A Collection of Papers Reveiwing The

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Report Number 55 HoustonHouston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety

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printingprinting courtesycourtesy ofof TexasTexas EasternEastern Corporation A CollectionCollection ofof PapersPapers ReviewingReviewing the Archeology of Southeast TexasTexas

edited by Patricia WheatWheat andand RichardRichard L. Gregg

Report NumberNumber 55 Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society

Contents

A Collection of Papers ReviewingReviewing thethe Archeology ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas: An Introduction Patricia WheatWheat ...... 11 Indians ofof thethe TexasTexas GulfGulf Coast:Coast: A A Synthesis Synthesis ofof Archeological,Archeological, HistoricalHistorical and TheoreticalTheoretica.l InformationInformation Joan FewFew ...... 33 The FullenFullen Site MichaelMicha.el J. O'Brien ...... 88 Recent DevelopmentsDevelopments in SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas ArcheologyArcheology Blaine Ensor and HaroldHarold DrollingerDrollinger ...... 111l The LowerLower Trinity River and EnvironsEnvirons J. RichardRichard AmblerAmbler ...... 1515 Archeology inin thethe San Jacinto RiverRiver Basin:Basin: AA LookLook BackBack AfterAfter 2020 YearsYears Harry J. ShaferShafer ...... 1717 Shell Point (41BZ2)(41822) Frank HoleHole ,.... 2222 Prehistoric OccupationOccupation SequencesSequences in Southeast TexasTexas Leland W. Patterson ., -...... 232l Evaluation of Prehistoric Site Preservation on the OuterOuter ContinentalContinental Shelf:Shelf: The SabineSabine RiverRiver Area,Area, OffshoreOffshore TexasTexas Charles E. PearsonPearson . ..,...... 2626 Evidence of Subsistence Practices W. L.L. McClureMcClure ...... 3535 Archeological ImplicationsImplications ofof anan Ethnographic ShellShell MiddenMidden Tom D. DillehayDillehay ...... 3838 Historic ResourcesResources of Addicks and Barker ReservoirsReservoirs Carolyn GoodGood ...... 4141 Post WestWest BernardBernard ArmoryArmory Joe D.D. HudginsHudgins ...... 4242 Filling Some Gaps inin Houston's Unwritten History:History: TwoTwo ExamplesExamples from HistoricalHistorical ArchaeologyArchaeology Kenneth L.L. BrownBrown ...... 4545 Diverse Works/Ma.rketWorks/Market SquareSquare ArcheologicalArcheological Project Roger G.G. MooreMoore ...... 4949 A Discussion of Methodology in HistoricalHistorical ArchaeologyArchaeology Texas B. AndersonAnderson ...... 5151 Authors ...... 5555

i A CollectionCollection ofof PapersPapers ReviewingReviewing thethe ArcheologyArcheology of SoutheastSoutheast Texas:Texas: AnAn IntroductionIntroduction Patricia WheatWheat

Scientific investigationsinvestigations of archeologicalarcheological sitessites whichwhich havehave beenbeen conductedconducted overover thethe last 3030 yearsyears in SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas havehave greatly enriched our interpretation of historyhistory andand ourour understandingunderstanding ofof prehistory. TheThe resultsresults ofof thesethese investigationsinvestigations are usually reported in journals, suchsuch as the BulletinBulletin of thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological Society and the HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society Journal, andand technicaltechnical papers whichwhich areare circulatedcirculated amongamong thethe archeological archeological community.community. TheThe generalgeneral publicpublic seldomseldom seessees this wealthwealth ofof informationinformation whichwhich resultsresults fromfrom thesethese investigations.investigations. The purposepurpose ofof thisthis publicationpublication isis toto relate relate the the results results of of local local archeological archmlogical investigationsinvestigations to thethe generalgeneral public so that aa greatergreater appreciationappreciation ofof archeologyarcheology and its contributions will exist.exist. This is not intendedintended toto be be a a definitive definitive oror complete complete survey survey ofof archeologyarcheology ofof thethe area;area; manymany archeologistsarcheologists have made significant contributionscontributions toto the archeological record record but but couldcould notnot participateparticipate in this review. This collectioncollection of papers will give thethe reader an overviewoverview of thethe diversity, antiquity, and density ofof archeologicalatcheological investigationsinvestigations forfor thethe area. WeWe thank thethe authorsauthors who who have have given given willinglywillingly ofof their timetime and expertiseexpertise to submitsubmit theirtheir paperspapers forfor publicpublic review. Due to the nature ofof thethe publication,publication, the requestrequest forfor paperspapers includedincluded aa wordword limitIimit whichwhich alsoalso limitedlimited thethe detailsdetails whichwhich couldcould bebe included.included. Thanks areare alsoalso duedue TexasTexas Eastern CorporationCorporation for funding the printingprinting of this publication.publication. The authorsauthors diddid aa fine fine jobjob inin refraining refraining fromfrom thethe use use ofof technicaltechnical jargon,jargon, butbut some some specialized specialized vocabulary necessarilynecessarily remains. AA briefbrie{ explanationexplanation follows:{ollows: archeology (archaeology)(archaeology) both spellingsspellings are considered correctcorrect and and areare usedused as the authorsauthors submitted themthem artifact anything mademade oror modifiedmodified by humanshumans atlatl spear throwerthrower balk earth leftleft untoucheduntouched whichwhich resultsresults inin aa wallwall leftleft betweenbetween excavationexcavation units B.P. before present, presentpresent beingbeing defineddefined asas A.D.A.D. 19501950 ceramic made ofof clayclay and firedflred

chert (flint) stone fromfrom which Indians commonlycommonly made tools

dart spear thrown with an atlatl debris discards or remains not wantedwanted ethnography descriptive record of habits and customscustoms faunafauna animal

flutedfluted a pointpoint withwith aa channel channel oror groove groove extendingextending lengthwiselengthwise grogBrog a tempertemper mademade fromfrom crushedcrushed potsherds haft to fixfix a shaftshaft toto aa weaponweapon oror tool,tool, usuallyusually withwith aa bindingbinding oror adhesiveadhesive lithic of stone

1 midden trashtrash pilepile obsidian naturally naturally occurring occurring volcanic volcanic glass, glass, highly highly prizedprized forfor makingmaking stone toolstools point (projectile(projectile point) point) the the sharpened sharpened end end of of a aspear, spear, dart, dart, or or arrow; arrow; usually usuaJly made made ofof stonestone or bone.bone. TheThe commonly, commonly, butbut mistakenly,mistakenly, used term for a stonestone pointpoint isis 'arrowhead';'arrowhead'; mostmost `arrowheads''arrowheads' werewere not not partpart ofof anan arrow,arrow, butbut ofof aa spear oror dart. sherd (shard)(shard) piece of broken potterypottery site designationdesignation Example: Example: 41 41 HR HR 2525 41 = statestate numbernumber (Texas)(Texas) HR = countycounty designationdesignation (Harris(Harris County)County) 25 = sitesite numbernumber forfor countycounty (25th(25th sitesite inin HarrisHarris County)County) Site numbers are assigned in the order in which theythey are reportedlreported; in Texas, sites are reported toto thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological Research Laboratory, Austin. stem portion of a point oror tooltool wherewhere shaft or handlehandle isis haftedhafted stratum (plural: (plural: strata) layer temper in pottery manufacture,manufacture, materialmaterial suchsuch as sand or ground bone that, whenwhen mixedmixed with thethe clay before firing, makesmakes itit less likelylikely toto shattershatter when heated

It isis ourour sinceres.incere hope that thisthis collectioncollection ofof paperspapers willwill encourage appreciation and support forfor thethe archeologicalarcheological projectsprojects needed toto enrich ourour understanding of our heritage.

2 Indiansfndians of the TexasTexas GulfGulf Coast:Coast: AA SynthesisSynthesis ofof Archeological,Archeological, Historical andand TheoreticalTheoretical InformationInformation

Joan FewFew

Paleo-Indian time periodperiod

The firstfirst inhabitantsinhabitants ofof TexasTexas areare called called Paleo-Indians,Paleo-Indians, andand theirtheir environmentalenvironmenta.l adaptationadaptation isis called the big game hunting adaptation.adaptation. TheirTheir timetime periodperiod waswas that ofof thethe latelate Pleistocene Pleistocene (end(end of the WisconsinWisconsin Ice Age from aboutabout 10,00010,000 B.C.B.C. to 6000 B.C). It waswas a muchmuch coldercolder and wetterwetter environment than wewe havehave now.now. HereHere inin ourour coastalcoastal region,region, thethe gulfgulf shoreshore lineline waswas 5050 toto 100100 milesmiles further southsouth thanthan itit is is today. today. Forests Forests were were more more coniferous coliferous andand therethere existedexisted inin NorthNorth AmericaAmerica greater numbersnumbers ofof largelarge herdherd animalsanimals suchsuch asas woollywoolly mammoth,mammoth, mastodon,mastodon, Bison antiquusanliqtl.ts andall.d caribou. TheseThese largelarge animalsanimals couldcould provideprovide the food,food, clothing,clothing, shelter and toolstools neededneeded for the survivalsurviva.l of the Paleo-Indian.Paleo-Indian. TheThe Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian technology,technology, whichwhich developeddeveloped around thethe killingkilling ofof large animals (such as the woolywooly mammoth), waswas thethe use ofof spears,spears, lanceslances andand dartsdarts to thethe endend of which were attached well-made,well-made, usually fluted points (points(points containingcontaining aa centralcentral groovegroove usedused in haftinghafting thethe pointpoint ontoonto thethe spear) spear) of of flint flint or or obsidian. obsidian. These These fluted fluted points points are are called called Clovis Clovis and FolsomFolsom points and theythey havehave beenbeen foundfound in thetlie TexasTexas coastalcoastal region.region. BoneBone toolstools asas wellwell asas numerous different kinds of stonestone tools made up the Paleo-Indian'sPaleo-Indian's tooltool kit.kit. Hides Hides were were processedprocessed for clothing, shelter, storage and cookingcooking containers. OurOur understandingunderstanding ofof thethe Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian wayway of life in TexasTexas is drawndrawn fromfrom informationinformation gatheredgathered fromfrom archeologicalarcheological excavationsexcavations allall overover North America. AA fossilizedfossilized Bison antiquusantiquus bone, which had been workedworked into a sharp-pointedsharp-pointed tool,tool, waswas found during dredgingdredging for the TexasTexas City dikedike in Galveston Bay. The samesame typetype ofof bisonbison bone tooltool was found in the Yukon'sYukon's OldOld CrowCrorv BasinBasin (Canby(Canby 1979:336).1979:336). TheThe OldOld CrowCrow RiverRiver regionregion providesprovides evidence of humans in America as far backback asas 30,00030,000 years ago, "but clearclear knowledgeknowledge of the human occupants ofof northwesternmostnorthwesternmost AmericaAmerica beforebefore 11,00011,000 yearsyears agoago isis elusive"elusive" (Dumond(Dumond 1980:984).1980:984). Fossils ofof manymany different IceIce Age animalsanimals werewere foundfound duringduring thethe dredging of the TexasTexas CityCity dike, including bison, mammoth,mammoth, horse, glyptodonglyptodon (armadillo),(armadillo), sabersaber toothtooth tiger, llama, tortoisetortoise and alligator.alligator. Some Some fossilsfossils showshow marks indicating they werewere used by people as tools and otherother fossils showshow suggestingsuggesting marks marks that that the animalsanimals may have been butchered forfor food.food. SomeSome ofof thesethese fossils areare now housedhoused atat thethe Houstonllouston MuseumMuseum ofof NaturalNatural Science.Science. During this Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian period, huntinghunting waswas aa socialsocial event, requiring cooperation and planning. Indians were migratory, followingfollowing tlie the herds. herds. They lived inin small bands of about 30,30, butbut would,would, when necessary forfor huntinghunting oror rituals,rituals, gather (aggregate) into large groups . TheThe thingthing whichwhich maymay have been the Paleo-Indians'Paleo-Indians' greatestgreatest assetasset waswas theirtheir flexibility.flexibility. TheyThey could could movemove whereverwherever the animals led them,them, whichwliich increasedincreased their chanceschances forfor survival.survival.

