – 6093 tons, Lithuania – 2993 tons, Latvia – 1478 tons, Kyrgyzstan – 560 tons, Tajikistan - 265 tons.19 However, the use of pesticides in

category is probably a mixture of contracting and leasing, which is effectively a form of ownership. The quoted figures of 95 % and 99 % are calculated by excluding the ambiguous “renting” category. 16 Of the state inspectorate of agricultural machinery of the Ministry of Agriculture of Armenia. 17 CARMAC stands for Community Agricultural Resource Management and Competitiveness. 18 Source: FASTAT 19 Source: FAOSTAT 26 Armenia is not sustainable due to: (i) high presence of generic pesticides in the market that results in the higher volume of pesticide use and low effectiveness of the pesticides used; (ii) lack of knowledge among farmers about good practices of farming and using pesticides, as well as timely and proper usage, compatibility of pesticides, (iii) the use of outdated application machinery. To implement its commitments under the Stockholm Convention “On persistent organic pollutants” Armenia adopted a number of regulations to prohibit/control the import of certain fertilizers and chemicals containing pollutants. These include the Government Decree No 1030-L, and Government Decree No 30, of 21 April, 2015.20 Ecosystems and biodiversity are affected by: (i) reduction of forest cover and illegal logging that negatively affect biodiversity; (ii) unsustainable use and harvesting of wild herbs, roots, fruits and berries; (iii) improper use or overuse of pesticides and fertilizers to fight against pests and diseases, which contribute to soil degradation and water pollution, and can negatively affect biodiversity through bio-accumulation of chemicals in species.21 Combined with climate change effects, these may result in outbreaks, invasion of new pests and diseases, geographical changes of location of pests and diseases, and damage and/or loss of local agricultural crop varieties. Technologies, practices, and productivity. Low use of advanced technologies, techniques and means of production, lead to low productivity and low quality, and, thus, low competitiveness of agricultural products. Climate-smart agriculture technologies and practices have very limited use among farmers in Armenia. Most of the productivity indicators for livestock, crop, and horticulture production are well below the EU average. The lack of advanced techniques and means of production are primarily due to the (a) lack of knowledge about effective farming and marketing practices among farmers; (b) problems with infrastructure and management institutions (e.g. irrigation infrastructure, slaughterhouses, etc.); c) insufficient research and development necessary for introducing new crop varieties, effective crop and orchard management, animal and farm management, etc.; (d) lack of investments in agricultural production and marketing. Currently, IPM is not applied in Armenia. The IPM is an ecosystem-based approach to crop production and protection, to pest and disease management, that starts with regular pest monitoring and identification at the farm-level.22 It relies on a combination of common-sense practices. IPM programs use current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment. IPM combines different management strategies and practices, to grow healthy crops and minimize the use of pesticides23. In combination with available pest control methods, IPM is used to manage pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment. IPM is one of climate smart agricultural approaches and practices that contribute to climate change adaptation. According to our research, IPM has not been widely adopted in Armenia. Armenia has not developed an IPM management plan. Knowledge and skills, agriculture consultancy. There is serious lack of knowledge among farmers and other participants across virtually all the stages of agri-food supply chain, and low use of modern agricultural methods and digital agriculture toolkit. The current capacity of public extension services and private agricultural consultancy is far from being sufficient for further development of agri-food production. At present, agricultural input suppliers often engage also in agricultural consultancy. In general, input suppliers may become an important agent for dissemination of knowledge among farmers. However, attention should be given to possible negative effects due to conflict of interest, i.e. there are cases when input suppliers, interested in selling more, advise farmers to use more (than necessary) fertilizers and pesticides.

20 https://www.e-draft.am/projects/1246/justification 21 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19957234 22 According to the University of CA, “IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control, habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant varieties. Pesticides are used only after monitoring indicates they are needed according to established guidelines, and treatments are made with the goal of removing only the target organism. Pest control materials are selected and applied in a manner that minimizes risks to human health, beneficial and nontarget organisms, and the environment.” https://www2.ipm.ucanr.edu/What- is-IPM/.

23 http://www.fao.org/agriculture/crops/core-themes/theme/pests/ipm/en/ 27 4.3 Agricultural markets and supply chains

A key problem with the vast number of small-scale farms is the lack of efficient access to markets for their products, and the lack of sufficient processing facilities for dairy or livestock production. Armenian farmers also lose a large percentage of their crops during transportation, due to spoilage from lack of adequate storage facilities, refrigerated trucks, and modern. These challenges with internal and external markets for agricultural products will be exacerbated globally due to the COVID19 pandemic and increasing extreme events due to climate change.

Livestock production

Table 6. Number of cattle, 2018, heads Almost 50% of Armenia’s agricultural gross product is received Cattle Cows from animal husbandry, which includes cattle, sheep, pig, and poultry. TOTAL 590,585 266,815 Yerevan c. 3,342 1,270 Cattle and dairy production and management. Cattle provides 95% of total milk and ~55% of meat production. The main Aragatsotn 68,326 33,300 species of cattle is Brown Caucasian – a milk and beef species, Ararat 41,059 14,489 well adapted to the local climate. It accounts for 93% of the total Armavir 59,974 20,826 number of cattle. Other species farmed in Armenia include Gegharkunik 105,141 49,664 Holstein, Brown Swiss, Simmental, and Black. Cattle breeding is concentrated in Gegharkunik, Shirak, Aragatsotn, and Lori Lori 69,302 34,611 regions of Armenia. Together they roughly account for 57% of Kotayk 54,127 23,955 cattle heads and produce 58% of milk in the country (table 6 and Shirak 91,091 44,326 7).24 Other regions engaged in dairy farming to a lesser degree Syunik 50,182 22,619 are: Armavir, Syunik and Kotayk. In total, there are about 170 medium- and large-size farms, and collective farms engaged in Vayots dzor 18,385 8,253 animal husbandry in Armenia. Tavush 29,656 13,502 In the lowlands of Armenia, cattle are mostly housed in stalls all Table 7. Milk production , 2018, 000’ tons year round, which can lead to heat stress in cattle without TOTAL 697.7 proper cooling or ventilation of barns. In the highlands Yerevan c. 2.7 (mountain and sub-mountain) a free stall housing system is commonly used. In the valleys and foothill zones, cattle Aragatsotn 81.7 production is carried out mainly under a crop-livestock system Ararat 41.1 (e.g., farms produce milk and milk products, and also keep cattle Armavir 46.3 for meat production), combined with use of pastures (in Gegharkunik 125.6 meadows and cropland after the harvest). Lori 84.9 In the mountainous zones, the main production practice is grazing in pastures, using hay and limited quantities of fodder Kotayk 69.1 crops for small-quantity milk production to supplement meat Shirak 110.7 production. During the summer, cattle are grazed in pastures, Syunik 71.0 and during the winter they are kept in stables and fed with hay Vayots dzor 24.5 and some fodder crops. Tavush 40.1

24 Source: National Statistical Committee. Food Security and Poverty 2018. https://www.armstat.am/file/article/f_sec_4_2018_3.pdf 28 Sheep production and management. Sheep production is unevenly spread throughout the country, with the highest number of sheep concentrated in mountainous areas (due to grassland availability). In valleys and foothills, many farmers keep sheep in small- or medium-size flocks, and use pasture grazing. Several endemic species that are exceptionally adapted to the local climatic conditions are successfully breeding in Armenia, such as Mazekh, Bozakh, Gharabahgtsi and Balbas. In addition, other sheep breeds were imported and adapted to Armenia climate, including: the pelt wool breed, the fertile Romanov breed, and the fat-tailed sheep of Edilbaev. The biggest sheep population Figure 7. Cattle production Source: Ministry of Agriculture is raised in Gegharkunik and Syunik marzes, followed by Aragatsotn and Shirak marzes. Pig production and management is dominated by small-size farms. Farms use crops and some pasture grazing for feed. In the Northeastern part of Armenia (Tavush and Lori) pigs are raised mainly in free stall mountain- and forest-based systems. From April until late autumn, they stay in the forests; during this period, they are fed on acorns, crops and berries. In effect, this is an agroforestry practice that is considered one of the most promising agricultural adaptation practices to climate change. Swine breeding is more developed in

Armavir and Ararat marzes. Commercial Figure 6. Sheep and goat production farms mainly raise the Landras, Petren, and Source: Ministry of Agriculture Duroc breeds (used also for commercial cross-breeding). Annual production is around 17-18 thousand tons (live weight). Poultry production and management is one of the most automated branches of animal husbandry in Armenia. At present, there are more than 10 medium- and large-size industrial level poultry (meat and egg) enterprises in the country. The largest egg producing companies are “Araks Poultry” “Lusakert Pedigree Poultry” and “ Pedigree Farm,” jointly producing about 40% of total egg production. “Araks Poultry” is the country’s leading poultry meat producing enterprise. Armenian breeders created a local breed called “Yerevan” with black and white varieties. Figure 8. Pig production Source: Ministry of Agriculture

29 This breed is mostly raised in residential backyards. 650-700 million eggs and 7-8 tons of poultry meat is produced in the country per year. Aquaculture. In 2018, the total fishery production was around 17,400 tons, of which 17,000 tons from aquaculture. In addition to crop farming, the challenge of water use efficiency is also related to aquaculture - one of the dynamically developing and export-oriented sectors in Armenia that exploits significant amounts of underground fresh water resources. Most of the fish farms in the country (which are located in Ararat and Armavir provinces) still use precious underground water with a single-pass system, where water is not Figure 9. Poultry production recycled and is used only once. Aquaculture Source: Ministry of Agriculture facilities consume precious clean water, and often there is competition and even conflict Fish capture and aquaculture, Armenia, tons for water between aquaculture, agriculture and rural community population. The 25000 unsustainable use of precious underground 20000 water causes serious concerns about the long- 8140 25 3758 364 369 term sustainability of the sector. The policy 4795 and procedures of underground water use 15000 4099 17000 16690 limit opportunities for long-term business 16381

10000 861 15130

planning and investment in sustainable 13925 795 technologies (e.g. the short duration of water 11700 617 use permits and cumbersome permit 5000 8850

procedures). In the context of environmental 6300 5000 protection and climate change adaptation, it is 0 important to introduce contemporary 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 production technologies and advanced water- Aquaculture Capture saving and environment-friendly systems in fish farming (for example, using closed or Figure 10. Fish production, Armenia semi-closed water circulation technologies). Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia In 2017, Armenia exported USD 21.7 million and imported USD 8.8 million of fish and fishery products.26 The main export products are fresh fish (mostly trout and sturgeon) and freshwater crayfish. The main export destinations are Russia and the EU market. Exports to the EU consists mostly of crayfish.

25 Gabrielyan, Gagik. 2015. Aquaculture sector review: Armenia (English). Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/933111468186540998/Aquaculture-sector-review-Armenia 26 FAO- Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles/ The Republic of Armenia-Part I. Statistics and main indicators- Country brief (prepared: May 2018) E-link: http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/ARM/en 30 Crop production

The diversity of landscapes and ecosystems in Armenia, along with topographical relief peculiarities, vertical zonation and large number of landscape-climatic zones, contributes to the formation of rich and unique plant diversity.27 Armenia is a globally significant center of origin for agrobiodiversity. On the small territory of the country there are about 3,800 species of vascular plants with notable level of endemism (3.8% of total flora). According to the high density of vascular plants, Armenia is among countries with highest density of species in the world with about 107 species per 1,000 km2. The role of plant protection in Armenia is especially important, as the country has a wide variety of distinct climatic zones, and species of plants and crops concentrated in a small physical area. This wide variety increases species composition, also the size of populations of harmful organisms that cause significant damage to agriculture because of higher probability of outbreaks as well as development of resistance towards pesticides.

Table 8. Areas, yield and gross production of main agricultural temporary and permanent crops Source: Statistical Committee of Armenia Areas (000 ha) Yield (centner/ha) Gross production (000 t) 2017 2018 2019 2017 2018 2019 2017 2018 2019 Sown area, total, of which : 294.5 242.3 227.9 x x x x x x cereals & legumes, 155.2 130.2 121.2 19.8 26.1 16.9 302.5 337.7 198.7 of which wheat 82.4 66.7 59.9 21.8 28.2 19.6 176.4 187.5 112.6 potatoes 25.3 22.1 20.5 214.9 187.3 199.2 547.4 415.1 404.1 vegetables 28.3 21.7 20.6 286.3 258.6 265.0 861.0 628.2 621.6 melons 6.8 4.6 4.3 316.8 276.3 300.6 215.8 126.8 128.0 Fruit and berries 42.3 43.0 43.6 93.5 87.7 76.7 361.6 343.4 290.1 Grape 15.8 16.1 16.3 141.4 120.1 148.0 210.0 179.7 217.4

Horticulture. During the last five years, the area of fruit orchards and berry plantations increased significantly (from 40,000 ha in 2014 to 43,000 ha to 2018). There were over 65,000 farmers engaged in horticulture. More than 80% of perennial crops are irrigated and are based in Ararat, Armavir, Vayots Dzor and Aragatsotn provinces. More than 91% of these farmers had size of less than 1ha. There are a few largest-scale commercial orchards reaching up to 200 ha. In 2018, the production of fruits and berries was 343,400 tons (18% more compared to 2014), table 8. The export of fruits and berries increased by 9 times since 2014. There are a number of challenges faced by traditional horticulture in Armenia, including: • The use of old, outdated agricultural machinery. The use of old large size machines is not practical in orchards. Due to this, works in orchards are carried out mostly manually. • There is lack of knowledge about good/effective farming practices, especially among small size farmers. Due to lack of knowledge the fight against pests and diseases is not effective, and they are widespread in orchards. At the same time, the productivity of horticulture remains low, and the level of commercial production also is low. Viticulture. In 2018, the area under grape was over 16,000 ha – 34% of total area under perennial crops. The volume of grape production reduced by 31% since 2014, however the volume of table grape export increased two times. The largest share (74%) of vineyards are under technical varieties of grape, i.e. wine grapes (of which 88% are under harvest), and 92% of technical vineyards are farmed by natural persons.28

27 http://www.fao.org/armenia/fao-in-armenia/armenia-at-a-glance/en/ 28 K. Turtoy, H. Davtyan, Perennial crops in Armenia, FAO, 2019 31 Organic agriculture: Organic agriculture is important for climate change adaptation, since organic farming is considered to be more resilient to climate change. Organic agriculture in Armenia started to emerge since early 2000s. In 2017, land area under organic crop production was 1,430 ha, while 730 ha was under certifies organic production.29 In 2018, there were around 60 certified crop producers and 7 beekeeping entities.30 There were also about 30 communities engaged in organic gathering activity (as of 2015). The sizes of organic farms varied between 5 ha and 120 ha.31 Key organic products - fresh and canned fruits (apricots, peaches, plums, cherries), juices berries, fresh, canned and frozen vegetables (eggplant, pepper, tomatoes), alfalfa, wheat, mushroom, honey. Main export market for Armenian organic exports are EU countries (Germany, , Hungary, ). As the table shows, organic production in the RA makes 0.05% of overall agricultural production. In Georgia it makes 0.08%, in Iran – 0.09%, and in , which is one of the biggest organic fruit suppliers in the world, the index is 2.16%.

29 Source: FAOSTAT, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/GV 30 Source: Operators register, Ecoglobe, http://ecoglobe.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/List_of_Operators_ENG.pdf 31 Source: Ministry of Agriculture, analysis of the situation, issues and opportunities of the organic market of Armenia. Report of the meeting of the council attached to the Minister o Agriculture, 2 November 2016. 32 5. AGRICULTURE AND CLIMATE CHANGE

Agriculture in Armenia and globally is extremely vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, which will have a significant impact on the selection of crop, production patterns, and productivity in agriculture. At the same time, agricultural itself contributes to climate change, via greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from agricultural practices, and deforestation to clear land for growing crops and raising livestock.

5.1 Impact of climate change on agriculture - global

Climate change creates many challenges to sustaining and enhancing crop productivity, livestock health, and the economic vitality of rural communities both globally and in Armenia. While these changes may vary in severity by region, overall, yields from major crops are expected to decline as a consequence of increases in temperatures and changes in water availability, more extreme events, and disease and pest outbreaks (GCRP, 2018). These are interrelated changes and impacts can be summarized as follows: . Increased temperature. Global warming Box 2. List of climate change effects on pests driven by anthropogenic impacts in 2017

reached about 1°C compared to pre- Climate change impacts on pests (insect and mite pests, industrial levels (IPCC) in the world. pathogens, weeds, etc.) may include: Increased temperature has (direct) effects • Changes in diversity and abundance such as increased heat stress, and changes • Changes in geographical distribution in the length of growing seasons observed • Increased overwintering in many parts of the world. Moreover, • Rapid population growth and no of generations temperature change leads also to: • Changes in synchrony between pests and their host . Changes in Precipitation – long-term crops observations (during 1901-2010) suggest • Introduction of alternative hosts plants • considerable changes in precipitation, Changes in host plant resistance • Changes in pest biotypes with some of the driest areas of the globe • Impact on extinction of species becoming drier, and wet areas becoming • Changes in activity and relative abundance of natural more wet (GCRP, 2018). This affects the enemies availability water resources for irrigation • Increased risk of invasive pest species in agriculture. • Increased risk of pest outbreaks . More extreme events, i.e. hail, floods, • Reduced efficacy of crop protection technologies droughts, winds, freeze events. Scientists • Possible increased use of pesticides also observe an increase in the intensity • Negative environmental and economic impacts for and frequency of extreme weather agriculture and human health. events, including extremes in heat and Source: Pareek, A et al . 2017. Impact of Climate Change on Insect heat waves, an increase in the number of Pests and Their Management Strategies In book: Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture, pp.253-286, New India Publishing heavy precipitation events over a short Agency. Available from: period of time, which often cause https://www.researchgate.net/publication/328476222_Impact_ flooding, and increases in drought and of_Climate_Change_on_Insect_Pests_and_Their_Management_ short-term drought in many areas (GCRP, Strategies 2018). . Pest and disease outbreaks. Plant pests, which include insects, mites, pathogens and weeds etc., continue to be one of the biggest constraints to food and agricultural production. According to the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), between 20 and 40 percent of global crop yields are reduced each year due to damage caused by plant pests (insects and diseases). Climate change creates favorable conditions for plant pests and diseases in new areas as well as changing the way they are transmitted. While there is clear evidence that climate change is altering the distribution of plant pests and diseases, the full effects are difficult to predict. Changes in temperature, moisture and atmospheric gases may impact plant pests, including ecology, spatial distribution, and food chains,

33 and can fuel growth and generation rates of plants, pathogens, mites and insects, altering the interactions between pests, their natural enemies and their hosts. Changes in land cover, such as deforestation or desertification, can make remaining plants increasingly vulnerable to pests and diseases. . Impact on pesticide use. Climatic variation can alter plant resistance to pests, and also pest resistance for pesticides. The key factor for pesticide use is the presence and severity of weeds, pests and diseases in a crop. These organisms are affected by climate change in a similar way as the crops.

Pesticides efficacy may change with increased CO2 and temperature. Climate change will have a significant impact on chemical management either directly or indirectly. Increased spraying frequency could overcome CO2-induced reductions in efficacy but could increase residual effects within the environment32. Climate change will reduce environmental concentrations of pesticides due to a combination of increased volatilization and accelerated degradation, both strongly affected by a high moisture content, elevated temperatures and direct exposure to sunlight. Pesticide dissipation seems also to be benefitted by higher amounts of precipitation. Given the multivariate nature of climate change and nonlinear thresholds in natural processes, it is difficult to consider all the links between climate change and pesticide use. There are six aspects that directly impact a farmer's use of pesticides33. Amongst those six aspects, legislation, the economic situation and technological progress are not directly influenced by climate, while pesticide efficiency, crop characteristics and pest occurrence and severity are directly influenced by climate. . Agri-food supply chains and markets. Climate change is also expected to lead to large-scale shifts in the availability and prices of many agricultural products across the world, with corresponding impacts on countries that export or import agricultural products. These changes threaten future gains in commodity crop production and put rural livelihoods at risk (GCRP, 2018). . Food security. According to the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), between 2013 and 2050, the world’s population will increase by one-third, with most of the additional 2 billion people living in developing countries, and in cities. If the current trends in growth in global income and food consumption continue, FAO estimates that agricultural production will need to increase by 60% by 2050 to satisfy expected demands for food, fiber and feed. Agricultural production must adapt if it is to feed a growing global population, under increasingly difficult conditions brought by climate change (FAO, 2013).

5.2 Impact of climate change on agriculture - Armenia

Armenia faces a number of environmental challenges and is highly vulnerable to climate change. The World Bank data ranks Armenia the fourth most vulnerable in the ECA region, with especially high risks of climate- related natural disasters affecting livelihoods, economic and social sustainability.34 Armenia’s typical climate is a dry highland continental climate, with four distinct seasons. The average annual temperature ranges from -8°C in high-altitude mountainous regions (2,500 m and higher) to 12-14°C in low- traced valleys (Republic of Armenia, 2018). An increase in temperature and a decrease in precipitation will accelerate desertification processes, adversely affecting the development of the crop production sector, including harmful organisms, which are largely dependent on climatic conditions. Climate changes will lead to shifts of the steppe zone 250-300m up to forest ecosystems. At the same time, the movement of the forest zone will lead to a reduction in the area of meadow ecosystems resulting in significant overall changes in the structure of ecosystems. Armenian farmers are already experiencing increased temperatures during the day and night, an increase in more variable precipitation, changes in disease and pest pressure, and more frequent and intense extreme

32 Ziska LH, Faulkner SS, Lydon J. 2004. Changes in biomass and root: shoot ratio of field-grown Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), a noxious, invasive weed, with elevated CO2: impli-cations for control with glyphosate. Weed Sci 52:584–588. 33 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267544278_Literature_review_Impact_of_climate_change_on_pesticide_use 34 https://www.undp.org/content/dam/armenia/docs/CE_ProDoc_Arm_Final.pdf 34 weather events such as floods, drought and untimely frosts (Ahouissoussi, 2014). Specific observed and projected changes are discussed below: Temperature: In Armenia, over recent decades, there has been a significant increase in temperature trends observed. For the period, 1929-1996, temperature increased by 0.4°C; by 0.85°C for the period of 1929-2007; and by 1.23°C for the period of 1929-2016. Temperature will increase in all three agricultural regions in the near future, although uncertainty remains regarding the degree of warming that will occur. Over the next 50 years, the average increase in temperature will be approximately an additional 2.6°C. Temperature related impacts are expected to be particularly severe in the Ararat Valley, due to the fact that temperatures are already relatively high in this area (Ahouissoussi, 2014).

1961-1990թթ 2071-2100թթ.

Figure 11. Armenia average annual temperature(°C) forecasts (METRAS RCP 8.5 model) Source: Armenia’s 4th National Communication on Climate Change (2020)

Precipitation: The average annual precipitation in Armenia is 592 mm. Due to climate change, there has been an observed decrease in precipitation. Observations showed that, in 1935-1996, there was a 6% decrease in annual precipitation; in 1935-2012, it was close to 10%. These changes in precipitation have caused an increase in periods of drought in the country. Projected future changes in precipitation are more uncertain than temperature changes, based on different global GHG emissions scenarios. Average annual precipitation across the country could decrease by a total of 52 mm by the 2040s, under a medium impact scenario, with most of the decreases occurring in the Mountainous agricultural region. Under the High Impact scenario, there is projected to be a 23% decrease in precipitation.

1961-1990թթ. 2071-2100թթ.

Figure 12. Armenia average annual precipitation (mm) forecasts (METRAS RCP8.5model) Source: Armenia’s 4th National Communication on Climate Change (2020)

35 Snowfall plays a major role in the formation of the river flow in Armenia, with an average of 30-60% of the rivers fed in the snowmelt waters. Reduction of snowfall will be more significant in the future (Armenia Fourth NCCC). As a result of the projected temperature increases and intensification of evaporation of moisture from the soil surface, the additional demand for irrigation water will total about 202 million m3 (ROA, 2015). Projections for temperature and precipitation changes are shown in table 9. Average Climate Change Forecasts for Armenia, compared to the Median of 1961-1990 (Armenia Fourth NCCC). Table 9. Average climate change forecasts for Armenia, compared to the median 1961-1990 1961-1990 2011-2040 2041-2070 2071-2100 Altitude, m T, °C P, mm T, °C P, mm T, °C P, mm T, °C P, mm < 800 11.2 467 12.8 452 14.5 439 15.9 426 800 - 1000 10.8 343 12.4 332 14.1 322 15.5 313 1000 - 1500 8.4 502 10 486 11.7 472 13.1 458 1500 - 2000 5.5 592 7.1 573 8.8 557 10.2 540 2000 - 2500 3.3 660 4.9 640 6.6 621 8 603 2500 - 3000 1.6 732 3 713 4.7 692 6.1 671 > 3000 -0.7 800 0.9 776 2.6 753 4 731 Armenia 5.5 592 6.9 (+1.4) 576 (-16) 8.6 (+3.1) 560 (-32) 10 (+4.5) 543 (-49)

Extreme Events. Armenian farmers are already experiencing an increase in the number and intensity of extreme weather events due to climate change. On the territory of Armenia from 1975-2016, the number of cumulative cases of extreme hydro-meteorological events observed during 2012 increased by 20% compared to 1961-1990 (Armenia NCCC). Damages caused by such natural disasters are significant. Over the period from 2009-2013, it is estimated that the damage from extreme weather events amounted to AMD 72.71 billion (about USD 177 million). During 2015-2018, the estimated damage from natural disasters was about 67 billion (~USD 140 million) (table 10).35 In the future, projected changes include more frequent and severe Table 10. Damages and compensation due to natural disasters drought, flooding (caused by less Year Damaged Damage rate, Compensation from state frequent, but more intense rainfall area, ha AMD million budget, AMD million events in between the dry periods), hail 2018 14,650 13,386.1 488.2 events, and high summer temperature 2017 15,605 12,206.9 49.3 periods. Climate change could potentially increase the frequency and 2016 23,118 33,568.8 506.6 magnitude of flooding due to extreme 2015 8,768 7,824.7 211.8 rainfall events (Ahouissoussi, 2014).

35 Government N-1717-N, of 28 December 2017, and https://www.e-draft.am/projects/1371/justification.

36

Figure 13. Armenia increase of extreme meteorological phenomena: frostbite, hail, strong winds and heavy rainfall in 1975-2017 Source: Armenia’s 4th National Communication on Climate Change (2020)

As highlighted in the map in figure 2 Armavir, Kotayk, and Vayots Dzor regions are the riskiest ones with regard to natural disasters. It is critical that measures towards climate change adaptation in agriculture are based on the risks and other relevant peculiarities of each region and/or climatic zone of Armenia. Such targeted solutions may help to increase the efficiency of resource use, i.e. achieve better results with smaller investments. Hail, for instance, is a frequent phenomenon in Armenia (happening during March-October in Armenia). Armenia is considered to be one of the most hazardous territories of the world. Hail may have a coverage of 200m-2km Hydro-meteorological stations and monitoring points width, and sometimes – up to 100km. pointsMaximum number of hail days Usually it lasts for 5-10 minutes, in exceptional cases – 1 hour. Every year in Armenia, hail damages 10- 15% of orchards, in some instances causing Figure 14. Hail cases in Armenia up to 80-100% of harvest loss. Around 370 Source: Hydrometeorology and Monitoring Service communities in Armenia are located in areas subject to high risk of hail. Rural communities are especially vulnerable to hail. Among rural communities 15-17% suffer from hail. Income loss to farmers causes by hail is significant. The fruits and vegetables damaged by hail lose significantly its marketability and, hence, the market price. In addition, the recovery of orchards damaged from hail require time (1-2 years) and considerable investments and works (extra pruning, fertilization, other agri-technical works). Droughts. Agriculture in Armenia often suffers from severe droughts, and changes in precipitation level (reduction) and temperature (increase) multiply the risk of droughts. Based on monitoring results, droughts

37 happen once per 2-4 years. Droughts in Armenia usually occur during July-September, though may happen also in spring and fall. The Ararat Valley and other lowland areas (for instance, Tavush and lowlands in Syunik) are more vulnerable to drought due to large number of days in a year with high temperature and warm winds is 120-160. The intensity of occurrence of droughts is as follows: lowland valleys – 92-94%; pre-mountainous regions – 52%; Vayots Dzor and Syunik regions 40-50%. Prolonged drouths due to climate change create serious risks for animal husbandry by negatively affecting grass and forage production. Based on climate change scenario analysis, there will be 4-10% contraction of pastures and grasslands in Armenia, including 19-22% contraction of alpine and sub-alpine pastures. The grassland productivity is estimated to decline by 7-10%, leading to reduction of feed production.36 Spring frost. Early and late spring frosts (damaging saplings, flowers with negative temperature) cause serious damages to crop production in Armenia. In some geographical locations there may be also early fall frosts damaging vegetables, melons, and grapes. Spring and fall frosts are caused by cold winds from the northern regions of Armenia. Frosts take place in low lands where cold and warm air flows meet. More often frosts are observed in lowlands of Armenia, particularly, in the Ararat Valley and its pre-mountainous areas, Tavush, and Syunik lowlands, on average three times per year. In mountainous areas, frosts are rare and do not cause notable damages to agriculture. During recent years, there has been increase in frequency and intensity of frosts. This may be caused by: • Climate change effects, including warm start of spring, which intensifies the movement of water in plants. Thin layer of snow and low level of precipitation in spring. • Poor farming practices. For instance, excessive use of nitrogene fertilizer during vegetation period delays the development of plants, sprouts and buds. Non-irrigation of plants in late fall and early spring. In addition, farmers often establish nurseries without due consideration given to peculiarities of given zones and temperature changes over years. Changes in pests and diseases. Farmers are already experiencing changes in disease and pest pressure due to climate change. Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns have led to the increased incidences of diseases (e.g. powdery muldews), pests and weeds, as well as emergence of new types of pests (e.g. South American moth - Tuta absoluta). The World Bank conducted interviews with farmers in the Martuni mountainous agricultural region in 2012. Farmers reported that disease and pest problems were also increasing, perhaps as a byproduct of climate change that damaged plants, making them more susceptible to attack (Ahouissoussi, 2014). Climate change will led to changes in geographical distribution of pests, so it’s necessary to carry out relevant study in this field and develop agricultural pest distribution maps for Armenia. According to Armenia’s Forest Agency (Hayantar SNCO), there is a tendency of increased spread of forest pests and diseases with years, but no analysis has been performed. Pest and disease control without regular forest-pathological research cannot be preventive or regulated. Appropriate research is needed on a regular basis for their early detection and effective control.

36 Concept of Prevention of Damages to Agriculture Due to Natural Disasters, excerpt from protocol No 15, from the Government Session 13 April, 2017. 38 Desertification. It is well known that the conservation of the biodiversity, climate change and land degradation/desertification are highly correlated processes. There are also two- way strong interactions agriculture and desertification. On the one hand, unsustainable crop cultivation and soil management, as well as poor grazing practices and pasture management increase decertification risks. On the other hand, climate change and desertification result in degradation of agricultural land resources, reduction of agricultural productivity, and pest and disease outbreaks. The vegetation and the diversity of its physical structure contribute to the land preservation and soil formation, as well as regulation of the surface water flow and microclimate and absorption of precipitations by soils providing ecosystem services protection. Moreover, the violation of interdependence of ecosystem services in arid and semiarid areas is one of the key Figure 15. Armenia desertification risk zones Source: National Strategy to Combat Desertification (2014) factors of desertification, when environmentally unacceptable long-term economy of the natural resources (minerals Table 11. Landslide and flood cases, Armenia mining, overgrazing, water and forest 2015 2016 2017 2018 resources overexploitation, etc.) does not Flood 1 7 1 1 correspond to the opportunities providing good ecological conditions of natural Landslide 3 14 4 4 ecosystems and landscapes. Agriculture in Armenia is vulnerable to negative effects of desertification, having in mind the landscape zones in Armenia. Forecasted changes of the vegetation and soil covers, as indicated in the National Strategy to Combat Desrtification, the aridization process in Armenia will continue in coming decades, and resultin desert lanscape will occupy 7%, semi-deserts 20-21%, steppes and dry steppes 30-31%, forests 7-8%, sub-alpine zone 17%, and alpine zone 7% of the total territory. The expansion of arid landscapes is conditioned not only by climate change, but also the growing pressure of the human factor on the natural environment.37

37 Source: National Strategy and Action Program to Combat Desertification in Armenia, Ministry of Nature Protection of Armenia, http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/1551885091anapat_eng-1.pdf 39 Landslides and flood. 38 Around 122,000 ha area is vulnerable to landslide, caused, among others, by heavy rains, water leakages from drinking and irrigation systems, and deforestation. The largest part of landslide areas are located in slopes of river valleys (Debed, Pambak, Hrazdan, Vorotan, Voghchi). Most landslides are associated with human econimic activity. Majority of landslides (90%) occurr at altitude of 2,000-1,500 m and below, while the remaining cases have been recorded at 2,200- 2,400 m. Floods at 2,500-2,600 m are very rare. Landslides are a common phenomenon in rvier valleys. Floods are a serious risk in mountainous areas at medium altitudes. Winds. Strong winds cause damage to agriculture. Damages from strong winds are especially significant in horticulture. The most common feature of wind damage is the drop of fruit, but trees may often also lose a part of their leaves and blossom by the direct effect of the Figure 16. Armenia wind map wind. Hot winds cause flowers, leaves drying Source: Ministry of Emergency Situations and fruits dry and crack. Overall, wind reduces the productivity of orchards and vineyards. In Armenia, the use of windbreaking tree zones is not widespread. A significant part of windbreaking forests were destroyed in 1990s (due to economic hardships after the collapse of ) and not recovered yet. Changes in Seasons. Farmers are already experiencing changes in seasons due to climate change. Increased temperatures and changes in precipitation patterns has led to the shifting of plantings seasons. Particularities of the planning season can change with increased climate variability Figure 17. Armenia effects of climate change on crop yields year to year, making it difficult for farmers Source: Ahouissoussi, 2014 to know exactly when to plant, or which varieties will be most successful. A World Bank study notes, “Generally, farmers have observed the changing climate and have already begun responding. Many have begun planting crops earlier to respond to higher temperatures earlier in the season, moving their crops to higher elevation areas, changing crop rotations, and changing the timing of irrigation.” The World Bank also conducted interviews with farmers in 2012, and they noted that with the crop seasons shifting, farmers can plant earlier, but then these crops are more susceptive to sudden spring freeze events.

38 The measures for addressing landslide issues are defined by the Government Protocol Decree No 22, of 25 May, 2017, on the Plan of Landslide Disaster Management. http://www.mtad.am/u_files/file/Hayecakarger/22-9ardz_voroshum%20(1).pdf

40 Productivity changes. Climate change Table 12. Forecast of changes in wheat yield, % impacts to agriculture are projected to 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 increase in the future and will have widespread effects on the economy and Ararat -4.53 -8.39 -12.23 -16.06 -19.87 rural livelihoods. According to a 2014 Kotayq -5.01 -10.38 -15.71 -17.02 -19.3 World Bank Study, “agriculture is the Vayots Dzor 8.34 7.4 6.47 5.54 4.61 sector that is most sensitive to climate change in most economies. In Armenia, Shirak -5.62 -9.92 -10.19 -12.43 -18.65 however, the risks are even more Gegharqunik -5.98 -11.77 -14.53 -13.25 -19.95 pronounced because the majority of the Lori 3.15 5.34 5.46 7.52 7.52 rural population depends on agriculture for their livelihoods. Climate change threatens to hamper food production and Table 13. Forecast of changes in potato yield, % curb rural incomes (Ahouissoussi, 2014). 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 Increases in temperatures during the Gegharqunik -3.94 -7.01 -10.02 -12.22 -14.21 growing season are projected to cause Kotayq -4.65 -6.55 -9.46 -12.36 -15.27 declines in the productivity of agriculture. Temperature increases will also cause an Shirak -7.55 -10.15 -13.37 -16.22 -20.73 increase in heat waves and heat stress (a Lori -3.19 -7.26 -9.07 -11.64 -13.98 period of unusually hot weather, when Syunik -4.09 -8.29 -10.42 -13.2 -17.74 temperatures are above the historical averages, lasting two or more days), which Table 14. Forecast of changes in grape yield, % can cause stress to agricultural farm 2030 2040 2050 2060 workers, animals and crops. Reductions in Armavir -5 -9.3 -12.5 -19.7 precipitation levels are projected to reduce productivity of irrigated land by Vayots Dzor 5.3 9.1 10 11.8 about 24% (Armenia Fourth NCCC). Ararat -3.7 -5.6 -10.4 -14.8 Other projected changes to agriculture include that the total area of pastures and Armenia landscape zones their productivity by 2030 will be reduced by 4-10%. There will be a 7-10% decrease in the yield of grasses, which in turn will LEGEND State border lead to a decrease in the volume of fodder Cities production. Climate change will cause Main rivers widespread deterioration of agricultural Main lakes, reservoirs lands, and intensification of degradation of natural pastures. And there is projected to be an increase in the spread of diseases and pests of plants and animals, and food safety issues (Armenia Fourth NCCC). Increased in extreme events, such as LANDSCAPE ZONES extreme heat conditions are expected to Pre mountain semi-desert (300-500m) lead to further heat stress for livestock, Semi-desert mountain plain (500-1000m) Low mountain after-forest (400-1000m, and 1900-2100m) which can result in reduced, less certain, Low mountain dry steppe (1000-1600m) and lower quality crop and livestock yields, Low and middle-mountain forest (800-2300m) Middle mountain steppe (1400-2300m) and large economic losses for producers. Middle mountain meadow-steppe (2200-2600m) For the agricultural sector, extreme events High mountain pre-alpine (2400-2800m) High mountain alpine (2800-3400m) such as prolonged drought or floods are High mountain snow (3300-3400m and higher) particularly problematic as they can delay Figure 18. Armenia landscape zones or prevent planting or harvesting, or Source: National Strategy to Combat Desertification (2014) destroy crops (Ahouissoussi, 2014). Unstable weather coupled with heavy

41 storms, strong winds and heavy rains could damage crops, crop yields and reduce yields by 8-14% by 2030 (Armenia Fourth NCCC). Human Impacts. In addition to the ecosystem and agricultural impacts, climate change is already affecting Armenian farmers quite drastically. Cornell University researchers held five focus groups with farmers in January 2020 in different regions of Armenia (, , Norapat, Pokr and ), in order to assess their knowledge of climate change impacts and adaptation. In each one of these group meetings, every farmer group noted that the climate is changing in Armenia, and is a primary factor that is negatively affecting their ability to sustainability produce crops and products. In its climate change strategies and projects to date, the has tended to focus on the biophysical impacts of climate change, and not yet so much on the human effects. But international research shows that it is not possible to effectively address climate change without considering its impacts on humans and their ability to adapt and mitigate. According to a United States National Academy of Sciences report,39 it is critically important to view current biophysical impacts of climate change along with their human impacts and differential vulnerabilities. Are there significant socioeconomic changes unfolding alongside environmental changes that could leave some people or ecosystems with much greater exposure to risk? Do some people or environments cope better with the impacts of climate change than others? The report argues that people and their biophysical environments must be treated as a unit—a coupled human–environment system (Turner et al., 2003b)—rather than as separate systems (NRC, 1992). Thus in the context of this report, it is critical to understand how Armenian farmers are being affected by climate change, what barriers they face to agricultural adaptation, and the needs they have for information, data, and resources). Climate change necessitates that agricultural, ecological, and social systems adapt and mitigate their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions across multiple scales (Adger 2005). Rapid change will be most successful (or only successful) if those stakeholders who are most directly affected are included in the decision-making processes (Prokopy 2015; Howden 2007; Meinke 2006). According to Kelly (2020), Armenian farmers’ climate change knowledge is lacking in comparison to the enormity of the situation facing them (World Bank 2012). Another word for this phenomenon is the adaptation deficit, where low productivity stems from a lack of adaptive capacity to the present climate (World Bank 2012). In the farmer focus groups conducted in 2020, every group discussion identified several key threats to agriculture. All of these threats were either directly related to climate change or exacerbated by climate change, including: 1) lack of water availability, 2) changes in pest incidence 3) labor availability, and 4) access to markets. Farmers are willing to adapt to climate change, and are making some-ad hoc changes, but they are not getting any real training or support from government agencies, research universities, or Extension services to inform them about local climate change impacts, and specific practices they can adapt. A key quote from these group interviews sums up the situation: “I do not know any adaptation techniques; I have to rely on nature and God.” Another farmer noted: “We would like to have more information about how to adapt, how to manage different types of plants and diseases.” (Kelly 2020). This one study points out the critical importance of talking to the primary stakeholder in the agriculture sector: farmers. If Armenia intends to reduce GHG emissions from agriculture, or increase resiliency and adaptation in this sector, it must engage with farmers and farmer associations to understand what information they are really receiving; what the barriers are to adaptation; and their willingness to adopt changes. Without engaging with farmers, it is very unlikely that global or national policies will be implemented effectively at the local level. This report thus encourages ongoing discussion and involvement of farmers in planning strategies and implementing projects. This could be accomplished through the creation of a national CSA committee, and/or regional committees including farmers, to continue to learn about the challenges they are facing and get their input on priorities and needed changes. Extension services and outreach projects need to be based on community-needs, through a two-way information exchange process. Climate change projects or Extension services cannot be “top down”; farmers need to be trained and educated, but they also drive the process of what policies and practices will be effective.

39 https://www.nap.edu/read/12860/chapter/1#ii

42 5.3 Impact of agriculture on climate change

Agriculture is a significant contributor of greenhouse gas emissions globally and can contribute to reducing GHG Armenia GHG, CO2 equivalent, Gg emissions, for example with the carbon sequestration Waste, potential in soils. 622, 6% In 2010, agriculture, forestry, and other land use constituted 24% of global greenhouse gas emissions, with Agriculture, 2296, 23% the majority of GHG emissions coming from agriculture production, cultivation of crops and livestock, and deforestation (FAO 2014). According to Armenia’s Second Biennial report to the Energy, F-gases, 6594, UNFCCC, the country’s GHG profile in 2014 was made up 638, 6% of emissions from the Energy Sector (67.1%); Agriculture 64% (19.6%); Industry (7.5%); and Waste (5.8%). The Industry, 134, 1% percentage of agricultural emissions in the total GHG emissions has been increasing (increased by 73% during

2000-2016), due primarily to the increase in livestock populations and increase in emissions from managed Agriculture GHG, Armenia, 2016, Gg soils and from fertilizer use. Nitrogen dioxide Carbon dioxide (N2O), 3.15, 5% (CO2), 1.03, 1% In 2016, GHG emissions from agricultural activities were 2295.68 Gg of equivalent of carbon dioxide (CO2), accounting for about 23% of total GHG emissions in Armenia. Emissions from agricultural activities include HFC, 0, mostly methane (CH4) from enteric fermentation, and 0% partially from animal manure and burning biomass, and nitrogen dioxide (N2O) from manure management systems and managed soils (use of organic and non- organic fertilizers, cattle urine, and plant residues). Methane (CH4) , Most GHG emission from agricultural activities in 62.77, Armenia are due to: 94% o Methane released from enteric fermentation and partially from animal manure. In Armenia, Figure 19. Armenia GHG emission, 2016 methane (CH4) from the normal digestive processes of animals was 63 Gg in 2016, which made 94% of total GHg emissions from agriculture. o Loss of carbon stored in forests and soils from land-use change and degradation was about 483 Gg CO2e per year in 2016. Another important factor to consider is the emission from agricultural machinery. Most agricultural machines use diesel fuel. Air pollution from agricultural machinery is high due to very old and outdated fleet. IN addition, In Armenia, in practice agricultural machinery is not subjected to control for compliance with technical and environmental requirements.40

40 Control of vehicles is regulated by the Government Decree No 350, of 31 March 2011. However, more often than not this regulation is not effectively applied in relation to agricultural machinery. 43 6. STRATEGY FRAMEWORK

This section includes an analysis of existing agriculture sub-sector strategies, adaptation plans, international adaptation projects and their results, and synergies with the wider national and international strategic frameworks. Attention is given to the integration of climate change adaptation into the sustainable development planning processes, including gender main-streaming in climate change adaptation programs in agriculture. Agriculture Development Strategy 2020-2030 is the overarching strategy document agriculture. It is the Agriculture Development Strategy 2020-2030.41 The strategy is based on seven principles, some of which are directly or indirectly related to climate change mitigation and adaptation: (i) consolidation and enlargement of farm size to ensure viability of agricultural production, (ii) commercialization, (iii) orientation to quality, (iv). youth engagement, (v) diversification and risk management, (vi) climate change adaptation, resistance and environmental sustainability, and (vii) technology-focused modernization. One of the seven principles is about adaptation, resilience and environmental sustainability, and is directly related to climate change, i.e. improve agriculture sector climate change monitoring, promote Climate-Smart Agriculture practices and support dissemination of climate adaptation inputs like drought resistant seeds. However, this approach focuses mainly on monitoring, remote agricultural management practices, as well as water and land resources management. The strategy recognizes the challenge natural disaster risk mitigation, and the stresses the need for enhancing mechanizms for evaluating damages and compensation, introducing agricultural insurance, and giving due attention to potential effects of climate change. Among climate change adaptation measures, the Strategy prioritizes: (i) enhancement and integrated use of data collection and climate forecasting systems, (ii) promotion of investment in natural -disaster protection, particularly in anti-hail protection systems, and (iii) promotion of smart-agriculture approaches, e.g. selection of drought resistant crop varieties. The Strategy promotes the digitalization as a key factor for enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of agricultural production as well as policy design and implementation by the state. Digital solutions include: (i) animal identification and registration (AI&R) system; (ii) pest and disease monitoring; (iii) creation of agricultural maps; (iv) monitoring climate change; (v) monitoring and evaluation of the effectiveness of the government activities. Technology-focused modernization principle emphasizes the importance of investment in agricultural sector digitalization, mechanization/automation, irrigation, the greenhouse sector and post-harvest infrastructure development (e.g., cold chains, modern storage systems), as well as development of the local ecosystem for agriculture technology innovation and regional digital agriculture services leadership.42 Among innovative technologies to be supported by the state, the Strategy prioritizes (i) biotechnology, i.e. creation and/or adoption of climate change resistant varieties; (ii) anti-hail system; (iii) agricultural insurance system; (iv) modern greenhouses; (v) post-harvest technologies (cold-storage); (vi) irrigation technologies; (vii) modern crop production technologies (viii) soil analysis technologies (mobile labs). Limited financial resources planned for the implementation of the strategy may not allow achieving high impact and significant long-lasting effects. Thus, for the starting four years, the budget of the strategy is around USD 43.2 million, i.e. on average USD 10 million per year. This is apparently a low figure for the ambitious reforms and transformation intended in the Strategy. See more details of the Strategy budget in the Annex 1. Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDC) under the UNFCCC Paris Agreement. Internationally, many countries have included agriculture adaptation within their Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDC) under

41 The strategy was approved by the Government Decree No 1886-L, of 19 December, 2019. Before the 2020-2030 Strategy, the overarching strategy document the Agricultural and Rural Sustainable Development Strategy for 2015-2025: the main objectives of which were to promote sector modernization, competitiveness and raising food security level of the country, by creating favorable conditions for businesses in agriculture and through the use of targeted policy levers. 42 https://mineconomy.am/media/10033/Razmavarutyun_Hamarotagir_Angleren.pdf 44 the UNFCCC Paris Agreement. Armenia submitted its first INDC for the Paris Agreement in September, 2015, ahead of COP21.43 In the first NDC, the word “agriculture” appears only twice: 1) in the main sectors included in the mitigation contribution, under waste management (including agriculture waste); and 2) in the list of adaptation actions that will be prioritized. Armenia has not yet submitted a second NDC, although this should be submitted in 2020. The new NDC could include much more details on adaptation in the agriculture sector. National Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) plant. Armenia has not yet developed a national CSA plan, but could do so with the help of international organizations, such as the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The overall objective of a national CSA Plan is to lay out a plan for the country’s agricultural sector to adapt to climate change, and build resilience of agricultural systems, while minimizing emissions for enhanced food and nutritional security and improved livelihoods. The specific objectives are to identify gaps and develop national and sub-national strategies to (i) enhance adaptive capacity and resilience of farmers to the adverse impacts of climate change; (ii) develop mechanisms that minimize greenhouse gas emissions from agricultural production systems; (iii) create an enabling regulatory and institutional framework in Armenia; and (iv) address cross-cutting issues that adversely impact or promote CSA. The development of an CSA plan is critical for practical guidance, and more effective and focused use of resources towards climate change adaptation in agriculture. Armenia Perspective Development Strategy 2014-2025,44 is an overarching national level strategy document, which includes, among others provisions on agriculture development. The APD strategy aims at: (i) the intensification of agriculture through use of modern technologies; (ii) effective integration of rural household farms with the market; (iii) enhancing the labor productivity in agriculture; (iv) promotion of SMEs and high value production. The reduction of agricultural risks (and introduction of agricultural insurance system) is one of main tasks of the strategy. Government Program 2019-2023. The Government’s activities are based on the five-year Government Program 2019-2023, and the corresponding 2019-2023 Action Plan. The Programs includes only general statements related to climate change (Section 4.8 – Environment). According to the Program, “The main task of the environmental management is to minimize the negative impact on the environment – air, climate, water, soil, flora and fauna – and eliminate over-exploitation and illegal use of natural resources, and ensure take preventive measures in these directions”. The Program also defines that one of priority directions in environmental governance is to “…undertake measures towards mitigation of and adaptation to climate change, in compliance with international commitments…” of Armenia. Agriculture Development Strategy 2020-2030. Currently, in agriculture sector the overarching strategy document is the Agriculture Development Strategy 2020-2030.45 The strategy is based on seven key directions or principles, some of which are directly or indirectly related to climate change mitigation and adaptation: (i) Aggregation, (ii) commercialization, (iii) Orientation to quality, (iv). Youth engagement, (v). Diversification and risk management, (vi) Climate change adaptation, resistance and environmental sustainability, (vii) Technology-focused modernization. One of the seven principles is about adaptation, resilience and environmental sustainability, and is directly related to climate change, i.e. improve agriculture sector climate change monitoring, promote Climate-Smart Agriculture practices and support dissemination of climate adaptation inputs like drought resistant seeds. However, this approach focuses mainly on monitoring, remote agricultural management practices, as well as water and land resources management. This principle does not exclude the resistance to the challenges of cattle-breeding and veterinary medicine, but it needs to be clarified and supplemented. Regulations for the strategy implementers, as well as coordinated approaches are lacking. Strategy of Sustainable Agricultural Development for 2010-2020.46 The Strategy for the Sustainable Development of Agriculture for 2010-2020 outlines the main priority directions in plant breeding and plant

43 https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Armenia/1/INDC-Armenia.pdf 44 Government Decree No 442, of 27 March, 2014. 45 The strategy was approved by the Government Decree No 1886-L, of 19 December, 2019. Before the 2020-2030 Strategy, the overarching strategy document the Agricultural and Rural Sustainable Development Strategy for 2015-2025: the main objectives of which were to promote sector modernization, competitiveness and raising food security level of the country, by creating favorable conditions for businesses in agriculture and through the use of targeted policy levers. 46 https://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?DocID=63109 45 protection development policy as follows: (i) implementation of leading agro-technical technologies, (ii) widespread cultivation of crops that ensure high value addition, (iii) development of selection and seed breeding systems, (iv) the improvement of plant and animal health protection; and (v) improvement and preservation of crop genetic diversity. National strategy and action program to combat desertification in the Republic of Armenia47 It is well known that the conservation of the biodiversity, climate change and land degradation/desertification are highly correlated processes. There are also two-way strong interactions agriculture and desertification. On the one hand, unsustainable crop cultivation and soil management, and poor grazing practices and pasture management increase desertification risks. On the other hand, climate change and desertification result in degradation of agricultural land resources, reduction of productivity, and pest and disease outbreaks. The National Strategy and Action Program to Combat Desertification highlights key challenges for Armenia related to desertification and sets out main directions of the fight against desertification, including:

o accurate estimation of water resources, enhanced efficiency of the use of water resources, and their protection from pollution The Program to Address the Negative impact of COVID-19. The program supports targeted people, companies and entrepreneurs including in the agriculture sector by providing financial support in form of grants and preferential loans. The program is focused on social and economic aspects and has little or no relevance of climate change mitigation and adaptation.

47 Source: Ministry Environment of Armenia, http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/1551885091anapat_eng-1.pdf 46 7. POLICY AND REGULATORY (LEGAL) FRAMEWORK

This section provides a stocktaking and analysis of the legal and institutional framework for the agriculture sector in Armenia, with a focus on deficiencies and barriers to address the impacts of climate change on agriculture.

7.1 Brief overview

The formation of present-day legal and institutional Box 4. Brief plant protection institutional history framework in agriculture started in 1991, after the collapse of the Soviet Union and, together with it, the The studies and works about entomofauna and pest control in Armenia started in 1920, when Department of dismantling of the system of state-owned and state- Plant Protection was established. For decades, extensive run large-scale farms (Kolkhoz and Sovkhoz). To scientific research was carried out in the country, understand the key features and sources of the corresponding infrastructures were created. A cohort of challenges it is important to keep in mind the history over 10,000 high quality plant protection specialists was of legal and institutional development in agriculture formed and worked more than 900 large-scale state- (see the example of the plant protection field in the owned farms (kolkhoz and sovkhoz farms). As a result, box 4). the country managed to secure a stable phytosanitary status. The discussion in this section is focused on legal acts In 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union the plant and provisions that are directly and/or indirectly linked protection situation deteriorated dramatically. The to climate change and its impacts, and climate change dismantling on state-run large farms and privatization of mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. land created a new reality with over 350,000 small At a general level, Armenia undertook considerable subsistence landowners (peasant-farmers). Most of the reform efforts to reflect climate change issues into its previously state-employed agronomists, agro-chemists, legal framework. As noted above, Armenia joined plant protection specialists, and veterinarians left the sector, creating a severe capacity gap which is not filled main international conventions related to climate until today. Until today, the extension system is still change and environmental protection, including underdeveloped and unable to provide effective advice UNCCC, and IPPC. These conventions are part of the and support to farmers. country’s legislation and include commitments, Due to the lack of professional experience and skills, land among others, climate change mitigation and users face significant difficulties in organizing agricultural adaptation. pest management measures. A number of key laws and regulations include As a result of years of uncoordinated and inconsistent phytosanitary and plant protection measures and provisions promoting sustainable agricultural influence of global climate change, a number of crop production, plant protection, and animal husbandry diseases and pests have become widespread (bacterial technologies and practices., including: fire blight, fruit trees scale insects etc.) in Armenia, new - Land Code invasive pests (South American tomato moth, grape - Water Code and Law on National Water Program phylloxera, viral diseases of different crops) have been - Law on Phytosaitary and Law on Flora observed in various areas. Farms face difficulties in plantation and orchard - Law on Veterinary management and suffer from crop losses. There is - Law on Food Safety Control widespread lack of knowledge and skills among small size - Law on Organic Agriculture peasant-farmers. Most farmers are unfamiliar with the - Law on Beekeeping bio-ecological and development features of harmful - Law on Agricultural Machinery Exloitation organisms, and with climate change adaptation - Government Decree No 1477 (28 October 2010) techniques and practices. At the same time, the - Government Decree No 389-N (14 April, 2011) agricultural extension services are unable to provide high - Government Decree No 442-N (12 April 20102) quality and timely advise. Farmers often choose - Government Decree No 1371-A (5 December) inappropriate varieties and hybrids of crops, plant - Government Decree No 15 (13 April, 2017) protection methods and techniques, application rate and time, cultivation technology, which leads to low efficiency - Government Decree No 10 (13 March 2014) of plant protection efforts, and reduced yield and quality - Government Decree, No 6 (15 February, 2018) of crops.

47 Overall, these laws promote sustainable production practices and, in effect, focus on climate change mitigation, while little attention is given to climate change adaptation issues. In addition, there are inefficiencies in translating (or transforming) the strategy or general level provisions into practice of effective climate change impact monitoring, risk assessment, and climate change adaptation measures. The key sources of the challenges in the legal framework include, among others the following. • High level, general provisions on climate change adaptation are often not cascaded down properly to secondary and tertiary legislation (regulations, standards, etc.) necessary for enabling the translation of the high-level principles and objectives into practical implementation. This relates to not only agriculture-related legislation, but also to legislation in other areas relevant to agriculture, environmental protection, climate change, and sustainable use of agricultural resources (land, water, biodiversity, etc.). There are gaps in terms of effective inter-agency coordination and cooperation required for mainstreaming climate change mitigation and adaptation issues into sector specific laws and regulation as well as concerted action by all relevant agencies. • There is need for strengthening the knowledge and skills among public authorities, in terms of streamlining climate change issues into laws and regulations in agriculture and related sectors. This is important for ensuring that the general and sector specific legislation effectively support the climate change adaptation strategies and practices such as: altering what is produced; modifying the inputs used for production; adopting new technologies; adjusting management strategies. • There is lack of high quality, timely and user-friendly data available to policy makers, extension services, consultants and farmers. This is necessary for effective monitoring and control of climate change mitigation and adaptation actions by public and private stake holders, as well as for decision making on adaptation and mitigation measures. It is important to ensure that the legislation establishes practical requirements, standards and procedures for effective collection, processing and dissemination of relevant and up-to-date information in the context of climate change - indicators on soil and water condition, pest and disease situation, resource use efficiency, and natural disaster risk management. • There is a need also to enhance the legislation to include effective incentives necessary for promoting investment in research and development (R&D), and extension services related to climate change impact in agriculture, and climate-smart agriculture. Below is a discussion of details about relevant legislation related to climate-smart agriculture (CSA) pillars (adaptation, productivity and mitigation).

48 7.2 Specific shortcomings and recommendations - legal framework

Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME Crop production: Land Code Agrochemical maps of Armenia are outdated and • Update of the agrochemical maps of • Effective and wide application Land management No 442-N, 12 April need to be updated. It is necessary to carry out Armenia and its provinces. of the practice of carrying oft agrochemical study of agricultural lands (incl. lab comprehensive soil and water 20102 and Government • Assuring high-quality and availability testing) to prepare agrochemical maps. Decree No 1371-A, of 5 for field studies and lab expertise of analysis, December, 2013, on The practice of culture of implementing samples. • The availability of proper improvement of fertile comprehensive water and soil analyses is missing. agrochemical studies of land. • Application of mobile labs for soil layer of soil and Mining development causes considerable risks for and water analysis The analyses will allow to preparation of agri- soil contamination, storage of toxic wastes, water predict possible chemical maps resources contamination, etc. contamination risks and to Government Decree No submit soil quality 1404-N, of 2 November, improvement measures. 2017, on establishing Comprehensive and accurate requirements for maps and data about soil removal norms of lands’ condition are critical for fertile layer and designing effective climate conservation and change mitigation and utilization of removed adaptation policies and fertile layer measures. Crop production: Water Code The concept of climate change and its effects, as Incorporate the climate change • Water legislation is conducive water and irrigation well as climate change mitigation and adaptation (including the climate change to climate change mitigation are is not effectively integrated in the law. mitigation and adaptation) provisions and adaptation Law on Fundamental in the laws. Climate change may result in higher evaporation • Water legislation provides Provisions of and loss of water in the irrigation system. Enhancing the irrigation system (in legal basis for aligning the the National Water secondary and tertiary systems) to water use policy and Program reduce the loss of water, as well as for programs, the data collection,

accurate measurement of water use water measurement, Law on National Water by farmers. processing and dissemination Program with the needs of climate

49 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME change mitigation and adaptation. Crop production: Water Code The provisions on the water reuse (secondary use) Incorporate requirements for efficient Contribute to wider investment Irrigation Tax Code are not clear and complete. Efficient water use water use, and include legal basis for in and use of water efficient and water reuse, is a key measure towards climate incentives for “water reuse” and technologies and practices by change adaptation. Specifically: investment in water saving farmers, including aquaculture. technologies. • The concept of “water reuse” is not clearly Improved adaptation of water defined Incentives may include tax privileges resource use to climate change. for investment of water saving and • Relationships between 1st and 2nd water users water reuse technologies and are not defined practices. • No incentives for encouraging and/or obliging

efficient irrigation and water use technologies, and “water reuse” Crop production: Government Decree No The pasture renting rules and procedures are not • Increase the max. pasture renting Make the pasture use and Pasture management 389-N, 14 April 2011, on conducive to the promotion of good practice, and contract period to 5-year and more management sustainable and procedure relevant monitoring and control tools are weak. (instead of 3-years) resilient to climate change. establishment of Poor pasture management and grazing practices • Introduce clear environment pasture and hayfield are widespread. protection and climate change usage Enhanced monitoring and • In the Decree 389, there are no monitoring mitigation/adaptation requirements control of animal grazing and procedure and sanctions for unsustainable to be followed by renters. For pasture management. Government Decree No practices such as overgrazing, post early spring instance, requirements: (i) to carry

1477, 28 October, 2010, (snowmelt) and late autumn grazing, cattle rotational grazing and prevent on pasture and hayfield grazing in forests. The livestock grazing in overgrazing; (ii) to improve parts of Effective links with AI&R system usage procedure. forests may cause serious environmental, the rented pasture via sowing, will allow mitigating negative climatic risks, as well as threats for cattle health. stone collection, fertilization; (iii) impacts of agriculture on

These issues are urgent, having in mind the application of sustainable practices natural and cultivated forage Government Decree No possible increase of the number of cattle by renters; (iv) taking climate lands and meadows, thus 954-L, 11 June 2020, on (supported by the government). change mitigation and adaptation improve climate change the Animal • The 3-year term is considered to be too short measures. mitigation and adaptation. Identification & for promoting sizable investments in pastures • Enhance monitoring and control Registration (AI&R) and sustainable grazing technologies. provisions: (i) establish compulsory Project monitoring and reporting by the

50 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME • Pasture renting contracts do not include commission of rural and province List of events ensuring requirements for effective pastures municipalities; (ii) link pasture the implementation of management and pasture improvement, monitoring with the AI&R system Government Decree No including soil improvement. • Establish sanctions against 6 of May 16, 2019, • Also, the procedures for granting permissions by unsustainable practices, e.g. Annex No. 1, which communities for pasture use include overgrazing; grazing in forests; post ensures the burdensome elements. early spring (snowmelt) and late implementation of the autumn grazing, etc. • Animal’s movement and mechanisms for grazing RA Government's 2019- control are not reflected in the Cattle • To ban the renting of cloddy, stony, 2023 action plan (point Identification and Registration Project. deteriorated territories and to carry 112.1- Implementation out state-supported soil of cattle breeding improvement activities on plots, or development program to provide them on a long-term in the Republic of basis, in case the renter undertakes Armenia in 2019-2024; soil improvement activities point 112.3- Establishment of • To reduce a wider use of highland Agricultural Animal pastures and their specific load Identification and • To encourage the cultivation of Registration System). irrigable and perennial legumes, which don’t need water, in order to form a sustainable forage stock and to reduce overgrazing. • To test and propose young grass mixture sowing, which is very popular international practice, the caloricity of which is much higher, than that of alfalfa Crop production: Low on Organic The concept of climate change and its effects, Incorporate requirements to consider Due consideration given to Organic farming Agriculture regulations or legal provisions concerning the the influence of climate change on climate change factor when influence of global climate change on plant plant protection (plant immunity) designing and implementing protection issues in organic agriculture, as well as policies and measures in organic plant protection (plant agriculture. Particularly:

51 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME risks mitigation and adaptation are not integrated Articles 8. Basic requirements for immunity) policies and in the law. organic agriculture measures in organic agriculture. Plant protection Law on Phytosanitary The concept of climate change and its effects, as Incorporate a requirement to Pest and disease control Law on Flora well as climate change mitigation and adaptation consider the factor of climate change policies and programs, the data are is not effectively integrated in the law. in plant protection policies and collection, processing and Particularly, the provisions about the functions of measures. Particularly: dissemination and research the authorized body (such as forecasting, Law on Phytosanitary - Articles 4, 12, activities more conducive to diagnosis and prevention of pest and disease and 15 climate change adaptation. outbreaks, risk management, research work, etc.) do not require consideration of climate change. Law on Flora - Article 15 Plant Protection Law on Phytosanitary The concept of climate change and its effects, Incorporate requirements for efficient Higher quality of phytosanitary regulations or provisions concerning the influence phytosanitary risk assessment and risk assessment, analysis and of global climate change on phytosanitary risk analysis and phytosanitary phytosanitary monitoring, with Food Safety Law on State Control of assessment and analysis, phytosanitary monitoring. effective consideration of Food Safety monitoring, are not integrated in the law. Particularly, this includes Articles 5 climate change. Data collection, and 11. processing and dissemination and research activities more conducive to climate change adaptation. Plant protection: Law on Phytosanitary The prevention of the import of foreign varieties Recommendations: This will help to develop and import requirements of flora and fauna to Armenia is focused only on implement preventive Uniform sanitary and o Validation of seed and sapling and quarantine epidemiological and varieties of quarantine significance. It is important quality control and international measures for the import of control of saplings hygienic requirements to continue scientific research concerning all certification standards. those varieties. and seed grains foreign, invasive organisms, to establish a for products subject to Improvement of sapling sanitary and comprehensive list of the most dangerous o varieties and to assess associated risks. certification processes and epidemiological defining of clear function priorities. supervision (control).48 o Clarification of validation Decree of the Head of processes of phytosanitary control the SSFS N 321-N, 1 and international standards. There October 2012, on the List of Plant Quarantine

48 https://ec.europa.eu/food/sites/food/files/safety/docs/ia_eu-ru_sps-req_req_san-epi_chap-2_1_en.pdf 52 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME and Regulated Non- are many valid documents, which Quarantine Pests, 2012. actually are not applied.

Protection against Government Decree No The Concept addresses issues related to • Add provision on more specific • Increased impact of natural natural disasters 15, of 13 April, 2017 on protection against natural disasters, and sets out 9 climate change mitigation and disaster protection the Concept on main directions or approaches for achieving more adaptation actions. This may be measures on climate change prevention of damages, protection against natural disasters. done in a separate legal act aimed mitigation and adaptation. caused to agricultural It includes provisions recognizing the potential at implementation of the Concept. sector by natural effects of climate change on extreme events and disasters on agriculture. However, climate change provisions need further enhancement to include climate change adaptation, and to be more focused on practical climate change adaptation measures.

Animal husbandry: Government Decree No • There is no proper coverage of climate change • Add provisions to expand the scope • Improved access to AI&R data Animal identification 10, of 13 March 2014, risks, mitigation and adaptation issues. of direct and indirect beneficiaries for agencies; better access to on approving the AI&R of the AI&R program who may from database created in AniPas and registration • The program also does not effectively cover program the data generated and maintained (AI&R) include or poorly describes the opportunities for • Enhanced management of interdepartmental cooperation, particularly in in the framework of the program, the AI&R system the climate change and environmental including: • Enhanced AI&R system will - Agencies, departments related to protection sectors. improve animal husbandry climate change and the efficiency of - Private farmers, NGOs, and veterinary activities. agricultural service providers • Establish clear and effective procedures for management, access and use of the data, etc. Animal husbandry: Agro-climatic zoning • Agro-climatic zoning of Armenia is incomplete. • Enhance agro-climatic zoning maps • Agro-climatic zoning and Land use and mapping Cadastre data are outdated. Many land plots of Armenia in terms of accuracy and mapping will become a basis engaged in agricultural production (after including more datils essential for for effective management of

53 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME consolidation of privatized lands), though they agricultural activities and climate natural resources and land are still mapped as non-agricultural lands. change adaptation. This shall use, as well as for CC • Some animal farms are located in areas not include particularly: mitigation and adaptation in Ministry of Economy intended for agricultural use, while others do - update of cadaster maps via agricultural activities.

not have an activity permit or registration. The application of advanced • Mapping of livestock farms, Cadaster Committee same applies to pastures, natural and artificial technologies, including drone identifying their location, as grasslands. systems, satellite images and GIS well as registration of the • Livestock farms carry out ineffective land use systems, lands, anticipated for the and irrelevant organization of agricultural - digitize information concerning animal reproduction, will activities. animal farms, pastures and increase the efficiency of • The last record on perennial nursery surfaces fodder cultivation lands, and agricultural production. has been carried out in 2014, by FAO, and the perennial nurseries • results have been published in 2019. It is To make horticulture and obvious, that there are many inaccuracies in - create and continuously update viticulture more sustainable those data, because the great part of it is based databases of orchard, livestock in regard to CC risks and on cadaster data, which are similarly inaccurate. farms locations, as well as of economically more efficient branches. • Today there are many farms, which have pastures and grasslands. perennial nurseries, but they are registered as - map overused and ineffective hayfields or pastures. Recently, many state- livestock breeding lands. supported orchards have been established, but • to clarify the definition they don’t figure in the register. methodology of agro-climatic zones, • A significant body of improved (meliorated) and taking into account the predicted irrigated agricultural land plots for already 5-10 climate changes and phenological years, but are mapped as non-agricultural lands. data of plants, In addition, with consolidation of privatized lands, many field roads are now used for • to create electronic platform for agricultural production, but are still mapped as methodology and agro-climatic non-agricultural lands. maps • The radius of lands, having primary and Perennial nurseries, orchards and secondary salination, got vaster, and there are vineyards are perfect units to mitigate new hotbeds as a result of irregular irrigation. CC risks, where such agro-technical • Private farms waste their means by cultivating toolkit should be introduced, which plants, which aren’t well suited for the given can assure a long-term output. climatic zone and conditions.

54 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME • Farms carry out ineffective land use and poor organization of agricultural activities. Government Decree, No The strategy does not define clearly the Enhance the monitoring and control Achieve effective monitoring of Food safety: 6, of 15 February, 2018. mechanisms for monitoring (including sampling sections of the strategy, having in pesticides, nitrates, heavy on Approving 2018- and laboratory testing). The implementation of mind the structure of agriculture in metals and GMOs in products Monitoring and 2020 Strategic Program monitoring in Armenia is complicated due to the Armenia, i.e. prevalence of a large of plant origin. control for Monitoring of large number of small farms, the inefficiencies in number of small-size farms. Effective monitoring would Pesticides, Nitrates, market functioning, and limited laboratory A possible mechanism to improve contribute to prevention of soil Ministry of Economy Heavy Metal Residues capacity of the state. monitoring and control may be the and water pollution, food Food Safety and GMOs in Products Armenia lacks capacity to carry out testing and promotion of cooperatives in the safety. Inspectorate of Plant Origin monitoring GMOs. communities, where producers of agricultural products will be able to sell their products together.

Food safety: Technical Regulation on The regulation does not cover the issue of • Add provisions on the requirement • Proper regulation will Monitoring and Requirements for sustainable use of fertilizers and climate change of sustainable use of pesticides and contribute to reducing the control Mineral Fertilizers adaptation. climate change adaptation risks and impacts of fertilizer Government Decree No approaches and practices. use on human health and the Ministry of Economy environment. Food Safety 1692-N, of 18 Inspectorate November, 2004 • Effective use of fertilizers will help to increase productivity and resilience in the context of climate change. • It will contribute to stimulation of green agriculture. Agri-food supply Law on Food Safety The legal and institutional framework in Armenia • Amend the Law on Food Safety and • The traceability of farm chain traceability Government Decree No lack the provisions and capacity to ensure relevant secondary legislation to animals will contribute to the 1315-N, of 12 traceability in the agri-food supply chain. establish effective links between improvement of animal November, 2015, on the AI&R system and food surveillance, and disease Food Safety traceability. control. This is an important Inspectorate FSI factor for climate change

55 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME Establishment the There are no integrated and unified agri-rural, adaptation of the animal requirements for AI&R veterinary, and food processing registers, making husbandry sector. effective tracing impossible. This impacts negatively the animal surveillance, cattle breeding, and food safety. Animal Health & Food Law on Veterinary The Law does not establish an effective Amend the law with a view to From the CC's point of view, it Safety Medicine conceptual framework and rules for the use of introduce effective regulation of the will contribute to climate veterinary medicine (antibiotics, repellents, anti- circulation and use of veterinary change mitigation and parasitic means). Irregular use of medicines medicine. adaptation by enhancing the Ministry of Economy negatively affects both animal and human health. effectiveness of the fight Drugs used in veterinary medicine are transferred against animal diseases, to food, thus deteriorating the safety and quality prevention of the emergence of food. of drug-resistant bacteria and With the irregular use of the drug, drug-resistant organisms. , will improve the mannequins and parasites appear, the fight food safety, and will increase against which becomes ineffective or impossible. the agricultural production by This reduces resilience of animal husbandry to reducing factors that impact possible disease outbreaks that may be caused on climate change. and/or intensified by climate change. The effective regulation & control of the circulation and use of veterinary medicine will improve significantly the health of animals and humans, as well as the quality and safety of food of animal origin.

Crop production: Law on Agricultural The Law does not include environmental It is necessary to improve the These measures will not only Machinery Machinery Exploitation requirements in relation to agricultural machinery requirements and state control of the reduce the quantity of harmful and and exploitation of agricultural machinery. use of agricultural machinery, i.e.: substances emitted in the atmosphere, thus mitigating Around 90% of agricultural machinery in Armenia • Introduce mandatory technical relevant Government pollution of atmosphere, but Decrees is outdated and more than 20 years old. The use checkup. For effective of outdated agricultural machinery leads to: implementation, create mobile will also assure the modernization of vehicle fleet

56 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME • 25-35% increase of fuel-oil expenses technical checkup stations with and improvement of the quality capacity to make technical checkup of agricultural activities. • Many-fold increase of emissions into air for special-purpose and big-sized The number of accidents and • Poor cultivation and harvesting practices, agricultural machinery. emergency cases will decrease • 50-65% increase of repair & maintenance costs • Define normative standards and as well. • 30-45% increase of automated activity (plowing, technical norms for the exploitation sowing, cultivation, treatment, harvesting, etc.) of agricultural machinery. 8-12% increase of agricultural production costs To suggest compulsory filters for old, worn-out machinery, which will reduce the emissions. Agricultural Law on Agricultural Agricultural cooperatives in Armenia cannot Establish special procedures and • Cooperatives will help to cooperation Cooperatives effectively obtain and utilize agricultural loans due requirements for providing loans to improve management of to burdensome collateral requirements and cooperatives. agricultural production, the Cross cutting procedures. In addition, cooperatives often face market functioning. This will Tax Code difficulties in ensuring collateral, because the support the investments in • Revise the Law on Cooperatives and Ministry of Economy assets under cooperatives are often not owned by sustainable technologies and the cooperative, but by communities or donor tax legislation to ensure that the tax practices. This, in turn, will institutions. The assets often are granted with the burden contribute to making the agri- right to use, but not sell or pledge. food supply more sustainable and resilient to climate change. In addition, the law on cooperatives and tax legislation do not provide incentives for formation and development of cooperatives.

Agri-food supply Law on Food Safety There are no sufficient legal and institutional • Establish the procedure for • The traceability of farm chain traceability and a number of capacities to implement good practices such as certification of HACCP system in the animals and food will government decrees HACCP. The mandatory implementation of HACCP, Food Safety Law or in secondary contribute to the increase of though required in the law, has been delayed legislation. food quality and safety. Food Safety Government Decree No several times in the last 10 years. The private • Am end the Law on Food Safety and • Enhanced human and Inspectorate FSI 531-N, of 3 May, 2007, sector also lacks the capacity and incentive to relevant secondary legislation to institutional capacity in food on approving the invest in good practices and technologies. establish effective links between safety.