The ArchaicArchaic periodperiod

As the PleistocenePleistocene ice began to recede,recede, the movemove into thethe HoloceneHolocene broughtbrought about changes. TheThe big game hunting wayway ofoflife life continues,continues, but we seesee changeschanges inin thethe archeologicalarcheological content.content. Mammoth, mastodon andalt.d, Bison antiquusantiquus remains are seenseen less and less,less, andand aa moremore modernmodern bisonbison evolvesevolves as the mainmain game.game. TheThe associationassociation ofof extinctextinct herd-animallierd-animal bonesbones withwith humanhuman debrisdebris endsends aboutabout 80008000 years ago (6000 B.C.).B.C. ). As the ice sheets receded, thethe climate acrossacross thethe UnitedUnited StatesStates became dryerdryer and hotter. RiverRiver channels chalgedchanged asas glacialglacial meltmelt fromfrom CanadianCanadian glaciersglaciers rushed rushed to to the the seasea andand thethe sea began to rise. InIn thethe forestforest regions,regions, thethe coniferousconiferous forest gave way toto thethe deciduous. In the woodedwooded areas, the

3 animalanima.l most hunted becamebecame the deer.deer. HuntingHunting becamebecame aa single-personsingle-person oror small-group activity, not a social activity as it was during the Pleistocene. This brought about changeschanges in the social structure. The acceptedaccepted theory at thisthis timetime isis thatthat the the people people ofof the the Holocene Holocene becamebecame hunters andand gatherersgatherers within a givengiven territory. TexasTexas CoastalCoastal IndiansIndians probablyprobably lived lived byby aa seasonallyseasonally selectiveselective exploitation of frequently abundant resources. This hunting and gatheringgathering adaptationadaptation toto the the Holocene Holocene isis calledcalled the ArchaicArchaic period. The pointspoints usedused byby thethe ArchaicArchaic huntershunters werewere differentdifferent from those of the Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian hunters.hunters. Points were stillstill attachedattached to spears (darts) but theythey frequentlyfrequently hadhad barbsbarbs (sharp(sharp extendedextended pointspoints at thethe base)base) andand were were generallygenerally more triangular in form than thethe PaleoPaleo points.points. ArchaicArchaic IndiansIndians and possibly Paleo-Indians used used an an atlatlatlatl (a spear thrower) to help them throw farther and withwith more accuracy.accuracy. Archeological evidence evidence indicates indicates that that Archaic IndiansIndians lived in bands, smallsmall groupsgroups ofof usuallyusually related members.members. TheyThey werewere probablyprobably membersmembers ofof aa muchmuch largerlarger groupgroup whichwhich aggregatedaggregated onceonce oror twice a year.year. TheyThey were were nomadicnomadic withwith frequentfrequent movesmoves toto followfollow foodfood sources, but withinwithin aa givengiven territory. AllAll ecologicalecological zones within aa given regionregion werewere notnot availableavailable to to allall bands. ThereThere waswas sexualsexua.l division ofof laborlabor withwith thethe men doing thethe hunting and the womenwomen doing the gathering.

The LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod

The LateLa.te PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod (sometimes(sometimes calledcalled thethe Ceramicceramic period,period, 100100 A.D.A.D. toto 15001500 A.D.), brought significant technological changeschanges to to thethe coastalcoastal Indians.Indians. The bow and arrow, which appeared about 600 A.D., became an important tooltool withwith aa muchmuch smaller-sizesmaller-size projectile point (arrowhead). StoneStone tooltool kits includedincluded drills, perforators, scrapers,scrapers, hammers,hammers, netnet weights,weights, knivesknives and any tooltool requiringrequiring a sharpsharp edge.edge. AnimalAnimal bonebone was was alsoalso used used toto make make tools, tools, projectile projectile points,points, jewelry, jewelry, gaminggaming piecespieces and musicalmusical flulfltits.,.?L,. ShellsShells were used as tools, trade itemsitems andand jewelry.jewelry. CeramicsCeramics are foundfound in sitessites dating withinwithin thisthis period.period. PotsPots were were made made of of local local claysclays andand frequently{requently carriedcarried simplesimple rimrim designs.designs. Indian cemeteriescemeteries which da.tedate rvithinwithin this period have been found in the coastalcoastal region.region. ManyMany importantimPortant artifactsartifacts thatthat reveal reveal the the way way of of lifelife ofof individualsindividua-ls and groups are located with the burials.buria.ls. The scientificscientific study of the remainsremains ofof peoplepeople living before the historic period isis aa valuablevaluable sourcesource of information aboutabout their health,hedth, diseases,diseases, diet, stature, lifeIife expectancy, population,population, etc.etc. ThisThis hunting-gathering adaptation continuedcontinued until historichistoric times in our coastalcoastal areaarea. . InIn thethe Mississippi Mississippi River valley and in the Southwest,Southwest, agricultureagriculture waswas introduced byby wayway of Mexico aboutabout 0 A.D. NoNo evidence ofof agricultureagriculture priorprior to European intervention has been found in the HoustonHouston area.

Contact between EuropeEurope andand AmericaAmerica

In 1529,1529, Cabeza de Vaca becamebecame thethe firsl,first EuropeanEuropean to set foot in Texas who laterlater wrote about hishis experiences (Covey 1983). He gave us an ecological, technological,technological, socialsocial andand ethnographicethnographic picture of thethe IndiansIndians inin ourour coastalcoastal area.area. We 1\/e call call them them the the Karankawa Karankawa IndiansIndians but but DeVaca DeVaca recorded recorded two groups living onon what appears from his description to be GalvestonGalveston Island, andand theythey calledcalled themselves thethe Capoques andand thethe Han. TheyThey werewere alla1l talltall andand well well builtbuilt (Covey (Covey 1983:61).1983:61). DeDe Vaca viewed thethe final stagestage oftheof the Late PrehistoricPrehistoric periodperiod andand witnessed witnessed somesome ofof thethe changeschanges whichwhich resulted from contact with the Spaniards. DuringDuring the firstfirst winterwinter he spent withwith thethe Indians,Indians, halfhalf of the IndiansIndians dieddied fromfrom dysenterydysentery infectedinfected byby thethe SpaniardsSpaniards (Covey (Covey 1983:60).1983:60). DeVaca describesdescribes the the upperupper Texas coastcoast as a regionregion ofof sandysandy islands,islands, estuariesestuaries andand coastalcoastal marshes. Inland,Inland, thethe woodlands woodlands gave gave way way to to rolling rolling plains plains with with flowing flowing riversrivers whosewhose banksbanks werewere often lined with pecanpecan trees.trees. None None of of these these ecological ecological zoneszones were capable of year-round support, resulting in a seasonalseasonal migratory pattern. DeVacaDevaca livedlir,'ed with thethe coastalcoastal IndiansIndians forfor overover aa yearyear

4 and hehe describeddescribed their yearlyyearly rounds. OctoberOctober throughthrough FebruaryFebruary foundfound somesome bands on the coastalcoasta.l islands where thethe women dugdug underwater roots,roots, and fish were takentaken inin cane traps. DuringDuring somesome winter periods oysters and waterwater werewere the only sustenance. TheThe TexasTexas coastalcoastal regionregion containscontains many Indian shellshell middens (trash piles)piles) ofof saltwatersaltwater oystersoysters andand brackish-waterbrackish-water clams. TheseThese middensmiddens contain artifacts reflectingreflecting the IndianIndian wayway ofof life.life. BlackberriesBlackberries werewere harvested inin AprilApril andand May.May. June andand JulyJuly waswas thethe timetime whenwhen coastalcoastal IndiansIndians movedmoved inland to harvest thethe fruitfruit ofof thethe pricklyprickly pear tunatuna (Opuntia(Opuntia tuna),,und), a a cactus cactus found found inin the the dry dry regions regions ofof centralcentral andand SouthSouth Texas.Texas. Family bands were able to gathergather inin largerlarger familyfamily unitsunits whenwhen surpluses surpluses werewere available,available, suchsuch as during thethe blackberryblackberry seasonseason when dance ceremonies andand fiestas werewere held.held. InIn the fall, during the pecan harvest, andand duringduring thethe summersummer tunatuna season, season, inin good good harvest harvest years, years, aggregations aggregations werewere alsoa"lso possible forfor the bands. "There"There isis nono chief.chief. AllA11 belonging belonging toto thethe same same lineage lineage keepkeep together,"together," saidsaid de de Vaca, Vaca, (Covey(Covey 1983:63).1983:63). The extended family was probably the core of the bands. VillagesVillages werewere temporarytempora,ry andand houses were huts made of mats, sometimessometimes open, sometimessometimes large, with multiplemultiple firesfires inside. AlongAlong the coast,coast, floorsfloors ofof huts werewere coveredcovered with oyster shells, and animalanimal skinsskins werewere put downdown forfor sleeping.sleeping. Their technologytechnology included pottery, bows,bows, arrows and cane fish traps. SexualSexual divisiondivision ofof laborlabor waswas practiced withwith womenwomen doing thethe gathering. DeVacaDeVaca also statedstated that, "their"their womenwomen toiltoil incessantly"incessantly" (Covey(Covey 1983:61).1983:61). "The peoplepeople are generousgenerous to each other withwith whatwhat littlelittle theythey have" have" (Covey (Covey 1983:63).1983:63). SharingSharing was the rule, with a hosthost givinggiving all to his guest. AfterAfter marriage,marriage, aa marriedmarried daughterdaughter wouldwould taketake allall of her husband's game to herher father'sfather's house;house; theythey inin returnreturn wouldwould bebe providedprovided for by her father. Another custom was thatthat aa bride'sbride's parentsparents couldcould notnot enterenter the the house house ofof their their son-in-law son-inlaw nornor hehe theirs, nornor couldcould theythey speakspeak toto each each other other (Covey (Covey 1983:62). 1983:62). (This(This custom custom was was common common amongamong North AmericanAmerican Indians.)Indians.) DeVacaDeVaca alsoalso remarkedremarked inin hishis journal,journal, "These"These peoplepeople lovelove theirtheir offspringofspring more than anyany inin thethe world world andand treat treat them them very very mildly" mildly" (Covey (Covey 1983:61).1983:61). Shamans (medicine(medicine men) were viewed asas unusualunusual men.men. De Vaca , at the strongstrong encouragementencouragement of the Indians,Indians, becamebecame aa medicinemedicine man, which may have made itit easier for them toto acceptaccept himhim into theirtheir band.band. They They were were consultedconsulted asas healershealers andand hadhad different different marriagemarriage andand funeralfuneral practices.practices. Limited animism is reflected inin their idea that stonesstones havehave power.power. SorcerySorcery waswas consideredconsidered by the Indians as aa thingthing ofof greatgreat power.power. Reflecting thethe temperate climate,climate, menmen wentwent nakednaked andand women women worewore SpanishSpanish mossmoss oror deerskin.deerskin. Cane waswas used to piercepierce malemale ears,ears. nipplesnipples andand lowerlorver lips. MourningNlourning forfor thethe deaddead placedplaced anan additionaladditional stressstress on on thethe band.band. InIn aa house house wherewhere aa sonson oror brother died,died, no one of that househouse leftleft itit forfor aa month,month, beingbeing providedprovided for by others in the band.band. SeveralSevera.l deaths in a smallsmall band couldcould bring real hardship. Trade was carried onon by de Vacarvhca between thethe coastcoast andand areas to thethe northnorth (possibly(possibly asas farfar asas Oklahoma).Oklahoma). BeingBeing a "neutral,""neutral," dede VacaVaca had greatergreater accessaccess toto the interior. FromFrom thethe coastcoast hehe took sea snails, conch shells, seasea beadsbeads and mesquite beans. TheseThese itemsitems werervere traded forfor skins,skins, redred ochre, hard canescanes forfor arrows,arrorvs, flint,flint, sinews,sinervs, tassels ofof deer hair andand somesome formform ofof adhesive.adhesive. As Cabeza dede VacaVaca mademade hisliis wayway slowly slorvly towardtorvard MexicoNlexico asas hehe lookedlooked forfor SpanishSpanish colonies,colonies, hehe camped with and observedobserved the IndiansIndians of the SouthSouth TexasTexas coast. TheThe environmentenvironment ofof thethe SouthSouth Texas coast was more arid than thethe upperupper coastalcoastal regions.regions. VastVast plains,plains, rivers,rivers, andand mesquitemesquite treestrees yielded marginzrlmarginal resources. CampCarnp was moved every two oror three days in aa continuouscontinuous foodfood quest. The summersummer prickly pcarpear tunatuna" seasonseason wasrvas possiblypossibly the onlyonly timetime aggregationaggregation occurred. DeerDeer hunting was a groupgrorp activity.activity. FiresFires werewere usedused toto drivedrive lizardslizards andand smallsmall animalsanimals toto thethe kill kill asas wellwell as keepingkeeping mosquitoes away from thethe camp.camp' The environmentenvironment of South Texas was an ecologicalecological zonezone similarsimilar toto thethe desert regionregion of thethe Great BasinBasin inin Nevada.Nevada. Indians Indians utilized utilized almost almost everything everything thatthat walked, walked, crawled, crawled, flew flew oror grewgrew

5 toto sustainsustain theirtheir existence.eistence. Crabs,Crabs, shellfish, shellfish, blackberries,blackberries, roots,roots, occasionaloccasional antelope,antelope, spiders,spider6, eggs,etts, larva, worms,worms, lizards, snakes, earth, deerdeer dung,dung, pulverizedpulverized bonesbones of animals,animals, andand anan occasional occasiona.l buffalobufalo werewere mentionedmentioned as as food food sources sources by by de de Vaca. Vaca. Liquor was mademade fromfrom cactus. DeDe VacaVaca observed thatthat the IndiansIndians livingliving on this dietdiet appearedappeared toto bebe physically physically fit,fit, withwith menmen beingbeing ableable toto runrun allall dayday without without stopping. stopping. During During periods periods of of extreme extreme want, want, however, however, stomachs stomachs were were oftenoften swollen fromfrom eatingeating dirt. Their technologicaltechnologica.l achievements werewere adequateadequate but basicallybasicaJly primitive. BowsBows andand arrowsarrows werewere used along with fishfish nets. Buffalo Buffa.lo hideshides werewere usedused forfor blankets,blankets, shoesshoes andand shields.shields. Houses Houses werewere made of matting placed onon hoops thatthat could bebe rolledrolled andand transported.transported. Rather thanthan haulhaul stonesstones andand pestlespestles forfor grinding,grinding, sticks were pounded into holes inin the ground. Population pressure brought on byby thethe marginalmarginal resourcesresources of the regionregion resulted inin fixedfixed territories for the different bandsbands and warfare toto protect those territories. Extreme social customs also reflect thethe marginality oftheirof their existence and the need for population control. InIn somesome bands, daughtersdaughters werewere killedkilled at birthbirth andand wives wives werewere purchasedpurchased from outside the band. Prices Prices werewere inin termsterms of of bows bows andand arrowsarrows oror nets.nets. Male Male babies babies were were sometimes sometimes killedkilled andand sons purchased. TheseThese practicespractices werewere justified as being needed to keepkeep down the enemy population as the killingkilling of daughters reduced the number of brides available toto the enemy bands. ThisThis reflectsreflects thethe practicepractice ofof exogamy.exogamy. In contrastcontrast toto thethe generousgenerous naturenature ofof thethe IndiansIndians ofof thethe upper upper Texas Texas coast,coast, de de Vaca Vaca describesdescribes thethe SouthSouth TexasTexas Indians as thieves, liarsliars andand drunka.rds.drunkards. He goes onon toto say that,that, inin spitespite ofof theirtheir hardships anda.nd hunger,hunger, theythey werewere aa merrymerry peoplepeople andand nevernever missedmissed aa chance chance forfor aa fiesta fiesta (Covey (Covey 1983:80).r983:80). Throughout thethe TexasTexas region,region, narcoticsnalcotics from the peyotepeyote cactuscactus werewere usedused and importedimported fromfrom thethe South.South. ForFor a a purge, purge, IndiansIndians usedused thethe black black drink drink made made fromfrom hollyholly (yaupon,(yaupon, ilexIlex vomitoria).tomitoria). Women were tabootaboo during menses and duringduring certaincertain festivalsfestivals oror ceremonies.ceremonies. EunuchsEunuchs dresseddressed likelike women but used the bowbow and carriedcarried heavyheavy loads.loads. FromFYom de Vaca'sVaca's records, archeologists can can formulateformulate questions questions about about thethe Contact period to substantiate hishis observations,observations, increaseincrease ourour knowledge,knowledge, test our theories, and corroboratecorroborate ourour conceptconcept of the behaviorbehavior of our coastal Indians.Indians. It isis notnot thethe behaviorbehavior ofof one Indian that isis beingbeing studied,studied, but thethe repeatedrepeated behaviorbehavior ofof the majority.majority.

The issueissue ofof cannibalismcannibalism

Of alla.II ofof thethe historichistoric Indians,Indians, "The"The Karankawa Karankawa areare amongamong thethe mostmost maligned maligned IndianIndian groupsgroups ofof Texas."(HesterTexas."(Ilester 1980:48).1980:48). There isis nono archeologicalarcheological evidence thatthat thethe KarankawaKarankawa whowho livedlived alongalong the upperupper TexasTexas coastcoast werewere cannibals. "It"It waswas thethe Karankawa Karankawa whowho werewere shockedshocked by the sightsight of the starving SpaniardsSpaniards ofof the NavarezNavarez expedition eating the deaddead ofof theirtheir ownown party"party" (Hester(Hester 1980:50; 1980:50; Covey 1983:60). "W.W. Newcomb (1961:78)(1961:78) has has succinctlysuccinctly summarizedsummarized thethe distorted image of the Karankawa: 'Some ofof thethe atrocities attributed toto these these IndiansIndians areare undoubtedly undoubtedly rationalizationsrationalizations growing outout ofof thethe inhuman, unfairunfair treatmenttreatment thethe Spaniards andand Texans accordedaccorded themthem. It isis much easier toto slaughter men and appropriate theirtheir landland ifif youyou cancan convinceconvince yourself thatthat they are despicable, inferior,inferior, barelybarely humanhuman creatures.'creatures.' "(Hester 1980:51). ItIt is possible thatthat thethe SpaniardsSpaniards may have intentionally spread the rumorrumor ofof IndianIndian cannibalismcannibalism toto scarescare foreign foreign competitioncompetition awayaway from the TexasTexas coast. History is frequentlyfrequently aa biasedbiased record.record. Historical Historical information inlormation and and scientific scientific archeology, archeology, whenwhen used together, can provide thethe opportunityopportunity toto come closercloser to to the the truthtruth about our past.

6 References cited

Aten, LawrenceLawrence E. 19831983 Indians Indians of of the the Upper Upper Texas Texas Coast. Coast. Academic Academic Press, Press, New New YorkYork Bohannan, Paul andand Glazer,Glazer, Marklr{ark (editors)(editors) 19731973 High High Points Points in in Anthropology. Anthropology. Alfred Alfred A. A. Knopf, Knopf, New New YorkYork Canby, Thomas Y. 19791979 The The Search Search For Eor The The First First Americans. Americans. National National Geographic Geographic 156:3156:3 Covey, CycloneCyclone (translator(translator and editor) 19831983 Cabeza Cabeza de de Vaca's Vaca's Adventures Adventures in in the the Unknown Unknown Interior Interior of of America. America. University University of of New New MexicoMexico Press,Press, Albuquerque Dumond, Don E. 19801980 The The Archeology Archeology of of Alaska Alaska and and the the Peopling Peopling of of America. America. Science, Science, Vol. Vol. 209,209, AugustAugust 19801980 Hester, Thomas R. 19801980 Digging Digging Into Into South South Texas Texas Prehistory, Prehistory, A A Guide Guide for for Amateur Amateur Archaeologists. Archaeologists. CoronaCorona Publishing Publishing Company, San Antonio,Antonio, Texas Krochmal, Arnold and ConnieConnie 19731973 A AField Field Guide Guide to to Medicinal l\{edicinal Plants. Plants. Times Times Books, Books, New New YorkYork Newcomb, W.W.W.W. Jr. 19611961 The The Indians Indians of of Texas, Texas, from fronr Prehistoric Prehistoric to to Modern Modern Times. Times. University University ofof TexasTexas Press,Press, AustinAustin Spencer, Robert F. andand JesseJesse D.D. JenningsJennings 1977lg77 The The Native Native Americans Americans (2nd (2nd Edition). Edition). Harper Harper and and Row Row Publishers, Publishers, NewNew YorkYork Texas HistoricalHistorical CommissionCommission 19831983 The The Indian Indian Years, Years, Living Living with with the the Texas Texas Past. Past. Series Series No.1, No.1, Texas Texas Historical Historical Commission,Commission, Austin,Austin, Texas

7 The FullenFullen Site Michael J.J. O'Brien

The FullenFullen Site,Site, 4111R82,41HR82, waswas a a smallsmall shell shell midden midden located located onon thethe easteast bank of Armand Bayou,Bayou, approximately twotwo milesmiles northnorth of the confluenceconfluence ofof thethe bayou and ClearClear Lake.Lake. Between Between 19691969 and 1971,1971, portions of the site werewere excavated byby facultyfaculty andand students at RiceRice UniversityUniversity with the assistance of members of the HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society.Society. PriorPrior to thethe latelate 1960s, 1960s, few few seriousserious attempts hadhad beenbeen mademade toto understandunderstand thethe complexcomplex nature of the shell mounds thatthat dot thethe southeastern TexasTexas coast.coast. Traditionally,Traditionally, shellshell middensmiddens werewere excavatedexcavated in arbitraryarbitrary levelslevels becausebecause of the difficultydifficulty inin distinguishing naturalnatural layers. Our work,work, especially thatthat conductedconducted in thethe fallfa.ll ofof 1970,1970, waswas designeddesigned toto aidaid understandingunderstanding the microstratigraphic nature ofof aa shellshell middenmidden throughthrough careful excarrationexcavation and artifactartifact recovery.recovery. Our workwork probably setset aa recordrecord forfor slowness.slowness. OverOver thethe coursecourse ofof severalseveral months, onlyonly 1414 mm22 ofof archaeological depositdeposit were excavatedexcavated (Pigure(Figure 1, areas A and C).C). ElevenEleven 1-m1-m22 unitsunits werewere placedplaced inin the shellshell midden, and three were placed justjust easteast of thethe midden. Other unitsunits hadhad beenbeen openedopened inin 1969,1969, but thesethese werewere excavated in 6-inch vertical levels andand diddid not yield the detaileddetailed informationinformation we wanted. UnitsUnits inin areasareas AA andand CC werewere excavatedexcavated shellshell by shell across the areas, soso that wewe couldcould distinguish separate events in the buildupbuildup ofof thethe site.site. AsAs FrankFrank Hole Hole (1974:7)(1974:7) notes, we attempted to letlet thethe artifactsartifacts tell tell us us where where the tlie levels levels were. were. Thin Thin layers layers were were peeled peeled offoff acrossacross thethe surfacessurfaces ofof contiguous squares, and when pottery andand bonebone fragmentsfragments werewere found, theythey werewere left in place until the entireentire areaarea waswas uncovereduncovered to thatthat level.level. The depositionaldepositional history of the sitesite was,was, asas expected,expected, complex.complex. BecauseBecause of the extremeextreme carecare with which the sitesite waswas excavated, we were ableable toto isolateisolate distinct lenses ofof shell,shell, bone,bone, andand potterypottery that reflectedreflected differentdifferent depositionaldepositional episodes. WeWe also were able to pinpointpinpoint thethe interfaceinterface betweenbetween ceramic-bearing andand aceramic stratastrata and toto tracetrace thesethese acrossacross thethe excavatedexcavated areasareas (O'Brien(O'Brien 1974).1974). Ceramic and stone artifacts recovered fromfrom thethe unitsunits are typical of those found atat other sitessites inin the region.region. TheThe predominantpredominant ceramicceramic typetype isis thethe sand-temperedsand-tempered GooseGoose CreekCreek Plain,Plain, withwith smallersmaller amounts of Goose Creek Incised, SanSan Jacinto Plain, andand TchefuncteTchefuncte alsoalso present.present. Hafted-biface Hafted-biface forms include what typically are called Scallorn, Perdiz, Bulverde, andand Gary points. FaunalFauna.l remains are dominateddominated byby oysteroyster andand clamclam shells,shells, butbut alsoa-lso include include significantsignificant numbersnumbers ofof bones of white-tail deer, gray squirrel, opossum,opossum, and variousvarious speciesspecies of turtle, fish,fish, andand waterfowl.waterfowl. Analysis of thethe molluscan remainsremains producedproduced severalseveral interestinginteresting results.results. ForFor example, through carefulcareful measurements o{of the shells,shells, Bonnie Hole (1974) waswas ableable toto demonstrate aa markedmarked declinedecline inin sizesize and ageage ofof harvested clams through time. DoesDoes thisthis indicateindicate aa change change inin physicalphysical environmentenvironment oror perhaps thethe depletiondepletion ofoflarger larger and older clams throughthrough time? MoreMoredata data areare neededneeded totoanswer answer these questions, but withoutwithout thethe painstakingpainstaking mannermanner inin whichwhich thethe sitesite was was excavated,excavated, suchsuch tantalizingtantalizing questions could not bebe formed.formed. If we learnedlearned anything from our excavation and analysis oftheof the Fullen Site,Site, itit is thatthat conventionalconventional archaeological methodsmethods cannotcannot bebe used to understandunderstand thethe depositional depositional historyhistory ofof shellshell middens.middens. None of usus involvedinvolved inin thethe analysisanalysis ofof thethe FullenFullen SiteSite wouldwould everever suggestsuggest thatthat the small area openedopened in 19701970 and 19711971 a.llowedallowed usus toto understandunderstand completely whatwhat transpiredtranspired in that smallsmall localelocale alongalong Armand BayouBayou duringduring thethe coursecourse ofof severalsevera.l millennia.millennia. WeWe wouldwould suggest,suggest, however,however, that wewe havehave a muchmuch better ideaidea ofof thethe activitiesactivities thatthat tooktook placeplace therethere thanthan if if we we hadhad excavated excavated aa muchmuch largerlarger area usingusing arbitrary levels.levels. AdditionalAdditional excavationsexcavations in thethe regionregion couldcould build on this workwork and pushpush both thethe methodsmethods usedused andand thethe resultsresults gainedgained aheadahead toto thethe point point where where we we cancan beginbegin toto feelfeel asas ifif we really have control over thethe nature ofof thethe ubiquitousubiquitous featuresfeatures wewe callcall shellshell middens.middens.