57 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME schedule for HACCP Effective HACCP certification is not in place. the AI&R system and food • Wider application of HACCP System implementation. traceability. or another food safety system

• Establish special food safety in agri-food enterprises. Government Decree No educational/training courses 71-N, 30 January, 2015, on authorized bodies state control over the compliance of the requirements of the Eurasian Economic Union technical regulations. Decision No 880, of 9 December 2011, of the Customs Union Commission on admitting the regulation of the Customs Union “On Food Safety” (Chapter 3, Article 10). Government Decree No 827-N, of 23 January, 2015, on approving the schedule for HACCP System implementation

Government Decree No 6, of May 16, 2019, actions to implement the 2019-2023 action plan (point 110.2 Improving existing Food Safety legislation)

58 Table 15. Legal framework – issues and recommendations

AREA LEGAL ACT GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED EXPECTED OUTCOME

59 7.3 International conventions

UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Armenia ratified the UNFCCC in 1993 Box 5. International Conventions and the Kyoto Protocol in 2002. The National Climatic change impacts on pests (insect and mite pests, Assembly of the Republic of Armenia ratified the pathogens, weeds, etc.) may include: Paris Agreement (and Doha Amendment to the • UNFCCC: Kyoto Protocol) on February 8, 2017 which came • Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the into force on April 22, 2017. The 2015 Paris Ozone Layer (joined in 1999). Montreal Protocol is a Agreement represents a major step in the global global agreement to protect the Earth’s ozone layer by effort to combat climate change. phasing out the chemicals that deplete it. This phase- Armenia’s obligations under these international out plan includes both the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances, several agreements come from its non-Annex 1 developing of which related to agriculture, such as fumigants and country status under the UNFCCC. The countries refrigerants. position under the Convention and Paris • Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Agreement was formulated in the “Intended Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal Nationally Determined Contributions” (INDC) (joined in 1999). The objective of the Basel Convention which was approved by the Government of is to protect human health and the environment Armenia on September 10, 2015 by Protocol against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. Its Decree N 41-5, and submitted to the UNFCCC on scope of application covers a wide range of wastes September 22, 2015 (ROA, 2018). The Nationally defined as “hazardous wastes” based on their origin Determined Contribution (NDC) serves as the and/or composition and their characteristics, as well as two types of wastes defined as “other wastes” - foundation of the Paris Agreement on climate household waste and incinerator ash. change, outlines the national roadmap for • Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic addressing climate change. Pollutants (joined in 2003) The Stockholm Convention Within the framework of UNFCCC, Armenia on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) is a global prepared and submitted to the UNFCCC Secretariat treaty to protect human health and the environment three National Communications on Climate Change from chemicals that remain intact in the environment (NCCC) and two Biennial Update Reports.49 The for long periods, become widely distributed geographically, accumulate in the fatty tissue of first Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) 50 humans and wildlife, and have harmful impacts on was submitted in 2015. Currently, the fourth human health or on the environment. Numerous NCCC is under preparation. This report benefitted chemicals widely used in the agricultural sector are from the materials and findings of the team regulated under the Stockholm Convention. working on the fourth NCCC. • Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade (joined in 2003). The Other conventions and institutions Rotterdam Convention is a multilateral treaty to In addition to UNFCCC, Armenia joined a wide promote shared responsibilities in relation to import spectrum of international organizations, of hazardous chemicals. conventions and agreements in the field of plant • Minamata Convention on Mercury (joined in 2013). The Minamata Convention is an international treaty and animal health and protection, as well as designed to protect human health and the conventions aimed at control and reduction of environment from anthropogenic emissions and environmental pollution with wastes and releases of mercury and mercury compounds. hazardous chemicals. These conventions directly or indirectly related to climate change mitigation and adaptation agriculture. These include conventions related to controlling and reducing the use and emission of

49 The three National Communications on Climate Change were issued in 1998, 2010, and 2015, respectively, and Biennial Update Reports were submitted in 2015 and 2018, respectively. https://unfccc.int/documents?f%5B0%5D=country%3A1376&search2=&search3=&page=0%2C0%2C0 50 https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/ndcstaging/PublishedDocuments/Armenia%20First/INDC-Armenia.pdf 60 ozone depleting and other hazardous waste into the nature such as: Montreal Protocol,51 Basel Convention,52 Stockholm Convention,53 Rotterdam Convention,54 Minamata Convention on Mercury (see box 3). Armenia a member of the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) aimed at preventing the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products, and to promote appropriate measures for their control. The IPPC extends also to the protection of the environment, i.e. protection of plant health and biodiversity, reduction of pollution of soil and water. Its scope includes pests of plants, i.e. containers, soil, used vehicles and machinery, and packaging material. IPPC includes short- and long-term commitments in the field of phytosanitary and plant protection. Within the framework of IPPC, Armenia committed to make structural and operational/functional enhancement of the national plant protection institution towards the promotion of sustainable agriculture, strengthening of phytosanitary capacity, protection of the environment, forests and biodiversity from plant pests, as well as mitigation of the impact of climate change on plant health. Armenia shall also develop mechanisms and strategies for responding to the impact of global climate change. Armenia is not yet a member of the European and Mediterranean Plant Protection Organization (EPPO), which is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health within the Euro- Mediterranean region55. Its objectives are to protect plants, by developing international strategies against the introduction and spread of pests, which are a threat to agriculture, forestry and the environment, and by promoting safe and effective pest control methods. EPPO promotes the exchange of information between its member countries by maintaining information services and databases on plant pests. EPPO also develops internationally harmonized phytosanitary and other official plant protection measures and, as appropriate, to elaborate standards to that effect. Armenia also is a member of a number of international organizations that directly and/or indirectly regulate and are involved in climate change activities, and setting international rules on sanitary and phytosanitary measures (SPS) and technical barriers to trade (TBT) particularly: . UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) . World Health Organization (since 1992) . World Trade Organization (since 2003) . Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU), since 2015 . Armenia-EU Comprehensive and Enhanced Partnership Agreement (CEPA).

51 https://ozone.unep.org/treaties/montreal-protocol 52 http://www.basel.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/1271/Default.aspx 53 http://www.pops.int/TheConvention/Overview/tabid/3351/Default.aspx 54 https://www.jus.uio.no/lm/hazardous.chemicals.and.pesticides.prior.informed.consent.trade.rotterdam.convention.1998/portrait.a 4.pdf 55 https://www.eppo.int/ 61 7.4 Agricultural resource use/management

Sustainable resource use is critical for climate change adaptation. This includes the use of such resources as arable land, pastures, water, biodiversity, ecosystems. The Land Code. Defines types of lands and the principles and main procedures of land use. In defines the following types of agricultural lands and their uses (Article 20): (i) crop land; (ii) perennial land; (iii) grasslands; (iv) pastures; (v) other. Agricultural land is subject to special protection and cannot be used for other purposes (Article 9). The Land Code principles include: (i) environmental protection, and (ii) protection of soil quality. Ministry of Health Order No 01-N, 25 January, 2010 (sanitary norms No 2.1.7.003-10), which sets the sanitary and hygienic norms for agricultural soil quality, including the requirements for maximum allowed levels of fertilizers and pesticides in soil. The quality of soil is critical for agricultural production. It may be affected by agricultural activity as well as the effects of climate change (precipitation, irrigation, extreme natural events). Government Decree No 389-N, of April 14, 2011, on the rules for the use of pastures and grasslands. The Decree does not include any references to the effects of climate change and climate change mitigation and adaptation. It includes ccriteria for determining the permissible livestock loading norms for the pastures by landscape zones, ranging from semi-desert to high mountain zones, as well as permissible vegetation height thresholds, clear terms and conditions of use. However, the basis of these decisions was not the actual climate change tendency and the actual information generated as a result of actual monitoring, but the norms and procedures directly developed as a result of combing the average of old data of many years. The procedures set out by those decisions did not apply. Firstly, the local self-government bodies were not properly notified, and secondly the activities defined by this procedure are still partially or not implemented at all. Government Decree no 1477, of 28 October, 2010, establishes the procedure for the use of state and community owned pastures and grassland. The main purpose of the regulation is to implement effective and well-grounded management activities for the preservation of natural animal feed areas. It establishes the contracting procedures, the fees for the use of grasslands and pastures (to be equal to the amount of land tax), etc. The maximum duration of a pasture management contract is 3 years. The rate of the fee for using the pasture is equal to the land tax amount applied to the given land plot under the pasture. Pasture Monitoring Manual. In 2014-2015, a new methodology for monitoring pastures in Armenia was developed within the framework of German Agency for International Cooperation(GIZ) and the Strategic Development Agency (SDA) NGO joint project, “Pasture Monitoring Manual, Armenia”, based on the latest technologies. In 2015, the new method of pasture monitoring was introduced to the state bodies regulating the mentioned field and was adopted as a model for pasture assessment and monitoring. Government Decree N 92-N, 25 January, 2005, on Procedure of the Assessment of Impact on Land Caused by Economic Activity. This Decree is related to such activities and impacts, among others, as: o disturbance of the fertile layer of soil, contamination and littering o contamination of soil with radioactive and chemical materials, industrial wastes, wastewaters, pesticides and mineral fertilizers in quantities exceeding acceptable standards, infection parasitic micro-organisms and quarantine organisms, weeds and brushwood

o damage to soil due to non-implementation of mandatory soil improvement and soil protection activities (from floods and wind)

o activities causing land degradation under the influence of water and wind, flooding, salination, solidification and desertification of lands o erosion processes, reduction of the content of organic compounds, and degradation of agricultural lands due to violation of standards of agricultural activities, mandatory measures aimed at land improvement, as well as damage to agricultural lands, decrease of fertility and cadastral value, overgrazing of pastures due to avoidance of agro-technical measures, etc. The impact assessment under the Decree No 92-N is to be used for: (i) calculation of damages caused to land resources due to legal violations; (ii) carrying out environmental impact assessment; (iii) technical and economic evaluation of environmental protection projects.

62 Government Decree No 276-N, 19 February, 2009, on Soil Monitoring Procedures, regulates the soil monitoring procedures for state control purposes, the collection and exchange of information. Soil monitoring includes the collection, processing, evaluation of data on qualitative and quantitative indicators of soil composition and structure (via visual observations, including study of the vertical profile of the soil, instrument measurement and laboratory testing), and maintenance of a database of monitoring results. Water Code … Government Decree No 685, of 8 May 2003, on the Rules of the Use of Water for Purposes of Irrigation, Soil Cleaning and De-Salination, and other Agricultural Purposes. The detailed rules for the use of water for irrigation purposes, and conditions for water use permissions are defined in the Government Decree No 2121, of 26 December, 2002 (Water Code). Law on Seeds. The Law on Seeds regulates seed registration, production and reproduction, certification, storage, transportation and marketing. The Law on Flora covers issues and relationships related to conservation and protection of “the objects of flora from pests, diseases and natural disasters” (Article 15), and indirectly is related to climate change. However, the Law does not include explicit reference to climate change and its potential impact on flora. Article 15 sets out that key tasks of the conservation and protection of flora are: a. To ensure the completeness of the diversity of flora, b. To prevent illegal use of flora objects, c. To ensure compliance with the requirements of nature conservation set out in legislation when exploiting the habitats of flora objects for economic purposes, d. To ensure that the properties of the vegetation related to water holding capacity, soil protection, climate regulation, and recreation remain undamaged e. To prevent the illegal import and export of plants and their reproductive organs, f. To protect the objects of flora from pests, diseases and natural disasters. The Law on Local Self-Government. The powers of the local self-government bodies in the field of veterinary medicine are defined by the Law on Local Self-Government, including the powers of the community head in the field of veterinary and phyto-sanitary. Article 50 of the law stipulates that the head of the community has the authority to be provided with the information on taken veterinary anti-epidemiological activities, identified communicable and non-communicable diseases, as well as to ensure the organization of the veterinary service with the community veterinarian. According to the Land Code, local community authorities have the following important functions related to land management. - develop the basic settlement plans and implement land zoning and use mechanisms within the administrative territory of the community, - based on the community settlement plans, zoning, and the scheme of land use, provide and take away community owned and state-owned lands - manage community lands - carry out registration and classification of land, collection of land taxes and rent for the use of community land; control over use of the land and compliance to the requirements in relation to land use - provide support to state registration of the land; maintenance/protection of the community land - ensure the compliance with and application measures of requirements related to nature protection and historical-cultural norms - implementation of national and regional plans/schemes for the utilization of forestland.

63 7.5 Production technologies and practices

The Law on Organic Agriculture56. The Law regulates the production, preservation, processing, transportation and sale of agricultural products and materials as well as the storage of wild plants, and defines the principles of and legal grounds for the management of organic agriculture, its main circulation demands, directions of state support, and the duties of the authorized body. It covers issues and relationships related to state regulation of the field of organic agriculture, main requirements for organic agriculture, labelling of organic agricultural production, and external goods’ circulation as well as state support in the field of organic agriculture. The Law (Article 8) sets out the following requirements for organic farming methods in the field of production and processing of vegetable agricultural products, as well as in the harvesting of wild plants must comply with the following requirements: 1. Maintenance and increase of soil fertility by means of optimum (favorable) crop rotation, organic fertilization and other natural means, acquisition of manure used for fertilization only from organic agricultural units, elimination of those chemical substances that not included in the catalogues of permitted or partially permitted chemical substances; 2. In organic agriculture, only the use of permitted or partially permitted substances, including fertilizers, substances for improving soil quality, increasing fertility and protecting plants, as well as disinfectants, additives and components used in processing; 3. In the fight against weeds, pests and diseases: a. Selection of disease and pest-resistant types and use of favorable crop rotation, b. Formation of buffer zones between units of organic and traditional agriculture, c. Use of biological and technological methods to fight against pests; 4. In organic plant cultivation, use of seeds obtained by organic production for at least one generation with annual or biennial crops or for at least two growing seasons with perennial crops; 5. Gathering and storage of wild herbs and edible plants may be certified as organic if: a. Substances forbidden in organic agriculture have not been used in the area for 3 years prior to the gathering (storage), b. b. The harvesting does not distort the biodiversity and agro-ecosystems of the area, c. The harvesting of the plants is organized in compliance with the requirements of legal acts that regulate the field and under the supervision of the certification body.

Law on Beekeeping. The law is to govern the beekeeping sector activities, including the breeding of honey bees, bee healthcare and welfare, the use of bees for pollination, beekeeping products. It includes provisions about ecological (green) beekeeping, subject to certification. Law on the use of agricultural machinery. Regulates the use and registration of tractors and other agricultural machinery. The focus of the Law is on the administrative side of vehicle registration. It does not include environmental requirements in relation to agricultural machinery and exploitation of agricultural machinery

7.6 Plant health

The draft National Plant Protection Program, pending adoption, does not include provisions climate change mitigation and adaptation in the phytosanitary field. It gives little consideration to the possible impact of the global climate change on the plant protection and phytosanitary situation in Armenia. There are no provisions related to climate change adaptation and mitigation measures/actions. The Program includes one paragraph

56 https://members.wto.org/crnattachments/2008/tbt/arm/08_2072_00_et.pdf 64 (Chapter 3․4: Priority issues and ways to improve the sector), which explicitly refers to the possible impact of the global climate change on the biological peculiarities of pests in Armenia, and the need and ways to improve the situation. See more details about the draft Program in the section Strategies, Plans, Actions below. The key laws in the field of plant health analyzed in the framework of this task:

o Law on Seeds o Law on Phytosanitary. o Law on Organic Agriculture, o Law on Flora o Law on State Control of Food Safety (FS Control Law) (discussed above) o Selected Government regulations and standards which set out rules for resource use in agriculture The Law on Phytosanitary. It governs the phytosanitary field - establishes mandatory phytosanitary requirements and basic phytosanitary principles in the process of growing, maintaining, transporting or marketing plants, plant products and other regulated items, as well as the responsibilities of natural (physical) and legal persons involved in land cultivation. The Law aims at: o Detection and prevention of penetration and spread of plant quarantine and regulated non- quarantine organisms in Armenia, and corresponding control and inspection, o Ensuring compliance with phytosanitary regulations and rules during production and processing, retail, import, export, re-export and transit of plants, plant products and regulated articles,

o Ensuring timely forecasting, diagnosis and prevention of mass spread and reproduction of harmful organisms of plants,

o Improving the phytosanitary condition of agricultural, ornamental crops, forests, ensuring the exclusion of damage to the environment, flora and fauna. The Law on Phytosanitary (Article 12) covers issues related to “Struggle against quarantine and regulated non- quarantine pests of plants": (i) Implementation of comprehensive measures to control quarantine and regulated non-quarantine pests, (ii) Implementation of control over the maximum permissible residual amounts of pesticides and agrochemicals in soil and plant products, (iii) Phytosanitary control, inspection and examination of plants, plant products and other regulated articles subject to phytosanitary control. Article 15 of the Law on Phytosanitary sets out the key tasks of the “Pest Detection Notification” (notification of international organizations on observation of quarantine pest in the territory of the RA, on measures taken or planned to eliminate the pest or to prevent its spread, on risk analysis in order to determine the need to continue, terminate or modify the measures taken). The Law on Phytosanitary does not include explicit reference or provisions about climate change and its impact on the pest and disease situation in Armenia, phytosanitary sphere vulnerability, risks mitigation and adaptation.

7.7 Animal health

In the animal health area, Anti-epidemiological activities to prevent infectious diseases of animals, including the diseases common for animals and humans are carried out based on the Law on Veterinary Medicine, the Program of Agricultural Animals Vaccination, the Law on State Control of Food Safety, and a number of inter- agency legal acts setting standards and procedures for inter-agency cooperation. There is limited reflection of general nature about climate change, its impact and climate change mitigation and adaptation provisions in the legal and regulatory framework of Armenia on animal health and livestock breeding. In effect, in the fields of animal husbandry and veterinary medicine, there are no regulations on the detection and monitoring of the spread of diseases and change of animal biotypes related to climate change. In addition, the design and implementation of legal and regulatory provisions need significant improvement in terms of cross-sector inter-links and coordination and implementation mechanisms.

65 Law on veterinary and the Program of Agricultural Livestock Vaccination (ALV). The objective of veterinary care includes the prevention of contagious diseases and disease control. The legislation of Armenia, particularly, the Law on Veterinary Care and the ALV Program require the Government (Ministry Economy) to undertake regularly annual measures for preventing infectious animal diseases, including diseases common for animals and humans (zooantroponoze), particularly for the following diseases:

o Brucellosis, Tuberculosis, Anthrax, Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF) of small ruminants, Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), Pasuterellosis, Blackleg, Malaria, Classical Swine Fever (CSF), Newcastle Disease (ND), Varroatosis of the bees. Preventive measures and diagnostic investigations under the ALV Program are to create stable epidemic situation in the country, ensure safety of animal food and raw materials, protect households from infectious diseases common for human and animals, as well as cooperate with respective agencies of foreign countries. In addition to these regular disease prevention and control activities, the Government applies also occasional measures to address issues related to specific diseases and/or specific cases of outbreaks. For instance: the Concept (and Action Plan) for Fighting Against Brucellosis of Agricultural Livestock,57 which highlights the challenges related to Brucellosis and identifies a set of measures to enhance the institutional capacity for effective fight against Brucellosis. The program does not include any explicit reference to climate change mitigation and/or adaptation.

7.8 Food Safety

Climatic change will alter plant resistance for pests but also for pesticides. The key factor for pesticide use is the presence and severity of weeds, pests and diseases in a crop. Thus, climate change will affect the use of pesticides and fertilizers. Increased use of pesticides and fertilizers may cause food safety issues. The Law on Food Safety. The Law on Food Safety sets out the key principles and requirements for ensuring safety of food at all stages of the food supply chain, and mechanisms for food safety control and monitoring in the production facilities and in the market. The Law does not have explicit reference to or a provision about climate change and/or climate change mitigation and adaptation. Among its principles and tasks, the Law on Food Safety aims at ensuring the protection of human health and safety as well as protection of the environment in all stages of the food supply chain (Article 5.2). According to the law, food must be safe for humans and the environment. The Law sets out the legal basis for establishing a data system for registering food producers/operators in a unified registry. The Law on State Control of Food Safety (FS Control Law) is an enabling legal act for proper implementation of the Law on Food Safety. It establishes the principles and mechanisms of phytosanitary and veterinary control, inspection and monitoring by relevant state agencies. The FS Control Law defines the phytosanitary and veterinary rules and establishes the scope of tasks and responsibilities of state agencies in charge of phytosanitary and veterinary control. The FS Control Law does not include explicit reference to climate change and/or climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, the FS Control Law requires relevant state agencies to carry out monitoring (of food safety, quarantine pests, and diseases common to humans and animals) and exchange information about risks and outbreaks of diseases that may harm human, animal and plant health and safety, and to coordinate while fighting against such diseases (Article 5). There is a requirement to publish annual reports on phytosanitary quarantine situation in the country. (Article 11 and Article 12). There is a requirement (in the FS Control Law) on scientific and research institutions to share the results of their food safety related findings with state agencies. The FS Control Law established reference laboratories and their tasks and functions in ensuring the accuracy and high quality of the operation of testing laboratories in the food safety system.

57 Government Protocol Decree No 53, 26 December 2013. 66 The law stipulates a special procedure for carrying out phytosanitary risk assessment and analysis (Article 7), as well as for phytosanitary monitoring (Article 11). According to Article 11, Phytosaniotary monitoring is carried out for each quarantine organism, which is aimed at: (i) determination of the pathway of the pest to enter the territory of Armenia and the ways of its spread in Armenia, (ii) constantly monitoring of the emergence, development and spread of the quarantine pest in Armenia, (iii) identification and evaluation of the factors contributing to the mass development and spread of the quarantine organism through the information obtained from the monitoring results, (iv) determination of the area of distribution of the quarantine pest, (v) preparation of recommendations on measures to combat the quarantine pest, (vi) forecasting of phytosanitary status development, (vii) collection of the necessary information for phytosanitary risk management. Article 12, provides similar provisions on epizootological monitoring.

7.9 Climate data collection and dissemination

The Law on Hydro-meteorological Activities (HM Law). The HM Law sets the legal basis and market environment for the collection, processing and use of hydrometeorological data and information, and for international cooperation. The HM Law established the HM system and HM agency and its key functions. As provided in the Law, hydrometeorological data is considered to be a national data resource (Article 20). The HM Law does not include explicit reference to climate change and/or climate change mitigation and adaptation. However, in the context of agriculture, the hydrometeorological activity, including weather forecast, and data collection about water resources is very important for assessing the impact of and risks associated with climate change, and for managing emergency situations. Under the HM Law, a certain set of hydrometeorological information shall be provided to consumers free of charge (Article 21), including: (i) forecasts and warning about dangerous or unfavorable weather phenomena of urgent and general nature;58 (ii) data and information intended for state agencies. The Law allows also the possibility of the provision of data/information on commercial basis, i.e. data provision for a fee. According to the HM Law, agencies that are involved in the production of information on hydrometeorological phenomena and processes, should comply with specifically defined requirements based on national and international standards. The HM activities shall be based on the following principles (Article 4): - completeness, comprehensiveness and uninterruptedness of HM monitoring - unified technology of monitoring, data collection, analysis, summarization, storage and dissemination - ensuring ecological security, protection of environment and the health of population - compliance and unification (integration) with international HM network - accessibility, transparency, accuracy, and effective use of HM information The main tasks of the Hydro-meteorological Agency are as follows: o collection and storage of accurate data on meteorological situation and radiation 59 o collection of data about water objects (rivers, lakes, dams, canals, underground water, swamps, etc.) o provision of information about meteorological processes and phenomena to public and private stakeholders o warning the public and private entities and the population about dangerous and disastrous weather phenomena (climate and meteorological changes)

o provision of data on meteorological situation to forecasting service agencies

58 The list of such phenomena and data is set out in the Government Decree No 349-N, 18 March, 2004. 59 Hydrological information needed for: (i) meeting the needs of the population and economy for information about changes in the condition of water objects (floods, overflow, etc.); and (ii) studying chronological and spatial regularities in hydrological regime, keeping record about water resources and objects, maintaining water cadaster, assessing the impact of economic activities on water objects and resources. 67

Law of the Republic of Armenia on Agricultural Census. This Law regulates relations on preparation, organization and conduction of agricultural food (crop and livestock products) producer's (agricultural census), processing, summarizing, publishing, storing and use of derived results. The objectives of agricultural census are as follows: collection of information on agriculture structure, agricultural land, machinery, constructions, available resources (human, material) and their use at national, regional (marz) and community level, formation of complete statistical data system on agriculture, formation of statistical register for agricultural holdings, ensuring comparability with international statistical data.

7.10 Disaster and emergency management

Government Decree No 15, of 13 April, 2017 on Measures assuring implementation of preventive concept of damages, caused to agricultural sector by natural disasters. Defines a set of measures aimed at protection against natural disaster. More details on this Decree are provided in the section Strategies, Plans and Actions. Government Decree No 1582-N, of 10 November, 2011, on the system of assessment of damages caused to natural and legal entities by emergencies. According to this regulation, marz authorities and local communities form an evaluation commission to identify the damaged area and the degree of damage. Based on the report prepared by the commission, the Ministry of Economy determined the amount of compensation. Methodological guidance and inter-agency cooperation procedures in emergency situations. There is a broad set of legal inter-agency acts/regulations developed in collaboration with various stakeholders establishing mechanisms and procedures for prompt reaction to new cases of animal and human infectious diseases, enhancement of cooperation and information exchange among various state agencies such as the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Emergency Situations, etc. These include: - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Emergency Situations, Defense, Agriculture, Nature Protection, the Chairman of the State Committee of Water Economy under the Ministry of Territorial Administration, the Head of Police, the Head of the National Security Service on The Methodical Guide for Management of Human and Animal Infectious Disease Outbreaks, of 8 May, 2015 (state registration number - No 10015161). - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Agriculture, Emergency Situations, Nature Protection on the Standard Procedure providing mechanisms and defining processes among the National Coordination Body and the Ministry of Agriculture, the Ministry of Emergency Situations, the Ministry of Nature Protection. - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Agriculture, Emergency Situations on The List of Priority Human and Animal Infectious Diseases. - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Agriculture on The Methodology of Risk Assessment, Management and Reduction of Animal and Human Infectious Diseases. - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Agriculture, Emergency Situations on The Report Form for the Implementation of Exercises. - The joint order of the Ministers of Health, Agriculture on Methodological Guide for Brucellosis Disease Prevention, Epidemiology, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Preventive Measures.

7.11 Gender mainstreaming

The Constitution and the legal framework of Armenia guarantee and promote equality and non‑discrimination on the basis of sex. Women and men are guaranteed equal rights for education, employment, and ownership. The following points outline the national and international instruments for protection of women’s rights and provision of equal opportunities for both women and men:

68 . UN Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women; CEDAW Optional Protocol . Sustainable Development Goal 5 (SDG 5) - Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls . Fourth World Conference on Beijing recommendations . A number of ILO conventions, among them Convention 100 on Remuneration for Male and Female Workers for Work of Equal Value . Article 30 of the , namely provision on equal rights for women and men . The National Action Plan on Improving the Status of women in the Republic of Armenia and Enhancing their Role in the Society (NAP 2004-2010) Key legal acts to that reflect Armenia’s current commitment to gender equality policy include:

o the Gender Policy Concept Paper (with its Action Plan), Government Decree No 1334-L, of 19 September, 2019.60 The mission of the Gender Policy Concept Paper is to facilitate gender mainstreaming in all spheres of socio-economic life and in policies at all levels of government, as a tool for ensuring the sustainable, democratic development of society and for consolidating a democratic, open and just civil society and the rule-of-law State. The Action Plan includes a number of measures to encourage women entrepreneurship in agribusiness and agriculture value chains, enhance women’s’ knowledge and skills, and improve rural women’s access to financial resources, and women’s participation in agricultural cooperatives. Many of these measures are to be implemented in the framework of the World Bank’s CARMAC project. There are no climate change specific measures or targets in the Concept and action Plan. o Law on Provision of Equal Rights and Equal Opportunities for Women and Men, which regulates the issue of ensuring equal rights and equal opportunities to women and men in the fields of politics, public administration, labor and employment, entrepreneurship, health care and education. However, in practice women are not able yet to fully benefit from equal opportunities provided by the law and enjoy gender equality. As indicated in the World Bank’s Country Gender Assessment Report (2016) “There are no legal impediments to opening and owning a business that would affect only women. Landownership and property ownership by women are nonetheless low. While the law gives equal rights to men and women in the ownership and disposal of land and property, as well as in inheritance, women tend to have more limited access production resources and finance. They earn less than men, and thus save less for future investment, and the privatization of land in 1991–92 assigned property to each household head. Women therefore acquired land exclusively in the absence of a man-headed household.61 Moreover, recent qualitative research by the World Bank suggests that, though inheritance rights are equal for sons and daughters, local customs often result in sons inheriting property and money, thus limiting women’s land, business, and capital ownership (Dudwick 2015)”. See more datils on inequalities in the Section 9, Programs and Actions.

60 This Concept and Action Plan is the latest in a series of such action plans adopted by the Government in the recent decade. 61 2012 data on Armenia in SIGI (Social Institutions and Gender Index) (database), Development Centre, OECD, Paris, http://www.genderindex.org/content/team. 69 8. INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK

This section discusses institutional and human capacity in Armenia in the context of effective design and implementation of climate change mitigation and adaptation policies and programs in agriculture. Consideration is given to so called “hard” (physical infrastructure, equipment, etc.) and “soft” (software, procedures, and business processes, databases, etc.) infrastructures necessary for effective policy design and implementation.

8.1 Brief overview

To understand the key features and sources of the challenges it is important to keep in mind the history of institutional development in agriculture and climate change. In Armenia, the formation of present-day institutional setting in agriculture started in 1991, following the collapse of the Soviet Union and with it the system of state-owned and state-run large-scale farms (Kolkhoz and Sovkhoz). For illustration, the box 4 provides a brief historic overview of the development of plant protection institutes in Armenia. Armenia joined the main international conventions related to climate change, and sustainable agricultural production, plant protection, and animal husbandry. In the last two decades the governments undertook significant reform efforts to develop its institutional base for the effective implementation its commitments under those conventions. The Inter-agency Council on Climate Change was created to coordinate Armenia’s efforts toward climate change mitigation and adaptation. The Inter-agency Council on Climate Change chaired by the Ministry of Environment was established in 2012 to coordinate climate change activities and enhance cooperation at the national level. In 2018, Armenia released a Road Map for the Development of Climate Change Related Statistics, addressing statistical measuring of greenhouse gas emissions, their source and impact62. The Climate Change Information Center was established in 1997 under the UNDP/GEF Project "Armenia - Country Study on Climate Change". It aims to strengthen the climate change related information exchange and ensuring transparency in the context of obligations of the Ministry of Environment as a UNFCCC coordinating entity in Armenia. The Project contributes to: • inclusion of climate change issues into social, economic and environmental policies • transfer of technologies • climate change research and systematic observations • climate change adaptation and mitigation analysis • education, training and awareness raising • projects/measures to minimize the negative impacts of climate change on economy, health and environment. In addition, as discussed above, Armenia is a member of various international conventions and participates, through its line ministries, in the activities of international institutions governing the implementation of those conventions. A number of institutions are in place to support the improvement of agricultural productivity and the promotion of sustainable farming practices in agriculture. However, overall, climate change, including the functions related to climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture sector, still need significant enhancement and better integration into the institutional framework. This relates to not only agriculture related agencies, such as the Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), but also other agencies relevant to monitoring climate change and its impact on agriculture, sustainable use of agricultural resources (land, water, biodiversity, etc.), and introduction and promotion of climate-smart technologies and practices. There are institutional gaps in terms of effective inter-agency coordination and cooperation, since climate change

62 https://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats/documents/ece/ces/ge.33/2018/mtg4/S6_5_Armenia.pdf 70 mitigation and adaptation require mainstreaming climate change issues into sector specific strategies and policies, and concerted action by all relevant agencies. The Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), including its agencies responsible for overall agriculture policy design and implementation, need further enhancement of their institutional and human capacity, in a number of aspects, particularly: • Strengthening the knowledge and skills in terms of mainstreaming climate change issues into the strategy and policy design and implementation in agricultural sector. • Improving the provision and dissemination of relevant and up-to-date information on resource use efficiency and risk management to help farmers and other private agents make informed investments in adaptation and mitigation measures. • Enhancing Extension and advisory services, and streamlining the climate change adaptation and mitigation advisory actions into existing institutions and to co-ordinate such actions with the private sector. • Increasing investment in research and development (R&D) to spur innovation that can improve sustainable productivity growth, not only by state-run agencies but also the private sector. • Improving the infrastructure for more accurate and timely monitoring of weather conditions, soil and water quality, which will help farmers to make well informed decisions and properly adapt to the effects of climate change in agriculture. Below is a discussion of details about relevant agencies and their functions whose main activities relate to one, two, or three climate-smart agriculture (CSA) pillars (adaptation, productivity and mitigation). In addition, the chart in the figure 20 below is to provide a bird’s eye view in the institutions and their functions and role in climate change related areas.

71 • Council on CC • Min. Economy o Agri-production • Min. Environment o Plant & Animal Healt o Lead of Council on CC o Env. Protection • Min. Environment CC adaptation o o Env. Protection CC Adaptation • CC Information Center • Min. Environment o o UNDP-GEF • Min. Economy • Min. TAI Min. Environment Fight against o o Agri-production o pests/diseases • Food Safety Service o Plant & Animal Health • Min. Economy Pasture management o Phyto inspection Agri-production • Min. Healthcare o Vet inspection o o Community level o o Plant & Animal Health • Min. Emergency projects o Phyto and Vet Lab CC REGULATIONS & PROGRAMS & CC CONTROL AND CC STRATEGY & POLICY STANDARDS PROJECTS INSPECTION

CLIMATE CHANGE ENVIRONMENT AGRI-FOOD PROCESSORS Temperature Water Precipitation Soil CROP PRODUCERS ANIMAL FARMS Irrigation Air Seasons & zones Biodiversity AGRI-INPUT SUPPLIERS Extreme events Ecosystems Pests & diseases

DATA & FORECAST MONITORING SCIENCE & RESEARCH EXTENSION

• Min. Economy • Min. Environment • Min. Environment • A-University Institutes Marz ASCs National Env. Reports National Env. Reports o Soil institute o o o CARD NCCC report NCCC report o Agro-bio-technology • o o FSCs o Crop gene pool o • Min. Emergency • Min. Emergency o Other o HydroMet Agency o HydroMet Agency • Agriculture Sci. Center Water Committee Water Committee o o • FSRAAS Center • International org-s • Veg. & Melon Center o UN FAO • Cadaster Committee

Figure 20. Armenia Institutions and Functions Related to Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation

The discussion of institutional framework includes not only public authorities, but also private institutions such as farmers associations, private consulting firms, and NGOs.

72 8.2 Specific shortcomings and recommendations – institutional framework

Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Cross cutting Strategy and policy Lack of capacity in phytosanitary and veterinary Design and provide special training Improved quality of strategies Phytosanitary design department/inspection and other relevant agencies program for public officials, including and policies. department, MoE for effective targeting of plant protection programs local community officials about Effective reflection of climate towards climate change mitigation and adaptation. mainstreaming climate change Phytosanitary change mitigation and mitigation and adaptation in adaptation in strategy and inspection, SSFS development strategies and agriculture policy documents with direct Veterinary (and related, i.e. water, infrastructure, and indirect relevance to department, MoE Insufficient coordination among government HydroMet, etc.) sector specific policies. agriculture. Veterinary agencies in the strategy design process, due to which Enhancement of inter-agency inspection, SSFS climate change factor is not effectively reflected in information exchange and cooperation overarching as well as sector-specific strategies. HM agency mechanizms, with active role of the Lack of knowledge and skills in terms of Inter-agency Council on Climate Cadaster mainstreaming climate change issues into the Committee Change, and Climate Change strategy and policy design and implementation in Information Center. MTAI agricultural sector. MoEnv. Cadaster Micro-climatic zoning Agro-climatic zoning of Armenia is incomplete. • Equip the Cadaster Committee with Agro-climatic zoning and Committee and mapping of perennial Cadastre data are outdated. Many land plots engaged hardware and software needed for mapping will become a basis for nurseries in agricultural production (after consolidation of creating and maintaining accurate effective management of privatized lands), though they are still mapped as non- and up to date digital maps and natural resources and land use, Ministry of agricultural land. relevant data about agricultural as well as for CC risk mitigation Economy lands, agro-climatic zones, etc. and implementation of (Agriculture) agricultural activities. • Enhance the methodology for land The Ministry of Agriculture does not have up to date, accurate agri-climatic maps necessary for effective classification and zoning It will indirectly contribute to HM Agency property tax collection by the planning and implementation of agricultural works • Create effective platform for local self-government bodies. and climate change mitigation and adaptation. cooperation between agencies in designing and updating agri-climatic maps The Cadaster Committee does not have capacity (hard and soft) to prepare agri-climatic zoning and other • Create electronic platform for maps. methodology and agro-climatic 73 Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME maps. • Ensure access to data for relevant public and private stakeholders, including local communities

MES Meteorological Insufficient number of meteorological stations and Enhance the network of meteorological Improved data collection that MTAI monitoring and lack of modern accurate equipment and devices in stations, e.g. will allow achieving more forecasting existing posts, due to which the volume and quality accurate assessment and HydroMet Agency Renovate selected meteorological of meteorological data does not allow effectively posts with modern equipment. Include forecast of climate change forecast and address climate change risks. the following high-altitude posts: (1) impact on various agricultural zones in Armenia. • Due the insufficient number of Semyonovka; (2) Vardenyatz (Yanikh). hydrometeorological stations, there is not enough accurate data available to farmers on Establish new meteorological stations Modernized institutional system temperature, hail clouds and wind force. Farmers and advanced technologies receive only a general picture for the in selected areas. This shall include, particularly high-altitude zones: (1) (digital agriculture tools) will marz/province. Farmers often use other contribute to mitigation as well countries’ satellite data. Yeghnajur; (2) mountain pass; (3) Sotq; (4) Tashtuni-maintain pass; (5) as adaptation of climate change • Cold spell projections are done 1-2 days before, Sevaberd. impact. which is inacceptable in case of agricultural

production. The predictions should be at least 4-5 Mobile station will allow days before, so that the farmer has time for • Make available awareness raising and providing practical and specific preventive measure preparations. information availability toolkit (panels) for farmers (in each information to farmers in a • Quarterly predictions of precipitations are not province), and establish an given location (help preparing carried out for farmers. If there is an average information platform on for hail, frost and/or other bad index of many years, then the farmer can submit precipitations in local sites, etc. weather conditions). relevant requirements to water user association, and will be able to properly organize care • to link modern meteorological activities, to manage solar greenhouses, etc. stations located in private farms to the general system and to get information from those stations. • to install “Hydrometeorological and atmospheric phenomena panels/screens” in each rural 74 Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME municipality, which will be linked to the general system and update the weather forecast for the given village • Creation of mobile meteorological stations to carry out monitoring and analysis, and for dissemination of data

Research and • Significant part of agricultural research does not • Training personnel and specialists on • Improved quality of research Scientific and development reflect effectively the real needs of the agricultural climate change, and Climate-Smart works in terms of: (i) meeting research sector for climate change mitigation and Agriculture. real needs of climate change adaptation. mitigation and adaptation in institutions under • Improvement of mechanizms of agriculture; (ii) timeliness of relevant ministries • The selection of research topics often has little selection of research topics (to be works; (iii) the ease of relevance to real challenges and opportunities in practical and demanded by the agriculture in the context of climate change. market). practical application and use (see the list of the Therefore, the results of research do not find of research works. institutions in the • Improvement of cross-disciplinary practical application among farmers and/or other • Better match between section …) cooperation among research stakeholders for climate change adaptation. institutions. research effort and climate

• The results of research work are not readily change challenges, as well as • Enhancement of financing Ministry of risks mitigation and available for farmers, agricultural service providers, mechanizms for R&D; and creating of Economy adaptation. and other stakeholders. fiscal and other incentives to (Agriculture) • promote R&D by public as well as Better prediction and timely private institutions warning about massive development pests and • Creation of an online portal in the diseases, climate change agricultural department of the MoE, resistant varieties, based on to maintain all the research works effective solid and well- and innovative suggestions. informed research with high • Development of agricultural pest practical value for distribution maps for Armenia stakeholders.