CORMIM 1NrENVAL • 4110 ', - APPIM1711111MIT tat OF AWOL& ,' '' ' / 1.1ao Ittaratte -ro stemthes,tui. rote.-nn.,4u n MANN @ fliCIIIMITOai-d. 1,0.1•11.@n, ranoo statestd

I I II I I / et mos l FrMITIFtrI■n

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AREA r'iAX I ' _ ,llt\\4 ffi . , AREA 8 / t; ; a 11 n,k*^,, IIII1P i1''i.,_c, 4 1 \\ I AREA C : ii\l;kk 1,tr. 1 l \,, .. SCRAPED,J,io AREA,),, / AREAo,' 0 / [] ,i>--- \\(',*\\ (', \r \ I I

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MYNNITIC 051111 I

Figure 1. Plan Plan of of the the Fullen Fullen Site Site showing showing locationslocations ofof excavationexcavation units andand

scraped area References cited

Hole, Bonnie 19741974 Analysis Analysis of of the the Molluscs. Molluscs. In:Archeological In:Archeological Investigations Investigations alongalong ArmandArmand Bayou,Bayou, HarrisHarris County,County, Texas, edited byby FrankFrank Hole.Hole. Rice Rice University, University, Dept.Dept. of of Anthropology, Anthropology, TechnicalTechnical Report No.No. 2;2; HoustonIlouston Archeological Society,Society, ReportReport No. 2.2. Pp. 78-9778-97 Hole, Frank 19741974 Archeology Archeology of of the the Upper Upper Galveston Galveston Bay Bay Region. Region. In:Archeological In:Archeological InvestigationsInvestigations alongalong ArmandArmand Bayou, Harris County, Texas, edited by FrankFrank Hole.Hole. Rice Rice University, University, Dept. Dept. of of Anthropology, Anthropology, Technical Report No. 2;2; HoustonIlouston Archeological Society,Society, Report Report No. 2.2. Pp. 1-281-28 O'Brien, MichaelMichael J. 1974197 4 TheThe Armand Armand Bayou Bayou Survey Survey and and Excavations. Excavations. In:Archeological In:Archeological InvestigationsInvestigations alongalong ArmandArmand Bayou,Bayou, HarrisHaris County,County, Texas, edited byby FrankFrank Hole. Hole. Rice Rice University, University, Dept.Dept. of of Anthropology, Anthropology, TechnicalTechnical Report No.No. 2;2; HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society, RcportReport No. 2. Pp. 29-7729-77

10 Recent DevelopmentsDevelopments inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas ArcheologyArcheology

Blaine Ensor and HaroldHarold DrollingerDrollinger

Recent surveys and excavations in Harris andand FortFort BendBend CountiesCounties byby TexasTexas AA && MM archeologistsarcheologists have provided tantalizing data concerningconcerning prehistoricprehistoric lifewaysIifeways forfor SoutheastSoutheast Texas (Figure 1). ToTo illustrate recentrecent developmentsdevelopments in thethe archeologya.rcheology of thisthis area,area, a a series series of of excavations excavations conductedconducted by personnelpersonnei fromfrom thethe Archeological Archeological Research Laboratory, Texas AA && MIvI University, University, areare briefly briefly summarized. Numerous natural sandsand moundsmounds existexist inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas Texas andand oftenoften contain contain archeological archeological sites.sites. The IndiansIndians likedliked to campcamp onon thethe moundsmounds locatedlocated veryvery closeclose to water\,!,ater duedue toto theirtheir slightlyslightly higherhigher elevation and sandy, well-drainedwell-drained soils. The ChicoCinco Ranch mound sites are located in extreme eastern Fort BendBend CountyCounty onon BuffaloBufalo Bayou.Bayou. TheyThey werewere excavated in the summersummer ofof 1985.1g85. TheThe LanghamLangham Creek Mound Site (41HR530) isis locatedlocated onon Langham Creek, justjust inside the northern boundariesboundaries ofof Addicks Reservoir. It wasrvas excavatedexcavated in thethe summersummer ofof 1987.1987. TheseThese moundsmounds areare usuallyusually comprisedcomprised of sandy loam A and E horizons underlainunderlain byby aa clayclay loamloam BtBt (Bt-Bt2)(Bt-Bt2) horizon (Figure(Figure 2).2). Artifacts found in thethe moundsmounds reflectreflect aa relativelyrelatively simplesimple lifestylelifestyle based upon hunting,hunting, fishing,fishing, andand collectingcollecting or gathering.gathering. NumerousNumerous wildwild foodfood sourcessources werewere probablyprobably utilized, including deer, rabbit, bison,bison, turtles,turtles, fish,fish, andand aa hosthost ofof native native plantsplants suchsuch asas nuts nuts from from deciduousdeciduous trees,trees, tubers,tubers, andand berries.berries. The sizesize of the groups whichwhich occupied these mounds seems to haveha"ve varied, but, inin general,general, nono moremore than aa largelarge familyfarnily oror smallsmall bandband (less(less thanthan 25 25 persons) persons) occupiedoccupied anyany oneone moundmound atat a a given given time_ time. At thethe LanghamLangham CreekCreek mound,mound, virtuallyvirtually thethe wholewhole "core""core" areaarea ofof thethe mound,mound, approximatelyapproximately 6 byby 66 meters,meters, waswas excavated.excavated. AlthoughAlthough nono intactintact cookingcooking areas suchsuch as hearthshearths werewere unearthed, two concentrations of ceramic sherds were found.found. TheseThese andand anan occasionaloccasional burnedburned clayclay fragmentfragment attest toto the the cooking cooking activitiesactivities carriedcarried out.out. Three Three groups groups ofof lithiclithic implementsimplements andand debrisdebris fromfrom tooltool use/resharpening, whichrvhich indicate stonework, werewere fourd.found. Data suggest that thethe site site was was occupiedoccupied for a shortshort periodperiod ofof time,time, probablyprobabll' fromfrom aboutabout A.D.A.D. 800800 toto aboutabout A.D.A.D. 1200, 1200, byby aa familyfamily group.group. The lacklack ofof evidence for a dwelling indicatesindicates that,that, if one was present, it waswas lightlylightly constructed,constructed, and leftleft virtuallyvirtually nono tracetrace inin thethe archeological archeological record.record. Another interesting sitesite recentlyreceutly excavatedexcavated isis 41HR54141HR541 onon \VhiteWhite Oak Bayou in Houston. Ex-Ex- cavations at thistliis sitesite tooktook placepla.ce inin SeptemberSeptember 1987.1987. ThisThis sitesite revealed revea"led thethe remains remains of of aa single single bisonbison (buffalo)(buffalo) whichwl ch hadhad been killed and butcheredbutchered byby aboriginesaborigines some time after A.D.A.D. 1200.1200. SmallSmall arrow points, includingincluding thethe PerdizPerdiz type,type, Goose Goose CreekCreek ceramics,ceramics, andand lithiclithic debrisdebris were were foundfound closelyclosely associated with the skeleton (Figure 3).3). The time period represented atat the site,site, referred to as the Late CeramicCeramic period inin SoutheastSoutheast Texas,Texas, coincidescoincides u'ellwell withwith otherother bison "kill" sites in thethe region.region. During this time, the IndiansIndians evidentlyevidently relied on thethe bison forfor aa portionportion ofof theirtheir diet.diet. This contrasts with earlierearlier culturalcultural groupsgroups duringduring thethe EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodpcriod (A.D.(A.D. 100100 toto A.D.A.D. 600),600), asas notednoted fromfrom the AlabonsonAlabonson Roadlload SiteSite wherervhere deerdeer isis predominate.predominate. The AlabonsonAlabonson Road SiteSite (411IR273)(41I1R273) isis also located along White OakOak BayouBayou inin northwestnorthwest Houston and waswas excavated during the fallfall ofof 19871987 and earlyea.rly winter of 1988. It isis characterizedcharacterized byby a richrich EarlyEarly CeramicCeramic periodperiod middentnidden andand aa light, light, superimposed superimposed LateLate CeramicCeramic periodperiod component.component. Artifact densitydensity isis veryvery highhigh andand preservation preservation isis very vcry good; good; this this made made possible possible excellentexcellent recoveryrecovery of data concerningconcerning the dietarydietary aspectsaspects ofof thethe inhabitants.inhabitants. Artifacts Artifacts collected collected include include Goose Goose CreekCreek Plain, Incised,Incised, aldand CordCord Impressed,Impressed, andand San JacintoJacilto pottery; Alba,Alba, Darl,Darl, Gary,Gary Kent,Kent, Perdiz,perdiz, Plainview, sanSan Patrice, and YarbroughYarbrough projectile points; botanical remainsremains of palmetto, oak, pecan, hackberry, pine, elm,elrn. ash,ash, baldbald cypress,cvpress. willow, rvillorv, sweetswect gum, sedge,sedge, dogwood, and blackblack walnutwalnut oror butternut; andand substantialsubstantial faunalfaunal material,material, withwith deerdeer and turtleturtle thethe mostmost common.common. FracturesFractures inin certain longlong bones of deer indicateindicate that marrowmarrow may have served asas partpart of the diet asas well.well. OtherOther

1111 Lake

Livingston

"i-'' (coa stat)

"•'Cinco • Ranch sites

GULF OF MEX'CO

a 4rao35

inlandlnlend ForestForesl 1..:r':'-::':jl 10ro 55 0o 5 510 ro 15 15 20zo 40 I I■■ •=0L-J wimplaiNNIII' ' ' ' El.1.l Inlandtnland PrairiePralrlo Scalescale Inln milesmlles lr-l-:-:l Coastalcoasrar PrairiePrairro

Figure 1. ResearchResearch area area and and site site locationslocations

12t2

w-o

ffi Buffaloarr"to MemberM"ro., f Addicksaodi"r. Memberu".b", Z- Lissieussle FormationFormation

lam--firrr AA HorizonHorizon FineFine sandysandy loam w/roots 10YR4/31OYR4/3 PalePale brown brown EE HorizonHodzon FineFine sandysandy loamloam 10YR5/10YR5/3 3 BrownErown ;t{ BtBt HorizonHorizon ClayClay loam, 7.5YFl5/2.7.5YR5/ 2, 10YR5/3, Brown (Brl(BO), ), 10YR5/2, 2.5YR6/2, Lightish-Lightish- brownish-graybrownish-gray to grayish-brown (Bt2),@12]., 2.5YR6/2,2 5YR6 I 2, Lightishbrownish Lightishbrownrsh grayoray w/10YR5/6.w / 10YR5/6. 22 5YR4/6 5YR4/6 mottles mottles

Figure 2. SchematicSchematic of of sand sand mounds mounds atat Cinco Cinco RanchRanch fauna includeinclude gar, snake,snake, duck, antelope, ringtail cat, opossum,opossum, mole, gopher, beaver, rabbit, mink,mink, raccoon, andand coyote. FreshwaterFreshrvater andand marine shell areare also present.present. Asphaltum,Asphaltum, aa sticky,sticky, tar-tar- like substance, was detected on some ofof thethe projectile points, particularly thethe PerdizPerdiz type,type, whichwhich indicates hafting. Artifacts of special interest were two coppercopper beads,beads, decorateddecorated bone, hematite or red ocher,ocher, and a possiblepossible Gahagan biface. TheThe beadsbeads andand bifacebiface maymay signifysignify trade activitiesactivities oror associationassociation withwith cultures either to thethe easteast oror northeast.northeast. The The beads beads are are flat flat pieces pieces ofof coppercopper thatthat have have beenbeen formedformed into a circlecircle less than aa centimeter centimeter inin diameter,diameter, andand are are reminiscent reminiscent ofof thethe Eastern Eastern Woodlands Woodlands cold-hammer coppercopper industry.industry. The most likely sources ofof coppercopper areare areasareas nearnear the GreatGreat LakesLakes and portions of the southeasternsoutheastern United States. TheTiie Gahagan Gahagan bifacebiface isis commoncommon in the CaddoCaddo region ofof easterneastern Texas. Cultural features encounteredencountercd at thethe sitesite include two inhumations,inhumations, six hearths,hearths, and three ceramic concentrations. Both burialsburia.ls werewere female, between thethe agesages ofof 2222 andand 30-30. One hadhad a concentration of shell near the midsection,midsection, possibly indicatingindicating aa necklace beingbeing worn worn at at thethe time of interment. The hearths occurred around the samesame elevationelevatiol justjust below thethe surface atat or very near the interval between thethe Early and Late CeramicCeramic episodes. The site appears toto havehave beenbeen inhabitedinhabited regularly,regularlS perhaps perhaps on a seasonal basis,basis, butbut more intensely torvardtoward thethe later occupations of thethe Early Ceramic period.period. These These excavationsexcavations ha,ve have stirnulated stimulated interest interest andand presented asas manyma,ny questionsquestions as answersanswers in thethe archeology of of Southeast Southeast Texa"s. Texas. StudiesStudies ofof thesethese sitessites andand theirtheir distributionsdistritutions help to unravelunravel many the uncertainties many ofof the uncertainties regarding prehistoric lifewayslifeways for for this this region. region. EventuallyjEventually, itit is hoped thesethese investigationsinvestigations a.ndand futurefuture ones r,r'illwill readlead toto aa more thoroughthorough unJerstandingunderstanding of the people *howho occupiedoccupied thisthis area of Texas.