75 Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Ministry of Extension services • Extension services are weak and unable to • Training personnel and specialists on • Improved quality of extension Economy effectively meet the demand for agricultural climate change issues, and Climate- services in terms of: (i) (Agriculture) consultancy on sustainable agriculture, and climate Smart Agriculture technologies and meeting real needs of farmers change mitigation and adaptation technologies practices. in relation to climate change and practices. mitigation and adaptation in • To the possible extent, make design Marz extension agriculture; (ii) timeliness of services and marketing of extension services financially viable works; (iii) the ease of practical application and use • Ensure sufficient public financing for of research works an scientific carrying out extension services innovations. • Enhance the mobility of extension • Enhanced viability of services. extension services. • Establish effective cooperation with scientific centers and scientific- research institutes, Higher Education Institutions and private sector service providers.

Ministry of Policy design and • There is confusion and overlap between functions • Ensure effective division of functions • Effective reflection of cross- Economy implementation of the FS Department of the MoE and the Food and roles between relevant agencies, cutting issues, such as Nature (Agriculture) safety Inspection (earlier called State Service for particularly, FSI and MOE/Food Protection and Climate Food Safety (SSFS)). Safety Department. Change, Public Health, Food safety Territorial Administration, • This results in inefficiencies in designing policies Food Safety (FS) Animal Husbandry Cadaster, Emergency Department and regulations in climate change mitigation and adaptation issues, as well as other cross-cutting Situation, etc. in climate issues of in the sector of food industry, food change mitigation and production, food safety and food security. adaptation policies and regulations in agriculture. • Improved management and Food Safety & Security System.

76 Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Ministry of Animal disease control • The functions of the CAS include: control the • Design and provide special training • Improved data collection to Economy epidemic situation through regular vaccination programs for staff of the CAS, enable accurate assessment (Agriculture), program; laboratory control to determine the including in climate change and forecast of climate The Center of the quality and quantity of residual fertilizers in plant mitigation and adaptation issues. change impact on various foods; animal identification and registration agricultural zones in Armenia. Agricultural • Active involvement of the staff into Collected data will allow Sercves (CAS) • The CAS was established recently, and its international projects. SNCO formation is not completed yet. The functions and providing practical and • In the framework of implementation responsibilities of the organization are established, specific information to of AI&R system, it is critical to livestock farmers in a given but the executive mechanisms are not fully cooperate with CAS to collect proper developed. location (helps preparing for specific information through AniPas drought, grazing of the • The CAS does not have adequate human resources System. The AniPas system is focused animals and prevents animals and capabilities to effectively fulfill its functions. on specific data collection in the from bad weather sphere of livestock breeding and conditions). veterinary. Data collected through • special databases can be effectively Improved policies and used by the Climate Change project. measures in the field of animal husbandry and health, in the context of climate change mitigation and adaptation. Food Safety Monitoring and control, • The laboratory is the only organization • Link the management of the lab data • Improved data collection that Inspection (FSI), Animal disease implementing testing and analysis of animal to the (AniPas) Animal Identification will allow achieving more diseases, raw material of animal origin, and food and Registration System. accurate assessment and Veterinary- and Sanitary and products in Armenia. The laboratory has branches forecast of climate change Phytosanitary food safety and provides services in all marzes as well as border impact on various agricultural Laboratory control points of Armenia. zones in Armenia. Services Center • At present the Laboratory faces a number of • Improved laboratory results SNCO challenges such as: (i) insufficient capacity and and statistic information will procedures for effective tracking of the samples; allow achieving more (ii) insufficient level of financing and technical accurate assessment and equipment (reagents, kits, etc.). forecast of CC impact with the interpretation of an epidemiological situation.

77 Table 16. Institutional framework – issues and recommendations

INSTITUTION FUNCTION/ACTIVITY GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME National Animal health, • National Association of Veterinarians (NAV) is • Support the association and ensure • Improved veterinary services, Association of veterinary services young and has limited financial and other its active engagement in the including wider application of Veterinarians resources to expand its operations and fulfill some promotion of Climate-Smart climate smart practices in (NAV) specific tasks. Agriculture technologies and animal husbandry and practices veterinary Pedigree Animal • Design and provide special training • Improved data collection that Breeders’ programs for staff and members of will allow achieving more Association the association, including in climate accurate assessment and change mitigation and adaptation forecast of climate change issues impact on various agricultural zones in Armenia. • Engage veterinarians in the Animal Identification and Registration processes, to collect and provide data on animal health and diseases that can be used for climate change mitigation and adaptation.

78 8.3 Agricultural resource use/management

In the context of this analysis, resource management refers to the management of land, water, biodiversity/genetic resources. Sustainable use of resources, with application of climate smart practices may enhance significantly the resilience of agriculture to climate change impacts, particularly: • smart soil management through proper choice of crops, crop rotation, sustainable design and management of orchards and vineyards, good grazing practices • efficient irrigation techniques (e.g. drip irrigation), and • effective selection activities and choice of climate change resilient and commercially viable varieties; sustainable farming and other economic activities to protect biodiversity To this end, the functions relevant to climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture include, among others: o allocation of land and water for agricultural activities o establishing standards and requirements for the quality of resources and the use of resources to ensure high level of resilience agriculture to climate change, i.e. requirements on pasture management, grazing practices, application of fertilizers, etc. o control of the application of climate start requirements and standards o monitoring the quality and condition of resources, including the creation of maps, carrying out soil and water analysis; data collection about the conditions and quality of resources

o awareness raising and extension services to farmers to support them better prepare to possible effects of climate change.

Land Ministry of Territorial Administration and Infrastructure: The Ministry of Territorial Administration and Infrastructure (TAI Ministry) coordinates the activities of local self-government bodies and guides the management of lands under state and local jurisdiction. In this context, the Ministry of TAI may play important roles in the development of agriculture, as well as in addressing climate change issues in agriculture in a number of aspects, including:

o Organization of control of and fight against pests and diseases (veterinary and phytosanitary anti- epidemiological activities) having in mind that local community authorities carry out tasks related to phytosanitary and veterinary anti-epidemiological measures.63

o Management of pastures and grasslands, including the sale and rental of pastures to private farmers or other investors, ensuring proper infrastructure in pastures (roads, irrigation, watersheds, electricity, etc.), zoning of lands, and water rights. Despite the fact that the tasks of the Ministry of TAI are directly and indirectly related to the development of agriculture and may affect climate change mitigation and adaptation, there is no or little focus in its activities on climate change mitigation and adaptation issues. There are no effective mechanisms for climate-smart management of pastures and forage lands. In 2018, the department of local self-government policy of the Ministry of Territorial Development of Armenia participated in the third conference of the "Platform for Coordination of Programs for Sustainable Management of forage lands ". The platform was implemented in the frame of the joint project “Biodiversity management in the South Caucasus (BDM)”, implemented with the support of the SDA NGO and the GIZ, and the project CARMAC II, implemented by the Agricultural Development Fund with the support of the World Bank.

63 Article 50 of the Law on Local Self-Government, stipulates that the head of the community has the authority to be provided with the information on taken veterinary anti-epidemiological activities, identified communicable and non-communicable diseases, as well as to ensure the organization of the veterinary service with the community veterinarian.

79 The aim of the platform was to ensure effective cooperation and coordination of works among the organizations operating in the field of forage lands management in Armenia. It aimed to increase the efficiency of projects and investments in the livestock sphere, which in turn improves the well-being of farmers and promotes socio- economic growth in rural areas Cadastre Committee. Agro-climatic zoning of Armenia is incomplete. Cadastre data is often outdated and inaccurate. Many land plots engaged in agricultural production (after consolidation of privatized lands), though they are still mapped as non-agricultural lands. Some of the animal farms are actually located in areas not intended for agricultural use, while others do not have an activity permit or registration. The same applies to pastures, natural and artificial grasslands. Livestock farms often carry out unsustainable and ineffective agricultural activities. Agri-climatic zoning and mapping is important for enabling the proper design of Climate-Smart Agriculture policies and measures. Cooperation between the Ministry of Economy (Agriculture) and Cadastre Committee shall be enhanced to ensure effective update of agri-climatic maps. Communities. Communities are responsible for the maintenance and allocation (renting, and sale) of land for agricultural and other purposes. Communities need considerable improvement of capacity in terms of knowledge about Climate-Smart Agriculture and sustainable pasture management, design of pasture management requirements to be followed by farmers, facilitating the procedures of renting land to farmers. As indicated by the private sector, the procedures for granting permissions by communities for pasture use include burdensome elements. Pasture renting contracts do not include requirements for effective pastures management and pasture improvement, including soil improvement. Ministry of Economy (Agriculture). Department of Agricultural Program Elaboration, Resource Use and Cooperative Development. This department coordinates the promotion of cooperation policy in agrarian sphere. The department immediately deals with development of documents, programs, strategies. There are more than 400 agricultural cooperatives (15% agricultural, 84% consumer, and 3% production cooperatives) currently operating in Armenia. Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative EITI Armenia (www.eiti.am).64 The EITI is a global Standard to promote the open and accountable management of natural resources, with 53 member countries (as of February, 2020). A country’s natural resources, such as oil, gas, metals and minerals, belong to its citizens. Extraction of these resources can lead to economic growth and social development. However, poor natural resource governance has often led to corruption and conflict. More openness and public scrutiny of how wealth from a country’s extractive sector is used and managed is necessary to ensure that natural resources benefit all. Countries implementing EITI are guided by the EITI Standard. The Standard sets out the requirements of the 8 groups that must be implemented by the EITI candidate and compliant countries. The Standard requires that countries disclose the complete information on the value chain of the mining industry.65 Comprehensive information on the mining industry is made available in the EITI national reports, which are annually published by the EITI countries. The 2019 EITI Standard was adopted on 17 June at the Paris Global Conference. Armenia's first Validation process was started on 9 September, 2019. The EITI is related to agriculture and climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture in a number of ways, since mining affects directly the land use (sometimes causing destruction of agricultural land, deforestation), may cause soil, water and air degradation and pollution.

64 Government Decree N 666-N on Establishing the Procedure, Time Frames and Templates for Publishing Information Regarding the Activities Related to Extraction of Minerals and Geological Exploration of the Mineral Resources for the Purpose of Extracting Minerals, the Procedure, Time Frames and Templates for Public Reporting on the Activities of the Mining Companies Holding a Permit for Metallic Mineral Extraction, and the List of Government Agencies, of 8 June 2018. 65 Mining value chain starting from the point of extraction, to how the revenue makes its way through the government, to how it benefits the public. This includes how licenses and contracts are allocated and registered, who are the beneficial owners of those operations, what are the fiscal and legal arrangements, how much is produced, how much is paid, where are those revenues allocated, and what is the contribution to the economy, including employment. 80 Water

There are a number of agencies involved in water resource use and management area, including: (i) Water Resources Management Agency of the Ministry of Environment, (ii) the Water Committee of the Ministry of Energy Infrastructure and Natural Resources, (iii) Public Services Regulatory Commission, (iv) the Ministry of Health, (v) Bioresources Management Agency of the Ministry of Environment, (vi) the Environmental Monitoring and Information Center of the Ministry of Environment, (vii) the Hydrometeorological Service of the Ministry of Emergency Situations.

Genetic resources & biodiversity

Ministry of Environment. The Ministry of Environment is responsible for a number of key functions directly and indirectly related to climate change in general, which may contribute considerably to climate change mitigation and adaptation in agriculture. Particularly, the Ministry of Environment is responsible for the policy design and implementation in the following areas:

o protection and improvement of environment (air, water, soil, flora and fauna), prevention and minimization of negative natural and anthropogenic impact on the environment,

o protection and sustainable management, reproduction and use of natural resources (except extractive minerals), i.e. forests and special protected areas of nature. o addressing challenges related to climate change, including climate change adaptation o integration of environmental protection in economic, social and other sectors o monitoring and evaluation of the environmental situation and changes due to human activities o environmental awareness raising, education and promotion of culture.

8.4 Production technologies and practices

Ministry of Economy. After the restructuring of the Government of Armenia in 2019, the Ministry of Agriculture was dissolved, and its functions were transferred to the Ministry of Economy.66 In effect, the Ministry of Economy is responsible for strategic and policy level governance related to agricultural production, pest and disease prevention and control, food and feed safety, veterinary and phytosanitary inspections, etc. The relevant departments and their climate change related functions are discussed in the sections below: - Department of Primary Agricultural Production is responsible for primary crop production and animal husbandry issues, including beekeeping and fish farming. The climate change related functions of the department are discussed in the sections below. - Department of Food Safety includes divisions on Food Safety, Veterinary Medicine, and Phytosanitary and is responsible for plant and animal health issues. The climate change related functions of the department are discussed in the sections below. Since 2012, the activities of prevention of agricultural livestock diseases have been implemented by the “Service center for veterinary sanitary, food safety and phytosanitary” SNCO under the Ministry of Agriculture, through 630 veterinarians providing services to the communities, as well as through regional epidemiologists. Pedigree Animal Breeders’ Association NGO (established in 2017) is to represent the interests of the farmers engaged in pedigree animal breeding. In addition to representing the interests of its members and supporting their professional development, PAB aims at contributing to the development of veterinary in Armenia, including the design and implementation of legal and institutional reforms and the promotion of stakeholder dialogue and

66 In March 2019 the Ministry of Agriculture was merged into the Ministry of Economic Development and Investments, and the latter was renamed to Ministry of Economy with its current structure. The Law of the Republic of Armenia "On making changes and amendments to the law on the structure and activities of the government", adopted by the National Assembly on 8 May, 2019 (signed by the President of the Republic of Armenia on 16 May 2019, O-31-N). 81 international cooperation. PAB association also carries out artificial insemination activities, organizes livestock exhibitions, contribute to improvement of genetic resources in Armenia, and registration of breeding farms and assigning qualification status to them,

8.5 Plant health

The plant health/phytosanitary system is about measures targeted at the production of healthy plants, plant products and regulated items in a healthy environment. The institutional landscape in the field of plant includes the following agencies: o Ministry of Economy (Agriculture) of Armenia, o State Service for Food Safety (under the Ministry of Economy) o Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center SNCO o Scientific Center of Vegetable-Melon and Industrial Crops, o Agriculture Scientific Center (under the Ministry of Environment of Armenia) o Ministry of Health of Armenia o Armenian National Agrarian University. Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), the Department of Food Safety includes divisions on Food Safety, Veterinary Medicine, and Phytosanitary and is responsible for plant and animal health issues. The two relevant departments are the Department of Primary Agricultural Production and the Department of Food Safety (with its Phytosanitary Division). The coordination of the all plant protection functions is carried out by the phytosanitary department. The functions of the phytosanitary department include: • development of state policy in the field of phytosanitary • development of targeted plant protection programs • monitoring on plant quarantine and non-quarantine pests, evaluation of phytosanitary situation, and informing state and local government bodies, individuals and legal entities on the application of measures against the harmful organisms • Phytosanitary risk management, dissemination of information on phytosanitary risks, based on scientific risk analysis and assessments • Cooperation with EEU and international organizations in the field of phytosanitary. At present, the functions of the Phytosanitary Department do not include explicit provisions on climate change and impacts of climate change. It is important that the scope of the functions of the Department of Phytosanitary include an examination of the impact of the global climate change on the development of harmful organisms and plant health, and these impacts must be taken into account during development of public policy or targeted plant protection programs on risks mitigation State Service For Food Safety (SSFS) carries out the state legislative regulation of food safety and compliance evaluation in the sphere of veterinary and phytosanitary and in special cases, as well as cases prescribed by the Law of the Republic of Armenia carries out supervision and takes disciplinary actions in the mentioned spheres on behalf of the of Republic of Armenia. SSFS has three subdivisions: . food safety and quality control division . veterinary medicine division . phytosanitary inspections division. The Phytosanitary Inspection under the SSFS has a role of detection of plant quarantine and regulated non- quarantine harmful organisms in Armenia and the control over and destruction of such organisms. The Phytosanitary Inspection also controls the production and processing of plants, products of plant origin, and regulated items, the maintaining of phytosanitary rules and norms at the points of sale in the country. The implementation of measures for predicting, diagnosing and preventing mass breeding and spread of harmful organisms of plants, the provision of improving the phytosanitary situation of agricultural, ornamental plants and the forest as well as the exclusion of damage to environment, flora and fauna are one of the most important issues of phytosanitary regulation.

82 In accordance with the Law on Phytosanitary and the Law on State Control of Food Safety, the SSFS implements state control over the import, export, re-export of products subject to phytosanitary control, pesticides and agrochemicals, as well as over the all stages of their circulation in the country. SFSS also takes measures to prevent the penetration and spread of quarantine and regulated non-quarantine organisms in the country, to control the implementation of the established phytosanitary norms and rules by business entities, as well as measures aimed for prevention and elimination of local infection sites of harmful organisms of plants, plant products and regulated objects. It also carries out state registration, re-registration of pesticides, quarantine phytosanitary monitoring in the territory of Armenia, prepares reports, carries out phytosanitary quarantine control of plants, plant products and other regulated articles imported from other countries or exported from Armenia to other countries, as well as provides certificates for products subject to phytosanitary control and other functions.

8.6 Animal health

The Ministry of develops the policies of agro-processing, animal husbandry, veterinary medicine, agricultural cooperation, pisciculture, organic agriculture, agricultural statistics spheres, particularly: - Department of Primary Agricultural Production is responsible for crop production and animal husbandry issues - Department of Food Safety includes divisions on Food Safety, Veterinary Medicine, and Phytosanitary and is responsible for plant and animal health issues. The Ministry of Economy (through the Department of Food Safety, and Food Safety Inspection) carries out anti- epidemiological activities to prevent infectious diseases of animals, including the diseases common for animals and humans, such as brucellosis of agricultural animals, tuberculosis of cattle, anthrax, cattle blackleg, nodular dermatitis, small ruminants anthrax, small ruminants foot and mouth disease and varroasis of bees. These activities are carried out based on the Law on Veterinary Medicine, the Program of Agricultural Animals Vaccination, and the Law on State Control of Food Safety. Since 2012, the activities of prevention of agricultural livestock diseases have been implemented by the “Service center for veterinary sanitary, food safety and phytosanitary” SNCO under the Ministry of Agriculture, through 630 veterinarians providing services to the communities, as well as through regional epidemiologists. Center for Agricultural Services SNCO (under the Ministry of Agriculture) is to ensure a stable livestock epidemic situation, as well as to prevent the population from common infectious diseases for humans and animals, the purposefulness of measures to fight against harmful organisms, increase the efficiency, determine the quality and quantity of residual fertilizers in plant foods. It aims at promoting the production of high-quality livestock products and raw materials in accordance with veterinary-sanitary norms, to establish stable interstate economic relations, to promote the export and import process, to identify and registrate the harmful plant organisms through research and monitoring, to provide the professional support for these works, as well as stimulate the healthy crop production, evaluate the quality of fertilizers and perform laboratory testing of biological stimulators.67 The Center provides veterinary services through 630 veterinarians providing services to the communities, as well as through regional epidemiologists. The responsibilities of the territorial administration bodies in the spheres of veterinary medicine and livestock breeding include:68

o to ensure and coordinate the organization and implementation of measures for the prevention and elimination of communicable and mass non-communicable diseases of animals and poisonings

o to establish and cancel the quarantine in case of outbreak of quarantine diseases of animals in the relevant community, in the settlement, upon the presentation of the authorized body o to support the implementation of state control activities.

67 Decree of the Government of the Republic of Armenia No 79-N of January 30, 2020. 68 The responsibilities are defined in the Article 8.3 of the Law on Veterinary Medicine. 83 Ministry of Healthcare is a key ministry in terms of setting sanitary and hygiene rules and requirements in relation to agri-food production, as well as control of and fight against pests and diseases common to animals and humans. The Ministry of Healthcare sets also safety and quality requirements in relation to agricultural production factors, i.e. soil and water, and production facilities. Food Safety Inspection. In the spheres of food safety, veterinary medicine and phyto-sanitary, the state control is exercised by the Food Safety Inspection through its subdivisions and territorial units. The Food Safety Inspection, - carries out veterinary activities, takes complex veterinary-epidemiological and veterinary-sanitary measures for the prevention of infectious and non-infectious diseases of animals and fight against those diseases - implements activities related to the registration and animal tagging, state control of animal slaughter and performs other functions. National Association of Veterinarians (NAV) is to consolidate the common interests of professionals (veterinarians). NAV acts in the whole territory of Armenia. In addition to representing the interests of its members and supporting their professional development, NAV aims at contributing to the development of veterinary in Armenia, including the design and implementation of legal and institutional reforms and the promotion of stakeholder dialogue and international cooperation. NAV intends to introduce an accreditation system to ensure high quality of theoretical knowledge and practical skills of veterinarians. Other initiatives and platforms. There is a platform created in the framework of the joint project “Biodiversity management in the South Caucasus (BDM)”, implemented with the support of the SDA NGO and GIZ, and the project CARMAC II, implemented by the Agricultural Development Fund with the support of the World Bank. The aim of the platform is to ensure effective cooperation and coordination of works among the organizations operating in the field of forage lands management in Armenia. It aimed to increase the efficiency of projects and investments in the livestock sphere, which in turn improves the well-being of farmers and promotes socio- economic growth in rural areas. In 2018, Ministry TAI participated in the third conference of the Platform for Coordination of Programs for Sustainable Management of Forage Lands.69

8.7 Extension

Ministry of Economy (Agriculture), Department of Agricultural Extension, Innovation and Monitoring: There are regional Agricultural Support Centers (ASCs) under the Ministry of Economy, based and operating in each Marz (region) of Armenia. The ASCs are to provide technical and professional advice to farmers, disseminate information about advanced technologies and practices, market information, provide training and awareness raising campaigns, etc. However, due to insufficient financing from the state budget the ASCs are not able to provide high quality and timely service to farmers. In 2013, there were 10 ASCs in Armenia, with 213 employees in total, of which 130 agricultural consultants, providing services in 914 communities. In 2013, the Government adopted a Concept for the enhancement of ASC system for 2014-2017.70 There are a number of private organizations that provide agricultural services, including dissemination of knowledge and skills among small scale as well as large farmers. These include: CARD (Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development) through its 18 Farmer Support Centers established across Armenia. CARD designs and implements agricultural development assistance programs that address the priority needs of the sector for sustainable growth. These include: promoting and applying advanced agricultural technologies, supporting agricultural processing and the development of competitive food products for domestic and export markets, improving food security and increasing food safety at the production, processing, and consumer level, promoting animal genetics and improving animal health and husbandry practices, supporting the establishment of new government policies and regulations for the Ag sector. The Center for Agribusiness & Rural

69 Sources: Ministry of TAI: http://www.mtad.am/hy/news/item/2018/10/26/mtad26hartak/ Ministry of Agriculture (old): http://old.minagro.am/2018/03/%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%B2%D5%AE%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC-%D5%A7- %D5%A2%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6- %D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB- %D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%BF/ 70 The Concept was adopted by the Government Decree No 1516-A, 19 December 2013. The Decree was invalidated by the Government Decree No 56-A, of 25 January, 2018. 84 Development is a ‘one-stop-shop’ economic development organization staffed with highly-trained experts and specialists who provide services to a broad client base throughout the country. CARD designs innovative, flexible, impact-driven programs that respond to pressing challenges facing Armenian producers, agribusinesses, and exporters. The projects focus on enhancing the agribusiness community and improving rural livelihoods. Shen NGO - is a pioneer in introducing organic agricultural practices in Armenia. Shen NGO has been promoting organic agriculture to farmers’ groups and individual farmers starting from the year 2000 with financial support of HEKS/EPER (Hilfswerk der Evangelischen Kirchen Schweiz/Entraide Protestante Suisse, Swiss Church Aid) and the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC).71 Shen started first Organic Agricultural Extension Service in 2005. So far, it has provided free-of-charge training and consultancy services in organic agriculture to 1,300 small holders. The activities initiating organic extension group, establishing private local organic certification body, introducing the new organic agricultural inputs to the farmers, developing both export and local markets, lobbying and advocacy. The Service has also developed an internal control system that makes the certification service accessible for especially smallholders, which has led to the establishment of two groups of farmers willing to share the certification fee. Shen established three demonstration-educational centres of organic agriculture (in Shenik, Argian, communities). The demonstration orchards introduce and test organic and environmentally friendly cultivation methods and effective use of technologies and equipment. The fundamental principles of organic horticulture - biodiversity preservation, efficient usage of soil and water, utilization of solar energy are put into practice at these orchards. The purpose of establishing such educational centers is to create an advisory hub equipped with new technologies for the farmers of Armenia, where theoretical and hands-on trainings are offered for free. ICARE (International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education) is an educational and research institution (non-governmental and non-commercial) established in 2005 by Texas A&M University. ICARE is an umbrella institution for the Agribusiness Teaching Center (ATC), the Agribusiness Research Center (ARC), and the EVN Wine Academy. ICARE, in cooperation with international partners and donor institutions, designs and introduces new courses for stakeholders in agri-food sector, e.g. Food Safety Systems Management (FSSM) course; Greenhouse Crop Production and Management certificate program; Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) Certificate Program. Eco-Globe LLC - is internationally recognized organic certification and inspection body founded in 2002. It is pioneering in Armenia and other countries of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) region with emerging markets. It is organic certification body compliant with the International Organization for Standardization’s (ISO) Guide 17065 and EN 45011. Ecoglobe LLC provides certification according to following standards: • “Green Caucasus” Private Standard, European Union (EU) REG.834/2007,889/2008 Equivalent Green Caucasus Standard is public document according to ISO 17065 as proof of transparency of Green Caucasus certification system. This Standard is subject to regular assessment of its equivalence with the EU organic legislation, and recognition by Swiss Organic Farming Ordinance and the Ministry of Agriculture of Armenia. • USDA NOP (7eCFR-205 is part of United States Regulations of the Department of Agriculture, related to practices of Organic Production). Products certified according to this standard may be marketed as “100% Organic” or “Organic” on USA and Canada. • “BIO SUISSE” Swiss Private standard. “Bio Suisse” is the owner of the registered trademark Bud. Its standards are private law guidelines and exceed the minimum legal requirements in essential respects (EU-Eco-Regulation 834/2007 or equivalent). Armenian Women for Health and Healthy Environment NGO (AWHHE). AWHHE works for sustainable development, protection of human health and environment and poverty reduction, ensuring the active participation of the local population in the improvement of their living conditions, creating the perception of their rights to be healthy and to live in a healthy environment.72 AWHHE promotes the solution of the problems related

71 Other donors like Chene-France, Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst (EED, Germany), Inter-Charge Charity Organization (ICCO, Netherlands), UNDP GE (UN Development Program Gender Equality), and Regional Council of Ile–de-France also co-funded the project. 72 It works in partnership with international environmental and health networks such as International POPs Elimination Network; Pesticide Action Network Europe; European Environmental Bureau; Health Environment Alliance; Women Engage for a Common Future International; Women for Water Partnership; Global Anti-Incineration Alliance; GEF NGO network, etc. 85 to environmental health risks through advocacy, education and information campaigns; independent monitoring and investigations on chemical contamination of polluted sites; contributes to sustainable rural development focusing on safe agriculture practices and energy efficiency; advocates for ecologically sound methods of solid waste treatment and disposal including medical waste management; strengthens the participation of women in decision-making at local and national levels; promotes the implementation of Stockholm Convention and UNECE/WHO-Europe Water and Health Protocol in Armenia; publishes popular and scientific articles; creates and disseminates information materials; educates people; and participates at national and international conferences and forums and processes like Strategic Approach to International Chemical management, Minamata Convention; Stockholm and Rotterdam conventions, Integrated Water Resources Management.

8.8 Testing and analysis capacity

Testing capacity (laboratories) is critical for disease control, animal and plant health, soil and water analysis, effective feeding. All these aspects contribute to effective planning and control of agricultural production, assessment of the impact of agriculture on climate change (and the impact of climate change on agriculture). During the last decade Armenia’s laboratory infrastructure and testing/analysis capacity has been improved considerably, including public as well as private sector laboratories. However, there are a number of issues in this area that need to be addressed urgently. • The laboratory capacity, i.e. the number of laboratories and the volume of work they are able to handle, is far from being sufficient for meeting the demand for this service, leading to: o High prices of laboratory services. The high cost is the main obstacle that farmers do not apply to control the quality of their products, soil, and irrigation water.

o Slow service. Laboratories are often so overburdened, and requests for testing sometimes may take up to 2-6 months to complete. • Due to limited resources and ineffective planning, laboratories in villages often run out of reagents to be used for testing in the middle of the season. • There is no laboratory with organic agricultural accreditation in Armenia. Similarly, there are a number of quality accreditations that are not represented in Armenia. • There is lack of mobile rapid response laboratory service providers. Republican Veterinary-Sanitary and Phytosanitary Laboratory Services Center SNCO.73 The RVSPLSC is the only organization implementing laboratory analysis of animal diseases, raw material of animal origin, and food products in Armenia. The laboratory has branches and provides services in all marzes as well as border control points of Armenia. It includes a veterinary laboratory; pathological anatomical division, microbiological division; parasitological division; molecular division; serology and hematological division; toxicology division; food safety laboratory; food microbiological division; food physicochemical and toxicological division; food parasitological division; residues detection division; radiology division; phytosanitary laboratory; toxicology control division; plant protection and plants quarantine division. Environmental Impact Monitoring Center SNCO. The EIM Center was established in 2016, with the task to carry out environmental impact assessment and consultancy, including, among others: (i) hydrogeological studies and assessments, including preparation of exploration and extraction projects, environmental geological mapping of groundwater mines; (ii) development of waste passports; (iii) physicochemical testing of water, soil and air; (iv) organizing and implementation of researches, studies, elaborations, projects and creative works of environmental objects and their impacts.

Private sector laboratories

73 http://snund.am/en/rvspcls-snco/ 86 Standard Dialogue LLC, established in 2009, operates a food testing laboratory, and functions as a certification body. The laboratory carries out food raw materials and food tests: sensory indicators, physicochemical indicators, chemical indicators, microbiological indicators, GMOs and GMPs, and hormones. Standard Dialogue is the official representative of HALAL certification body in Armenia. In addition, the laboratory carries out testing of non-food products, including: sensory indicators, physicochemical indicators, toxic elements, microbiological indicators, mycotoxins, pesticides. The FDA Laboratory (www.fdalab.am) was originally designed and built in accordance with GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) and ISO / IEC 17025 international standards. The laboratory complex is a five-story building on 3662 square meters of land, which is located in an ecologically clean place, Kotayk region, : The laboratory complex includes four different sections under one roof: • Food Quality and Safety Testing Department • Drug Quality and Vitality Testing Section • Tobacco testing department • Bacteriological testing department The FDA Laboratory LLC laboratory is registered in the Unified Register of Customs Union Certification Bodies and Testing Laboratories (Centers). https://www.eurasiancommission.org/ru/docs/Pages/IL_OS.aspx The FDA Laboratory is designated by the Ministry of Economy as a testing conformity assessment body and is authorized to provide a State Registration Certificate. The FDA Laboratory's laboratory also has an international accreditation issued by the ANSI National Accreditation Board (ANAB) accreditation body. VALEX group companies http://vallexgroup.am/ cover a wide variety of spheres, such as mining industry, hydrometallurgy and pyro metallurgy, scientific work, information technologies, hospitality, ecotourism, etc. VALEX group includes also a mmetallurgy laboratory, which among many other industry related tests, carries out also an analysis of soil, determination of chemical composition, plant residues, determination of heavy metals. Darakert ASSC funded by CARD AgroServices is a for profit organization that provides agricultural services and products to farmers and agribusiness in Armenia: They have mobile laboratory equipment and offer land analysis services. This service is unique in that the farmer can apply to one of the 19 centres in Armenia, the centre will provide a visit to a specialist, soil sampling, rapid testing of the sample, N, P, K, pH, EC, etc.

8.9 Research institutions and activities

Overall, there is limited scientific and research activity on climate change adaptation and mitigation in relation to agriculture. There is insufficiency of human and institutional capacity, infrastructure and equipment (e.g. laboratory capacity) and financial resources to effectively design and implement research and development work. Significant part of agricultural research does not reflect effectively the real needs of the agricultural sector for climate change mitigation and adaptation. The selection of research topics often has little relevance to real challenges and opportunities in agriculture in the context of climate change. Therefore, the results of research do not find practical application among farmers and/or other stakeholders for climate change adaptation. The results of research work are not readily available for farmers, agricultural service providers, and other stakeholders. Below is a brief discussion about scientific and research institutions operating in Armenia in the areas of plant cultivation and plant health as well as animal husbandry and animal health. Selected climate change related studies of these institutions are listed in the section on studies below. Armenian National Agrarian University (ANAU), including 5 faculties (Agronomy; Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry; Food Technologies; Agrarian Engineering; Agribusiness and Economics), and 36 different agricultural disciplines and scientific and research centers and institutions: . Scientific Center of Soil Science, Melioration and Agro-chemistry after H. Petrosyan, a branch of ANAU (SMAC Center): . Agrobiotechnology Scientific Center (ABTS Center), a branch of ANAU 87 . Voskehat Educational and Research Center of Enology, a branch of ANAU . The Research Center for Crop Gene Pool and Selection (CGPS Center) of ANAU . Research center for Ecology and Organic Agriculture of ANAU . Research Center for Pesticide Synthesis and Expertise of ANAU There are a number of other scientific and research organizations, which could potentially be engaged in scientific and research work related to climate change. So far, these organizations have not been involved in climate related studies yet (e.g., studies related to the impact of global climate change on the development of harmful organisms as well as risks mitigation for new invasive pests or any climate-smart agriculture technologies). Agriculture Scientific Center (ASC). The ASC works on the creation and production of drought-resistant varieties of crops: winter soft wheat varieties “Aray”, “Armik” and “Van”, soybean variety “Early ripe 1”, peanut varieties “Liya” and “Anush” have a relatively high drought tolerance, resistance to diseases and pests. These varieties were offered as prospective varieties for cultivation under climate change conditions. Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center (FSRAAS Center), SNCO. The purpose of the Center is the implementation of scientific, scientific-technical research, as well as methodical, experimental and scientific- educational work in accordance with its specialization. The scientific center consists of the following departments and laboratories. . Animal Health . Food and Feed Safety . Animal breeding . Plants Health, including divisions on phytopathology and entomology; herbology; pests risk assessment and analysis; and plant infectious quarantine diseases research division. The Plant Health Department is involved in studying and research of the most common and harmful organisms of agricultural crops and forest trees, the development of measures against the most dangerous pests, as well as detection of the residual quantities of pesticides in food products. It also performs risk assessment of quarantine organisms present in Armenia and develops effective, safe and environmentally friendly measures to combat pests, diseases and weeds common in Armenia. However, the FSRAAS Center focuses only on studies of organisms of quarantine importance, but not harmful organisms in general. Little consideration is given to the impact of climate change on plant protection issues, plant health and pesticide’s efficiency, on plant-pest, plant- pest-pesticide, pest-pest, pest-beneficial organism interactions. There is a lack of phytosanitary risk assessment and analysis under climate change conditions, and agricultural plants pests distribution maps are not developed for Armenia. Climate-Smart Agriculture tactics are not included in the research work. Scientific Center of Vegetable-Melon and Industrial Crops. The main tasks for the scientific center are vegetable and technical crop seed cultivation, creation of more productive, high quality vegetable crop varieties, resistant to diseases and pests in traditional and modern ways (biotechnology, mutagenesis, etc.), development of efficient technologies for their cultivation, methods of raw material processing, study of plant physiology and biochemistry, study of off-season vegetable growing, irrigation, fertilization in greenhouses. Open and protected vegetable cultivation technologies have been developed and introduced into production. More than 40 new varieties and hybrids have been selected and introduced. The Center has departments of vegetable crop selection and seed technology, melon crop selection, seed technology and cultivation technology, departments of Protected Soil, Plant Physiology, Biochemistry and Raw Material Processing, Plant Biotechnology Laboratory, Plant Pathology Laboratory. Little consideration is given to the impact of climate change on crop production and selection issues, on vegetable and field crops resistance to pests and diseases under climate change conditions. There is a lack of phytosanitary risk assessment and analysis under climate change conditions. Climate-Smart Agriculture technologies and practices are not included in the research work. The International Center for Agribusiness Research and Education (ICARE) Foundation. In February, 2020, ICARE in cooperation with the Austrian Development Cooperation, launched a Fruit Production Development Project in Armenia (FRUITENIA).74 The FRUITENIA project is to modernize the agronomy curricula, through introducing new courses and modernizing the contents of the existing ones at the ANAU to include concepts of environmentally

74 http://icare.am/2020/02/14/fruit-production-sector-development-project-in-armenia-is-officially-launched/ 88 friendly, sustainable and climate-smart modern fruit production approaches. The project will conduct Training of Trainers (ToT) for ANAU and TVETs instructors to develop the capacity of the teaching staff. A short-term professional certificate program in fruit production will be established at ANAU for fruit-producing farmers, instructors, and students.

8.10 Climate data collection and dissemination

Ministry of Emergency Situations. The Ministry of Emergency Situations is a key agency relevant to climate change matters in agriculture in two ways: (i) meteorological and hydrological monitoring and forecast (carried out by the Service of the Hydrometeorology and Active Influence on Atmospheric Phenomena SNCO (HM Agency), and (ii) in managing risks and consequences of extreme natural situations (hail, flood, etc.) that affect agriculture. The HM Agency provides monthly reports, presenting climatic characteristics for each month and monthly weather forecast. The reports include data on average monthly, absolute minimum and maximum temperatures, monthly precipitation, average snow depth and hazardous weather conditions, recorded in different regions of Armenia. These data can be used to make predictions about the winter survival of pests of agricultural crops and their development during different periods of vegetation. All necessary data is provided to the Ministry of Economy for effective implementation of activities in relevant sectors of the economy (for example, agriculture). Main functions of the HM Agency include, among others: 75

o collection, maintaining and dissemination of information and forecasts on hydrometeorological phenomena to public and private entities and individuals (including to economic sectors of economy dependent on whether events, to ensure their timely awareness and readiness)

o activities to increase public and economic safety from dangerous hydrometeorological events, mitigation their impact within the territory of Armenia. o activities according to international standards of hydrometeorological observations. o observations on air, surface waters, soil, crops, pastures, ozone layer, ultraviolet radiation, actinometrical and upper air stations, their data inventory and storage compilation of official forecasts and alerts.

o Study of water regime and routine of rivers, lakes, reservoirs, performing their state inventory, registry and state cadaster.

o preparation operative information on hydrometeorological phenomena and potential dangers for population, national economy, environment, dissemination of real time and predicted parameters of those events o establishment of basis for state information resources, foundation and operation of state hydrometeorological archive o participation of elaboration of international and regional hydrometeorological programs of development of unified global systems of comprehensive information exchange o settlement and calibration of special measure and control instrumentations and measuring devices. o study of Global Climate Change in the territory of Armenia, assessment and forecast of vulnerability of different areas of economy as well as submission of suggestions to interested organizations o implementation of researches and applied scientific studies on hydrometeorology, development and improvement of methods of measurements and forecasts Proper (relevant, accurate and timely) weather forecast is critical for timely design and implementation of well- planned measures to protect plants against harmful organisms, which, in its turn, is important for increasing the gross harvest of agricultural crops. This is especially important under the global climate change that affects the biological and ecological characteristics of pests, winter survival, number of generations, fertility, the emergence of new and more virulent races, etc. As reported by the HM Agency, hydrometeorology observations are carried out from 47 hydrometeorology stations located across the territory of Armenia. The HM agency launched 230 radiosondes for weather

75 http://mes.am/en/meteo-functions/ 89 forecasting. The system of hydrological observatories included 84 river observatories, 5 dam observatories and 4 lake observatories. In 2019, the HM Agency made 69 warnings about dangerous HM events (all warnings were accurate). The current system of forecasting and alerting about the mass development of harmful organisms76 is not efficient or modernized, and is not capable of providing timely, locally-specific, or accurate information to farmers about in a number of areas, including: growing degree day calculations; water deficit projections; early warning systems; hail or freeze risk projections; waste management tools; nitrogen management tools; or the expected outbreaks of pests and diseases to avoid epidemics and huge crop losses. All of this information could be tied to long-term climate data and current weather forecasts from regions in Armenia, connected to specific data on crops, soil conditions, planting dates, etc., to provide more accurate data and decision-making capacity to Armenian Extension staff and farmers.77 Because these tools do not exists, Armenian farmers are more vulnerable to the changes in harmful pests and diseases that could be reduced (bacterial fire blight, scale insects, South American tomato moth, rodents, locusts, etc.).

8.11 Disaster and emergency management Ministry of Emergency Situations. The Ministry of Emergency Situations is a key agency relevant to climate change matters in agriculture in two ways: (i) meteorological and hydrological monitoring and forecast (carried out by the Service of the Hydrometeorology and Active Influence on Atmospheric Phenomena SNCO (HM Agency), and (ii) in managing risks and consequences of extreme natural situations (hail, flood, etc.) that affect agriculture. In 2020, a number of agencies and their functions were combined under one agency – the Center of Hydrometeorology and Monitoring (HM Agency).78 Anti-hail protection system, under the Ministry of Emergency Situations, includes two radio-location centers in Lori and Aragatsotn provinces, and anti-hail station in Ararat and Armavir. Radio-location centers carry out monitoring of the atmosphere with radius of 200 km to detect dangerous phenomena, the direction and speed of the movement of clouds and their level of danger, and assess the evolution of cloud formation. The anti-hail system includes: . 552 gas-generator stations ZENIT, of which 234 stations are state owned, 269 stations are community owned, and 49 stations are privately owned. These stations have 60-80% effectiveness against mild hail, but their effectiveness declines sharply in case of large size hail, and when hail clouds are accompanied with strong winds. These stations protect 44,160 ha of agricultural land in 60 communities in Aragatsotn, Armavir and Kotayq provinces. . In 2017, in the framework of a pilot project, Armenia obtained 3 anti-hail missile stations of Elia-3 type, located in community Aknalich (), communities Artashavan and of . These missile stations protect 82,280 ha of agricultural land. . In 2019, the anti-hail system took action against 510 hail-dangerous clouds, of which 490 were effective, i.e. in 490 cases the formation of hailstones was effectively prevented. In total, 221 communities suffered from hail. 79 . To our knowledge, there has been no research-based evaluation of the effectiveness of these programs and investments to ensure that funds are being well spent or that anti-hail systems reduce damages and losses. While there has been a concerted focus on hail damage, there needs to be a much more comprehensive assessment of disaster projections and risks to agriculture, and plans and projects developed to address all risks (such as risk from the increase in extreme rainfall events, flooding,

76 During Soviet time, this function implemented by regional stations (under the Ministry of Agriculture), which were dismantled after the collapse of the Soviet Kolkhoz/Sovkhoz farms. 77 As an example, see the NRCC, Climate Smart Farming, and NEWA websites of decision tools from Cornell University that provide detailed weather and climate agricultural data to farmers in the Northeastern US. See: nrcc.cornell.edu; climatesmartfarming.org; and newa.cornell.edu websites. Similar websites and tools could be built for Armenian farmers by coordinating climate data and weather station data with agricultural models specific to Armenia. 78 Government Decree No 81-N, of 30 January 2020. This Decree combined functions of two agencies (Environmental Monitoring and Information Center, and the Center of Hydrometeorology and active influence on atmospheric phenomenon) into one agency – Center of Hydrometeorology and Monitoring. 79 MES, annual report 2019. http://www.mes.am/hy/reports/ 90 diseases, or drought.

91 9. PROGRAMS AND ACTIONS

This section includes an analysis of existing agriculture sub-sector programs and projects, international adaptation projects and their results, and synergies with the wider national and international strategic frameworks, within the context of integration of climate change adaptation into the sustainable development planning processes, including gender main-streaming in climate change adaptation programs in agriculture with a focus on deficiencies in planning and in the results achieved.

9.1 Brief overview - state support policies and programs

In general, Armenia pursues liberal policies in agriculture. Prices of agricultural products are not regulated, and there is no (or very little) intervention of the state into the agricultural production and product marketing processes. In th earea of agriculture, there are no policies and programs explicitely aimed at mitigation and adaptation to climate change, however, there are specially designated programs to support the use of environmentally friendly technologies such as drip irrigation, and promote the use of protective technologies against extreme natural phenomena (e.g. anti-hail nets or other technologies). 80 The drip irrigation program aims at increasing the farmed area under drip irrigation by 1,700 ha in total. Government support tools in agriculture include, among others, the provision of low interest rate leasing or lending programs, where farmers could lease/buy agricultural machinery and equipment with down payment and interest rates significantly lower than in the market. The Government of Armenia is in search of more effective and efficient ways to support agriculture and promote sustainable farming practices. Programs and instruments used by the government include particularly:

o Production support, including (i) interest rate subsidies (for loan and leasing); (ii) subsidized Public spending in agriculture, $ million leasing - one of successful programs to support 35.0 agriculture was the subsidized leasing program, 29.0 30.0 where farmers could lease agricultural machinery 25.7 and equipment with down payment and interest 25.0 22.8 22.8 rates significantly lower than in the market; (iii) 20.9 state supply of inputs (state purchase and 20.0 distribution of key inputs such as fertilizers, seeds 14.0 15.0 and fuel at preferential prices; support to the 10.7 81 irrigation water system; (iv) tax privileges for 10.0 agriculture (e.g. exemption from VAT for some stages along the agricultural supply chain). 5.0

o Support to rural development. For regional 0.0 development and social cohesion purposes the 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018

state implements programs to support households Figure 21. Armenia, public spending in agriculture living and operating in remote rural areas (e.g. exemption from taxes).

o Foreign trade (protection of domestic market): Armenia applied a liberal foreign trade regime. Import tariffs on agri-food products (and domestic price regulation). Armenia is a member of the EAEU and the tariffs on products imported from third countries are set at EAEU level.

80 Source: Ministry of Agriculture: www.minagro.am/պետական-օժանդակության-ծրագրեր/ 81 To support the irrigation sector and maintain its financial viability, the Government of Armenia provides financial assistance to entities involved in water intake and distribution – Water User Associations (WUAs) and Water Supplier Agencies (WUAs). In 2018, the water subsidy amounted to $ 11.5 million. The water subsidy provided to WUAs and WSAs during 2006-2018 was about USD 170 million. 92 However, it has to be noted that, the public spending in agriculture has been decreasing since 2014 and remains very low in absolute terms (figure 21).82 With limited financial recources, the efficiency of the sending of the budget money becomes critical. Equally important is: • to encourage private investments into farms and sustainable technologies and practices • to enhance knowledge among farmers and food processors about modern advanced technologies and practices, as well as about sustainable practices This sections below include discussion of projects and actions implemented by the Government (in collaboration with international financial institutions) as well as by NGOs, international and domestic donor community, and private businesses in the areas of crop production and plant health. Government programs and projects include not only those implemented by the Ministry of Agriculture, but also by other agencies such as Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Emergency Situations, Water Committee under the Ministry of Energy, Infrastructures and Natural Resources (MEINR), etc.

82 Source: Ministry of Agriculture: www. http://minagro.am/pdf-pages/բյուջե/ 93 9.2 Specific program/action recommendations

Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Applied research Scientific and research • The selection of research topics often has little • Establish effective incentives • Improved quality of research institutions under relevance to real challenges and opportunities in (financial, tax incentives, etc.) to works in terms of: (i) meeting relevant ministries agriculture in the context of climate change. promote R&D by agricultural real needs of climate change Therefore, the results of research do not find agencies or universities or the mitigation and adaptation in practical application among farmers and/or other private sector to create climate agriculture; (ii) timeliness of (see the list of the stakeholders for climate change adaptation. change resistant/adapted varieties, works; (iii) the ease of institutions in the and technologies, IPM, etc. practical application and use • The results of research work are not readily section …) of research works. available for farmers, agricultural service • Create a mechanism for effective

providers, and other stakeholders. stakeholder dialogue to make • Better match between Ministry of Economy research work more practical and research effort and climate • The results of research and results of different (Agriculture) programs sometimes are impossible to driven by practical farmer needs. change challenges, as well as risks mitigation and implement in farms or are not effective because • Develop measures to promote farm of several reasons: small sizes of farms, lack of corporation and cooperatives, adaptation. cooperatives and cooperation between farmers, • Wider application of • Enhance the extension service, and lack of proper machinery, lack of farm field promote knowledge transfer, innovative approaches to schools, continuous training programs, proper meet climate change consulting/extension services, lack of financial • Establish incentives for farmers to challenges in agriculture. resources for the introduction of the best innovate and introduce climate- • Improved dialogue and agricultural technologies, lack of advanced smart agriculture tactics and technologies. cooperation between demonstration farms and outdated technical scientific and research means, lack of connection between research and • Develop Pests Development institutions and farmers and other stakeholders. Forecasting and Early Warning agricultural service System. providers. Production and Ministry of Economy • There is low investment by farmers in sustainable • Organize targeted demonstration • Wider application of Climate- technologies: (Agriculture) and climate smart technologies and practices projects involving climate-smart Smart Agriculture agriculture technologies and technologies and practices. demonstration Ministry of Environment • The results of research do not find practical practices, including: climate-smart and promotion of Ministry of TAI application (and are not replicated) among effective farmers and/or other stakeholders for climate cultivation practices, irrigation, ANAU production change adaptation. variety selection, sustainable use of technologies Scientific institutions inputs, etc. • Development of guidelines for

94 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME agricultural service providers and farmers about climate-smart agriculture. • Establish effective incentives (financial, tax incentives, etc.) to promote R&D by agricultural agencies or universities or the private sector to create climate change resistant/adapted varieties, and technologies, IPM, etc. Extension services Ministry of Economy • Extension services are weak and unable to • Training personnel and specialists on • Improved quality of (Agriculture) effectively meet the demand for agricultural climate change issues, and Climate- extension services in terms consultancy on sustainable agriculture, and Smart Agriculture technologies and of: (i) meeting real needs of climate change mitigation and adaptation practices. farmers in relation to climate Marz extension services technologies and practices. change mitigation and • To the possible extent, make design adaptation in agriculture; (ii) • Farmers are often guided by short-term profit and marketing of extension services making strategy and ignore climatic conditions, financially viable timeliness of works; (iii) the land specifications and the cultivation ease of practical application • Ensure sufficient public financing for and use of research works. requirements of a selected plant. Even large carrying out extension services investments may be without relevant knowledge • Enhanced viability of and consultancy. This results in failure because • Enhance the mobility of extension extension services. farms selected a wrong plant and/or planted it in services. irrelevant zone. • Establish effective cooperation with • Farmers tend to not seek agricultural consultancy scientific centers and scientific- until facing serious failure risks, when it may be research institutes, Higher too late. Education Institutions and private sector service providers. Teaching and ANAU • Climate change issues, including climate change • Timely review of relevant curricula, • Availability of educational extension Other educational and impact, climate change mitigation and taking into account the programs and courses for scientific institutions adaptation, and climate-smart agriculture issues requirements the needs in public public and private sector not reflected in educational programs and and private sectors for knowledge officials/employees curricula. and skills in climate change • Effective links between mitigation and adaptation, organic • Limited effort of climate change related applied educational system and agri- agricultural research and field trials in Armenian farming, and Climate-Smart food sector as well as policy

95 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME regions, Agriculture. makers • ANAU is slow to respond to changes and develop • Provide relevant education, train and • Climate-Smart Agriculture programs and courses to support climate change retrain educators and specialists. knowledge and new mitigation and adaptation. technology is transferred. • Promote knowledge and climate smart technology transfer. Create • Demonstration farms, and develop demonstration farms, farmer-field schools are farmer-field schools, with created. researchers and the Extension service.

National Plant Ministry of Economy • The draft National Plant Protection Program, • Rrevise sub-sector strategies of the • National Plant Protection Protection (Agriculture) pending adoption, does not include provisions on draft National Plant Protection Program, with provisions on Program climate change mitigation and adaptation in the Program before its adoption by the climate change impact, phytosanitary field. Government, to integrate provisions climate change mitigation on climate change impact, and and adaptation, is adopted • The National Plant Protection Program is a key guiding document in the phytosanitary field, climate change mitigation and and implemented. covering: plant production and protection, adaptation. pesticide lifecycle management, climate smart measures and tactics conducive to climate change mitigation and adaptation, education and training, extension and knowledge transfere, awareness raising, applied research etc. Integrated Pest Ministry of Economy • There is no IPM system applied in Armenia. • Develop and implement an IPM • The IPM approach will management (Agriculture) system in Armenia contribute to a significant (IPM) MES increase in the production of safe food products in HM Agency Armenia, the creation of a favorable phytosanitary situation, and reduction in the adverse effects of pesticides on human health and the environment. • IPM tactics, as a part of CSA

96 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME practices, will help to reduce crop vulnerability to pests, diseases, abiotic stresses, will improve the capacity to adapt, as well as will help to manage plant production and food safety systems under climate change. Production and Ministry of Economy Organic agriculture is in early development stage. • Promote organic agriculture as an • Development of organic technologies: (Agriculture) Further enhancement and enlargement of organic effective direction of enhanced agriculture, which is organic agriculture SSFS agriculture is constrained by a number of factors climate change adaptation capacity conducive to climate change such as: mitigation and adaptation. • Consolidate the strategic and policy • High investment and time requirements for efforts at national level, instead of establishing organic orchards and farms fragmented donor led efforts • Lack of knowledge and skills • Include corresponding provisions in • Low competitiveness in international markets the Law on Organic Agriculture • Difficulties in marketing issues.

Production and Ministry of Economy Colony collapse disorder becomes frequent, which • Elaboration of state support • Increased number of healthy technologies: (Agriculture) is conditioned not only by CC, but also is the result program for the development of bee colonies in Armenia of duplication of toxic chemical application beekeeping development, including beekeeping • Improved health and, volumes. organic and traditional beekeeping productivity and climate • Enhancement of provision of lab change resilience of

control services to ensure effective horticulture, and agriculture quality monitoring and control ecosystems. • Amend (accordingly) in the Law on beekeeping Agricultural Ministry of Economy • Lack of effective practical projects, trials aimed at • Implementation of practical projects • Improved genetic resources resources: (Agriculture) improvement and conservation of climate change to introduce and promote the use of will increase the diversity of Genetic resource resilient varieties of crops new or improved varieties varieties resistant to diseases and resilient in relation to improvement and • The selection of research topics often has little • Genetic resource conservation conservation relevance to real challenges and opportunities in frost, drought, etc.

97 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME agriculture in the context of climate change. projects Therefore, the results of research do not find • See more details and examples of practical application among farmers and/or other suggested types of projects in the stakeholders for climate change adaptation. Highlights section • The results of research work are not readily available for farmers, agricultural service providers, and other stakeholders.

Resource Ministry of Economy • Limited supply of feed is one of the key factors • Improvement of natural and • Effective and climate change use/management: (Agriculture) constraining the development of animal cultivated forage lands and resilient supply of Forage/fodder Ministry of Environment husbandry sector. meadows, and increased the fertility forage/fodder to animal of forage lands and hayfields to husbandry sector, which will production Ministry of TAI • Climate change may have negative impact on natural and cultivated forage lands and meadows. mitigate the harm caused by contribute go climate-change Communities Unsustainable practices applied by farmers will overgrazing. adaptation and support further growth of the sector. ANAU further exacerbate this issue. • Application of climate-smart Scientific institutions. technologies in pastures. • • See more details on suggested types of specific activities/measures in the Highlights section

Resource Ministry of Economy • Soil salination is a serious challenge the Ararat • Application of integrated and unified Effective soil improvement will use/management: (Agriculture) Valley, due to poor irrigation practices and approach for restoration and address environmental issues; soil improvement* Ministry of Environment insufficient drainage and soil improvement works. improvement of community owned increase resource use Climate change will exacerbate this problem. salinized lands. efficiency; enhance agriculture Ministry of TAI Salinized lands may be used for agricultural productivity, and contribute to • Design saline land improvement Communities effective climate change purposes only after soil improvement (e.g. strategy. Design effective state adaptation. ANAU chemical treatment). It is important to note that support package (co-financing, most of the salinized lands are under the Scientific institutions other financial incentives) for the ownership of communities. restoration and improvement of • The approach till today has to focus soil private saline lands. improvement works on soils with mild and • Design state support package to average salinization, and then improve highly encouraging the application of salinized soils. The tendency has been to carry out

98 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME soil improvement works on small surfaces. This water-saving systems for lands approach is not cost effective and makes the soil having high risk of salination. situation even worse by creating highly salinized • Awareness raising for farmers islands. concerning compulsory rules of agricultural management of salinized lands. • Active involvement of communities in soil monitoring and soil situation data collection activities Protection against Ministry of Economy • Hail causes significant damage to agriculture, and • To complete effectively the • Enhanced climate change natural disasters, (Agriculture) climate change will increase the frequency and development of the anti-hail system, adaptation through better hail Ministry of Environment intensity of hails in Armenia. and increase the coverage of the protection of agriculture protection by the system, as set out against hail • Government has undertaken measures to prevent Ministry of TAI in the Government Decree No 1678- and protect against hail, and compensate • Accurate predictions of Communities damages caused by hail. N, of 21 December 2017, and natural disasters, awareness Government Decree No 15, of 13 raising of agricultural farmers • However, the anti-hail system development is still April 2017. in process. At the same time, the investment by through application of • Scale up the ongoing state support effective preventive private farmers anti-hail nets is low and insufficient for effective protection of orchards program to promote the investment measures and creation of and vineyards. in anti-hail nets by private farmers. quick response conditions. Introduction of modern • Enhence the forecasting capacity • Agriculture insurance system is being piloted in systems of anti-hail Armenia, and covers damages by hail. and information sharing and notification system about hail risks protection

Protection against Ministry of TAI • Climate change will lead to more severe winds in • Establish windbreaks to protect • Windbreaks will help to natural disasters, some regions of Armenia. Wind causes soil against winds protect soil and orchards erosion, damages plants and harvest, water and against winds (aggravated winds • To draw up methodological guidance microclimate. Negative wind impact increased for windbreak establishment. To and newly emerged climate due to large scale deforestation during 1990s. define the minimal surfaces of lands change risks). Annual land loss due to erosion makes 1.5-24.0 of agricultural importance, which • Improved windbreaks may tons/ha and more: this is the most valuable part should have a windbreak. See help to achieve: of the land – humus. By losing this layer, soil not additional details about wind-break • Milder wind throughout field only loses nutrients, but also is deprived of its standards in Annex 6. structure and essential water-physical properties, by 30-40%.

99 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME making the soil not suitable for agriculture. • Prepare maps for windbreak • 2-3 additional degrees establishment for each community, during spring cold spells taking into account the previous data • Reduction of surface flow by and risks and deviations generated 20-30 % and prevention of as a result of climate change. landslides on slopes. • Develop a plan for restoration and • Higher accumulation of establishment of windbreaks snow, and prolongation of through local communities. snow melting by 15-16 days • Mandatory inclusion of windbreak compared to open field. tree planting in 5-year term strategy • Increase of plant productivity of each community, in order to and natural forage land reduce erosion. efficiency. For example, the productivity of fall wheat is increased by 0.3-0.7 tons/ha, and forage land vegetation by 0.2-0.3 tons/ha. Production and Ministry of Economy • The Program to support livestock breeding (2019- • Develop criteria to identify and • Improved and strengthened technologies. (Agriculture) 2024) is to supports farmers engaged with support people, companies and program climate change pedigree breeding in Armenia at affordable terms, entrepreneurs involved in mitigation and adaptation in particular, through partial subsidization of loan Environment protection and Climate component. 2019-2024 interest rates. However, the Program does not Change Mitigation activities. Program to incorporate effectively environmental protection support livestock and climate change adaptation mitigation and breeding adaptation issues. Animal health. Ministry of Economy • The Program of Agricultural Animal Vaccination • Improve the Program by introducing • Improved Animal Vaccination Animal vaccination (Agriculture) focuses on prophylactic measures against animal post-vaccination assessment program and complimentary infectious diseases. The effectiveness of the component to identify specific programs enhanced with vaccination program is not evaluated by immune immune response of the animals. practical works towards competence tests (screening), which do not allow climate change mitigation • Registration of animal diseases via to identify the gaps of the vaccination program. Ani Pas System. and adaptation for • Consequent mapping of the animal diseases. agriculture. • Implement “One Health Concept”

for zoonotic diseases.

100 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Animal health. Ministry of Economy • … • To enhance the inter-ministerial • Improved program aimed at The Concept (and (Agriculture) communication and improve One Health Concept Action Plan) for interrelationship among Animal development (triad: Animal Fighting Against Health & Human Health Projects. Health, Public Health and Environment Protection). Brucellosis of • To implement “One Health Concept” Agricultural against zoonotic diseases. Livestock Animal husbandry: Ministry of Economy • There is no proper coverage of climate change • Add provisions to expand the scope of • Improved access to AI&R data Animal (Agriculture) risks, mitigation and adaptation issues. direct and indirect beneficiaries of for agencies; better access to the AI&R program who may from the database created in AniPas identification and • The program also does not effectively cover the data generated and maintained in the registration (AI&R) opportunities for interdepartmental cooperation, • Enhanced AI&R system will Government Decree No framework of the program, including: 10, of 13 March 2014, on particularly in the climate change and contribute considerably approving the AI&R environmental protection sectors. - Agencies, departments related to climate change adaptation via climate change improved animal husbandry, program • The Program is not linked with other related initiatives and programs implemented by the - Private farmers, NGOs, and efficiency of veterinary Government, IFIs, and donor community. agricultural service providers activities, disease control and surveillance, and traceability • Establish clear and effective of animal origin food. procedures for management, access and use of the data, etc. • AI&R system will identify, demonstrate, validate and disseminate data on technologies and innovative ecological restoration measures to prevent land degradation damaging natural and artificial ecosystems and affecting communal lands at the landscape level. Technology use: Ministry of Economy The Law does not include environmental • Introduce mandatory technical These measures will not only Agricultura (Agriculture) requirements in relation to agricultural machinery checkup. Define normative standards reduce the quantity of harmful machinery and exploitation of agricultural machinery. and technical norms for the substances emitted in the exploitation of agricultural atmosphere, thus mitigating machinery. pollution of atmosphere, but will also assure the

101 Table 17. Programs and actions – gaps and recommendations AREA AGENCY/FUNCTION GAP OR SHORTCOMING RECOMMENDED CHANGE EXPECTED OUTCOME Around 90% of agricultural machinery in Armenia is • For effective implementation, create modernization of vehicle fleet outdated and more than 20 years old. The use of mobile technical checkup stations and improvement of the quality outdated agricultural machinery leads to: with capacity to make technical of agricultural activities. • 25-35% increase of fuel-oil expenses checkup for special-purpose and big- The number of accidents and sized agricultural machinery. • Many-fold increase of emissions into air emergency cases will decrease • Poor cultivation and harvesting practices, • Continue and enhance the program as well. • 50-65% increase of repair & maintenance costs of supporting the procurement and • 30-45% increase of automated activity (plowing, use of agricultural machinery and sowing, cultivation, treatment, harvesting, etc.) equipment • 8-12% increase of agricultural production costs Gender equality Cross cutting Women inclusion in agriculture improved notably • Armenia need to adopt a gender- Ministry of Economy due to a large number of donor driven project, responsive approach to CSA, to (Agriculture) however, there are a number of persistent gender assure gender equality in agriculture. issues in agriculture: There should be approaches that Ministry of TAI • Low economic opportunities for and access of increase capacity to develop and Ministry of Labor and women to agriculture production resources execute gender-responsive policies, Social Affairs implementation plans, and budgets • Women are paid less than men for their work in the agricultural sector. • Women and more engaged in informal • agricultural activities Donor led projects that encourage women’s participation in • Women have less participation in decision making agribusiness shall be expanded and in private as well as public sectors replicated • Women are more engaged in specific field works • Design of tailor-made training such as harvesting, sorting, and packaging. courses for women to enhance their • Women have less knowledge and skills in farming knowledge in agriculture and and agribusiness, as well as in using agricultural agribusiness technologies • Smart ecosystem and landscape

management to keep ecosystem Climate change will exacerbate the problems available to farmers that are related to gender inequalities in agriculture. important for gender relations and agricultural development

* Refer to the project of improvement of salinized lands in Arart valley by RAED PIU (Rural Areas Economic Development Programs Implementation Unit) State Agency of Armenia Government Staff.

102 9.3 Agricultural resource use/management

Efficient irrigation program: to support the irrigation sector and maintain its financial viability, the Government of Armenia provides financial assistance to entities involved in water intake and distribution – Water User Associations (WUAs) and Water Supplier Agencies (WSAs). In 2018, the water subsidy amounted to $ 11.5 million. The water subsidy provided to WUAs and WSAs during 2006-2018 was about USD 170 million. Poor irrigation practices on plots indirectly lead to overhydration and salination. Inefficiencies in irrigation water distribution system often causes extra costs to farmers. Inaccuracies in the determination starting and ending dates of the of irrigation season (to be based on peculiarities of each climatic zone) often negatively affects the productivity (harvest). In addition, improper timing of irrigation may cause serious damages related to early spring cold spells. Support to introduction of efficient irrigation practices. There were several programs to rehabilitate and enhance the irrigation infrastructure in Armenia, and support the introduction of modern water saving irrigation technologies by farmers. The most recent measure was adopted in the Government Decree No 212, 7 March 2019. The program promotes investment in modern irrigation technologies (e.g. drip irrigation) though financial support to farmers (loans with subsidized interest rate). Agrochemical examination of agricultural land, to develop scientifically based recommendations for efficient and effective use of fertilizers, and inform farmers and communities to avoid the use of high doses of nitrogen fertilizers, which contributes to a more intensive development of plant pests and increases yield losses. Within the framework of the Soil agrochemical research and fertility improvement program, about 88,000 ha of agricultural land in 157 communities are examined annually. The program provides an opportunity to examine the lands of all communities within 5 years, to compile large- scale agrochemical maps, to develop scientifically based recommendations for economical and effective use of fertilizers and to provide them to the communities. - Soil health practices: Improving soil health is one of the most important agricultural adaptation practices. Soil health can be improved by using comprehensive soils testing, using cover crops, adopting low till or no till technologies for crops, and using effective nutrient management to build organic matter in soils. According to our research, there has not yet been a focus on the government or extension services on soil health, there are no comprehensive soil testing programs, and very few if any farmers are using low-till, no-till or cover crops. Identification and implementation of adaptation response to Climate Change impact for Conservation and Sustainable use of agro-biodiversity in arid and semi-arid ecosystem of South Caucasus (2011-2014). Overall objective of the project is to build adaptive capacities in the South Caucasus countries to ensure resilience of agro-biodiversity of especially vulnerable arid and semi-arid ecosystems and local livelihoods to climate change. The Project was financed by the EU, GIZ, and BMZ, and implemented by the Regional environmental center (REC) for Caucasus.83 Fostering Community Forestry Policy and Practice in Mountain Regions of the Caucasus (2009-2012). The overall objective of proposed action is fostering community forest policy and practice in mountain regions of the Caucasus to address deforestation and climate change issues, secured land tenure and forest rights, rural poverty reduction, diminishing regional and national tensions and the risks of insurrections let by alienated elements, conservation and sustainable development needs of local communities. The project’s specific objective is respond to current demands of the countries in 1) elaboration of relevant to institutional, legal and technical set-up for community forest management, 2) awareness raising and capacity building of local communities and local authorities on sustainable forest management and 3) demonstration of best approaches/methods of immediate reforestation and landscape restoration in areas affected by land-slides, mudflows, avalanches and other natural disasters preventing measures.84

83 http://rec-caucasus.am/identification-and-implementation-of-adaptation-response-to-climate-change-impact-for-conservation- and-sustainable-use-of-agro-biodiversity-in-arid-and-semi-arid-ecosystem-of-south-caucasus-2/ 84 http://rec-caucasus.am/fostering-community-forest-policy-and-practice-in-mountain-regions-of-the-caucasus/ 103 CARMAC (Community Agricultural Resource Management and Competitiveness) Project, 2011-2016), and CARMAC II (2016-2022), the World Bank. These projects aimed at the enhancement if livestock sector in selected communities of Armenia, including the productivity and sustainability of pastures, and participatory community development. In addition to the 81 communities engaged under CARMAC-1, 109 mountainous communities in eight provinces have received support in establishing pasture user consumer cooperatives (PUCCs) to assume management and control of community pasture areas with the objective of improving the productivity and sustainability of pasture and livestock systems. • 207,000 ha, about 19 percent of the area of previously unused or underused pastures, were equipped with watering points (147 km waterline, 133 stock watering points), reducing the pressures from animal grazing on more degraded nearby pastures. • 477 units of agricultural machinery, including 89 wheel-tractors, 50 baling machines, and 338 units of other agricultural tools, were provided to the PUCCs. • In the communities, which benefited from project activities, animal productivity increased from 1,420 liter of milk per year to 1,642 liter per year. • More than 110,000 conventional head of livestock, which makes about 17 percent of the total head of livestock in the country, were covered by the project.85 Under CARMAC II, a number of studies were carried out about improvement and conservation of genetic resources in agriculture. These included: • Study, evaluation, propagation, enrichment, improvement of documentation system and pre-selection activities of ex-situ collection of plants’ genetic resources, 2012-2014 • Study of solanaceous plants’ global gene pool collections, 2010-2012 • Reproduction of plant collections, having regional priority, 2011-2012 • Study of a number of native vine varieties and their clones, 2012-2014 • Acquirement of genetic resources, regeneration, description, documentation and conservation of local plants and their wild congeners, 2012-2014 • Conservation and use of apricot’s genetic resources, 2011-2014. The largest part of these projects remained at study level, or did address effectively primary target problem. Integrated Control of Soil Erosion in Mountainous Regions of South Caucasus (2012-2016), jointly implemented by GIZ/ADA and Government of Armenia. The project aimed at fighting soil erosion and degradation via systemic measures, particularly in Aragatsotn and Shirak marzes of Armenia. The Project includes also legal and institutional reform activities. Reusing discharge waters from fish-farms for irrigation and reclamation of saline soils in the Ararat Valley (2015- 2017), UNDP/GEF small grant project. The project intended to test the technical and economic feasibility of using discharge waters from fish-farms for irrigation purposes and for reclamation of slightly saline soils in the region. It was to have a dual effect: prevent uncontrolled disposal of effluents and at the same time supply water for irrigation (preventing further degradation of soils) and soil reclamation (decreasing area under degraded soils) purposes. The Project team prepared a database about fish farms, maps of salinized and alkalinized soils, soil types, underground water resources, administrative units, etc.

9.4 Production technologies and practices

Program to promote intensive orchards and vineyards,86 87 through promotion of the use of drip irrigation systems, and hail protection nets which help to ensure proper moist microclimate within the orchard, protect

85 World Bank. http://pubdocs.worldbank.org/en/316241554988622965/Armenia-Snapshot-Apr2019.pdf 86 Government Decree 361-L, 29 march 2019. 87 The program is supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), which funded "Infrastructure and Rural Financing Support" program (launched in 2016). Within the framework of the program, "Armenian Fruit" OJSC has been established 104 orchard from hail damage, and to reduce the infection with several fungal and bacterial diseases. In addition, the use of modern high-yielding varieties with different maturity/harvesting seasons may help to escape from simultaneous mass development of pests and diseases on all varieties. Under this program 19 farmers established 73.2 ha intensive orchards with the support from the Government (as of end 2019). At the same time 4 farmers received low interest rate loans to invest in anti-hail nets in their orchards.88 Support to seed production. Government Decree No 73-A, 27 March 2019, on state support to the development of selection and seed breeding in cereal, legume and fodder subsectors. Program to promote sheep and goat husbandry.89 The program is to provide state support, i.e. financial support (via interest rate subsidization and compensation), to farmers to procure high-quality breeds of sheep and goats. Compensation amounts to 23% of the cost of purchasing the animal (max eligible threshold - AMD 450,000 per animal head excluding transportation costs). Higher compensation amount (27%) was set out for remote communities adjacent to borders.90 Program to support investment in smart housing for animals. Under this program the Government compensates the costs for construction and renovation of smart animal farms by small and medium size farmers aimed at improving animal care conditions and animal productivity. 91 Program of development of cattle breeding 2019-2024.92 The program envisages the provision of interest rate subsidy to farmers for purchasing high-quality breed cattle to improve the cattle herd in the country, develop cattle breeding, enhance the productivity of animals through cross-breeding, and thus reduce production costs and increase competitiveness of domestic production. Introduction of the best agricultural practice, modernization of technologies. The EU-funded European Neighborhood Program for Agriculture and Rural Development (ENPARD) was implemented in 2015-2018, to support the sustainable development of agriculture. One of the components of the program was implemented in Shirak, Lori, Gegharkunik, Aragatsotn, Kotayk and Vayots Dzor marzes of Armenia and contributed to the creation of agricultural cooperatives, the strengthening of existing cooperatives, the development of business capacity, the increase of production volumes, expansion of product range, modernization of technologies, marketing, as well as the introduction of the good agricultural practices (drip irrigation system) and disaster risk reduction systems. The program promoted the use of drip irrigation systems, creation of agricultural cooperatives, strengthening of existing cooperatives and modernization of technologies will also help to solve some plant protection issues. Agricultural machine leasing program. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, in the frame of program of “State Support for Financing Agricultural Machinery Leasing, 115 beneficiaries received 245 units of agricultural machinery from April 1, 2017 till May, 2018, including 103 tractors, 2 combines and 140 units of other agricultural equipment. Under this program, farmers got access to agricultural machinery leasing under favorable conditions and subsidized ineptest rates.93 The program continued in 2019 and 2020. This program has demonstrated itself as an effective government support instrument for the promotion of investment and the use of good quality agricultural machinery, though it needs to be scaled up significantly to meet the need for upgrading agricultural machinery. Difficulties and challenges to be addressed in this context include: (i) knowledge and capacity building among service providers and farmers; (ii) improving the financial literacy and health of farmers; (iii) high costs of spare parts.

to develop intensive fruit orchards. The company plans to establish intensive orchards on an area of 306 hectares in Tavush, Vayots Dzor and Aragatsotn marzes. 88 Draft Government Decree on the Development of Horticulture in 2020-2023. https://www.e-draft.am/projects/2323/justification 89 Government Decree No 1305-L, 19 September, 2019 90 Government Decree No 1444-N, of 18 December 2014. 91 Government Decree No 369-L, 4 April, 2019. 92 Government Decree No 327-L, 29 March 2019. 93 Annex of the Government protocol decision No 11, of March 16, 2017. The conditions of leasing under this program were as follows: 20% prepayment, up to 9% of annual percentage rate for leasing, 7 percentage point of which was subsidized (covered by the state): 10 years of payment terms for combines, 6 years – for tractors, 3-6 years for harvester-press pickers and drill seeders, 3 year of payment terms for other agricultural machinery.

105 9.5 Plant health

The draft National Plant Protection Program of Armenia was developed in 2017 and submitted to the government and is pending government approval and adoption. 94 The Program and the corresponding Action Plan covers key areas and issues of plant protection sector. It identifies the main directions for enhancing the policy, legal and institutional framework, including:

o integrated pest management (IPM) o reduction of risks associated with the application of plant protection measures (PPM) o systems for monitoring, control, forecasting and alarm about mass development of harmful organisms, risk assessment and analysis: current situation and suggestions for improvement

o creation of the information database and the corresponding information network in the plant protection area, and cooperation on regional and international levels o scientific and educational capacity in the fields of phytosanitary and plant protection, o education, training and awareness raising among business entities on the risks from the application of plant protection means, on the development peculiarities of harmful organisms

o plant protection in organic agriculture. The draft National Plant Protection Program gives little consideration to the possible impact of the global climate change on the plant protection and phytosanitary situation in Armenia. Accordingly, there are no provisions related to climate change adaptation and mitigation measures/actions. The Program includes one paragraph (Chapter 3․4: Priority issues and ways to improve the sector), which explicitly refers to the possible impact of the global climate change on the biological peculiarities of pests in Armenia, and the need and ways to improve the situation. Specifically:

o 3.4.1. Priority issues in the sector: “There is no sufficient scientific potential in the country and adequate infrastructure, through which it would be possible to properly implement forecasting and alerting of the mass development of harmful organisms, studies of the impact of global climate change on their lifestyles, studies of the thresholds of economic harmfulness”

o 3.4.2. Ways to improve: “Implement Forecasting and alerting of the mass development of harmful organisms, studies of the impacts of the climate global change on their lifestyles, as well as studies of the thresholds of economic harmfulness”. Integrated pest management (IPM) efforts/initiatives. The IPM is not yet effectively implemented in Armenia. The first works and investigations on integrated pest control were carried out in Armenia in the mid last century. Over the last two decades several projects have been carried out, numerous researches and training courses for farmers have been conducted in Armenia on IPM and ecosystem approaches. However, there has been no significant progress in the application of IPM over the years and it has not been seen as an effective system of plant protection in agriculture due to lack of interest and awareness of farmers, lack of IPM proper tools, due to certain difficulties in IPM implementation and other objective and subjective reasons. Unfortunately, there is no any State IPM plan, policy or strategy in Armenia to promote integrated pest management at present. The lack of favorable government IPM policies, including the absence of any support or pesticide subsidy programs also negatively impact the outcome. Armenian farmers mainly use limited IPM tools, which can prevent the development of pests. Moreover, farmers are faced with the difficulties of re-penetration of pests and the development of resistance to pesticides. Some farmers, especially in greenhouses use good agricultural practices such as sticky yellow, blue or black traps, pheromone traps, predators and parasitoids of pests, microbiological preparations under the IPM program, in addition to pesticides.