13 N3/W4

SCALE

00.5r .5 1 2 meters --.------

NO/W4NO,/W4 NO/WON0/w0 Ceramic/Sherd Concentration

19861986 i\ I Deer Test;t PitPit 1 Mandible J_ _/_l_ _ 'tYl1--r--L-Yl:i-'-)+^--'I'f; - ArrowArrow Point Point Fragment Frogment I

I TOTALT O TA L LITHL IT H 3 IC Cs S 3 artifactso.tifocts perper unit,.rnit I ffi 1._ J [I 0O throughtnrough 1 artifactsorlitocts perper unitunit ffi 4+ throughtnrougtr 55 artifactsortirocts perper unitunit Fffi:7.7 2 2artifacts oaifo.ts perpe, unit ,.rnit ffi 6 throughtnrougtr 10l0 artifactsortifocts perper unitunit

Figure 3. DensityDensity distribution distribution of of lithics lithics with with bison bison remnantsremnants atat 41HR541 41HR541 TheThe LowerLower TrinityTlinity RiverRiver andand EnvironsEnvirons

J.J. RichardRichard AmblerAmbler

WallisvilleWallisville ReservoirReservoir

TheThe WallisvilleWallisville Dam,Dam, withwith anan elevationelevation ofof 44 feetfeet aboveabove seasea level,level, willwill soon bebe coveredcovered by water andand thereforetherefore obsolete. SeaSea level isis predictedpredicted toto riserise atat aa raterate faster than anyany timetime sincesince the Altithermal, 55 toto 88 feetfeet inin thethe nextnext 5050 yearsyears becausebecause ofof increased glacial melt. Man-causedMan-caused atmosphericatmospheric pollutionpollution isis alreadyalready resultingresulting in aa greenhousegreenhouse effect onon thethe world's climate.climate. The nextnext 1010 yearsyears maymay bebe thethe lastlast decadedecade toto excavateexcavate manymany sitessites alongalong thethe coastscoasts withoutrvithout resorting resorting toto underwater underwater archaeology. a.rchaeology. InIn aa sense,sense, thethe 1966 1966 salvagesalvage excavationsexcavations byby thethe University[Tniversity ofof TexasTexas inin the the Wallisville Wallisville ReservoirReservoir areaarea werewere underwater archaeologyarchaeology (Ambler 1970).1970). Although thethe basalbasal portionsportions ofof thethe middensmiddens werewere well below rnodernmodern sea level, itit waswas possible to excavate the initialinitial backhoebackhoe trenchestrenches deepdeep enoughenough thatthat thethe entire entire midden midden could could be be pumped pumped dry dry each each morning, morling, since since the the surrounding surrounding clays clays werewere rela-rela- tivelytively impervious. TheThe middensmiddens investigatedinrestigated atat Wallisville lVallisville werewere firstfirst deposited inin preceramicpreceramic times,times, aboutabout 200200 B.C.B.C. TheThe upper upper third third of of the the middens middens saw sarv the the introduction introduction of of Tchefuncte-like Tchefuncte-like pottery,pottery, calledcalled Lost River Plain, aboutabout 100100 A.D.A.D. WallisvillelVallisville Plain, a companioncompanion type, hashas relationshipsrelationships to thethe north. Most subsistencesubsistence waswas onon Rangiaflaagia clams, but byby A.D.A.D.600 600 thethe nearbynearby bayousbayous hadhad becomebecome tootoo siltedsilted in forIor Rangia,Rnngia, so thesethese sitessites werewere abandoned. DeerDcer andand estuarineestuarine vertebratevertebrate bonesbones becamebecame more common through time,time, becausebecause ofof environmental changes due to continuing deposition. SiteSite location was movedmoved frequently asas clam beds becamebecame temporarilytemporarily exhausted, resultingresulting inin largelarge numbers ofofmiddens, middens, although the totaltotal populationpopulation waswas low.low. AA groupgroup ofof25 25 peoplepmple spendingspending only a few weeks ofof thethe yearyear at each of 10 or 20 sites seems reasonable.reasonable. The delta isis inhospitableinhospitable duringduring the winterwinter becausebecause of flooding,flooding, soso may have onlyonly beenbeen utilizedutilized duringduring thethe dry season. MostMost ofof the prehistoricprehistoric sitessites inin thethe Wallisville Wallisville areaarea appearappear toto have have beenbeen contemporaneous contemporaneous (Ambler(Ambler 1970).1970). Contemporary upland sites,sites, beingbeing withoutwithout clams,clams, havehave not beenbeen identified.identified. TheThe necessarynecessary mobilitymobility of the lowlow populationpopulation andand lacklack ofof locallocal resourcesresources resultedresulted inin veryvery fewfew artifactsartifacts beingbeing found,found, eveneven with thethe burials,burials, soso thethe artifactualartifactual inventory inventory ofof thethe Lost Lost River River PhasePhase and and preceding preceding ArchaicArchaic werewere poorly defined.defined. Twenty-six radiocarbon dates werewere obtained, almostalmost halfhalf from EangiaRangia shell. In contrast toto mostmost shellfish, Rangia datedate onlyonly 200200 to 300300 years earlier than thethe associatedassociated charcoal,charcoal, soso cancan bebe usedused for dating inin thethe absenceabsence ofof charcoal.charcoal. Environmentally Environmentally thethe lowerlower Trinity RiverRiver is akin toto placesplaces eastward along the Gulf Coast, so itit is not surprisingsurprising that culturalcultural relationshipsrelationships werewere and still are to thethe easteast ratherrather thanthan westward westward alongalong thethe coastcoast oror withwith thethe TexasTexas interior.

Cedar Bayou

In the midmid 1960s1960s u.U. S. Steelsteel announced plansplans toto build a plateplate millmill nearnear Cedarcedar BayouBayou east ofof Houston. The StateState Building Building CommissionCommission waswas able to supplysupply thethe UniversityUniversity ofof TexasTexas with enoughenough emergency fundsfunds for 40 person-daysperson-days ofof fieldfield work.work. TlireeThree sites were excaratedexcavated (Ambler 1967). Each had some lightlight pre-pottery Archaic occupation,occupation, butbut most of the occupation was apparentlyapparently inin the 1000 yearsyears precedingpreceding thethe Spanish. ForFor much of that millennium,millennium, subsistencesubsistence waswas based on oysteroyster andar.d Rangia with a period inin thethe middlemiddle ofof heavyheavy dependencedependence on land vertebrates,vertebrates, especiallyespecially deer. This temporary shift in subsistence patternspatterns may have been related to the changeschanges in vertebrate distribution caused by a hurricane.

15 Over 3000 sherdssherds werewere recovered.recovered. The The earliestearliest potterypottery is sand tempered, withwith sherd-temperedsherd-tempered ceramics becoming moremore commoncommon through through time.time. Incising and nodednoded basesbases werewere introducedintroduced priorprior to sherdsherd tempering.tempering. StoneStone artifacts,artifacts, asas would would be be expected expected from from thethe absence absence ofof raw raw resources, resources, weres/ere scarce, and bonebone artifactsartifacts werewere plentiful,plentiful, including socketed projectileprojectile points,points, awls, andand blunt ulna tools.

Spanish

In thethe mid-1700s,mid-1700s, thethe SpanishSpanish werewere upsetupset byby FrenchFrench incursionsincursions westwest ofof thethe MississippiMississippi RiverRiver andand destroyed a French trading post onon thethe easteast sideside ofof thethe lowerlower TrinityTrinity River.River. ByBy 1756,1756, thethe SpanishSpanish had established a presidio and mission atat the sitesite of the destroyeddestroyed trading post,post, movedmoved it aa decadedecade later, andand abandonedabandoned itit in 1771.1771. AnAn accurateaccurate mapmap hadhad beenbeen drawndrawn in 1767.L767. MostMost ofof thethe hillhill upon which the presidiopresidio had last beenbeen placedplaced hadhad beenbeen removedremoved for thethe constructionconstruction ofof nearbynearby Interstate 1010 inin thethe latelate 1950s,1950s, but enoughenough majolicamajolica anda.nd glassglass beads remained to identifyidentify the hillhill as thethe locationlocation of the PresidioPresidio San Augustin de Ahumada. SinceSince thethe remainingremaining portionportion ofof thethe hillhill waswas planned to bebe usedused forfor additionaladditional borrowborrow material,material, a a cooperative cooperative emergency emergency excavation excavation involvinginvolving the StateState BuildingBuilding Commission,Commission, the UniversityUniversity of Texas, thethe National Park Service,Service, and ChambersChambers County was conducted inin 19661966 (Tunnel(Tunnel andand Ambler 1967). The presidiapresidio buildingbuilding remnant hadhad been totally removedremoved during highway construction,construction, but but somesome lightlight scatteredscattered trash remainedremained to the easteast andand southeastsoutheast ofof wherewhere thethe buildingsbuildings had originallyoriginally stood.stood. MuchMuch of this areaarea hadhad beenbeen dug in uncontrolleduncontrolled fashion by locals, one of whom kindly loanedloaned hishis collectioncollection forfor study.study. TheThe Texas Archeological Salvage Salvage Project Project excavated excavated 31 31 test test pits. pits. MostMost artifactsartifacts ofof EuropeanEuropean genesis genesis were sherds: 295295 SpanishSpanish majolica,majolica, 259259 FrenchFrench faience,faience, 3333 salt-glazedsalt-glazed stoneware,stoneware, 2525 unidentifiedunidentified European earthernware, and 66 orientaloriental ricerice bowlbowl sherds. Forty-nine Forty-nine glassglass sherdssherds werewere found,found, asas were 4351 glassglass beads.beads. A few coppercopper andand iron objects were also found. The largelarge numbernumber ofof glassglass beads indicates missionizing activity activity among among the the local local Akokisa Akokisa Indians. Indians. That That thisthis activity waswas at least partiallypartially successfulsuccessful waswas shown by the finding of 438438 sherdssherds ofof IndianIndian ceramics,ceramics, indicatingindicating thatthat some Akokisa werewere livingliving atat thethe presidio. TheThe presencepresence of large amounts of FrenchFrench pottery showsshows that Spanish-FrenchSpanish-French tradetrade waswas occurring,occurring, even though thethe twotwo countriescountries werewere technicallytechnically at warwar inin thisthis area.

References cited

Ambler, J. RichardRichard 19671967 Three Three Prehistoric Prehistoric Sites Sites near near Cedar Cedar Bayou, Bayou, Galveston Galveston Bay Bay Area. Area. Texas Texas StateState Building Building Commission, Commission, Report 8 19701970 Additional Additional Archeological Archeological SurveySurvey of of the the Wallisville Wallisville ReservoirReservoir Area, Southeast Texas.Texas. TexasTexas Arche-Arche- ological Salvage ProjectProject Survey Report 66 Tunnel,Thnnel, Curtis D. andand J.J. RichardRichard AmblerArnbler 1967196? Archeological Archeological ExcavationsExcavations of PresidioPresidio San Augustin de Ahumada.Ahumada. State State Building Building Commission, Commission, Report 6

1616 Archeology in the SanSan JacintoJacinto RiverRiver Basin:Basin: A LookLook BackBack AfterAfter 2020 YearsYears

Harry J. ShaferSliafer

Introduction

A monograph entitled "Archeological"Archeological Investigations inin thethe San JacintoJacinto RiverRiver Basin,Basin, MontgomeryMontgomery County, Texas" was published in 19681968 by the thenthen TexasTexas Archeological Archeological Salvage Project, TheThe Uni-Uni- versity of TexasTexas atat Austin (Shafer 1968). This monograph reported the resultsresults ofof test excavationsexcavations at threethree sitessites inin thethe ConroeConroe ReservoirReservoir basin.basin. TheThe field field workwork waswas aa reservoirreservoir salvagesallzge effortefort conducted as a partpart ofof aa Memorandum Memorandum ofof AgreementAgreement (MOA)(MOA) betweenbetween The UniversityUniversity of Texas andand the NationalNational Park Service.Service. TwoTwo additionaladditional sitessites werewere investigatedinvestigated beyondbeyond thethe MOA; MOA; thesethese werewere 41MQ1441MQ14 tested by thethe HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society (unpublished)(unpublished) andand the ScottsScotts Ridgefudge SiteSite 41MQ4141MQ41 tested byby Texas A&M University (Shafer and Stearns 1975).1975). This paperpaper reviewsreviews thethe archeologicalarcheological investigations thatthat werewere conducted in thethe LakeLake ConroeConroe basin and presentspresents somesome reflections onon thethe naturenature of the work andand the interpretations ofof thethe findings.findings.

Past archeologicalarcheological workwork

In 19651965 thethe inland inland area area of of Southeast Southeast Texas Texas was was largely largely unknown unknown archeologically archeologically (Suhm(Suhm etal. 1954:Figures1954:Figures 4 4 andand 5; Shafer 1968); indeed,indeed, thisthis couldcould bebe said with all ofof SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas at that time.time. AnAn opportunity opportunity to to gain gain some some insightinsight intointo thethe prehistoryprehistory ofof thethe region region camecame withwith thethe sal-salvage archeology programprogram at ConroeConroe Reservoir.Reservoir. AnAn archeologicalarcheological survey ofofthe the basin waswas conductedconducted in 19651965 by William Sorrow andand myself (Shafer(Shafer 1966).1966). ThisThis survey waswas notnot systematic by today's standards, andand waswas constrainedconstrained byby twotwo factors: timetime andand access.access. TheThe areasareas thatthat we we diddid surveysurvey werewere thoroughlythoroughly covered on foot using both surfacesurface inspectioninspection and shovelshovel testingtestinB toto verifyverify thethe presencepresence or absenceabsence of cultural materials. Approximately one-thirdone-third ofof thethe reservoirreservoir areaarea waswa,s coveredcovered andand 3434 prehistoricprehistoric archeologicalarcheological sites were documented during this survey; no eflorteffort was mademade toto document historic structures or sites.sites- Fourteen sites werewere recommended forfor additional investigations. The criteriacriteria forfor recommendationrecommendation were based onon the superficialsuperficial appearanceappearance of of thethe site,site, depth of the deposits,deposits, andand timetime periodsperiods represented in thethe materialsmaterials collectedcollected fromfrom thethe surface.surface. Daymond CrawfordCrawford and and II returnedreturned to thethe ConroeConroe basinbasin inin 19661966 forfor twotwo monthsmonths of testtest ex-excavations. WeWe workedworked with locallocal laborlabor andand partiallypartially excavatedexcavated threethree sites, sites, 41MQ4, 4f MQ4, 41MQ5,4lMQ5, andand 41MQ6.41MQ6- TheThe researchresearch designdesign wasrvas simplesimple and straightforward.straightforward. Ostensibly,Ostensibly, ourour goalgoal waswas toto recoverrecover a representativerepresentative samplesample ofof thethe archeologicalarcheological data affectedaffected by the reservoir.reservoir. ThisThis goalgoal couldcould hardly be metmet byby samplingsampling onlyonly 3%3% ofof thethe estimatedestimated archeologicalarcheological resources.tesources. Our excavationsexcavations were mainly stratigraphic and block tests conductedconducted toto documentdocument verticalvertical and horizontalhorizontal differencesdifferences inin the materialmaterial remains.remains. WeWe were were successfulsuccessful in gaininggaining information to construct aa frameworkframework of culture history, data on sitesite structure,structure, andand onon sitesite locations.locations. However, Ilowever, inin terms ofof modern archeologicalarchmlogical goals, our work provided little information onon thethe waysways ofof lifelife of the people or on thethe processesprocesses of culture change.change. TheThe NewNew ArcheologyArcheology revolutionrevolution hadhad justjust begun and the smokesmoke had yet to driftdrift intointo Texas.Texas.