94 The Program was developed with the technical assistance from the EU and UN FAO, within the framework of ENPARD project. 106 IPM initiatives in Armenia are mainly implemented at the level of individual initiatives of international organizations. One of the initiatives currently being implemented in Armenia is a project implemented by the Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development (CARD). The main objective of the project is to update PERSUAP (Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safe Use Action Plan) and assess the environmental risks of pilot projects. PERSUAP includes an Integrated Plant Protection approach with a focus on preventative tools and tactics that can be used to prevent or reduce the use of pesticides. Within the framework of UN FAO European Neighborhood Program for Agriculture and Rural Development (ENPARD) project "The National Plant Protection Program" for the Republic of Armenia was developed in 2017 and submitted to the government for approval. One of the sections of the National Program is “Integrated pest management (IPM): current situation and suggestions for improvement”. At present, the Inspection Body under the Government of the Republic of Armenia for Food Safety has created a working group consisting of representatives of various institutions to complete the National Program. The first Armenian IPM handbook “Integrated management of widely spread pests and diseases of agricultural crops in Republic of Armenia” has been published within the framework of FAO ENPARD project. Its purpose is to assist farmers in timely detection and identification of pests and diseases of agricultural crops and in organizing integrated control measures against them. Within the framework of the FAO ENPARD project (UNJP/ARM/007/UNO) an IPM plan was developed and implemented against grapevine pests for 3 demonstration farms in Tavush marz in 202095. Nowadays, there is still a limited range of microbiological preparations registered in Armenia for the implementation of IPM. Pheromone and color sticky traps, parasitic and predatory entomophagus, other biological control agents, active microorganisms, etc. are imported for the implementation of IPM. In 2019, within the framework of the RA government program, an IPM project was implemented against South American tomato moth in 2 marzes of the Republic of Armenia: Armavir (village Aknalich - 5 hectares) and Ararat (village Vosketap - 5 ha)96. Entomophagous macrolophus is widely used in greenhouses of "Spayka" LLC against South American tomato moth, Tuta absoluta97;98. From the bio pesticides Bacillus Turingensis-containing preparations are used in very small quantities in Armenia (within the framework of various projects). Sometimes bacterial preparations containing Pseudomonas fluorescens are used in greenhouses to control fungal or bacterial infections like Rhizoctonia solani, Xanhomonas campestris and Erwinia cartovora, or Trichoderma lignorum containing fungal preparations are used in small quantities to control the following fungi: Botrytis cinerea, Sclerotinia sclerotiorum, Rizoctonia solani, Pythium debarianum. So, we can conclude that there is a need to develop and implement Integrated Pest Management Plan in Armenia as a part of climate-smart agriculture tactics to promote sustainable intensification of crop production, safe pesticide use and pesticide risk reduction, climate change adaptation and mitigation.

9.6 Animal health

In the animal health area, Anti-epidemiological activities to prevent infectious diseases of animals, including the diseases common for animals and humans are carried out based on the Law on Veterinary Medicine, the Program of Agricultural Animals Vaccination, the Law on State Control of Food Safety, and a number of inter- agency legal acts setting standards and procedures for inter-agency cooperation. The Ministry carries out annual vaccination against animal diseases to prevent outbreaks of dangerous diseases such as brucellosis. The Concept (and Action Plan) for Fighting Against Brucellosis of Agricultural Livestock,99 which highlights the challenges related to Brucellosis and identifies a set of measures to enhance the institutional capacity for

95 https://www.un.org/humansecurity/hsprogramme/enhancing-human-security-and-building-resilient-society-in-disadvantaged- communities-of-armenia/ 96 http://old.minagro.am/public/uploads/2015/02/naxagic.pilot_.pdf 97 https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1439-0418.2008.01319.x 98 ttps://popups.uliege.be/1780-4507/index.php?id=11671 99 Government Protocol Decree No 53, 26 December 2013. 107 effective fight against Brucellosis. The program does not include any explicit reference to climate change mitigation and/or adaptation.

9.7 Extension services and agricultural consultancy Box 5. More on animal identification and registration The issues related to extension services were discussed above in the Section on the Institutional During the Soviet time, animal husbandry, and animal Framework. identification and disease surveillance systems were 100 CARMAC project. Within the framework of centralized in state farms. Although there was no CARMAC project consumer cooperatives have been electronic database for animal identification, state farms established in 8 marzes of Armenia and consulting maintained paper-based recording system which was services are provided in various fields of agriculture, used, among other things, for disease surveillance. After including field crops, horticulture, animal husbandry, the collapse of the Soviet farming system, and emergence agricultural machinery, etc. of a large number of small private farmers, the Soviet animal identification system has faded out. 9.8 Climate data collection and dissemination The AI&R is an industry-led trace-back system designed to help trace sources of animal health and food safety problems. AI&R is critical for maintaining animal health Improvement of extreme meteorological phenomena and providing real-time information on animal movement forecasts. The HM Service together with the Institute and data required for recording of premises, barns, and of Informatics and Automation Problems are working summer grazing stations. It enables reliable producers to to increase the accuracy of the forecasts of extreme meteorological phenomena. The American WRF access markets and prevent unsafe food movement (Weather Research and Forecasting) model has been ensuring that emergency situations will be handled introduced. These programs are to help to predict quickly and accurately. more accurately and reduce the impact of extreme While AI&R does not directly help preventing the spread meteorological phenomena on crop yield and plant of animal infections, it provides a mechanism for quick health, as well as to predict mass development of identification, isolation and monitoring of potentially pests for introducing an early warning system. infected animals, thus supporting proper disease Improvement of agro-weather services. In recent surveillance, ensuring traceability of animal origin food as years, satellite data have been used to monitor, well as confidence in safety of animal products among analyze and predict the growth of crops, their yields domestic and foreign buyers. and stress levels. Information on forecasts of AI&R system helps to enhance the market functioning. extreme meteorological phenomena is provided to Increasingly large consumer segments are ready to pay a farmers through the media and text (SMS) messages. premium for animals and animal products that have been Data collection with GIS system. CARMAC project tracked from birth. Therefore, food chain operators are included a component to obtain information on the intended to make necessary changes for their operations conditions of lands, especially pastures, field crops to comply with market requirements. It is also critical for and orchards, as well as climate impact and increasing the competitiveness of cattle and dairy farmers agricultural monitoring data, with the introduction of in domestic and international markets. geographical information systems (GIS) and The introduction of the AI&R system will contribute unmanned aerial vehicles. significantly to creating a modern integrated agricultural registry (administration). This in turn may help addressing challenges in such areas as environment protection,

employment, gender equality, and global climate change.

100 CARMAC stands for Community Agricultural Resource Management and Competitiveness" (CARMAC) project (2015-2020), financed by the World Bank 108 Animal identification and registration (AI&R) program101 (Government Decree No 10, of 13 March, 2014). The creation of a livestock numeration, recording and information system (to improve animal husbandry and the efficiency of veterinary activities) is a priority defined in the Rural and Agricultural Sustainable Development Strategy 2010-2020.102 The program is to establish a data management system for cattle numbering and registration via application of ear tags. The objective of the program is to ensure availability of accurate and timely data about animal herd in the country, control of the movement of animals in the country, compliance with international standards, traceability in the food supply chain, more effective disease prevention and control. The Program does not include explicit reference to climate change. However, in addition to agri-food supply chain traceability, this system is critical for achieving, among others, effective monitoring, control of and protection against animal disease outbreaks in the country, as well as pest and disease migration trends related to climate change. The AI&R system will have an immediate impact on all spheres of agriculture connected with livestock production: farm management, animal breeding, feeding and fields’ rotation, management of the pastures, genetic improvement of the animals, animal health and veterinary, as well as vaccination programs. Animal identification and registration enables tracing the movement of animals, conducting timely diagnoses, implementing preventive and surveillance measures, such as sample taking and processing in the laboratory and controlling the treatment of sick animals throw the automatization all processes. To effectively implement the program the Ministry of Economy created a special agency - Centre of the Agricultural Services SNCO,103 which is responsible for animal health and horticulture projects, and included a special AI&R Department to coordinate the works under the AI&R project.

9.9 Disaster and emergency management

Concept of Prevention of Damages to Agriculture from Natural Disasters,104 which sets out the main directions of solutions to prevent and mitigate negative consequences from natural disasters, including: o Introduction of an agricultural insurance system against natural disasters o Use of modern efficient irrigation technologies o Use of anti-hail nets o Protection of soil against floods, soil degradation (soil erosion and salinization), and prevention from fire o Development of the seed breeding and production, and artificial insemination sectors, for wider use of resilient species and varieties (that are resistant against diseases and pests, frost and drought) o Enhance the awareness (to enable quick reaction to disasters), through improving the accuracy of disaster forecast, effective warning systems o Combination of traditional and modern methods of fighting against natural disasters o Promotion of domestic production of means of protection against natural disasters, and ensuring wider opportunities for supply and use of protection means produced in EAEU member states o Continued activities (by the state) in such areas as: seed quality control, plant protection, phytosanitary services, agrochemical analysis and fertilization of soil, veterinary services, food safety, and extension services.

101 The AI&R program was designed with the support from ADC in the framework of Animal Identification and Registration Preparatory Project launched on November 2018 and implemented by CARD. The works were guided by a Working Group (WG) represented by M of Economy, Ministry of Territorial Administration and Infrastructure, the Food Safety Inspection Body, National Veterinary Association, Pedigree Animal Breeders Association, and Armenian National Agrarian University. 102 The Government Decree N 1476-N on “Rural and Agricultural Sustainable Development Strategy of the RA of 2010-2020 and approving the list of activities for Agricultural and Rural sustainable development strategy implementation” (paragraph 75, animal husbandry development priorities in the framework of the strategy). 103 Government Decree 79-N, of 30 January, 2020, http://www.arlis.am/DocumentView.aspx?DocID=138540 104 Government Decree No 15, of 13 April, 2017 109 Agricultural insurance. In 2019, Armenia started a pilot program agricultural insurance of orchards against hail, frost and fire. The insurance policy covered annual costs of operating an orchard.105 The design and implementation of the pilot project is supported by the German Development Bank (KfW) with expertise and grants. The National Agency of Insurers in Agriculture provides insurance for orchards covering damages from hail, fire, and frost.106 Plan of Protection from Landslides is defined in the Government (Protocol) Decree No 22, of 25 may, 2017. Anti-hail protection.107 Based on the results of pilot anti-hail projects, the special anti-hail commission suggested that Armenia shall implement a combination of different anti-hail protection technologies, i.e. gas- generator, missile, and anti-hail nets. According to the report of the commission, it would be possible to ensure effective anti-hail protection of an area of 1.1 million hectares by establishing an anti-hail system which includes: 5 radio-location anti-hail centers, 4 new generation DMRL radio location stations, and 70 missile stations, plus anti-hail nets. The commission suggested to enhance (locate or relocate) gas-generator stations after the establishment of the missile system. Anti-hail nets require significant investments. To promote the investment in anti-hail nets by the private sector, the Government provides financial support to farmers through provision of low interest rate loans, including measures under the programs to mitigate economic consequences of COVID-19.108 Measures to mitigate economic consequences of COVID-19. Under the Government Decree No 356-L, of 26 March 2020, on the 2nd measure towards mitigation of economic consequences of the Coronavirus, the Government support includes the provision of 0% loans, and coverage of 40-50% of costs by the Government (applicable till end of 2020).

9.10 Gender mainstreaming

A large number of projects financed by IFIs and international donor community, include gender component and aid at ensuring equality and inclusion of women in agriculture and rural life. These include agri-food sector development projects implemented by IFIS such as the World Bank, EBRD, and IFAD; foreign country development agencies, e.g. EU (ENPARD Project), USAID, GIZ, Austrian Development Agency, Swiss Development Agency, etc.; international organizations and donors, i.e. UN agencies-UNDP, UNICEF, FAO, Save the Children, OXFAM, and many others. In addition to humanitarian assistance to vulnerable groups of women, these projects promoted entrepreneurship among women in rural areas, by providing technical assistance, training, and access to resources (capital, animals, etc.) and markets. However, there are a number of persistent gender inequalities in agriculture, as indicated also by international studies (see Annex 7 for details on gender inequalities in agriculture).109 • Women are overrepresented in informal employment, unpaid work in family farming, and in domestic activities. Women are more likely than men to engage in own-account farm activities and unpaid work. In 2018 53% of women aged 15-75 had no job and did not look for a job, mainly being engaged in household’s unpaid activity.110 The numbers of employed women and men engaged in agriculture are not very different. Among employed women 26% are engaged in agriculture (i.e. 107,451 women), compared to 24% among men (118,620). • Women are paid less than men in agriculture. In 2018, the women's average earnings in Armenia amounted to 64.7% of men's earnings, e.g. gender pay gap is amounted 35.3%. In Agriculture, the

105 Decree of the Council of the National Agricultural Insurance No 19/01-L, of 17 September, 2019. 106 Agency Council Decree No 19/01-L, of 17 September 2019. 107 Government Decrees referred to: (i) Government decree No 1678-N, 21 December, 2017 on procurement of anti-hail systems; (ii) Prime Minister Decree No 1112-A, of 21 August, on a commission to analyze the results of the pilot anti-hail project. 108 Government Decree No 362-L, of 4 April 2019 on subsidizing loans for investment in anti-hail nets in agriculture. This included the provision of 0% loans, and coverage of 40-50% of costs by the Government. Loans were available for lands of 0.5-10 ha, up to AMD 85 million, for 7 years with 1-year grace period. In addition, under the Government Decree No 356-L, of 26 March 2020, on the 2nd measure towards mitigation of economic consequences of the Coronavirus. 109 E.g. Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in Armenia, FAO, 2017. http://www.fao.org/3/i6737en/I6737EN.pdf 110 Source: Statistical Committee. https://www.armstat.am/file/article/gender_2019.pdf 110 gender pay gap was less that the country average, i.e. women’s average earnings in agriculture amounted to 81.8% of men's earnings, e.g. gender pay gap is amounted 18.2%%. • Women have less access to agricultural production resources. For instance, women have limited land ownership, due to a number of reasons: (i) land registry practices; (ii) patrilocal marriage; (iii) inheritance practice.111 Rural women have little or no direct access to farm equipment such as tractors and combine harvesters. Machinery is stereotypically linked with male gender roles (ACDI/VOCA, 2011). Moreover, in rural areas, more than 95 percent of car owners, and 100 percent of agricultural machinery operators in the marzes, are men (ACDI/VOCA, 2011). Rural women have less access also to financial resources (e.g. loans from banks). See annex 7 for more detail. • Women have less involvement in decision making both in public and in private sectors. Due to low access to resources, traditional practices and stereotypes women are less likely to own and run their private farm. The Ministry of Agriculture was dominated by men, i.e. in 2018, 62% men compared to 38% women engaged in the Ministry. In the administration of provinces (marzes) and communities, staff positions are equally distributed among women and men, however leading positions are dominated by men. Women have limited representation among deputy heads of provinces and community municipalities (19% and 14%, respectively).

111 111 10. INTERNATIONAL ADAPTATION EXPERIENCE AND CLIMATE-SMART AGRICULTURE

Agriculture and climate change are inextricably linked. It is one of the economic sectors most at risk to climate change, as agricultural production is directly linked to the changes in temperature, precipitation, and pests and diseases. Farmers globally are on the front lines of climate change and will need assistance to adapt. Yet the agricultural sector also directly affects the climate, through the emissions of GHGs from agricultural activities. Thus the sector must mitigate climate change (defined as the measures to reduce the amount and speed of future climate change by reducing emissions of heat-trapping gases or removing carbon dioxide from the atmosphere), but also adapt to climate change - defined as the adjustment in natural or human systems to a new or changing environment that exploits beneficial opportunities or moderates negative effects (Global Change 2016). Because of this critical interplay between being a source of climate change, and being highly vulnerable to its effects, it is critical to balance efforts that will reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the agricultural sector with those adaptation practices that will help farmers manage climate change effects (Haden 2012). The two sides of the coin are increasingly addressed in international strategies and programs to address climate change and agriculture. However, instead of viewing climate change mitigation and adaptation as separate endeavors in the agricultural sector, the synergies or co-benefits of several practices should be highlighted. Numerous agricultural practices can contribute to both climate change adaptation and mitigation, but there may also be tradeoffs required in prioritizing adaptation or mitigation practices (Tubiello 2012). One important example can be seen with the practice of improving soil health – which is a climate change mitigation measure that can help capture more carbon in the soil (carbon sequestration), but is also a climate change adaptation measure because a healthier soil can help to infiltrate heavy rainfall that can cause erosion and runoff. Similarly, utilizing cover crops on the field can help build carbon sequestration (mitigation), but also keep the field covered so as to reduce runoff (adaptation). Numerous adaptation strategies are available to reduce the risks of climate variability and change on agricultural production. In general, these adaptation strategies can be grouped into the following categories o Altering crop varieties or the types of animal species that are more adapted to climate change, and/ or diversifying operations; o Modifying the inputs used for production (e.g. water or fertilizers and pesticides); o Adjusting management strategies or farming practices; o Adopting new technologies or changing infrastructure. These options are discussed in further detail below. In addition, these strategies may have limitations under severe climate change, and will require major long- and short-term investment to help farmers change practices (GCRP, 2018).

10.1 Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA)

Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is an integrated approach to address the interlinked global challenges of food security and climate change. CSA aims to simultaneously achieve three outcomes: 1) sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes; 2) adapt and build resilience to climate change; and 3) reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (FAO 2013). UN agencies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, and implementing organizations such as the World Bank, are increasingly utilizing CSA as an integrated approach to help countries “develop policies, robust institutions and secure financing at the local, national and international levels to create a supportive enabling environment for change,” (FAO, 2013), and countries like Armenia are well positioned to take advantage of these opportunities. Globally, the awareness and priority afforded to agriculture under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has increased over the last few years. Out of 160 INDCs submitted in advance of the COP21 meeting in Paris, the agriculture sector (in the context of adaptation and/or mitigation, is included in 131 INDCs. Of these, 103 countries specifically included agricultural mitigation in their INDC. And

112 of the 113 Parties that included adaptation in their INDCs, almost all (102) include agriculture among their adaptation priorities. And more than 30 countries specifically refer to Climate-Smart Agriculture in their INDCs they submitted to the UNFCCC.

10.2 Farm-Level Climate-Smart Agriculture Practices

According to FAO Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook,112 there are different approaches and practices for sustainable crop and animal production can contribute to climate change adaptation. The CSA handbook provides options for locally-specific contexts and should be adapted to the specific contexts of farming communities. Examples of key CSA practices include, but are not limited to, those listed below. Many of these practices, such as nutrient management or soil health improvements contribute to both adaptation and mitigation of GHGs, and should be emphasized: o water conservation and management; irrigation management o integrated nutrient and soil management o cover cropping or mulch cropping o improvements to soil health, and restoration of degraded soils and lands o alterations in cropping patterns and rotations o crop and animal or farm product diversification o planting high quality seeds and altering crop varieties to those adapted to drought or for nutrient efficiency; o integrated pest and weed management (IPM) o conservation agriculture and grasslands management o landscape-level pollination management o agroecological or organic agriculture approaches o Preventing land fragmentation (riparian areas, forest land within the agricultural landscape) o integrated crop and livestock systems o dedicated energy crops to replace fossil fuel use o improved crop cultivation techniques o use of precision agriculture to improve agricultural decision making o agroforestry As noted above, there can be important synergies or co-benefits of certain agricultural adaptation practices for agricultural mitigation. These practices should be highlighted and emphasized, since they will help Armenia increase resiliency of the agricultural sector, but also reduce agricultural GHG emissions. The European Union has also emphasized certain farm-level agricultural practices with positive co-benefits for mitigation and protection of biodiversity113 (see Table 18).

112 http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/en/ 113 European Environment Agency, 2019. Climate change adaptation in the agriculture sector in Europe. (https://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/cc-adaptation-agriculture). 113 Table 18. Summary of farm-level adaptation measures with positive effects on mitigation and biodiversity from the European Union Farm-Level Adaptation Measure Goals Adapted crops Reduces the impact of extreme weather (e.g. frost) and climate events (e.g. droughts). Introducing new crops or bringing back heritage crops has positive effects on biodiversity and ecosystem services and increases the genetic diversity of species. Use of cover crops Reduces the risk of soil degradation exacerbated by climate change; the amount of fertilizers needed, and can improve wildlife habitats and diversity by decreasing erosion. Use of IPM IPM uses current, comprehensive information on the life cycles of pests and their interaction with the environment and, in combination with available pest control methods. It manages pest damage by the most economical means, and with the least possible hazard to people, property and the environment. Crop diversification and rotation Improves the resilience of crops and delivers a range of ecosystem services. No tillage and low tillage Results in positive changes in soil properties, which has a significant impact in terms of increasing soil moisture. Carbon storage in the uppermost soil layers can increase. It also improves food supplies for insects, birds and small mammals due to crop residues and weed seeds being more available. Adapted timing of sowing and Modifying the timing of sowing and harvesting can make use of better soil harvesting moisture conditions. Soil carbon storage can be increased as a result of higher yields. Adjusting cultivation timing to changed climatic regimes improves the quality of the yields. Precision farming Using on-farm modern technology, climate data, or satellite data and tools for precise navigation enhances the efficient use of inputs, such as fertilisers and pesticides, and can reduce water use and maintain soil structure. This requires investments in new machinery and the knowledge to use the new technologies. Improved irrigation efficiency Improved irrigation efficiency, rainwater harvesting and water reuse decreases water abstraction. It can enhance carbon storage in soils through increased yields and residues and can improve water quality, soil ecosystems and soil biodiversity. Livestock breeding Breeding livestock for greater tolerance to heat and increased productivity may have beneficial impacts on climate-regulating services, water and soil ecosystem services, and above-ground and soil biodiversity. Improved pasture and grazing Helps reduce degradation patterns and soil erosion by water and wind, management increase biomass in grasslands and create more sustainable livelihoods for herders. Introducing grass species with higher productivity can accelerate atmospheric carbon sequestration in soils. Organic farming Using organic fertilizers promotes organic carbon storage in soils. Organic farming practices generate high levels of soil organic matter. This enhances water storage capacities and increases resilience against droughts and floods. Improved livestock rearing Improving in-house animal rearing conditions (shading and sprinklers, conditions ventilation systems) improves conditions for livestock, and leads to decreased levels of methane emissions. Farm production and income Diversifying farm income activities can serve as an important farm risk diversification management strategy. Mixed production systems in farms can increase land productivity and efficiency in the use of water, fertilizers and other resources through recycling. In addition, diversifying production can decrease soil erosion.

114 10.3 Agroforestry and agricultural adaptation

Agroforestry is a land use management system in which trees or shrubs are grown around, or among crops or pastureland, and cattle, goats, or sheep can browse on grasses grown under trees (silvopasture). Agroforestry approaches could be particularly important in the Armenian context, since forestry in Armenia is a critical landscape, and the Armenian Government has placed a strong emphasis on protecting forestry resources. This intentional combination of agriculture and forestry has varied benefits, including increased biodiversity, reduced erosion, and climate adaptation. For example, if silvopasture is utilized in hot , livestock are less stressed when grazing in a cooler, shaded environment; the leaves of trees or shrubs can serve as animal fodder, and animal waste can provide nutrients to the ecological system. Agroforestry practices have been successful in parts of Europe, sub-Saharan Africa, and the United States.

10.4 Agroecology and climate change adaptation

Agroecology has been interpreted in many ways, but generally refers to the integration of natural resources and mechanisms with the goals of agricultural production. Agroecology practices have been developed over the past several decades, in response to the emerging understanding of agricultural systems as agroecosystems grounded in local culture, experience and knowledge, and the need to develop environmentally sustainable agriculture and food systems. The field of agroecology has not specifically emphasized its role in climate change mitigation or adaptation. Future applications of agroecology will require incorporating climate change concepts and negotiating tradeoffs with other sustainability goals. The agroecology paradigm highlights the need to preserve ecosystem functions over the long-term. It takes a broad view of how environmental functions relate to agriculture and works towards diversity, resilience, and high-functioning at many ecological scales. These approaches can dovetail with CSA goals, where sustainable, resilient agricultural systems are less vulnerable to climate change, and diversity and high ecosystem function can improve yields and lower inputs. Many governments around the world are adopting national policies for both CSA and agroecology. Since the Government of Armenia has placed a strong emphasis on protecting the ecological and forestry resources of the country, it makes sense to focus on agroecological and agroforestry approaches in for adaptation of the agricultural sector.

10.5 Landscape approaches to climate change and agriculture

Increasingly, the international community is also encouraging organizations and countries to utilize a “landscape approach” to climate change adaptation, in order to increase synergies and minimize trade-offs among the various strategies and actions designed to meet the increasing demand for food, conserve ecosystems, and support resilient rural livelihoods.114 A landscape has been defined as “a social-ecological system that consists of natural and/or human-modified ecosystems (often with a characteristic configuration of topography, vegetation, land use, and settlements) that is influenced by the ecological, historical, economic and cultural processes and activities of the area." (LPFN, 2016). Thus, it is clear that any proposed changes to agricultural practices have to take into account the natural landscape and human systems.

114 UN FAO, Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook, Module 3: Landscapes (http://www.fao.org/climate-smart- agriculture-sourcebook/concept/module-a3-landscapes/a3- overview/en/?type=111#:~:text=The%20application%20of%20landscape%20approaches,emissions%2C%20and%20sup port%20disaster%20risk).

115 Climate change adaptation in the agricultural sector will be more successful if the landscape approach is utilized. According to FAO, the landscape approach “deals with large-scale processes in an integrated and multidisciplinary manner, combining natural resources management with environmental and livelihood considerations. The landscape approach also factors in human activities and their institutions, viewing them as an integral part of the system rather than separate. (FAO, 2012a, p.5). 10.6 International experiences with CSA related to the Armenian context

Internationally, many countries have included agriculture adaptation within their Nationally-Determined Contributions (NDC) under the UNFCCC Paris Agreement. Armenia submitted its first INDC for the Paris Agreement in September, 2015, ahead of COP21: (https://www4.unfccc.int/sites/submissions/INDC/Published%20Documents/Armenia/1/INDC-Armenia.pdf). In the first NDC, the word “agriculture” appears only twice: 1) in the main sectors included in the mitigation contribution, under waste management (including agriculture waste); and 2) in the list of adaptation actions that will be prioritized. Armenia has not yet submitted a second NDC, although this should be submitted in 2020. The new NDC could include much more details on adaptation in the agriculture sector. Numerous countries have also developed a national Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) plan or strategy, in order to translate broad international goals into national CSA policies and approaches. The overall objective of a national CSA Plan is to lay out a plan for the country’s agricultural sector to adapt to climate change, and build resilience of agricultural systems, while minimizing emissions for enhanced food and nutritional security and improved livelihoods. Armenia has not yet developed a national CSA plan, but could do so with the help of international organizations, such as the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture is a network for sharing information on climate-smart production, adaptation and mitigation, by focusing on knowledge, enabling environments, and investments for CSA. Below are examples of international institutional arrangements that enable CSA practices to be scaled up quickly in different countries.

Table 19. Examples of CSA laws and policies, knowledge sharing and investments Climate-Smart Enabling Laws & Policies Sharing Knowledge & Investments Agriculture Policies Practices General • Develop country • Demonstration CSA • National and international (Armenia) CSA Plan Farms Funding for teaching, research and field trials, in cooperation • Develop specific • Train the Trainer regulations and policies Programs: Train with international agriculture to implement Extension and Farm universities Service Centers on CSA • CSA Investment Plan for Armenia practices, then train (World Bank) farmers Adaptation • Conservation Reserve • FAO CSA Adaptation • Invest in fixing water storage & Program or conservation Practices translated transmission systems grants to farmers (USA) into Armenian* • Provide grants and incentives for • Carbon tax dividends • Help farmers develop farmers to adopt BMPs- efficient provide funds for adaptation plans for irrigation, cover crops, low-till, farmers to sequester their farms cooling carbon • Tie Crop Insurance for • Develop Crop Insurance farmers to adoption of Laws adaptation practices • Development and training to use climate decision tools

116 Table 19. Examples of CSA laws and policies, knowledge sharing and investments Climate-Smart Enabling Laws & Policies Sharing Knowledge & Investments Agriculture Policies Practices Mitigation • Carbon tax dividends • FAO CSA Mitigation • Provide funding for farmers to provide funds for GHG Practices translated plant cover crops, manage reductions from into Armenian nutrients, use conservation agriculture tillage, and monitor soil health • Help Large farms audit for carbon sequestration • Pass national law - soil GHGs on the farm, and health provision, to plans for emissions • Incentive community-scale incentivize and measure reductions renewable energy projects, the soil health revenue from which would be improvements, improve used to invest in modernizing protocols for measuring irrigation water delivery systems the gains in soil carbon from soil health improvements and support development of markets for soil carbon capture and storage.

Sustainable • National and regional • Soil health testing on • Investments in community Intensification Land use Planning farms agricultural refrigerated storage and processing, shared • Provide Incentives for farm consolidation, in equipment, milking equipment exchange for universal for dairy farms income

*FAO of the United Nations. CSA Sourcebook: http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/en/. http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/enabling-frameworks/module-c3-policy/chapter-c3-5/en/

10.7 CSA planning implications for Armenia

All of the above-mentioned climate-smart approaches and practices can be used also in Armenia contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation. The FAO CSA Sourcebook is one of the best reference points for further actions in Armenia. Armenia has not yet developed a national CSA plan, but could do so with the help of international organizations, such as the UN Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). The national CSA Plan shall include specific objectives to identify gaps and develop national and sub-national strategies that specifically address the pillars of Climate-Smart Agriculture including: 1) sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes; 2) adapt and build resilience to climate change; and 3) reduce and/or remove greenhouse gas emissions, where possible (FAO 2013).

Table 20. CSA Institutional recommendations for Armenia within the FAO CSA framework CSA framework Institutions General • Establish formal connections between the Armenian Extension service, CARD, and the ANAU, to ensure that extension outreach is based on agricultural research in Armenia • Develop and teach courses and train students at ANAU in practices related to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA), agroecology, agroforestry and landscape approaches. • Provide adequate funding to ANAU to conduct applied agricultural research and field trials, in cooperation with international agriculture universities (Cornell, University of CA)

117 Table 20. CSA Institutional recommendations for Armenia within the FAO CSA framework CSA framework Institutions • Create an Armenian CSA Alliance with farmers, researchers, Extension, agencies and NGOs; join the Global Alliance for Climate-Smart Agriculture.

Adaptation • Establish an Armenian Soil and Water Conservation Service that provides technical advice, soil health testing, grants, plantings, farm plans (with the help of USDA) • Establish an Armenian Crop Insurance Board within the Ministry of Finance, which will work with farmers and agricultural businesses • Establish Pests Development Forecasting and Early Warning System • Develop an IPM plan for Armenia • Establish Regional Climate Centers within the Armenian Hydromet agency; provide funding for weather stations on farms, and develop tools and early warning systems for farmers • Establish an Integrated Pest Management Program at ANAU – which will provide teaching, training, on farm research on IPM methods

Mitigation • Partner with Global Soil Health Initiatives and International Fertilizer Institute on Best Management Practices (BMPs) including the 4 Rs of nutrient management • Adapt precision agriculture tools (GHG calculators (Comet Farm, Cool Farm Tools) for Armenian farms

Sustainable • ANAU partners with international universities; undertakes research and field testing of new Intensification varieties, soil health outcomes, yield outcomes from BMPs, research on hydrology and climate change.

In fact, the EU has recently considered key opportunities and solutions for climate change adaptation offered by EU policies and programs (EU, 2019). According to the report, by mid-2019, 28 EU countries had a national adaptation strategy in place, and 17 countries also had a national adaptation plan. Based on the 2019 reporting under the Monitoring Mechanism Regulation (MMR) Article 15.1, all national adaptation strategies explicitly mention the agriculture sector as one of the priority sectors, outlining specific measures to adapt it. Twenty EU Member States prepared specific climate change impact and vulnerability assessments for the agriculture sector, and 13 Member States introduced specific adaptation measures in the agriculture sector at the national and regional levels. The report noted however that there were important considerations needed to ensure that these plans are implemented: • The global climate policy and trade aspects effects on EU agricultural production should be considered. At the global level, various conventions and programs address adaptation in the agriculture sector. These are also important drivers of policy action within the EU. Trade flows of agricultural commodities are relevant, since these can counteract product shortages, which may occur as a result of weather and climate extremes, by providing imports from unaffected regions where such products are still available. • The EU strategy on adaptation to climate change and the common agricultural policy are key drivers of policy and there should be clear connections between these two. While there are refences to climate change in the common agricultural policy, there are very few specific actions to improve the resilience of the sector. • While climate change is included as one of the specific objectives of the current CAP, implementation of technical measures for both mitigation and adaptation need to be promoted at farm level; with greater national investments to ensure that changes occur. In terms of expenditures, Member States

118 have tended to prioritize mitigation efforts over adaptation. To ensure that adaptation is adequately included in national strategic plans, the policy framework should require Member States to offer measures with a direct link to adaptation. • To increase the understanding of adaptation in agriculture, projects under the EU innovation and research programs have been developed. EU programs can support adaptation at the farm level by providing specific and detailed climate change data and information through various services and projects, for example, to support precision agriculture. • Greater efforts are needed to increase the uptake of measures at the farm level. As noted in the above sections, there is a large and growing global consensus that agricultural adaptation to climate change, along with climate change mitigation, is critical to reducing the extent of climate change, and maintaining global food security. The Government of Armenia can learn from the plans, approaches and institutions being developed within various frameworks in other countries (particularly the European Union), including climate-smart agriculture, agroforestry, agroecology, and landscape approaches, practices, policies and institutions to increase the adaptation and resilience of the agricultural sector to climate change.

119 11. ANNEXES

120 Annex 1. Food processing industry details

According to Ministry Finance assessments115 currently there are approximately 1600 food producing companies in Armenia out of which: • Fruit and vegetable processing companies - about 35 out of which 8 are comparatively large companies (“Artashat” Cannery OJSC, “Echmiatsin Cannery” OJSC, “Ararat Food Plant” LLC, “Borodino” Armenian Cannery LLC, “Yevroterm” CJSC, “MAP” CJSC, “Yerevan Beer” CJSC, “Tamara Fruit” CJSC). Total production capacity of processed fruits and vegetables per annum constitutes about 250 tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 1413. • Physical persons and legal entities producing dried fruits and spices - about 350 physical and legal entities out of which 6 medium-size companies (“Chir” LLC, “Tamara Tataik” LLC, “Armen Manoukyan”, “Hasmik Mirzoyan” Private Entrepreneurs, “ Group” CJSC) and some other very small producers. Annual total production capacity of processed fruits and vegetables is 15.0 tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 880. • Grape processing companies – about 50 out of which 12 are comparatively large (“Yerevan Cognac Factory” CJSC, “Artashat Vinkon” CJSC, “Ararat Cognac, Wine, Vodka Plant” OJSC, “Prosհyan Cognac Factory” LLC, “Ararat Wine Factory” LLC, Avshar Wine Factory” LLC”, “Shahumyan Vin” LLC, “Shahnazaryan Wine Cognac House” LLC, “A.K.Z.” LLC, “Samkon” LLC, “ Factory” LLC, “Hayasi Group” LLC). Annual total production capacity of processed grape is about 265 thousand tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 2200. • Milk processing companies – about 65 out of which 12 comparatively large ones (“ Kat” CJSC, “Bonilat” LLC, “Dustr Marianna” LLC, “Multi Agro” scientific and production center, “Arzni Kat” LLC, “Tamara and Ani” LLC, “Biokat” LLC, “Chanakh” LLC, “Dustr Melania” LLC, “Igit” LLC, “Araks-2” production cooperative. Annual total production capacity of processed milk is about 490 tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 1720. • Meat processing companies – about 68 out of which 15 comparatively large ones “Bari Samaratsi” LLC, “Natfood” LLC, “A. Bilyan” LLC, “Atenk” LLC, “ARDelikates” LLC, “Mush” LLC, “Ararat” production cooperative). Annual total production capacity of processed meat is about 50 thousand tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 2177. • Slaughterhouses. In accordance with the decision of the government of RA the slaughter of the animals is mandatory to be conducted in slaughter houses starting the year 2020. The decision was protested by the farmers and the implementation of the decision has been postponed to 01 June 2020. There are about 40 slaughterhouses in all the marzes of RA. 80 more slaughterhouses are planned to be opened in the territory of Armenia. The existing 40 slaughterhouses do not operate with full capacities, which will be changed after the law enters into force (RA Government decree N 142-N, dated 05 February, 2018 on defining the sectors and the schedule of slaughterhouses). • Flour millers –about 60 companies out of which 12 are large companies (“Alex Grig” LLC, “Manana Grain” CJSC, “Mancho Group” LLC, “Talgrig” LLC, “Grand Candy” JV, “At Grain” LLC, “Vt Trade” CJSC). The others are medium-size and small companies. Total annual production capacity is about 400 thousand tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 1500. • Fish production – about 8 companies, out of which 5 are comparatively large (“Mkhchyan Fish” LLC, “Dmitri” LLC, “Ecofish Trade” LLC, “Fish Gold” LLC, “Unifish” LLC). Total annual production capacity of fish products is about 5 thousand tons. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 79.

115 The Ministry of Economy - https://www.mineconomy.am/en/page/1327- Review of agro-processing in Armenia (with minor updates from CARD Animal Health & Food Safety Expert)

121 • Bread baking- more than 500 companies out of which 25 medium-size companies (“Bread Factory 4” CJSC, “Sevan Bread Factory” CJSC, “Anahit” LLC, “Davit 84” LLC, “Khariskh” LLC, “Hatsagorts Andranik” LLC etc), the others are small producers. In total 500 tons of bread is produced per annum. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is 4328. • Confectionary and pasta production -about135 enterprises out of which 12 medium- size (“Grand Candy” Armenian-Canadian JV, “A. Avetyan ASA” LLC, “Mancho Group” LLC, “Daroynik” LLC, “Shant Plus” LLC etc), the others are small and very small enterprises. Total annual production capacity is about 40 thousand tons of confectionary and pasta. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is about 4200. • Mineral, drinking water and nonalcoholic beverages production- about 50 companies out of which 12 medium- size (“ Group” CJSC, “RRR Mineral Water Company” CJSC, “Jermuk Mayr Gortsaran” CJSC, “Coca-Cola Hellenic Bottling Company” CJSC, “Jermuk International” LLC), the others are small and very small companies. Total bottling capacity per annum is 300000 thousand liters of mineral, drinking and nonalcoholic beverages. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is about 1700. • Beer production – 7 companies out of which 3 are comparatively large (“Yerevan Beer” CJSC, “Gymri Beer” LLC , “Kotayk Beer Factory” LLC). Total annual production capacity is about 150000 thousand liters of beer. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is about 930 people. • Coffee and tea processing and packaging companies – about 30 out of which 5 medium- size (“Royal Armenia” JV, “Raffael Contini Trading Company” JV LTD, “Alex Grig” LLC, “Bio Universal” LLC, “HAM Tea” LLC), the others are small companies. Total annual production capacity of processing and packaging is about 25 tons of coffee and tea. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is about 359. • Vegetable oil production companies – 3, out of which 1 is medium- size “Shogh vegetable Oil Production plant” LLC and the others are small companies. Total annual production capacity is about 5 thousand tons of vegetable oil. Average number of employed people according to the staff list is about 70. • Sugar production companies – 2, out of which 1 large company (“Lusastgh-Sugar” LLC and the other is medium- size company. Total annual production capacity is about 250 thousand tons of sugar. Average number of employees engaged in production process according to the staff list is about 220. Salt production – 2 large salt producing plant. Total annual production capacity is about 100 thousand tons of salt. Average number of employees engaged in production process according to the staff list is about 314.