17t7 TheThe sitessites

AA brief synopsis ofof thethe findingsfindings atat fourfour ofof thethe sites is presented. DataData onon 41MQ1441MQ14 isis unpublishedunpublished and was notnot available forfor thisthis overview.overview. TheThe findingsfindings at at thatthat site generally parallel thosethose at 41MQ5. 41MQ441MQ4 Site 41MQ4 waswas located located on on thethe south side of Adkins Creek onon a lowlow bluff about oneone milemile upstreamupstream fromfrom thethe creek's confluenceconfluence with with the the West West Fork Fork of of the the San San JacintoJacinto River.River. CulturalCultural materia.lmaterial was foundfound inin aa dark brown sand overlying aa basalbasal clayclay formation. formation. StructuralStructural features werewere foundfound inin the sand, includingincluding hearths and burned clay ballba,ll concentrations. The culturalcultura,l remainsremains were mostlymostly lithiclithic andand ceramicceramic artifacts.artifacts. The site was occupied duringduring thethe Late Archaic/Woodland period; thisthis is a time whenwhen ceramics werewere firstfirst introducedintroduced intointo thethe area. TheThe ceramicsceramics werewere plain coarse sandy paste (or(or sand-tempered)sand-tempered) wareswares consistingconsisting ofof simplesimple bowls and jars (cf.(cf. GooseGoose CreekCreek Plain of Aten 1983:231,232). The The potterypottery was associatedassociated withwith contracting-stemcontracting-stem Gary and possibly parallel-stem KentKent projectileprojectile pointpoint types. Expanding-stemExpanding-stem PalmillasPalmillas points werewere concentrated in the deeper levelslevels below thethe pottery. 41MQ5 This site waswas located on a lowlow terrace west of the SanSan JacintoJacinto RiverRiver aboutabout oneone milemile aboveabove the dam. CulturalCultural materialsmaterials werewere prolificprolific in thethe sandysandy fillfill overlyingoverlying aa basal clay formation.formation. The sand varied in thickness from about 1010 inches toto over threethree feet. HereHere again, the materialmaterial evidenceevidence consisted mostlymostly ofof lithics Ethics and and ceramics. ceramics. No No structural structural featuresfeatures werewere found found at at thethe site.site. The time span ofof thethe occupationoccupation waswas longerlonger than forfor 41MQ441MQ4 and thethe deeperdeeper depositsdeposits yieldedyielded somesome verticalvertical trends inin thethe culturalcultural sequence.sequence. ArrowArrow pointspoints generallygenerally occurredoccurred in thethe upperupper levelslevels alongalong withwith the bone-temperedbone-tempered andand grog-temperedgrog-tempered ceramics; Gary points clustered below thethe arrow points and were assoc.iatedassociated withwith mostly sand-tempered pottery.pottery. KentIient pointspoints werewere clusteredclustered deeperdeeper wherewhere the pottery waswas almostalmost exclusivelyexclusively sand tempered. 41MQ6 This large site waswas located onon thethe WeirsWeirs CreekCreek drainage approximatelyapproximately fivefive milesmiles west-northwestwest-northwest of Willis, Texas.Texas. The site extended along a sandy ridge paralleling thethe creek. Three areasareas of the site were tested. AsAs withwith thethe otherother sites,sites, thethe culturalcultural materials materials werewere recovered recoveted fromfrom deepdeep sandsand deposits.deposits. Structural featuresfeatures werewere found in each of the areasareas andand includeinclude aa circularcircular darkdark brownbrown middenmidden lenslens inin AreaArea AA whichwhich may have been a house floor. A large sandy paste jar (cf.(cf. GooseGoose CreekCreek Plain)Plain) waswas associatedassociated with this feature. HearthsHearths andand burnedburned clayclay ballball concentrationsconcentrations werewere the other features.features. The culturalcultural sequencesequence ofof 41MQ641lr{Q6 included the same types of earlier materials asas foundfound atat 41MQ441MQ4 andand 41MQ5,41MQ5, but yieldedyielded the largestla.rgest samplesample of arrow points and decorated pottery fromfrom anyany ofof the sites.sites. TheThe verticalvertica-l distributiondistribution ofof thethe artifactsartifacts clearlyclearly showsshorvs thatthat sandy paste potterypottery isis earlyearly andand extendsextends throughoutthroughout thethe sequence;sequence; bone-temperedbone-tempered and later grog-temperedgrog-tempered pottery appearappear alongalong withwith thethe arrowarrow points.points. TheThe bone-temperedbone-tempered andand grog-temperedgrog-tempered pottery probablyprobably representrepresent culturalcultural inspirationinspiration emanatingemanating fromfrom thethe CaddoanCaddoan areaarea ofof northeasternnortlleastern Texas.Texas' ScottsScotts RidgeRidge SiteSite (41MQ41)(41MQ41) TheThe ScottsScotts RidgeRidge SiteSite isis locatedlocated onon aa high high ridgeridge point point overlooking overlooking LakeLake Conroe.Conroe' TheThe sitesite waswas outsideoutside ofof thethe 19651g65 surveysurvey tract. Limited Limited test test excavations excavations werewere conductedcolducted inin thethe shallow shallow sandsand deposit.deposit. TheThe only only sample sample ofof earlyearly ArchaicArchaic diagnosticsdiagnostics foundfound inin thethe LakeLake ConroeConroe districtdistrict camecame fromfrom thethe ScottScott RidgeRidge Site;Site; these artifacts include a site-notched dartdart pointpoint and a San Patrice dart point.point. TheThe importanceimportance ofof thethe Scottsscotts RidgeRidge Site is that itit demonstratedden)onstrated thatthat earlier earlier Archaic Archaic materialsmaterials notnot foundfound inin thethe lowerlorver elevationselevations of the valleyvalley occur at highhigh pointspoints andand ridges ridges borderingbordering thethe valley. valley.

1818 Summary

Archeological excavations excavations at at four four sites sites inin thethe San Jacinto RiverRiver basinbasin yieldedyielded sufficientsufficient datadata to propose a tentative culturalcultural sequencesequence for the locality. Findings at thethe ScottsScotts RidgeRidge SiteSite indicateindicate that earlyearly ArchaicArchaic lithiclithic materialsmaterials cancan bebe foundfound onon thethe higher higher landformslandforms borderingbordering thethe majormajor streams. TheseThese sitessites willwill tendtend toto have have thinthin soil soil mantles mantles whichwhich probably will notnot appear to bebe promising from superficial inspection. ArcheologicalArchmlogical sitessites located on progressivelyprogressively lower landforms will yield progressively laterlater ma-materials.teria.ls. Site Site 41MQ4, 41MQ4, forfor example,example, isis onon aa terrace terrace ridge ridge above above the the Adkins Adkins Creek Creek floodplainfloodplain andand yielded a pre-arrow-pointpre-atrow-point LateLate Archaic/WoodlandArchaic/Woodland assemblageassemblage (Shafer(Shafer 1975)1975) components. VerticalVertical distribution ofof thethe materialsmaterials revealedreveaLed that expanding-stemexpanding-stem PalmillasPalmillas pointspoints clusteredclustered lower than the parallel-stem Kent and contracting-stem Gary points. Plain,Plain, coarsecoarse sandy paste potterypottery clusteredclustered with the GaryGary andand KentKent points.points. Site 41MQ5 was located lower inin the valley than 41MQ441MQ4 but yieldedyielded much of the samesame pre-pre- arrow-point material along with arrow points and bone-tempered and grog-tempered pottery.pottery. The vertical distribution of the artifactsartifacts indicatesindicates thattliat bone-temperedbone-tempered andand grog-temperedgrog-tempered pottery areare associated with the arrowarrow points, but nono strongstrong temporaltemporal trendstrends werewere seenseen withinwithin thesethese temperingtempering categories. The verticalvertica.l distribution ofof the arrowarrow points and associatedassociated pottery waswas aa bitbit clearerclearer atat 41MQ6,41MQ6, allowing forfor aa tentativetentative sequence toto bebe proposedproposed (Figure(Figure l).1). Bone-tempered pottery appears earlierearlier than grog-temperedgrog-tempered pottery;pottery; there is also aa hint that CatahoulaCatahoula pointspoints predatepredate PerdizPerdiz points.points. The potterypottery traditiontradition is is clearly clearly dominated dominated by by sandy sandy paste paste ware ware which which Aten Aten (1983:231-232) (f983:231-232) describes as Goose Creek Pla.in.Plain. TheseThese vesselsvessels areare mostly deep conical bowlsbowls or or jars. jars. This pottery first appearsappears inin whatwhat TexasTexas archeologistsarchmlogists wouldwould normally call the Late Archaic/WoodlandArchaic/Woodland period. Aten (1983:293) dates dates thisthis introductionintroduction atat about A.D.A.D. 500, but I feelfeel that itit could could easilyeasily bebe 300300 toto 400400 years earlier based on the radiocarbonradiocarbon datesdates fromfrom CoralCoral SnakeSnake Mound (Jensen 1969).1969). TheThe acceptableacceptable dates forfor thethe WoodlandWoodland manifestationmanifestation at CoralCoral SnakeSnake MoundMound rangerange fromfrom 120120 B.C. to A.D.A.D.400. 400. TheThe Woodland Woodland manifestationmanifestation at thatthat site site is is a aburial burial mound mound containing containing cremations,cremations, Marksville StampedStamped pottery,pottery, copper and other exotic artifacts. TheThe indigenousindigenous lithics andand sandysandy paste (or(or sand-tempered)sand-tempered) potterypottery are are remarkably remarkably similarsimilar toto those those recovered recovered fromfrom 41MQ4.41MQ4. The earlyearly sandysandy pastepaste potterypottery inin the the Lake Lake Conroe Conroe district district is is associated associated with with parallel-stem parallel-stem and contracting-stemcontracting-stem dartdart points. TheThe sandy sandy pastepaste potterypottery tradition tradition is is widespread widespread throughoutthroughout Southeast TexasTexas andand waswas probablyprobably derivedderived fromfrom thethe Tchefuncte Tchefuncte and and Marksville Marksville developments developments ofof thethe LowerLower Mississippi Valley.Valley. It It enduredendured inin Southeast Texas throughout thethe remainingremaining prehistoricprehistoric sequence. SmallSmall percentagepercentage of bone-temperedbone-tempered pottery,pottery, again mainly in thethe formfotm ofof bowlsbowls andand jars, appearsappears inin thethe sequence sequence associatedassociated withwith parallel-stemparallel-stem arrow points. Bone-temperedBone-tempered pottery probably was introduced fromfrom thethe Caddoan a.rea,area, as:rs was grog-tempered ware whichwhich appearedappeared somewhat later inin thethe sequence.sequence. BothBoth ofof thesethese wareswares areare oftenoften decorateddecorated withwith wet-pastewet-paste techniquestechniques such as incising and punctating. Atakapan-speaking IndiansIndians occupiedoccupied thethe region ofof Southeast Texas in earlyearly HistoricHistoric times.times. Using thethe direct historicalhistorica.l approach andand the assumptionassumption that aa continuity continuity ofof ceramicceramic traditiontradition indicates aa generalgeneral continuitycontinuity ofof ethicethic identityidentity backback inin time, time, several several archeologists archeologists havehave suggested suggested that thethe Galveston Ga.lveston BayBay potterypottery seriesseries andand thethe largelylargely unnamedurnamed inlandinland sandysandy pastepaste potterypottery seriesseries can bebe attributedattributed to to the the Atakapan-speaking Atakapan-speaking Indians Indians (Shafer (Shafer 1975; l97b; Aten Aten 1983:313-325). 1983:3r3-32b). TheThe originorigin of thethe Southeastsoutheast TexasTexas pottery,pottery althoughalthough claimedclaimed byby AmblerAmbler (1973:92)(1973:92) toto be Caddoan,caddoan, isis moremore likely from the LowerLower MississippiMississippi ValleyValley Tchefuncte,Tchefuncte, Marksville,Marksville, and and ColesColes CreekCreek trailitionstraditions and may predate thethe CaddoanCaddoan traditiontradition byby as as much much asas 1000 1000 years.years.

1919

PROPOSEDPROPOSED SEQUENCESEQUENCE for thethe LAKELAKE CONROECONROE DISTRICTD]STR]CT

POTTERY SERIESS EBI ES

PERIOD DATES POINTPOITT TYPESTYPES SANDYSAiIDY PASTEPAgTE SONEEO]IE TEMP.TEIP GROGOROO TEMP.TE IP. t t ADt500 ...,41111111111111.

9IC I o aDt250 c CLIFFTONcLtFFtolt ARCHA PERDIZrEnDrz C, l

F T 1t |" o I I o AO t OOO cPOS I I +^."^ALBA I ao750 IITATAHOULA HOULA

(.,C 4o500 I

IoA ND -zH A o

E,)R

!- W GARY LA o

KENT 2508C 1 - - - • lrl LE i J C ooD 9i AI 5008c PALMILLASPAtrtLtAa MID

=I oCH l|l a! TE AR

J LA TsoBc

ER = CNED C o AI

C,ZRLY CH <()A R utE al A r='' SAN3At{ PATRICEP TRTC!