122 Annex 2. Climate change impact on pests – details

Changes in temperature, precipitation and carbon dioxide (CO2) have significant direct and indirect impact (climatic variability) on bio ecological peculiarities and management of pests. Temperature and precipitation are primary abiotic factors that control the geographical distribution of pests with subsequent effects on their survival, reproduction rate, feeding preference and competitive abilities. Changes in temperature, wind speed, soil moisture and atmospheric humidity can influence the effectiveness of pesticides (bio- and chemical). Increase in temperature due to global climate change may affect pest - crop or beneficial organism - pest interactions. Increase in CO2 and temperature in the atmosphere allows new pests to become problematic and expand their geographical distribution. Although the specific impacts of climate change on plant disease are difficult to predict, it is possible to make several generalizations: o Increased winter temperatures will likely mean higher populations of pathogens survive to initially infect plants; o Increased temperatures will likely result in northward expansion of the range of some diseases because of earlier appearance and more generations of pathogens per season;

o more frequent and more intense rainfall events will tend to favor some types of pathogens over others.116 A study has shown that for each 10Co warming potato late blight would occur 4 to 7 days earlier, and the susceptibility period extended by 10 to 20 days.117 This would likely translate into an additional 1 to 4 additional fungicide applications for potato farmers – increasing both farmer costs and environmental risk. o Insects will expand their geographic ranges with changes in climate, and increase reproduction rates and overwintering success. Warmer temperatures translate to increased insecticide applications to produce a marketable crop. Insecticides and their applications have significant economic costs for growers and environmental costs for society. Additionally, some classes of pesticides (pyrethroids and spinosad) have been shown to be less effective in controlling insects at higher temperatures118. o Additional generations of important pest insects in temperate climates will develop as a result of increased temperatures, probably necessitating more insecticide applications to maintain populations below economic damage thresholds. A basic rule of thumb for avoiding the development of insecticide resistance is to apply insecticides with a particular mode of action less frequently.119 With more insecticide applications required, the probability of applying a given mode of action insecticide or a given active ingredient more times in a season will increase, thus increasing the probability of insects developing resistance to insecticides. o Aa number of cultural practices that can be used by farmers could be affected by changes in climate. o An increased exposure to new pests and diseases for crops and livestock due to temperature increases. o Climate change will create risks for the sector, but also opportunities – both need to be assessed.

116 Coakley,S.M., H. Scherm, S. Chakraborty. 1999. Climate Change and Disease Management. Ann. Rev. Phyto. 37:399-426. 117 Kaukoranta, T. 1996. Impact of global warming on potato late blight: risk, yield loss, and control. Agric. Food Sci. Finl. 5:311-327. 118 Musser, F. P and A. M. Shelton. 2005. The influence of post-exposure temperature on the toxicity of insecticides to Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera:Crambidae). Pest Manag Sci. 61:508- 510. 119 Shelton, A.M., W.R. Wilsey, and D.M. Soderlund. 2001. Classification of insecticides and acaricides for resistance management. Dept. of Entomology, NYSAES, Geneva, NY 14456. 315-787-2352. http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/faculty/shelton/pdf/res_mgmt.pdf 123 Annex 3. Testing (Laboratory) capacity details

Republican Veterinary-Sanitary and Phytosanitary Laboratory Services Center SNCO.120 The RVSPLSC is the only organization implementing laboratory analysis of animal diseases, raw material of animal origin, and food products in Armenia. The laboratory has branches and provides services in all marzes as well as border control points of Armenia. It includes a veterinary laboratory; pathological anatomical division, microbiological division; parasitological division; molecular division; serology and hematological division; toxicology division; food safety laboratory; food microbiological division; food physicochemical and toxicological division; food parasitological division; residues detection division; radiology division; phytosanitary laboratory; toxicology control division; plant protection and plants quarantine division.

Environmental Impact Monitoring Center SNCO (http://armmonitoring.am/). The EIM Center was established in 2016, with the task to carry out environmental impact assessment and consultancy, including, among others: (i) hydrogeological studies and assessments, including preparation of exploration and extraction projects, environmental geological mapping of groundwater mines; (ii) development of waste passports; (iii) physicochemical testing of water, soil and air; (iv) organizing and implementation of researches, studies, elaborations, projects and creative works of environmental objects and their impacts. Below is the detailed list of tasks of the EIM Center. • provision of information and consultancy on development of waste passports • fulfilment of laboratory researches and analysis • provision of information and consultancy on development of draft norms for generation of wastes and limits for their disposal • Delivery of the following services in the sphere of hydrogeological investigation and research activity- preparation of exploration and extraction projects, environmental geological mapping of groundwater mines. • Preparation and provision of hydrogeological information (consultancies). • implementation of water quantity and quality assessments in observation points of the special monitoring network, formed by anthropogenic impacts in local or small districts of groundwater mines • calculation of maximum permissible discharge of water abstraction rates - issued to a water user from groundwater – and of harmful substances contained in wastewater • calculations of abstraction and maximum permissible discharge • development and issuance of passports for groundwater wells (borehole wells, natural springs, etc.) in a bid to advance full-fledged information on groundwater of the State Water Cadaster, their management and maintenance • performance of clean-up activities of groundwater wells, conservation and liquidation of wells, new well drilling, registration of borehole wells and natural springs, as well as preparation of design and estimate documentation for assessment or reassessment of their exploitation reserves • Preparation and provision of hydrogeological information (consultancies) for engineering of strict sanitary protection zones • organizing and implementation of researches, studies, elaborations, projects and creative works of environmental objects and their impacts • general physicochemical testing of surface and groundwater, wastewater, • physicochemical testing of soil pollution, • physicochemical testing of ambient air.

120 http://snund.am/en/rvspcls-snco/ 124

Private sector laboratories

Standard Dialogue LLC (www.standarddialog.com) was founded in Yerevan in 2009. In the same year, the company launched a food testing laboratory and a certification body. • Since 2010, the laboratory has been testing transgenic components of food, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and genetically modified microorganisms (GMPs) and their analogues in accordance with international requirements. • The company is the official representative of HALAL certification body in the Republic of Armenia. • The scope of the research is: • Food raw materials and food tests, according to the following other main groups: sensory indicators, physicochemical indicators, chemical indicators, microbiological indicators, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and genetically modified microorganisms (GMOs), hormone • Testing of non-food products by the following other main groups: sensory indicators, physicochemical indicators, toxic elements, microbiological indicators, mycotoxins, pesticides

The FDI Laboratory (www.fdalab.am) was originally designed and built in accordance with GLP (Good Laboratory Practice) and ISO / IEC 17025 international standards. The laboratory complex is a five-storey building on 3,662 m2 of land, which is located in an ecologically clean place, Kotayk region, Nor Gyugh: The laboratory complex includes four different sections under one roof: • Food Quality and Safety Testing Department • Drug Quality and Vitality Testing Section • Tobacco testing department • Bacteriological testing department The FDA Laboratory is registered in the Unified Register of Customs Union Certification Bodies and Testing Laboratories (Centers). https://www.eurasiancommission.org/ru/docs/Pages/IL_OS.aspx The FDA Laboratory is designated by the Ministry of Economy as a testing conformity assessment body and is authorized to provide a State Registration Certificate. The FDA Laboratory's laboratory also has an international accreditation issued by the ANSI National Accreditation Board (ANAB) accreditation body.

VALEX group companies http://vallexgroup.am/ is a non-formal union, which unites companies whose economic activity, business ethics, corporate social responsibility and other issues are shaped on shared principles. Activities implemented by the companies of “Vallex” group cover a wide variety of spheres, such as mining industry, hydrometallurgy and pyro metallurgy, scientific work, information technologies, hospitality, ecotourism, etc. To implement their activity in any sphere companies of “Vallex” group use methods and technologies tried and tested in the leading countries of progressive world, thus balancing economic, environmental and social activities. Metallurgy laboratory performs the following research activities: • Development of metallurgical off-gas cleaning process flow sheets • The recovery of rare metals by treatment of metallurgical dust • The improvement of molybdenum concentrates waste less processing with simultaneous recovery of rhenium and selenium and utilisation of sulphur containing gas

125 • The synthesis of sodium sulfide from sulphur containing off-gas of elemental sulphur, copper and molybdenum concentrates roasting • Recovery of precious metals from different production wastes • Optimisation of electrolysis process parameters • Recovery of precious metals and selenium from copper-electrolytic slime • Analysis of soil, determination of chemical composition, plant residues, determination of heavy metals.

Darakert ASSC funded by CARD AgroServices. It is a for profit organization that provides agricultural services and products to farmers and agribusiness in Armenia. They have mobile laboratory equipment and offer land analysis services. This service is unique in that the farmer can apply to one of the 19 centres in Armenia, the centre will provide a visit to a specialist, soil sampling, rapid testing of the sample, N, P, K, pH, EC, etc.

126 Annex 4. Private sector service providers

CARD Farmer Support Centers - Center for Agribusiness and Rural Development and CARD – Farmer Support Centers. There are 18 Farmer Service Centers (FSCs) across Armenia. CARD designs and implements agricultural development assistance programs that address the priority needs of the sector for sustainable growth. These include: promoting and applying advanced agricultural technologies, supporting agricultural processing and the develop pment of competitive food products for domestic and export markets, improving food security and increasing food safety at the production, processing, and consumer level, promoting animal genetics and improving animal health and husbandry practices, supporting the establishment of new government policies and regulations for the Ag sector. The CARD serves as a ‘one-stop-shop’ economic development organization staffed with highly-trained experts and specialists who provide agricultural services to a broad client base throughout the country. CARD designs innovative, flexible, impact-driven programs that respond to pressing challenges facing Armenian producers, agribusinesses, and exporters. The projects focus on enhancing the agribusiness community and improving rural livelihoods.

Eco-Globe LLC - is internationally recognized organic certification and inspection body founded in 2002. It is pioneering in Armenia and other countries of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia (EECCA) region with emerging markets. It is organic certification body compliant with the International Organization for Standardization’s (ISO) Guide 17065 and EN 45011. Ecoglobe LLC provides certification according to following standards • RA Law about Organic Agriculture, covering the fundamental requirements in it private standard “Green Caucasus”. • “Green Caucasus” Private Standard, European Union (EU) REG.834/2007,889/2008 Equivalent Green Caucasus Standard is public document according to ISO 17065 as proof of transparency of Green Caucasus certification system. This Standard is a regularly subject of assessment of its equivalence with the EU organic legislation, and recognition by Swiss Organic Farming Ordinance and RA Ministry of Agriculture. • USDA NOP (7eCFR-205 is part of United States Regulations of the Department of Agriculture, related to practices of Organic Production). Products certified according to this standard may be marketed as “100% Organic” or “Organic” on USA and Canada. • “BIO SUISSE” Swiss Private standard. “Bio Suisse” is the owner of the registered trademark Bud. Its standards are private law guidelines and exceed the minimum legal requirements in essential respects (EU-Eco-Regulation 834/2007 or equivalent). www.ecoglobe.am

Shen NGO - is a pioneer in introducing organic agricultural practices in Armenia. NGO disseminated information on organic agriculture to farmers’ groups and individual farmers from 2000 till now with financial support of HEKS/EPER (Hilfswerk der Evangelischen Kirchen Schweiz/Entraide Protestante Suisse, Swiss Church Aid) and the Swiss Development Cooperation (SDC). Others donors like Chene-France, Evangelischer Entwicklungsdienst (EED, Germany), Inter-Charge Charity Organization (ICCO, Netherlands), UNDP GE (UN Development Program Gender Equality), and Regional Council of Ile–de-France also co-funded the project. • Shen started first Organic Agricultural Extension Service in 2005. So far, it has provided 1,300 small holders with free-of-charge training and consultancy services in organic agriculture. The activities initiating organic extension group, establishing private local organic certification body, introducing the new organic agricultural inputs to the farmers, developing both export and local markets, lobbying and advocacy. The Service has also developed an internal control system that makes the certification service accessible for especially smallholders, which has led to the establishment of two groups of farmers willing to share the certification fee. • Demonstrative educational 3 centers of organic agriculture was established. The Demonstrative Educational Orchards (in Shenik, Argian, Lusakn communities) introduces and tests organic and environmentally friendly cultivation methods and effective use of technologies and equipment. The

127 fundamental principles of organic horticulture - biodiversity preservation, efficient usage of soil and water, utilization of solar energy will be put into practice at the Center. The purpose of establishing such educational centers is to create an advisory hub equipped with new technologies for the farmers of Armenia, where theoretical and hands-on trainings organized for free. www.shen.am

Armenian Women for Health and Healthy Environment NGO (AWHHE) - promotes the solution of the problems related to environmental health risks through advocacy, education: AWHHE was founded in 1999 as a non- governmental organization. AWHHE works for sustainable development, protection of human health and environment and poverty reduction, ensuring the active participation of the local population in the improvement of their living conditions, creating the perception of their rights to be healthy and to live in a healthy environment. They work in partnership with international environmental and health networks such as International POPs Elimination Network; Pesticide Action Network Europe; European Environmental Bureau; Health Environment Alliance; Women Engagefor a Common Future International; Women for Water Partnership; Global Anti-Incineration Alliance; GEF NGO network, etc. AWHHE promotes the solution of the problems related to environmental health risks through advocacy, education and information campaigns; independent monitoring and investigations on chemical contamination of polluted sites; contributes to sustainable rural development focusing on safe agriculture practices and energy efficiency; advocates for ecologically sound methods of solid waste treatment and disposal including medical waste management; strengthens the participation of women in decision-making at local and national levels; promotes the implementation of Stockholm Convention and UNECE/WHO-Europe Water and Health Protocol in Armenia; publishes popular and scientific articles; creates and disseminates information materials; educates people; and participates at national and international conferences and forums and processes like Strategic Approach to International Chemical management, Minamata Convention; Stockholm and Rotterdam conventions, Integrated Water Resources Management. www.awhhe.am

128 Annex 4. List of publications/reports

National reports 1. Second Biennial Update Report, under the UNFCCC, Ministry of Nature Protection, 2018121 2. Third National Communication on Climate Change under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Ministry of Nature Protection, 2015 – brief mention of agriculture – broad goals for mitigation need to be incorporated into specific plans. The Third National Communication propose a number of adaptation measures to reduce climate change impacts on the agriculture sector, including: (i) the reduction of agriculture dependence on climate conditions, by enhancing irrigation capacity and efficiency through risk-preventive infrastructure rehabilitation and supporting investment in climate-resilient agronomic systems and technologies (e.g. conservation agriculture, efficient irrigation technologies, switch to climate-adapted and water-efficient crops and crop varieties, optimize timing of operations, switch from field crops to agroforestry and mixed farming systems, integrated pest management); (ii) the improvement of pasture land productivity and sustainable use of pasture-based livestock production; (iii) research and knowledge dissemination for the selection and cultivation of drought-resistant varieties adapted to local conditions, including the maintenance and dissemination of traditional crop varieties; (iv) capacity improvement of extension and research agencies and services to provide knowledge on innovative technologies and information; (v) the development of institutional and professional capacity building for the application of climate change models, the provision of adequate weather and climate services to farmers, and policy development; (vi) investigating viable options for crop insurance, particularly for drought, such as the piloting of a privately-run weather index-based insurance program; (vii) improving farmers’ access to finance to acquire climate-resilient technologies; and (viii) improving access to markets through a better marketability of produce and livestock. 3. Draft Fourth National Communication on Climate Change under the UN FCCC, 2020. 4. National Strategy and Action Program to Combat Desertification in the Republic of Armenia, 2014: http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/1551885091anapat_eng -1.pdf. Agriculture is included in this national report, since the processes of desertification are most closely related to branches of economy, including agriculture: “where the most serious environmental problems are: water loss in the result of inefficient irrigation, soil salinization, erosion, soil pollution with agricultural wastes. The latter result in the degradation of natural ecosystems, change and loss of biodiversity which finally leads to deep quantitative and qualitative changes of ecosystem services. Agriculture in Armenia is vulnerable to negative effects of desertification, having in mind the landscape zones in Armenia. Forecasted changes of the vegetation and soil covers, as indicated in the National Strategy to Combat Desrtification, the aridization process in Armenia will continue in coming decades, and resultin desert lanscape will occupy 7%, semi-deserts 20-21%, steppes and dry steppes 30-31%, forests 7-8%, sub-alpine zone 17%, and alpine zone 7% of the total territory. The expansion of arid landscapes is conditioned not only by the climate change, but also the growing pressure of humans on the natural environment. 5. Fifth National Report of the Republic of Armenia to the Convention on Biological Diversity.122 6. National Greenhouse Gas Inventory Report of the Republic of Armenia, 2016.123

International studies/assessments about climate change impact and agriculture in Armenia 7. Armenia Climate and Agriculture, Country Note, World Bank, 2012. This report covers issues related to Agricultural Risks and Opportunities (In addition to a general change in the climate, severe weather events and outbreaks of crop diseases and pests are predicted to occur), Projected Crop Yield Impacts (Agricultural yields are expected to decline with climate change, if adaptation actions are not taken. Additionally, outbreaks of crop diseases and pests are likely to become more severe, owing to changes in

121 http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/15302535542BUR_eng_final.pdf 122 https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/am/am-nr-05-en.pdf 123 http://www.mnp.am/uploads/1/1563805030GHG%20Inventory_2016_ARM.pdf 129 the range of pests and diminished winter dieback), Potential Adaptation Measures for the Agricultural Sector – Adaptive Capacity (At the national policy level, the Ministry of Nature Protection recommends several specific adaptation measures including: (1) research and use drought- and heat-resistant species and hybrids, especially local species; (2) increase use of high mountainous pastures and decrease relative unit loads; (3) change (optimize) fertilizer use; (4) move agriculture to areas of the country with more moisture and rotate crops; (5) use moisture preservation and irrigation technologies that conserve water; (6) use disease- and pest-resistant crop species; (7) employ hail and flood protection measures; (8) create early warning on extreme meteorological phenomena; and (9) adjust vaccination practices of livestock and change livestock breeds). 8. Sustainable, Inclusive Agriculture Sector Growth in Armenia: Lessons from Recent Experience of Growth and Contraction. Background Report for World Bank Systematic Country Diagnostic for Armenia. Final Report124 9. Reducing the Vulnerability of Armenia’s Agricultural Systems to Climate Change – Impact Assessment and Adaptation Options, World Bank Study, 2014. According to this study, agricultural crops' disease and pest problems were increased, perhaps as a byproduct of climate change that damaged plants, making them more susceptible to attack. Warming, including average and high temperature increases, have a variety of effects, but specifically worrisome are increased incidences of diseases, pests and weeds as well as emerging of new types. So the use of Integrated Pest Management practices and farmers trainings on the risks, training of farmers on risks and benefits of planting new varieties (for example, more responsive to irrigation and fertilizer applications, heat resistant, disease tolerant or resistant, higher yielding with better quality) are the key Adaptation measures.

Educational materials 10. Climate change. A handbook for students of higher educational institutions of the Republic of Armenia125. Developed under the UNEP/Armenia "Implementation of Article 6 of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change" project, in 2007. Climate change handbook among other issues includes data on the increase of Vulnerability of forests as a result of the increase in the area of mass development of leaf pests, which will result in 15% loss of annual growth of wood 11. FAO Climate-Smart Agriculture Sourcebook126: This sourcebook offres Climate-smart Agricultural best approaches and practices that can contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation. Climate-smart agriculture is agriculture that moves away from unstable systems and systems that depend mainly on external inputs, towards systems that can be more efficient and resilient by relying on natural auto-control mechanisms. Climate-smart systems are able to respond and adapt to changing climates, particularly to the increased variability, and can, in targeted instances, contribute to mitigating a further change in the climate.

Crop production and plant health In general, there has been limited scientific and research work carried out in the crop production and plant health area. A number of studies have been carried out by various scientific and research institutions under the Armenian National Agrarian University (ANAU): 12. Scientific Center of Soil Science, Melioration and Agro-chemistry after H. Petrosyan, a branch of ANAU (SMAC Center): Study on determining the causes of soil degradation in Armenia and elaborating measures against negative consequences of climate change, on development of modern technologies of farming in the mountainous zones of Armenia (zero tillage and minimum tillage), as well as application of irrigation saving regimes and methods in those lands. 13. Scientific Center of Soil Science, Melioration and Agro-chemistry after H. Petrosyan, a branch of ANAU (SMAC Center): Research work to address problems of land degradation or the development of

124 http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/701491522220670956/pdf/124666-WP-PUBLIC-FINAL-Armenia-SCD-publication- of-technical-background-papers-on-agriculture-final-040518.pdf 125 http://www.nature-ic.am/Content/announcements/7329/Climate-Change-Tutorila.pdf 126 http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture-sourcebook/en/ 130 pathological processes in the context of global climate change. The aim of the research project was to develop a system of measures to prevent or mitigate the degradation of the soils of the Ararat Valley (for 2015), (the soils of the steppe zone (for 2016), forest brown soils (for 2017)), to increase soil water absorption and water holding capacity and fertility of these soils.127 14. Scientific Center of Soil Science, Melioration and Agro-chemistry after H. Petrosyan, a branch of ANAU (SMAC Center): Study of impacts of climate change and anthropogenic factor on agricultural land fertility in Armenia; based on the study the SMAC Center drafted a law on “Conservation and Enhancement of Agricultural Land Fertility" 15. Agrobiotechnology Scientific Center (ABTS Center), a branch of ANAU, investigation of the salt resistance of more than 20 varieties of potatoes, and more than 10 local varieties of wheat, in the context of global climate change 16. The Research Center for Crop Gene Pool and Selection (CGPS Center) of ANAU o Works on testing of spring barely variety "Ararat", garlic varieties "Parvana" and "Javakhk", which are distinguished from the previous varieties by their drought tolerance as well as with resistance towards pests and diseases. o Evaluation of new varieties of cereals (barley, emmer wheat, triticale) for abiotic factors resistance under climate change conditions, which is directly linked to the opportunity to grow new varieties and increase productivity under the conditions of global climate change.128 o Investigation of agricultural crops wild relatives’ drought or winter resistance, resistance towards diseases and pests. 17. Research center for Ecology and Organic Agriculture of ANAU. Study and evaluation of the state of the natural and agricultural ecological systems in regions of Armenia in the context of climate change, aimed at enhancing their adaptability through the development and implementation of relevant technologies. 18. Research Center for Pesticide Synthesis and Expertise of ANAU. Synthesis of the new sulfuronium, oxyalkil and oxyaralkil derivatives of heterocycles containing N, S, O that have potential pesticide activity meeting the contemporary environmental demands 19. Research Center for Pesticide Synthesis and Expertise of ANAU. Synthesis of non-conformed and condensed new systems with the combination of two, three, and four heterocyclic rings, detecting compounds with two pesticidal properties in them. 20. Research Center for Pesticide Synthesis and Expertise of ANAU. Target synthesis based on the principles of “green chemistry” that envisages the development of high-frequency reactions in solid-phase or water solubility, reduction of energy carriers and waste, rapid destruction of synthesized materials (pesticides) in the environment, etc. • Risk reduction guidelines of natural and man-made disasters, causing damages to agriculture in Armenia, Yerevan, FAO 2015. This manual is published in the framework of a project implemented by UN’s Food and Agriculture Organization and financed by EU (ENPARD). 21. FAO and SSFS produced a Pesticide Handbook (2014). The handbook contains all the information relevant for farmers about pesticides registered in Armenia: the list of registered pesticides, their agricultural usages, directions for use, application date, time, rate, crops, target pests, as well as the information on how to safely use a pesticide, about its storage and transportation. Both electronic (http://minagro.am/public/uploads/2014/05/Pesticide-Handbook-25-12-13.pdf) and printed versions of the Handbook are available. Since the handbook was printed in 2014, it has to be updated as since then a few hundred new pesticides have been registered. 22. The handbook on “Integrated management of widely spread pests and diseases of agricultural crops in Republic of Armenia”. The handbook covers 80 most important pests and diseases was developed and published and both electronic and printed versions are available to extensionists, experts, farmers, other beneficiaries as well as to the general public.

127 Studies were carried out under the program "Infrastructure maintenance and development", funded by the state budget. 128 Carried out in the framework of small grant projects financed by the Science Committee of Armenia (from state budget). 131 23. Armenia Ministry of Agriculture, IPM-specific technical brochure on the potato tuber moth, ways to prevent it, and chemicals to control it. 24. Farmer-to-farmer Programmatic PERSUAP (Pesticide Evaluation Report and Safer Use Action Plan, USAID, 2019. In 2019, Armenia Agriculture Activities PERSUAP & EMMP was produced for review by the USAID.129 This PERSUAP addresses the following key findings and recommendations: o PERSUAP/Allowed Pesticides: The 2019 Armenia RED-NEO PERSUAP evaluates pesticides that could be potentially supported with project (5 year) and partner resources, as well as those that cannot be supported, including justifications. o Safety Training/Equipment: Provision of special trainings (on integrated pest management (IPM), including personal protection equipment (PPE)) for beneficiaries and stakeholders is one of the PERSUAP principles. Recommend that USAID-funded programs which have components related to the use of pesticides on demo trials promote the use of pesticides to farmers, or procure pesticides for farmers perform “Safety training for pesticide workers and handlers’’ and promote using of Personal Protection Equipment (PPE).

o Good Agriculture Practices and Integrated Pest Management: Recommend that USAID IP staff promote the use of GAPs in order to guide the production systems towards a sustainable agriculture and ecologically safe, obtain harmless products of higher quality and improve working conditions of producers and their families. GAPs should be used for each of their target crops, including use of high yielding and quality seed, soil fertility testing and conservation, plant nutritional needs to grow healthy crops, proper water use, crop rotation, clean storage and marketing. o Pest Management Plans/Integrated Pest Management: Recommend that USAID IPs promote the use of state of the art (used by many international, national and state extension services) Pest Management Plans (PMPs) containing major pests/diseases/weeds of each target crop, with preventive non-chemical Integrated Pest Management (IPM) tools/tactics, registered synthetic pesticides, as well as any artisanal and registered natural pesticides available.

In recent years, the following projects on climate change and environmental research (directly or indirectly related to the impact on plant protection sphere), were financed from the state budget under "Contractual (thematic) funding program for scientific and scientific-technical activities" of Committee of Science of Armenia. 25. ANAU, Evaluation of the resistance of new varieties of cereals (barley, beech, wheat, rye) to abiotic factors in the conditions of climate change. 26. Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center SNCO, Research on the compatibility of pesticides used against pests and diseases of agricultural crops, publication of consulting materials 27. ANAU, Production of grape phyloxera-resistant seedlings using biotechnological methods - Agrobiotechnology Scientific Center 28. ANAU, Problems of efficiency and environmental safety of mechanization of technological processes for plant disease and pest control

Animal husbandry and animal health Focused discussion on the provisions in the studies and assessments related to animal husbandry and health, effects of climate change on animal husbandry factors and patterns. There are very few studies about the effects of climate change on types and distribution of animal diseases and diseases common to animals and humans in Armenia. Some studies indicate that significant shifts in animal ecosystems occur in Armenia due to global climate change.130 The ecosystem alteration leads to the

129 It was prepared by the Armenian Women for Health and Healthy Environment NGO in frame of the USAID Rural Economic Development. 2019 Armenia PERSUAP addresses the needs of current USAID-funded activities that will involve potential financing or use of pesticides, following 22 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) 216.3 (b) Pesticide Procedures. 130 The list of selected studies is presented in the Annex 1. 132 change of the animal biotypes/the fauna, which, in turn, results in changes of the structure of food chains as well as the geography of animal infectious, non-infectious, as well as parasitic diseases. In addition, new diseases emerge in Armenia. Similar changes also occur in terms of zoonotic diseases. Horizontal and vertical displacements of hosts and vectors of natural foci diseases are occurring in Armenia due to climate changes, which not only alters the external contours of the diseases areal, but also contributes to the distribution of diseases among climate zones. The agents of the diseases are detected in geo-climatic zones that are not typical for them. Examples of such studies include, for instance: 29. National Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yerevan, MoH of Armenia. carried out a number of studies about studied about the (i) potential impact of climate change on natural foci areas of diseases (Francisella tularensis, of Tularemia, etc.); (ii) The species composition and zoogeographical distribution of Siphonaptera fleas, the main carrier of Yersinia Pestis, in northwestern Armenia. 30. Institute of Epidemiology, Virology and Medical Parasitology, MoH of Armenia. A study of certain territories in Armenia for the presence of natural foci of tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile fever.

However, no research works were found by the project team in the field of veterinary medicine in Armenia related to the geographical-climate distribution of diseases. Moreover, the ever-emerging risks of infectious diseases of animals due to the climate change, as well as the risks of new diseases not typical for Armenia, have not been properly assessed. In the absence of such studies, state bodies, that develop policies and carry out state functions, would be unable to effectively consider and address the challenges of climate change, and as a result, the legislative regulations in these areas have gaps in terms of global climate change

31. Adanalyan, A., S. Gevorgyan. 2011. The Global Climate Change Impact on Water Resources of Armenia. In Climate Change and its Effects on Water Resources : Issues of National and Global Security: 123-129. Dordrecht : Springer Netherlands. Abstract: The global climate change impact on water resources of Armenia is shortly reviewed. The mountainous character of Armenia causes the great differentiation in landscape types, as well as geological characteristics, climate, soils and water resources. The present day Armenia is disposed to significant ecological risks and becomes a country which economy is based on the intensive use of natural resources which eco security vulnerability is continually increasing. It is noted that the strategy of ecological security is based on the defensive, adaptation, cooperative and other approaches but the country needs to have ecological security concept based on the ecological ideology in beforehand. We highlighted in this presentation that the reduction of water reserves will coincide with the growth of the demand on water resources, since due to the climatic peculiarities namely due to the high air temperature the households will require more potable water and the needs of agriculture in irrigation water supplies will increase. Corresponding risk assessments are preliminary evaluated and some possible recommendations to be done are presented. 32. Ahouissoussi, N., J. Neumann, and J. Srivastava. 2014. Building Resilience to Climate Change in South Caucasus Agriculture. Washington, DC: The World Bank: https://doi.org/10.1596/978-1-4648-0214-0 Abstract: This book illustrates the World Bank’s commitment to assist countries to respond to the opportunities and challenges posed by climate change. Undertaken in collaborative partnership with policy makers, farmers, civil society, and other stakeholders in Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia, it provides a much needed response to the call for action by quantifying the impact and identifying key priorities for policies, programs, and investments to reduce the vulnerability of agricultural systems to climate change in the South Caucasus. The study responds to the urgent need for climate adaptation, as highlighted in the World Bank’s “Turn Down the Heat” report. Notably, the South Caucasus is already contending with increasing aridity and more frequent extreme weather events (e.g. severe droughts, floods and hailstorms). It presents practical solutions for a more Climate-Smart Agriculture, at the regional, national and agro-ecological zone level in each country. The recommendations offered in this book are a compilation of the results of the three national studies, and highlight the need and potential for regional collaborative action to increase benefits, while also continuing to emphasize the need for an effective response at the national level. The national level results are supported by country reports, which

133 provide more details. This work is but an important beginning. To achieve the goals of climate resilience in the agriculture sector, more work is needed to translate the proposals into reality. The analysis demonstrates that investments in irrigation infrastructure and on-farm technologies have great potential to raise agricultural productivity and improve the climate resilience of the sector. Demand-side agricultural water management will have high short-term payoffs, and these short-term payoffs are complementary to the success of long- term irrigation, drainage and other infrastructure investments. Strengthening the disaster risk management strategies (beyond agricultural measures) are also needed to help mitigate household risks from extreme events, especially for the poorest, who are the most vulnerable. 33. Ahouissoussi, N., J. Neumann, S. Jitendra, B. Boehlert, and S. Sharrow. 2014. Reducing the Vulnerability of Armenia's Agricultural Systems to Climate Change: Impact Assessment and Adaptation Options. Washington, DC: The World Bank. Abstract: Agriculture is one of the most climate-sensitive of all economic sectors. Armenia is one of the many countries where the majority of the rural population depends on agriculture—directly or indirectly—for their livelihood. Further, changes in climate and their impacts on agricultural systems and rural economies are already evident throughout Europe and Central Asia. The risks associated with climate change therefore pose an immediate and fundamental problem in the country. Adaptation measures now in use in Armenia, largely piecemeal efforts, will be insufficient to prevent impacts on agricultural production over the coming decades. As a result, there is growing interest at country and development partner levels to have a better understanding of the exposure, sensitivities, and impacts of climate change at the farm level, and to develop and prioritize adaptation measures to mitigate the adverse consequences. Beginning in 2009, the World Bank embarked on a program for selected Eastern Europe and Central Asian (ECA) client countries to enhance their ability to mainstream climate change adaptation into agricultural policies, programs, and investments. This multi-stage effort has included activities to raise awareness of the threat, analyze potential impacts and adaptation responses, and build capacity among client country stakeholders and ECA Bank staff with respect to climate change and the agricultural sector. This study, Reducing the Vulnerability of Armenia’s Agricultural Systems to Climate Change, is the culmination of efforts by the Armenian institutions and researchers, the World Bank, and a team of international experts to jointly undertake an analytical study to address potential impacts climate change may have on Armenia’s agricultural sector, but, more importantly, to develop a list of prioritized measures to adapt to those impacts. Specifically, this study provides a menu of options for climate change adaptation in the agricultural and water resources sectors, along with specific recommended actions that are tailored to distinct agricultural regions within Armenia. These recommendations reflect the results of three inter-related activities, conducted jointly by the expert team and local partners: 1) quantitative economic modeling of baseline conditions and the effects of certain adaptation options; 2) qualitative analysis conducted by the expert team of agronomists, crop modelers, and water resource experts; and 3) input from a series of participatory workshops for farmers in each of the agricultural regions. 34. Danielyan, R. and L. Sahakyan. 2019. Monitoring species composition of Ixodidae ticks in tularemia foci in the Shirak region of Armenia. Conference Paper: American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Gaylord National Resort and Convention, Center National Harbor, Maryland USA. E-link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/337604343. Abstract. By monitoring disease vectors, local authorities can detect epizootics in natural foci and implement preventive measures accordingly. In Armenia, NCDCP conducts routine surveillance of the Ixodidae tick populations in Shirak Marz to track the enzootic cycle of tularemia; this surveillance includes assessment of seasonal species composition and population ratios in similar biotopes throughout the region. In 2017, although human cases of tularemia were registered in Shirak, epizootics were not detected among vectors. As a result, in 2018, we studied the Ixodidae ticks and their activity in the affected areas. The data generated by this project were used to develop maps of tick populations in Shirak Marz. By improving our understanding of tick species composition, abundance, and activity in this area, we can more accurately identify infection risk areas and target our prevention, surveillance, and control efforts accordingly.) 35. Danielyan, R. and L. Sahakyan. 2019. The potential impact of climate change on natural foci areas of Francisella tularensis in Armenia. Conference Paper: BIOTHREATS ASM 2019, Arlington, Virginia, USA. E- link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334707455. Abstract. The aim of our study was to use

134 climate projections made by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) A2A scenario applied to the country of Armenia to assess how these changes would affect the habitat and populations of the main reservoirs of plague and tularemia, and thus the epizootic potential of these areas. 36. Danielyan, R. and L. Sahakyan. 2019.The Possible Reduction of the Areas of Natural Foci of Tularemia Due to Forecasted Climate Changes in Armenia. Conference Paper: BIOTHREATS ASM 2019, At Arlington, Virginia, USA. E-link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334671488. Abstract: According to the “Third National Communication on Climate Change”, by 2100, climate changes are expected to cause the average annual temperature to increase to 10.2 C in Armenia. This exceeds the baseline by 4.7 oC and precipitation is expected to decrease by 23%. These changes are predicted to expand the desert, semi- desert, arid and sparsely forested regions in Armenia. It is expected that the desert-like ecosystems will ascend 200-400 m in elevation and reduce the area of suitable environment for the main F. tularensis reservoir in Armenia, the common vole. We used climate projections for Armenia to assess how these changes will affect the natural foci areas of F. tularensis. 37. Danielyan, R. and L. Sahakyan. 2018. Geostatistical analysis of the density of primary reservoir of plague in Armenia. Conference Paper: The 5th International One Health Congress 2018. DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.25127.50086. E-link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334671292. Abstract. The common vole (Microtus arvalis), is the primary and most numerous plague reservoir in the Transcaucasian high mountain natural plague focus in Armenia. This research sought to identify significant areas for epidemiological and epizootic research by using ordinary kriging to create a prediction map to identify areas where the common vole density, and thus plague risk among animals, will be higher than normal). The species composition and zoogeographical distribution of Siphonaptera fleas, the main carrier of Yersinia Pestis, in northwestern Armenia. 38. Danielyan, R. and L. Sahakyan. 2016. Institution: National Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yerevan, MoH, Armenia. Conference Poster: 12th International Yersinia Symposium, DOI:10.13140/RG.2.2.16738.89284. E-link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/334671367. Abstract. The aim of this study was to determine species diversity and composition of fleas in nests and rodent fur, and the zoogeographical distribution of fleas. Such a study has not been conducted in northwestern Armenia since the 1990s. No outbreaks in either animals or vectors have been reported in northwestern Armenia since 2009. This eight-year gap in epizootics (2009-2016) is the longest observed in the Transcaucasian Highland foci since modern biosurveillance began in 1958. Furthermore, during the current study, cases of plague were not reported in the human population. 39. Fayvush, G. and A. Aleksanyan. 2015. Climate change as threat to plant diversity of Armenia. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/308994529. Abstract: The article discusses the forecasted climate change of Armenia as one of the major threats for plant diversity of the country. The possible changes of main ecosystems of Armenia were assessed due to climate change forecasts. On this basis, was carried out the vulnerability of rare plant species included in the Red Book of plants of Armenia. According to the results of this evaluation it was indicated that for 239 plant species from 452 included in the Red Book of plants of Armenia (Tamanyan et al., 2010) the expected climate change will not be a serious threat to their existence. These are species with relatively wide ecological amplitude and adapted to ecosystems, which can be changed to a minor extent. For 139 species the climate change could be a positive factor, they can even extend their areals on the territory of Armenia. They are mostly heat-loving species growing in the ecosystems of the lower and middle mountain belts. For 74 species the climate change could be a very serious threat, as the changed conditions do not allow them to adapt and find suitable habitat in the country. These are mainly mesophilous species of sub-alpine and alpine belts. 40. Ghazaryan, H., S. Kroyan, S. Tovmasyan, and R. Margaryan. 2018. The issue of usage and preservation of soils which will be covered by water due to the construction of reservoir of the Republic of Armenia. Annals of Agrarian Science, Vol 16, Iss 3, Pp 362-365. https://doaj.org/toc/1512-1887. Abstract: Against the backdrop of climate changes and the acceleration of desertification processes currently taking place in the world, the measures of effective usage, improvement, increase of fertilization and protection of the agriculturally valuable soils and brings to covering soils by water, due to various construction works, especially during reservoir construction into agricultural turnover are highly appreciated in the Republic of Armenia. The agricultural productivity features of the chernozems of Kaps, and