Figure 1. ProposedProposed sequence sequence forfor thethe Lake Lake ConroeConroe district

20 ReferencesReferences citedcited

Ambler,Ambler, J.J. Richard Richard 19731973 Excavation Excavation in in the the Trinity Ttinity River River Delta: Delta: The The Lost Lost River River Phase. Phase. Report R€port submitted submitted toto the the National National ParkPark Service Service byby the the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological Survey,Survey, TheThe UniversityUniversity ofof Texas.Texas. AustinAustin Aten,Aten, LawrenceLawrence E.E. 19831983 Indians Indians of of the the Upper Upper Texas Texas Coast. Coast. Academic Academic Presspress

Jensen,Jensen, H.H. P.,P., Jr.Jr. 19691969 Coral cora.l Snake Snake Mound Mound X16 Xr6 SA SA 48. 48. Bulletin Bulletin of ofthe the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological Society society 39:9-44 39:9-44

Shafer,Shafer, HarryEarry J. 19661966 Archeological Archeological Surveys Surveys of of Honea, Honea, Pat Pat Mayse, Mayse, and and Halsell Ealsell Reservoirs. Reservoirs. Texas Texas Archeological Archeological SalvageSalvage ProjectProject SurveySurvey Reports,Reports, 1.I. AustinAustin 19681968 Archeological Archeological InvestigationsInvestigations inin thethe San San Jacinto Jacinto River River Basin, Basin, Montgomery Montgomery County,County, Texas.Texas. Paperspapers ofof thethe TexasTexas Archeological Archeological Salvage Project, No.No. 13.13. AustinAustin

19751975 Comments Comments on on Woodland Woodland Cultures Cultures of of East East Texas. Texas. Bulletin Bulletin of of the the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological Society Society 46:249-25446:249-254 Shafer,Shafer, Harry J. andand ThomasThomas B.B- StearnsStearns 19751975 Archeological Archeological Investigations InvestiSations at at the the Scotts Scotts Ridge Ridge Site Site (41MQ41), (41NIQ41), Montgomery Montgomery County,County, Texas.Texas. TexasTexas A&MA&M University Anthropological LaboratoryLaboratory Report No.No. 17.l?. CollegeCollege Station Suhm, DeeDee Ann, Alex D. Krieger and Edward B. Jelks 19541954 An An Introductory Introductory Handbook Handbook of ofTexas Texas Archeology. Archeology. Bulletin Bulletin of o[ the the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological SocietySociety 25:1-2b:1- 562562

2l21 Shell PointPoint (41BZ2)(4LBZ?) Frank Hole

The excavation ofof thisthis littlelittle site was carriedcarried outout by studentsstudents at RiceRice University as a class project in field techniques,techniques, afterafter thethe presence ofof burialsburials eroding eroding out out ofof anan exposedexposed bank bank atat the mouth ofof Chocolate Bayou hadhad been reported toto FrankFrank HoleHole (Hole(Hole andand WilkinsonWilkinson 1973).1973). Only a small remnantremnant of whatwhat probably had been a much largerlarger site remained at the timetime ofofour our excavation.excayation. FrankFYank Mebane, aa locallocal resident,resident, toldtold usus thatthat the bank had erodederoded backback 55 to 77 meters in the previous decade, and we found a site of only 12by12 by 2O20 meters.meters. Our excavation was concentrated in the burial area next toto thethe erodingeroding bank. Five bodies werewere packedpacked tightly tightly togethertogether inin aa shallow pitpit dug into an oysteroyster shellshell middenmidden in what probably was a singlesingle intermentinterment following a a catastrophe. catastrophe. Other buria,lsburials alsoa.lso occurred in the site, as isis commoncommon withwith shellshell middensmiddens alongalong thethe GulfGulf Coast;Coast; however,however, thesethese werewere evidentlyevidently singlesingle interments. WeWe werewere givengirren various bonesbones representingrepresenting suchsuch burialsburials thatthat had eroded from the bank in previous years, and the entire collection,collection, representing nine individuals, was studied by Dr. RichardRichard Wilkinson. The skeletonsskeletons are consistent with thethe historichistoric AtakapanAtakapan andand Karankawa Karankawa IndiansIndians whowho werewere reportedly talltall andand muscular.muscular. Some Some pathologiespathologies werewere noted, thethe mostmost commoncommon beingbeing aa progressiveprogressive bone disease such as periostitis, probably resultingresulting fromfrom infection. TheThe fivefive bodies in thethe commoncommon pit consistedconsisted of two ma,lesmales andand aa fema.lefemale Sreatergreater thanthan 40 years, a young adult malemale and aa childchild ofof about 55 years.years. It isis probableprobable thatthat this this group group was was fishingfishing andand collectingcollecting shellfishshellfish atat Shell Point when a norther blew up unexpectedly, leaving themthem stranded,stranded, and theythey frozefroze before they were able to reach shelter. Such episodes ofof severe northersnorthers areare well attestedattested historicallyhistorically and numerousnumerous peoplepeople havehave dieddied inin similarlysimila,rly exposed positions.

References cited

Hole,Ilole, Frank, and RichardRichard G.G. WilkinsonWilkinson 19731973 Shell Shell Point: Point: A ACoastal Coastal Camp Camp and and Burial Burial Site Site in in Brazoria Brazoria County. County. Bulletin Bulletin of of the the Texas Texas Archeolog- Archeolog- icalical SocietySociety 44:5-5044:5-50

2222 PrehistoricPrehistoric OccupationOccupation SequencesSequences inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas

LelandLeland W.W. PattersonPatterson

IntroductionIntroduction

SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas hashas hadhad humanhuman habitationhabitation for for at at least lea.st 12,000 12,000 years. years. The The archeological archeological recordrecord isis notnot detaileddetailed forfor thethe Early Early Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian periodperiod from from 12,000 12,000 toto 10,000 10,000 yearsyears ago,ago, withwith onlyonly aa few few distinctivedistinctive typestypes ofof stone spear points, such as the Clovis type,type, to demonstrate that manman waswas inin thisthis regionregion at thatthat time. time. After After 10,000 10,000 years years ago, ago, the the available available archeological archeological record record becomesbecomes muchmuch moremore detailed.detailed. ThereThere areare a a number number of of sites sites in in Southeast Southeast Texas Texas thatthat demonstrate demonstrate occupation occupation sequences sequences ofof approximatelyapproximately 10,00010,000 years,years, startingstarting with thethe LateLate Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian periodperiod andand continuingcontinuing throughthrough thethe LateLate PrehistoricPrehistoric untiluntil historichistoric timetime atat A.D.A.D. 1500 1500 (Patterson(Patterson 1983).1983). Many texts picturepicture thethe EarlyEarly Paleo-IndianPaleo-Indian asas aa hunter hunter of of large large extinctextinct typestypes of of animals, animals, suchsuch asas mammoth.mammoth. In Irt Southeast Southeast Texas, Texas, however, however, a a single, single, broad-based broad-based hunter-gatherer hunter-gatherer lifestylelifestyle seemsseems toto havehave beenbeen followedfollowed byby IndiansIndians forfor the entire prehistoric period. AnimalAnimal bonebone remainsremains areare muchmuch thethe samesame inin thisthis regionregion fromfrom earlyearly andand latelate prehistoricprehistoric sites,sites, withwith thethe animalsanimals beingbeing aa variety variety ofof modern species.species. While the lifestylelifestyle of Indians in this regionregion remainedremaiued basicallybasically the samesame overover time,time, therethere werewere technological changeschanges that that cancan be found by archeologicalarcheological studies.studies. StylesStyles of stonestone spearspear pointspoints changed gradually over time.time. Pottery was\,!-as introduced to thistlts regionregion aboutabout A.D.A.D. 100.100. StandardizedStandardized stylesstyles of arrow pointspoints start atat approximatelyapproximately A.D.A.D. 600,600, although use of the bowbow and arrowarrow started somewhat earlier with non-standardizednon-standardized point styles.styles. TwoTwo archeologicalarcheological sites that havehave beenbeen ex-excavated by thethe Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety show the longlong occupationoccupatior sequencesequence ofof prehistoricprehistoric Indians in thisthis region.region. OneOne ofof thesethese sitessites isis 41HR3154lHR315 inin Harris County (Patterson 1980),1980), and the other isis sitesite 41WH1941lVHl9 inin Wharton County (Patterson etet al.al. 1987).1987).

Site 41HR31541HR315

Archeological site 41HR31541111'015 r,r,as was located located on on Cypress Cypress Creek Creek in in northwest northwest HarrisHarris County,County, but has beenbeen completely removed byby roa.droad construction. BeforeBefore disturbance ofof thisthis site,site, thethe HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society conducted a large-scale excavation, and found an occupation sequencesequence ofoI about 10,00010,000 years. In the olderolder (deeper)(deeper) excavationexcavation levels,levels, cultural remainsremairs consisted of spear point types suchsuch as SanSan Patrice, Plainview,Plainview, Angostura, and EarlyEarly StemmedStemmed (Figure 1),1), and otherother stonestone toolstools mademade onon chert flakes. Spear point typestypes fromfrom laterlater periodsperiods includedincluded Carrollton,Carrollton, Bulverde-like,Bulverde-like, KentKent and Gary. A few Perdiz arrow points werewere found from the youngeryounger (upper)(upper) excavationexcavation levels.levels. Hearth featuresfeatures mademade ofof bakedbaked clayballs,clayballs, whichwhich represent cookingcooking activities, were found at sev-several excavation levels. Types ofof animalanimal bone,bone, suchsuch asas deerdeer andand turtle,turtle, were similar at d,llall excavation levels. MuchMuch stone debrisdebris was found at thisthis site,site, which which demonstratesdemonstrates aa highhigh levellevel ofof stonestone tooltool manufacturing activity.activity. Chert does not occur naturally near this site,site, andand appearsappears toto havehave beenbeen imported from a distance of at leastleast 2525 miles,miles, perhaps from the BrazosBrazos River area. AsAs wouldwould be expected, pottery occursoccurs inin thethe upperupper excavationexcavation levelslevels of this site. ThisThis waswas the firstfirst sitesite excavatedexcavated in Southeast TexasTexas whereu'here an entire occupationoccupation sequencesequence of about 10,00010,000 years could bebe shown.shown. The age of eacheach excarationexcavation levellevel q'as was estimated estimated from from point point types types that that have been dated in other regionsregions of Texas,Texas, andand fromfrom thethe startstart of pottery that hashas beenbeen dateddated for{or thethe upperupper TexasTexas coastcoast (Aten(Aten 1983).1983).

23 Site 41WH1941WH19

Another sitesite withwith aa longlong prehistoricprehistoric occupationoccupation sequence,sequence, 41WH1941WH19 in Wharton County,County, waswas exca-excavated byby thethe HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological Society. A radiocarbon date ofof 7970±5307970i530 B.C.B.C. waswas obtainedobtained for thethe deepestdeepest excavationexcavation level, and a radiocarbonradiocarbon date ofof A.D.A.D. 1585±801585+80 was obtained for the youngest excavation level.level. Cultural remainsremains for each time period were similar toto those found at site 41HR315 inin HarrisHarris County, includingincluding thethe typestypes ofof projectileprojectile points,points, pottery, baked clayball hearths and muchmuch debrisdebris from stone tool manufacture.manufacture. It waswas demonstrated for the firstfirst timetime atat sitesite 41WH1941WH19 thatthat certaincertain typestypes ofof notched-basenotched-base spearspear points occur veryvery early in thisthis region,region, inin thethe Late Late Paleo-Indian Paleo-Indian periodperiod from from 10,000 10,000 toto 7,0007,000 yearsyears ago. InIn addition,addition, aa notched-basenotched-base pointpoint waswas found at aboutabout thethe same same levellevel asas aa FolsomFolsom fluted point, which usually represents a time period of 11,000 toto 10,000 years years ago. ago. Thus,Thus, occupationsoccupations atat this site may have started beforebefore 10,00010,000 yearsyears ago. AnimalAnima.l bone preservation at sitesite 41WH1941WH19 was good enough to allow aa detailed analysis. Deer,Deer, turtleturtle andand rodents rodents werewere principleprincipie foodfood sources.sources. BisonBison remainsremains werewere presentpresent atat only only some some excava- excava- tion levels,levels, so bison was probably not continuouslycontinuously available overover time.time. WhileWhile plantplant foodsfoods werewere probably also importantimportart inin prehistoricprehistoric diets,diets, therethere isis generallygenerally no preservationpreservation of plant remainsremains at archeologicalarcheologicd sitessites in this region.region.

GeneralGeneral commentscomments

There areare aa largelarge numbernumber ofof recordedrecorded surfacesurface collectionscollections from prehistoric sites in Southeast Texas.Texas. When data fromfrom bothboth surfacesur{ace collectionscollections and excavated sites are used together, a fairly good picture of prehistoricprehistoric occupation sequencessequetrces andand lifestyieslifestyles cancan be obtained. The The Houston Houston Archeological Archeological Society has aa continuingcontinuing programprogram ofof fieldfield researchresearch inin SoutheastSoutheast TexasTexas toto increase increase knowledge knowledge ofof man's past inin thisthis region.region.