135 communities which will be covered due to the construction of Kaps reservoir have been studied. Measures required for usage and storage of the fertile layer of the soil excavated during the reservoir construction have been proposed. 41. Ghazaryan, H., and S. Kroyan. 2016. Genetic and agroindustrial features of meadow brown irrigated soils of Republic of Armenia in terms of climate change and desertification. Annals of Agrarian Science. Volume 14, Issue 4, December 2016, Pages 326-330. Abstract: On the territory of the Republic of Armenia the irrigated meadow-brown soils evolve within the slightly sloping piedmont parts of the , in the conditions of the prolonged irrigation process and semi-hydromorphic or automorphic humidification. In this territory the primary soil formation proceeded in the conditions of the capillary ground humidification, but much later groundwater and capillary fringe detached from the soil layer and soil formation proceeded in the automorphic conditions, under the influence of irrigation. This work is dedicated to the study of the causes of degradation and desertification of irrigated meadow-brown soils of the Republic of Armenia. It is shown that the prolonged and indiscriminate use of these soils of the Ararat plain leads to the degradation and desertification. Studies show that some negative changes are observed in these soils that adversely affect agricultural crop yields. In particular, by comparing new- and old-irrigated variants, a noticeable reduction of humus content and absorbed basis is being observed in the arable layer of soils. The prolonged irrigation helped compact the soil mass at a considerable death, as well as leach or redistribute the part of products of the soil formation. The accumulation of silt fraction in the upper horizons is mainly due to the prolonged irrigation of these soils by muddy irrigation waters. In the case of prolonged and indiscriminate use the destruction of agronomically valuable structure and reduction of the content of water-stable aggregates occur in humus horizons. This paper provides suggestions of the ways for improving and increasing the fertility of these soils in the conditions of global climate change. 42. Kelly, Keelin. 2020. Agricultural Adaptations to Climate Change in the Republic of Armenia: Assessing Climate Change Knowledge and Adaptations Amongst Small-Scale Armenian Farmers. Honors Thesis Presented to the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Social Sciences of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Research Honors Program under Dr. Allison Chatrchyan, Cornell University. Climate change is already severely affecting farmers in Armenia, yet there has been little study of what farmers know about climate change, or how to adapt. This research seeks to help fill this gap, by assessing what knowledge Armenian farmers possess regarding climate change, if Armenian farmers have adapted new practices in response to climate change, and what resources and information farmers need in order to maintain stable livelihoods. It is hoped that the findings from this research can be used by Armenian Government Agencies and the private sector to help increase the adaptive capacity of the Armenian agricultural sector by highlighting specific causes contributing to the adaptation deficit. 43. Melik-Andreasyan, et. al. 2012. A study of certain territories in Armenia for the presence of natural foci of tick-borne encephalitis and West Nile fever. Downloaded from the Internet: Mедицинская наука армении- 4.2012. Abstract. Pilot investigation of molecular-genetic RNA of mosquitoes and gnats that live on the allegedly adverse for tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) and West Nile fever (WNF) territories of Armenia was conducted. As investigation material insects collected in the period from April to October in Ararat, Armavir, Aragatsotn, Lori, Syuniq, Vayots Dzor and Tavush marzes were used. Molecular-genetic investigation of the collected materials was performed by reverse transcription followed by polymerase chain reaction. The results of the study showed that the assembled field matter is negative for virus of TBE and WNF. These data do not prove, but do not deny the existence of natural foci of TBE and WNF in these areas of Armenia, which proves the need for further investigation. 44. Melkonyan, A. 2015. Climate change impact on water resources and crop production in Armenia. Agricultural Water Management, Vol. 161, November 2015, Pages 86-101. Abstract. Agricultural sector of small, mountainous country Armenia is very vulnerable towards climate change, due to frequent drought episodes, enhanced air temperature, reduced precipitation, increased evaporation rates and water scarcity. To maximize the crop production in a country with specific economic structure, where 21% of GDP is formed in the agricultural sector, it is necessary to estimate the capacity of agrometeorological and water resources, effectiveness of irrigation amounts under the current and future climate conditions, which is the main aim of the given study. Armenian State Hydrometeorological Service provided the data

136 on meteorology (air temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, wind speed and direction) for 30 stations distributed evenly over the whole territory of the republic during the time period of 1966–2010. For interpolation of climate variables within the region, climate of the South Caucasus has been modeled firstly for the current situation with the mesoscale METRAS model (Mesoscale Transport and Stream) with 12 km spatial resolution. Later on, based on General Circulation Models (GCMs) climate projections for the near future (until 2040) have been realized showing significant increase in average air temperature by 1.6 K, but no reliable changes in precipitation sum; still dryness is obvious in the region. Further agrometeorological parameters (potential and actual evapotranspiration, soil temperature and humidity) have been assessed applying AMBAV model (Agrarmeteorologisches Modell zur Berechnung der aktuellen Verdunstung) developed by German Weather Service in Braunschweig. The analysis showed that there is a significant difference in meteorological and hence, also in drought conditions (large differences in soil temperature and humidity, as well as the evapotranspiration sums) among dry and hot western states and relatively cold and humid northern states, which has a direct influence on potential and actual yield ratio. Further the results of the model have been used in order to assess crop water irrigation requirements in the country utilizing crop development coefficients for various crop types at different growing stages in order to organize water management and irrigation systems efficiently. It was estimated that for each hectare 3000 m3 water is required in current climate conditions, which will be nearly doubled in future in regard to climate change. This irrigation assessment for the entire country has been carried out for the first time allowing not only the farmers, but also the government to meet the new millennium challenges under climate change convention. 45. Melkonyan, A. 2014. Climate Change Impact on Agricultural Economy in Armenia. Universität Duisburg – Essen, Habilitation Thesis. Abstract. The mountainous small, landlocked country Armenia with 21 % of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in agricultural sector consistently experiencing natural disasters (such as droughts, floods, storms, which are projected to occur more frequently in the future) is very vulnerable towards climate and its change. For this reason, estimation of agricultural resources of the country, their influence on agronomic production, crop vulnerability towards current and future climate, as well as assessment of economic loss of the agricultural crop production due to climate change are the main goals of the given study. The findings of the research will serve raising the crop production efficiency for a developing country, namely Armenia with specific economic structure and climatic characteristics. The interrelations between climate and harvest enable to develop effective crop management programs in dependence on climate change projections protecting the economy from large GDP losses. The GDP losses due to drought events, which damage agroeconomy to a large extent, have been evaluated and modeled for future having used the macroeconomic model evaluating demand and supply of winter wheat in dependence on climatic parameters. 46. Melkonyan, A. and M. Asadoorian. 2014. Climate impact on agroeconomy in semiarid region of Armenia. Environment, Development and Sustainability volume 16, pages 393–414. Abstract: With 21 % of gross domestic product (GDP) in agricultural sector and having consistently experienced natural disasters (e.g., drought, flood), Armenia is very vulnerable to climate and its change. Given the fact that 63 % of the entire land is planted with grains, this study primarily focuses on the market for wheat flour and bread. Economic welfare loss due to drought episodes is calculated using the economic data integrated with climate measures. Economic data are utilized for the period 1995–2011 (obtained from Statistical Office of Armenia) and specifically include the quantity produced and consumed of wheat flour and bread combined with mean prices, population income, GDP in the agricultural sector, GDP in the planting sector, and governmental expenditure on subsidies. Climate data include temperature and precipitation during the period 1966–2011 (obtained from National Hydrometeorological Service of Armenia). The analysis includes three main components. The first utilizes a market framework that analyzes the impact of climate on equilibrium prices and quantities as well as trade and tax effects. The second employs a logarithmic utility function to estimate the effective insurance policy for the agricultural sector using risk management strategies. Lastly, a macroeconomic model has been developed to assess the efficient sum of governmental expenditure on subsidies and irrigation during the drought episodes and during the mean climatic conditions. All three parts of the study are developed for the first time. 47. Melkonyan, A. 2014. Environmental and socio-economic vulnerability of agricultural sector in Armenia. Science of The Total Environment. Vol. 488–489, 1 August 2014, Pages 333-342. Abstract: Being a

137 mountainous country, Armenia has undergone different kinds of natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, and storms, which have a direct influence on economy and are expected to occur more frequently in terms of climate change, raising the need to estimate economic vulnerability especially in agricultural sector. Agriculture plays a great role in national economy of Armenia, with 21% share in Gross Domestic Production (GDP). For this reason, the estimation of agricultural resources of the country, their vulnerability towards current and future climate, and assessment of economical loss of the agricultural crop production due to climate change are the main goals of the given study. Crop productivity in dependence on climatic elements — temperature, radiation, precipitation, wind field, etc. has been estimated, further on interpolating these relations for future climate conditions using climate projections in the region for the time period of 2011–2040. Data on air temperature, precipitation, relative humidity, wind speed and direction for the period of 1966–2011 have been taken from 30 stations from the measuring network of Armenian State Hydrometeorological Service. Other climatic parameters like potential and actual evapotranspiration, soil temperature and humidity, field capacity, and wilting point have been calculated with the help of an AMBAV/AMBETTI (agroclimatic) model (German Weather Service). The results showed that temperature increase accompanied with evapotranspiration increase and water availability decrease especially in low and mid-low altitudes (where the main national crop production is centralized) caused a significant shift in the phenological phases of crops, which is very important information for effective farming dates, giving an opportunity to raise efficiency of agricultural production through minimizing the yield loss due to unfavorable climatic conditions. With the help of macroeconomical analysis of the crop market, it was estimated that the economical loss of the wheat production due to even drier conditions in the future climate (2011–2040) will be more than doubled, causing essential problems in irrigation systems with sparse water resources. 48. Sukiasyan, A., et. al. 2019. Re-Emerging foci of visceral leishmaniasis in Armenia - First molecular diagnosis of clinical samples. E-link: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331073316. Abstract. Visceral leishmaniasis (VL) was firstly reported in Armenia in 1913. Following a considerable increase of the number of cases until the mid-1950s, the disease disappeared after 1969 and re-emerged in 1999. Scientific literature about VL in Armenia is available only in Russian or Armenian. This paper presents a historical overview about leishmaniasis in Armenia based on this literature as well as an epidemiological update since the re-emergence of the disease. In 1999–2016, 116 indigenous VL cases were recorded mainly in children in 8 of the 11 districts, however, VL is underreported because of lack of trained medical personal and diagnostic facilities. The aim of this work was to apply for the first time molecular diagnosis of VL in Armenia. Out of 25 VL suspected patients, 22 were positive by microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Genotyping using internal transcribed spacer 1-PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequencing identified the causative agent of VL in Armenia as Leishmania infantum. The present work is an important step towards the inclusion of molecular techniques in the current diagnosis of VL in Armenia and the establishment of local molecular diagnostic facilities.

Gender mainstreaming

49. Mahani, B., & Spanner, J. (2017). Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development In Armenia. Budapest. The report highlights the major gender inequalities found in the agriculture of Armenia that need to be considered by policy-makers and project managers, and identifies the need for further research in a wide range of areas, including fishery, forestry, local farmers’ cooperation and women’s real contribution to GDP, particularly considering their overwhelming involvement as contributing family workers. (available at https://www.un.am/up/library/Gender_Agriculture_and_Rural_Development_in_Armenia_Eng.pdf) 50. OXFAM. Vadim Uzunyan and Alexey Petrosyan. Oxfam acknowledges the assistance of Audrey Lejeune, Jonathan Mazliah and Kate Kilpatrick. (2015). Case Study on Women’s Economic Empowerment and Leadership in Armenia. The case study addresses several important aspects in the agricultural sector of Armenia: supporting the development of women’s cooperatives, intensive support is needed for gender inclusive cooperatives, moving beyond the cooperative: women as community leaders, and influencing for wider agricultural policy change. (available at (https://oxfamilibrary.openrepository.com/bitstream/handle/10546/561274/cs-women-economic-

138 leadership-armenia-280715-en.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y) 51. UNDP Armenia and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland. (2016). Gender and Climate Change. Gender, climate change and food security. Main ideas are the linkage between gender, climate change and food security. Despite significant strides in addressing gender inequalities over the years, rural women are still among the most marginalized groups in society and are particularly vulnerable to current and future climate change in agriculture. (available at https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/UNDP%20Gender%2C%20CC%20and%20Food% 20Security%20Policy%20Brief%203-WEB.pdf) 52. UNDP Armenia. (2017). Gender Equality & Women's Empowerment. There are important measurements presented by the UNDP Armenia Gender Inequality Index (GII) and Gender Development Index (GDI) of Armenia and how these numbers put the country in the high human development category. (available at https://www.am.undp.org/content/armenia/en/home/gender-equality/in-depth.html) 53. UN report finds gender inequalities persisting in rural Armenia. (2017). A report states about major implications for rural livelihoods and wellbeing of women. It explores existing gender inequalities in agriculture, their causes, impact on the economic and social development of rural areas. (available at http://www.fao.org/europe/news/detail-news/en/c/891686/) 54. Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia. (2018). Women and Men in Armenia. The Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia collects statistical data (including from administrative registers) through statistical documents defined by the State Council. It implements the development, production and dissemination of official statistics according to the statistical programs and concludes cooperation agreements, memorandums of understanding, adopts joint orders with the bodies implementing official statistics of other states, international organizations, state and local self-government bodies in accordance with the procedure defined by law and other legal acts. (available at https://armstat.am/en/?nid=82&id=2215) 55. FAO. Gender integration into climate-smart agriculture tools for data collection and analysis for policy and research, 2016. Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) seeks to support countries in securing the necessary policies as well as the technical and financial conditions. This enables to i) sustainably increase agricultural productivity and incomes; ii) build both the resilience and the capacity of agricultural and food systems to adapt to climate change, and iii) seek opportunities to reduce and remove greenhouse gas (GHG) in order to meet their national food security and development goals. Available at http://www.fao.org/3/a- i5299e.pdf. 56. Save the Children. Assessment of Access of Children to preschool education services in Armenia, 2017. The aim of this study was to conduct a nation-wide assessment on access of children (including most vulnerable children) to preschool education services in Armenia. The challenges in the educational system of Armenia and comparison of it to other groups of population, the children, having limitations in accessing pre-school education, are the most vulnerable children. Available at http://children.ombuds.am/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Assessment-on-Access-to-Pre-school- Education-Services_ENG.pdf?fbclid=IwAR28-D45vIk_AWEH6ZMxkc2Sjw7pnZ1AM6M314y- NUIiPZrrPfQuw9sfY. 57. Asian Development Bank. Gender and Development, 2015. ADB reports on gender discrimination in Asia and the Pacific. The report highlights the importance of women’s education and health care, and the regions that need to tackle gender-based discrimination in the labor market, gender-based violence and promote gender-inclusive social protection. Available at https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/evaluation-document/181135/files/tes-gender-and- development.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3VxDGE7FxYjuBPzLR0DCvysoVfoJXtMp7NxJODT5xQLomGSwJPFYub7s. 58. UNICEF Armenia. Education (2019). The article demonstrates educational challenges in Armenia. The main consideration is children in rural areas, children from vulnerable groups and gender eliminated environments. Available at https://www.unicef.org/armenia/en/what-we- do/education?fbclid=IwAR2DRy_T6W2Pc9Vtpg2GBkVwvECZnKWh9hYoyB4_XgkqpCBoe0mb49m7tw8. 59. FAO. Climate-smart agriculture (2020). The global climate change to agriculture challenges and opportunities. Climate-smart agriculture is an approach for transforming and reorienting agricultural

139 production systems and food value chains so that they support sustainable development and can ensure food security under climate change. Available at http://www.fao.org/climate-smart-agriculture- sourcebook/concept/module-a1-introducing-csa/chapter-a1-2/en/. 60. Armenia country gender assessment, 2016: the state of gender equality in Armenia (English). . Washington, D.C.: World Bank Group. http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/153131489418520050/Armenia-country-gender- assessment-2016-the-state-of-gender-equality-in-Armenia 61. Dudwick, Nora. 2015. Missing Women’ in the South Caucasus: Local Perceptions and Proposed Solutions. Report 94705, World Bank, Washington, DC.

Other country experiences

62. Climate change adaptation in agriculture sector in Europe, 2019. European Environment Agency. The reports evaluated the developments in the EU in relation to climate change mitigation and adaptation in Agriculture sector. The report discusses the EU policies and government support programs in agriculture in the context of climate change. It provides an analysis of experience of countries in Europe and makes recommendations about climate smart policies and on-farm measures that can contribute to effective climate change adaptation in Europe.

National and international data sources 1. Armenia Statistical Committee – www.armstat.am 2. FAO STAT - http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#home 3. FAO AQUASTAT - http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/index.html?lang=en 4. Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security: https://ccafs.cgiar.org/publications 5. The World Bank: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/climate-smart-agriculture 6. Global Change Research Program (USA): https://www.globalchange.gov/

140 Annex 5. Details on wind-break standards

Windbreaks provide substantial benefits in the production of orchard and vineyard crops. Year-round protection is critical to the survival and proper development of trees and vines. Tall windbreaks may cause the microclimate within the orchard to become isolated from the atmosphere above the orchard. This decoupling enhances the orchard microclimate, thus improving conditions for pollination and fruit set which in turn result in greater yields. Reductions in windspeed within the orchard reduce the amount of mechanical damage caused by the whipping of leaves, branches, buds, flowers and fruits. This improves fruit quality and results in substantial economic gain. In addition, windbreaks reduce tree deformation and root breakage in young fruit trees. Proper windbreak design and careful selection of windbreak species will increase flexibility in orchard and vineyard management. Reduced windspeed allows for timely application and efficient use of pesticide. Water management is enhanced owing to more efficient water distribution and reduced evaporation. With proper design, windbreaks may also aid in frost management. It is estimated that the improved windbreaks may help to achieve: • Milder wind throughout field by 30-40%. • 2-3 additional degrees during spring cold spells • Reduction of surface flow by 20-30 % and prevention of landslides on slopes. • Higher accumulation of snow, and prolongation of snow melting by 15-16 days compared to open field. • Increase of plant productivity and natural forage land efficiency. For example, the productivity of fall wheat may be increased by 0.3-0.7 tons/ha, and forage land vegetation by 0.2-0.3 tons/ha. For increasing the effectiveness of wind breaks it is important to establish proper guidelines and standards for designing and establishing wind-breaks. • The main shelterbelt should be open to winds, consisting of 4-5 rows, 30% of the air should be released into them, allowing for the maximum amount of snow in the orchard. In the lowlands of the mountainous zone, due to the openwork and not windproof shelterbelt, 1-2 irrigations are saved in the spring. • The area of the orchard is provided with moisture due to the early melting of the snow and the snow brought by the wind is accumulated in the territory of the orchard. In the spring, the soil easily warms up to + 1-30 in the protected area, the ice floes melt, the melted water is washed by the leaves under the tree, and is absorbed by the soil, preventing swamping and turfing. In orchards with forest protection, the soil is crumbly. If the orchard occupies a lot of space, in addition to the main shelterbelt, auxiliary forest layers are established in parallel with the wind. • The structure of the auxiliary shelterbelt is clear, it is planted in 1-2 rows by staggered rows or longitudinal direction. Auxiliary shelterbelts are planted at a maximum distance of 1500-2000 m from each other, and the main one at a distance of 300-400 m from each other. On the long side of the field, the main shelterbelt is established, and on the short side, the auxiliary one. In the main and auxiliary shelterbelts, the plants are planted 2.5-3 meters away from the row, the total rows are 13- 15 meters. The main shelterbelt of the orchard is located at a distance of 10-12 meters. • The choice of plant species in the main shelterbelt depends on soil and climatic conditions. The following types are recommended for use: fast-growing poplar (male), Litvinov birch, oak, Gleditsia, yellow acacia, false acacia (non-spherical), maple, ash-tree. At the height of 1700-2000 meters, along with the wild varieties of plum and cherry, sweet cherry, birch, pine (common, Crimean, Arax species), snow-ball tree, oriental hawthorn, Georgian woodbine, blackberry are used.

141 Annex 6. Main gender inequalities in agriculture

Excerpt from FAO report Gender, Agriculture and Rural Development in Armenia, 2017 Main gender inequalities in agriculture and rural development: 1. There is a gap between legislation and implementation • Despite efforts to reduce gender inequalities by the government in the last two decades, a gap between legislation and implementation exists. • Solid interlinkages between the Gender Action Plan and the Action Plans and Policies on agriculture and rural development are still needed. • Gender inequalities are still socially accepted or tolerated, especially in rural areas where gender inequalities are more entrenched, which makes it more difficult to implement policies on gender equality. • Gender statistics in the agricultural sector need to be improved considerably, in line with CEDAW’s concluding observations in the combined third and fourth periodic reports on Armenia (CEDAW Committee, 2009). 2. Women are overrepresented in informal employment, unpaid work in family farming, and in domestic and reproductive activities • Approximately 34.8 percent of employed people are involved in agriculture (ARMSTAT, 2015b, p. 61), of whom almost 56 percent are women. • The share of women engaged in informal employment in agriculture is 82.1 percent, compared with 60.8 percent of male informal workers (ARMSTAT, 2015b). In terms of informal employment, men account for more than 80 percent of employers, while women represent 83 percent of the so-called “others” (ARMSTAT, 2015c). This may be related to the overrepresentation of women as contributing family workers in family farming. • There is strong vertical and horizontal segregation in the labour market, which results in a significant gender pay gap: women’s average wages are approximately 65.9 percent of men’s average wages (ARMSTAT, 2015b). • The high rate of male long-term labour migration increases the prevalence of women headed households, and 27.2 percent of rural households are headed by women (ARMSTAT, 2015a). Female- headed households are slightly more likely to be in extreme poverty than male-headed households. While this is partly because of the more limited range of income opportunities for women in rural areas and the gender pay gap, it is mainly because female-headed households tend to be single- headed households, which limits the number of working-age persons who can contribute to income generation in the family. • Rural women working informally on family farms do not receive any compensation as defined by the Labor Code, such as sick leave and child care allowances, because they are considered to be either self-employed or economically inactive. In rural communities, two-thirds of employed women are not remunerated with cash earnings when they are self-employed (Yerevan State University, 2015). • In family farming, a rigid distribution of tasks persists: men tend to be more involved in capital intensive tasks, involving a greater amount of machinery and technology, and in tasks that are better paid. This distribution of activities results in women´s limited access to, and control over, agricultural assets and decision-making. 3. Women have unsatisfactory access to technical knowledge on agriculture, and face barriers to accessing information, extension services and training • Women’s low levels of agricultural education mean that they are far less likely to hold decision making and management positions in agricultural spheres. Therefore, women’s voices in and knowledge about agriculture are missing in policy development. This also constrains innovation in the value chain, which is subsequently reflected across multiple dimensions in food security and nutrition.

142 • Although women are more likely to enter postgraduate and higher professional education, they are less likely to obtain an academic degree (ARMSTAT, 2015c). For example, the World Economic Forum (2015) found that women account for only 28 percent of PhD graduates. There is also horizontal segregation at university level. Males outnumber females in state and nonstate higher educational institutions in the agro-food sector by 70 to 30 percent, and only 38 percent of STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) graduates are women (World Economic Forum, 2015). • Women’s participation in training, and knowledge and information sharing, in agriculture and rural development is low. The reasons for their low participation in extension services’ training include: o Male-dominated channels of communication that control the flow of information and fail to reach and mobilize women farmers; o The identification of men as “heads of households and holdings”: as a result, women tend to be seen as “wives of farmers” instead of farmers in their own right;

o Stereotypical linkages between machinery, technology and men; o Land registered in the name of men as “heads of households”; o Women’s reduced self-confidence in areas outside those that are socially attributed to them based on gender roles and stereotypes;

o The location of training and meetings: women have limited access to means of transportation, some locations discourage women’s attendance and some women may be expected to ask for permission from their husbands to attend.

4. Infrastructure has a direct impact on time use • Women are the major users of water in households, because they undertake the domestic activities that are linked with female gender roles. Therefore, they are severely aff ected by water restrictions (ADB, 2015). When there is no centralized water supply, women are also responsible for fetching water (ADB, 2015), which adds an extra burden to their workload. • Infrastructural development and modernization of households is lower in rural areas. Rural households have less access to labour-saving technologies such as washing machines, dishwashers, and other domestic appliances, as well as lower access to transportation and restricted mobility. • This has a direct impact on rural women’s workload, since domestic activities are stereotypically linked with female gender roles. Research shows that rural women spend 6 hours 6 minutes per day, from Monday to Sunday, on their domestic workload, while urban women spend 4 hours and 53 minutes and rural men spend 2 hours and 37 minutes (ARMSTAT, 2015c). 5. Most of the land is registered and managed by men and women’s de facto enjoyment of their ownership rights over land is hindered • Women’s limited access to land ownership is explained by: o Registry practices: Even though land was provided to citizens regardless of their sex, the actual distribution and registration of land was carried out by those identified as “heads of the households”.

o Patrilocal marriages: Patrilocal marriages, which are more common in rural areas, are those in which brides go to live with their husbands’ families. Within this traditional form of marriage, women usually do not claim their ownership rights over land either within their own families or within their new step-families, because of the fear that this might be seen as confrontational. o Inheritance practices: There is a preference for giving land to male descendants, especially in the context of patrilocal marriages where sons usually remain in the household and are expected to manage the family holding. o A lack of knowledge about women’s rights over land among rural populations, land professionals and civil servants.

143 • Women’s limited de facto enjoyment of their ownership rights over land has direct implications for their access to: decision-making on the use of the land; irrigation and extension services; and collateral for credit and entrepreneurship. • No sex-disaggregated data on land registration are currently available. However, only 26.5 percent of rural households are headed by women (ARMSTAT, 2015c).

6. Women have limited access to credit and entrepreneurship, markets, mobility and agricultural inputs • Women’s limited access to, and control over, equipment and transportation constrains their income earning opportunities and their access to markets. • The city and large markets are stereotypically regarded as “male territory”. • Other obstacles that women have to overcome before they go into business include: feelings of uncertainty and risk aversion; limited self-confidence in areas that are not socially or stereotypically attributed to women; a lack of business contacts; and entrenched and perpetuated stereotypes about women’s roles and their participation in the economy, and in business in particular. • Material barriers to engaging in entrepreneurship include: difficulties in obtaining loans; limited access to monetary funds and property for collateral; burdensome interest rates; an unfavorable business environment; mobility constraints; limited access to large markets; and the challenges of making informal payments to male officials to facilitate business, including a x lack of economic resources and the gendered dimensions of social interaction and networking (USAID, 2010). • Limited access to productive resources is a serious constraint for rural women who wish to engage in agricultural entrepreneurship or farm management. For instance, rural women have little or no direct access to farm equipment such as tractors and combine harvesters. Machinery is stereotypically linked with male gender roles (ACDI/VOCA, 2011). Moreover, in rural areas, more than 95 percent of car owners, and 100 percent of agricultural machinery operators in the marzes, are men (ACDI/VOCA, 2011). • Dealing with providers and accessing large markets outside the villages are also activities that are associated with male gender roles. 7. Food security and nutrition have a gender dimension • Research shows that children in poorer households headed by women can have better nutritional outcomes than children living in male-headed households, and that when women are empowered, the nutrition of the whole family improves (Kennedy & Peters, 1992). • Gender-based inequalities in labor allocation and resource access, ownership and control in the household economy have a direct impact on the health of the whole household. Moreover, the health and nutrition of the whole family improves when there is shared and responsible parenthood by both mothers and fathers. 8. Women from rural areas have a lower social status than men and face persistent gender stereotypes • Women are usually associated with child care and housework, whether they are employed outside the home or not, and men are usually seen as responsible for the economic well-being and survival of their families in their role as the main bread winner and “head of household” (Armenian Association of Women with University Education, 2005, 2014). This is directly linked with stereotypical gender roles and has a direct impact on uneven access to resources and economic opportunities, and on women’s overwhelming workload in relation to unpaid domestic activities. This may result in time poverty, the limitation of women’s capabilities in engaging in gainful activities, the reduction of women’s self-confidence in areas that are not stereotypically attributed to them, and the economic dependence of women. • With a sex ratio at birth of 1.13 males for every female, and 27.5 induced abortions per 100 live births and stillbirths at birth, sex-selective abortion is still prevalent in Armenia. This is further evidence for the preference of boys over girls (UNFPA, 2012, 2013; Das Gupta, 2015) and the lower status of women in society. • Patrilocal marriages are another possible reason for the preference of sons over daughters.

144 • An additional indicator of the status of women in society is control over their own earnings. Women in urban areas are three times more likely to make decisions about their earnings than women from rural areas (34 and 11 percent of women respectively, ARMSTAT, Ministry of Health & ICF International, 2012). • In relation to women’s voice, the results of the 2012 elections in local self-governance bodies demonstrate the low level of women’s access to political power: there were only 43 women (or 3.5 percent) out of 1 237 candidates running for the position of “Head” in 638 rural communities; and less than two percent of the women candidates were elected to this position. Furthermore, women account for only 8.6 percent of members of elected local Councils (Armenian Association of Women with University Education, 2014, p. 17). • Another important indicator in assessing the social status of rural women is the attitude of women and men towards spousal abuse. Women from the lowest wealth quintile, with the lowest educational levels and from rural areas are the most likely to accept this subordination in the form of domestic violence: 11.8 percent of women and 28 percent of men from rural areas consider this aggression justifiable in some cases. • The identification and even registration of men as “heads of households” and representatives of the families (for example, in land registration), also contributes to the maintenance of the uneven and hierarchical status of women and men in rural areas

145 Annex 7. Additional highlights on selected issues and recommendations

Law on Phytosanitary needs amendments to incorporate climate change aspect, particularly: • Article 4.5 of the Law on Phytosanitary - replace “To carry out measures for timely forecasting, diagnosis and prevention of mass distribution and reproduction of harmful organisms of plants” with “To carry out measures for timely forecasting, diagnosis and prevention of mass distribution and reproduction of harmful organisms of plants, taking into account the possibility of potential changes of bioecological characteristics of the plant harmful organisms and risks of yield losses in the context of global climate change”. • Article 12.3 of the Law on Phytosanitary - replace “An authorized body should conduct phytosanitary research to determine the need to regulate plant pests and, if necessary, take measures against them” by "An authorized body should conduct phytosanitary research to determine the need to regulate plant pests and, if necessary, take measures against them taking into account global climate change and potential risks". • Article 15.4 of the Law on Phytosanitary - replace “the Authorized body carries out a risk analysis of the identified pests f or the relevant area in order to determine the need to continue, terminate or modify the measures taken” by “the Authorized body carries out a risk analysis of the identified pests for the relevant area in order to determine the need to continue, terminate or modify the measures taken, taking into account global climate change and potential risks". Law on Organic Agriculture. The provisions of the Article 8 “Basic Requirements for Organic Agriculture” of the law on Organic agriculture are indirectly related to climate change effects on plant protection and immunity. Provisions of Article 8 shall be amended to effectively incorporate climate change aspect e.g. a section in the Article 8 “Selection of resistant varieties to diseases and pests, as well as favorable crop rotation” could be enhanced as “Selection of resistant varieties to pests and diseases, to drought, frost, high temperatures, high salt concentration in soil etc., as well as favorable crop rotation”. Law on Flora includes reference to climate change and its potential impact on flora. The Article 15.f “Problems of Flora Conservation and Protection” is indirectly related with the impact of the global climate change on plant protection issues. It is suggested in Article 15 to replace the expression “To protect the objects of flora from pests, diseases and natural disasters” with “To protect the objects of flora from pests, diseases and natural disasters, taking into account risks from the global climate change.

The Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center, SNCO shall consider implementing studies/programs related to the impact of global climate change on the development of harmful organisms in Armenia. Critically, studies and programs include not only pests of quarantine significance, but pests in general. It is important also to cover issues of risks related to and mitigation against new invasive pests, to clarify the area of their distribution, develop and implement relevant smart-agriculture measures to protect the environment from the impact of plant pests, investigate the impact of climate change on plant-pest, plant- pest-pesticide, pest and beneficial organism interactions. These works would be in compliance with the IPPC Strategic Framework objectives for 2020-2030. The Center, in close collaboration with other scientific- research institutions, should carry our research works towards identifying possible plant protection risks in different regions of Armenia in the context of climate change․ In this context the Government may undertake financing and promotion of such activities as: o coordinated research, including programs related to climate change and food security, plant and animal health, IPM. In order to make IPM effective, it should be modified to local conditions. o development of new farming practices (good agricultural practices), different crops and animal breeds, and integrated pest management principles to help prevent pests spread.

o introduction of biological control agents or new pest- or disease resistant crops and breeds. o Development of Decision Support System (DSS). The decision support system is an informatics tool which uses mathematical models such as equations and statistics to help the decision-maker take

146 action. The decision-making process in IPM is highly complex and dynamic; it requires a high level of organization and constant update of operators; it requires the presence of databases and means to collect data and information as well as tools to handle data. The decision-making process generally provides the capability to identify when difficulties may occur and how to deal with these difficulties depending on data provided.

Strengthen national animal and plant health services • strengthen inter-agency cooperation and use of the meteorological data for Pests Development Forecasting and Early Warning system. Forecasting of pests and diseases appearance in plants is an additional application that demands a consistent and dependable stock of weather data. Prediction of pest, disease prevalence, and progression based on weather data is extremely crucial when planning and implementing control measures (a set of computer programs have been successfully produced and applied which have proven to be successful early warning systems in some countries). • strengthen field monitoring and early pests detection system using modern and digital technologies. • enhance border inspections, to avoid the higher costs of eradication and management of invasive quarantine or more harmful pests. • develop more localized or regionalized strategies, taking into account the nature of plant pests and animal diseases. • develop Pests Development Forecasting and Early Warning System. Functions of phytosanitary control agencies needs to be enhanced to effectively address climate change issues, including: • the Plant Health division of the Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center, to effectively take into account the global climate change. • Phytosanitary inspection of the State service for food safety of the Ministry of Economy of RA (SSFS of MoE) to carry out risks assessment for invasive species, quarantine and more harmful pests of crops and forests, under climate change conditions.

Targeted research and development work

• The Scientific Center of Vegetable-Melon and Industrial Crops of MoE, Agriculture Scientific Center of the MoE in close cooperation with ANAU and Plants health subdivision of Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center, shall aim at developing and introducing resistant or immune (to pests and diseases) varieties of vegetable crops adapted to climate change conditions. • The Chair of Horticulture and Plant Protection of ANAU should, in close cooperation with Plants health subdivision of “Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis Scientific Center (SC), with SC of Vegetable- Melon and Industrial Crops, Agriculture SC, Voskehat Educational and Research Center of Enology” Branch of ANAU Foundation, carry out studies towards identification of resistance or tolerance (to pests and diseases) of different agricultural crops, adapted to climate change conditions. • The “Agrobiotechnology Scientific Center” Branch of ANAU Foundation should, in close cooperation with Plants health subdivision of “Food Safety Risk Assessment and Analysis SC, as well as Chair of Horticulture and Plant Protection to carry out relevant measures on identification of resistance or tolerance of grapevine and fruit trees towards different pests, under climate change conditions. • The Research Center for Crop Gene Pool and Selection of ANAU should, in close cooperation with Chair of Horticulture and Plant Protection to carry out relevant measures on identification of resistance or tolerance of crops wild relatives towards different pests, under climate change conditions. • The Research Center for Pesticide Synthesis and Expertise should, in close cooperation with Chair of Horticulture and Plant Protection of ANAU to identification of pesticide activity of newly synthesized chemical compounds and introduction to farms.

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Development and conservation of agriculture genetic resources

• To equip organizations, keeping collections of genetic resources, with necessary facilities and technical means • To create field collections of fruit and vine local selection varieties through restoration of collection orchards, acquirement of samples having Armenian origin from other countries, and establishment of new orchards. • To expand the possibilities for in-vitro conservation and reproduction of plants having vegetative propagation • To assure the management improvement of plants’ in situ genetic resources, through the registration of symbiosis and their composition, clarification of their area of distribution, stock records and monitoring. • To elaborate and carry out on-farm conservation projects of plants’ genetic resources • To assure copying of genetic resources of unique importance in foreign gene banks, for their safe keeping and risk reduction.

Improvement of natural and cultivated forage lands and meadows

Improvement of natural and cultivated forage lands and meadows. • To organize and carry out registration and documentation activities of natural forage lands and meadows for the revelation of their actual condition. • Application of anticorrosion, land-protective, agrotechnical, as well as phytomelorative (forest- meliorative and meadow-meliorative) measures distributed by adaptive-landscape principle for the purpose of conservation and augmentation of cultivated land fertility and efficient use of humidity. • To elaborate and apply a complex of agromeasures for surface and root system amelioration, in order to protect and improve meadow vegetation. • To creat all the favourable conditions for the organization of exploitation of remote pastures, as well as for exploitation terms and management ways of natural forage lands of community importance. • To create all the necessary conditions to develop field fodder production in order to mitigate the harmful impact of natural forage land’s overloaded and irregular exploitation • To attach higher importance to zonation of annual and perennial cereals and papilonaceous fodder plants in irrigable farming zones, crop rotation areas. • At the same time, to assure alternative territories for cattle grazing and formation of forage stocks. • Exclude grazing in hayfields (sowing and fertilization through drones can be used for inaccessible territories, which will require special conditions)

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