References cited

Aten, L.L. E.E. 19831983 Indians Indians of of the the Upper Upper Texas Texas Coast.Coast. Academic Academic PressPress Patterson, L.L. W. 19801980 The The Owen Owen Site, Site, 41HR315: 41HR315: A A Long Long Occupation Occupation Sequence Sequence inin HarrisHarris County,County, Texas.Texas. HoustonHouston Arche-Arche- ological Society, ReportReport No. 33 19831983 Prehistoric Prehistoric Settlement Settlement and and Technological Technological Patterns Patterns in in Southeast Southeast Texas. Texas. Bulletin Bulletin of ofthe the TexasTexas Arche-Arche- ological Society 54:253-26954:253-269 Patterson, L.L. W.,W., J. D. Hudgins,Hudgins, R. L.L. GreggGregg and W.lV. L.L. McClureNlcClure 19871g87 Excavations Excavations at atSite Site 41WI119, 41WH19, Wharton Wlrarton County, Couuty, Texas. Texas. Houston Houston Archeological Archeological Society,Society, ReportReport No.No.4 4

24 0 1 72 2 33 44 55 cm cm I. ltt I I I I I I I I

A B C D

E F G H

II JJ K LL

A-ClA-Clovis, ovi s, B-B-Folsom,Fol som, C-PlC-Plainview, ainview, D-Angostura,D-Angostura, E,E,F-Early F-Ear'ly NoNotched,tched, G-CarrolG-Carrollton, I ton, H-BulH-Bulverde, verde, I-Gary,I-Gary, J-Kent,J-Kent, K-EnK-Ensor,sor, L-PerdizL-Perdiz

FigureFigure 1. 1. ProjectileProjectile point typestypes

2525 EvaluationEvaluation ofof PrehistoricPrehistoric SiteSite Preservation onon thethe OuterOuter Shelf:Shelf: TheThe Sabine River Area,Area, OffshoreOffshore Texas CharlesCharles E.E. Pearson

Introduction

ForFor thethe past decadedecade there hashas beenbeen anan increasingilcreasing interestinterest amongamong archaeologistsarcha.eologists in the prehistoric archaeological potential potential of of the the continentalcontinental shelvesshelves of of the the rvorld.world. PriorPrior to aboutabout 10,00010,000 years ago, because ofof lower seasea levels,levels, va.stvast areas of thethe North Nortli American American continentalcontinental shelfshelf werewere exposed,exposed, providing landland andand resourcesresources to to aboriginalaboriginal populations. populations. ThereThere isis nono doubtdoubt thatthat thesethese populationspopulations used and settled these areas.areas. Today,Today, manymany wouldwould agree that, givengiven certaincertain conditions,conditions, prehistoric sites established on thethe continentalcontinental shelfshelf duringduring thosethose periods periods ofof lowered lowered seasea levellevel wouldwould havehave withstood the effectseffects of rising seas and would norvnow remainremain preserved onon thethe submerged portions of the shelf. OneO1e of the settingssettilgs thatthat couldcould provideprovide thethe setset ofof conditionsconditions leadingieading toto sitesite preservationpreserwation of the continentalcontinental shelf is a filled stream valley. This is particularlypa.rticularly truetrue ofof thethe largerlarger valleysvalleys which,which, with seasea levellevel rise,rise, developdevelop into estuariesestuaries andand slowlyslowly fillfill withwith sedimentssediments beforebefore beingbeing completelycompletely inundated. ArchaeologicalArchaeological depositsdeposits cancan becomebecome covered byby andand encapsulatedencapsulated in estuarine sediments and remainremain intact beneathbeneath the the erosive erosive impactsimpacts ofof risingrising seas.seas. DevelopingDeveloping statemeltsstatements concerningconcerning the potential occurrenceoccurrence andand distributiondistribution ofof archaeologicalarchaeological depositsdeposits inin thesethese offshoreoffshore settings requires,requires, first, the projection of a cultureculture historyhistory forfor thethe a.reaarea withwith itsits attendantattendant settlement patterns probablyprobably best drawndrawn fromfrom onshoreonshore analogies,analogies, second,second, anan assessmentassessment ofof thethe geologicalgeological andand ecologicalecological history of the area,area, and,a1d, third, third, the the identification identification of of the the geomorphic geomorphic processes processes which which affect affect archaeological archaeological site preservation.preservation. To date, severalseveral studies relying onon thesethese typestypes ofof da"tadata have produced whatwhat appear to bebe rea-reasonable models of site occurrence and preservatiolpreservation iuin large stream valleysvalleys on the NorthNorth AmericanAmerican continental shelfshelf (Belknap and KraftKraft 1981;1981; Coastalcoastal Environments,Environments, Inc.Inc. 1977;1977; KraftKraft etet al.al. 1983; 1983; Mas-Mas- tersters andand FlemingFleming 1983).1983). TestingTesting thesethese models,models, however,however. is another andand moremore complicatedcomplicated problem.problem. It requiresrequires aa technologytechnology thatthat permitspermits the tlie identification identifica.tion ofof submerged submerged andand buried buried landforms landforms whichwhich have a highhigh likelihoodlikelihood of containing culturalcultural remains and it alsoalso requiresrequires aa methodmethod forfor collectingcollecting samplessamples fromfrom these landforms.landforms. InIn essence,essence, itit demandsdeniands aa practical practical geological/geophysical geological/geophysical approachapproach toto anan archaeologicalarchaeological problem. Fortunately,Fortunately, thisthis technologyteclinology isis todaytoday availableavailable inin thetheformof form of aa varietyvariety ofof instrumentsinstrurnents thatthat enable enable refined refined mapping nlappilg ofof the the shallow shallorv subsurface subsurface geologygeology of thethe continentalcontinental shelf,shelf, andand inin aa rangerange ofof coringcoring devicesdevices whichwhich can collect a physicalphysical sample suitable forfor analysisanalysis fromfrom aa submergedsubmerged targettarget landform.la nd form. Recently,Recently, Coastal Environments,Environrnents, Ilc.,Inc., undertookundeltook a studystudy whichwhich hadlrad the the specific specific objectiveobjective ofof locatinglocating buriedburicd archaeologicalarchaeological deposits in aa. filledfilled streamstream valleyvalley settingsetting inin thethe Sabine-High Sabine-High IslandIsland areaarea onon thethe Outer outer Continental continental Shelfshelf (OCS)(ocs) of the GulfGulf ofof MexicoNlexico (Pearson etet aI.al. 1986).1986). TheThe project,project, sponsoredspolsored byby thethe MineralsI\{inerals ManagementItlanagenrent ServiceScrvice ofof the Department ofof thethe Interior,Interior, waswas designeddesigned as a testtest ofof aa model model ofof sitesite occurrenceoccurrence andand preservationpreservation developeddeveloped in anan earlierearlier studystudy ofof thethe culturaliultural resourcesresources potentialpotential of thethe OCSOCS (Coastal(Coastal Environments,Dnvironments, Inc.Inc. 1977). InIn addition,addition, thethe studystudy providedprovided anan opportunityopportunity toto evaluate evalua.te the the usefulness usefuluess ofof various various technologiestechnologies in thisthis typetype ofof research.,"r""..h. TheTlie projectproject was rvas conducted conducted inin twotu,o phases.pltases. The The first first phase phase involved involved thethe synthesis synthesis andand evaluationevaluation ofof previouslypieviously collectedcollected archaeological,archaeological, geological, seismic,seismic, and and borebore holehole data fromfrom thethe studystudy area.area. The The second second phase phase of of the tlie study study involved involved the the field ficld collection collection ofof additionaladditional seismicseismic datadata andand the the taking taking of or core core samples samples from from several several offshore offshore targettarSet areasareas which which hadhad been been identified identified asas potentialpotential archaeological archaeological sitesite locales.locales. TheThe regionregion selected."lolt".l forfo. implementationimple,re.tatio. ofof thisthis studystudy isis a a 35-mile-square 35-rnile-square areaarea in in the the offshore offshore

2626 Sabine-Highsabine-High Island regionregion of eastern TexasTexas andand westernwestern LouisianaLouisiana (Figure(Figure 1).l). Submergedsubmerged andand buriedburied in in this this area area are are the the relict relict and and filled filled channels channels of of the the late-Pleistocene-to-Holocene late-Pleistocene-to-Holocene age age Sabine Sabine RiverRiver Valley.Valley. PriorPrior toto its its inundation inundation by by rising rising seas seas about about 7000 7000 years years ago, ago, the the Sabine Sabine River River extendedextended itsits course course acrossacross thisthis section section ofof thethe continental continental shelf. slielf. Figure Figure 1 I depictsdepicts the the estimated estimated configuration configuration ofof the the filled filled river river valley valley and and also also shows shows several several areas areas ("lease ("lease blocks") blocks") which which received received intensive intensive surveysurvey coveragecoverage duringduring ourour study.study. This This river river system system provided provided an an ideal idea.l research research universe universe for for several several reasons.reasons. OneOne ofof thesethese isis thatthat an an abundance abundance ofof published published andand unpublished unpublished datadata are are available arailable thatthat provideprovide informationinformation onon thethe presentpresent setting setting and and geological geological historyhistory ofof thethe offshore offshore riverriver system.system. OfOf particularparticular importanceimportance is is the the published published work work ofof Henry Helry NelsonNelson andand EllisEllis BrayBray (1970)(1970) thatthat delineates delineates thethe PleistocenePleistocene riverriver systemsystem and thethe subsequentsubsequent changeschanges itit underwentunderwent with sea level rise. InIn addition,addition, anan extensive extensive bodybody ofof seismicseismic and boreholeborehole data, collectedcollected relativerelative to oiloil industry activities,activities, isis availableavailable fromfrom thethe area,area, and and the tlie regional regional geology geology hashas been been well well studiedstudied (Aronow (Aronow 1971; 1921;Aten Aten 1983;19g3; BernardBernard 1950; 1950; BernardBernard andand LeBlanc LeBlanc 1965; 1965; BernardBernard et et al. al. 1962; 1962; Berryhill Berryhill 1980; l9g0; Curray curray 1960; lg60; Nelson Nelson 1968).1968). OtherOther factorsfactors whichwhich make make thethe offshore offshore SabineSabine ValleyValley conduciveconducive in thethe search search forfor submerged submerged sitessites are:are: 1) 1) the the river river system system was t'as active active and and the the region region was rvas subaerially subaerially exposedexposed whenwhen prehistoricprehistoric populationspopulations occupiedoccupied thethe region;region; 2)2) thethe river river system system was was active active for lor at at least least 12,000 12,000 years, years, sufficient sufficient timetime toto permitpermit the the accumulation accumulation ofof an an extensive extensive archaeological archa.eological record;record; 3)3) relictrelict featuresfeatures havinghaving aa highhigh probabilityprobability forfor bothboth sitesite occurrence occurrence andand preservation preservation havehave beenbeen identifiedidentified withinwithin thethe valleyvaliey system;system; and,and, 4)4) thesethese landformslandforms areare oftenoften notnot deeplydeeply buriedburied andand manymany areare withinwithin thethe rangerange ofof standardstandard coringcoring techniques.techniques.

FieldField techniquestechniques

During thethe coursecourse ofof thethe study,study, datadata from from over over 100 100 offshore offshore leaselease blockblock surveys,surveys, 2323 pipelinepipeline rights-rights- of-way surveyssurveys andand 35 borings were examined.examined. An extensiveextensive amount of additional seismicseismic data was collected inin eighteight leaselease blocks blocks within within the the study study area area inin anan attemptattempt to locatelocate andand accuratelyaccurately map landforms map landforms on which archaeological sitessites maymay occur.occur. Added to this werewere 7777 cores taken atat fivefiye selected selected "high probability" locales.loca.les. TheseThese were were localeslocales presumedpresumed mostmost likelylike.ly to containcontain preservedpreserved archaeological archaeological depositsdeposits as derived fromfrom aa model ofof site-landformsite-landform relationshipsrelationships andand on presumptions about the about the degreedegree ofof preservationpreservation ofof thethe landform.landform. SedimentSediment samplessamples fromfrom theih" cores.or". werewere analyzedanalyzed in order to furtherfurther refinerefine thethe localloca.l geology andand toto test forfor thethe presencepresence of cultural remains. seismicSeismic datadata were collected withwith anan OREoRE Subbottomsubbottom Profiler,profller, commonlycommonry known asas a pinger, operating at operating at aa frequencyfrequency ofof 3.5 KHz. InIn mostmost cases,cases, thethe pingerpinger providedprovided highhigh resolutionresolution recordsrecords of thethe upper 40 feet or so of the sea floor. OnceOnce thethe seismicseisrnic data were.uere analyzed,.rr.lyz"d, the high probability localeslocales werewere selectedselected for for coring. coring. TheThe coringcoring devicedevice usedused is is knownknown as as a a ,,vibracore,""vibracore," inan instrument withwith a vibrating boring tube whichwhich can extract continuouscontinuous cores upup to 40 feet inin iength.length.

ResultsResults The The analysis of allall ofof thethe collectedcollected seismicseismic and and corecore datadata has provided information on the geological history history ofof thethe studystudy area and its archaeological potential.potential. In mostmost respects,respects, ourour findingsfindings co*espondcorrespond closely to those developed closely to those developedearlier earlier by by Nelson Nelson and and Bray Bray relative relative to to thethe configurationconfiguration aidand ageage ofof thethe offshore offshoreSabine Sabine River River Valley. Valley. A A majormajor departuredeparture from Nelson andand Bray is our identificationidentification of extensiveextensive areasareas ofof relictrelict Deweyville floodplainfloodplain rvithin within tliethe offshore SabineSabine Valley.Valley. AA distinguishingdistinguishing characteristic characteristic ofof DeweyvilleDeweyville landforms landforms is is the the presence presence of of "giant" "giant" meander meander scars scars three three toto sixsix timestimes largerlarger thanthan modern channels (Bernard 1950;1950; Gagliano andand rhomThom 1967;1967; saucierSaucier 1974).

2727 in TheThe DeweyvilleDeweyville channels channels identified identified in in our our study study area area areare 900900 toto 10001000 feet feet across,across, comparablecomparable in that sizesize to to relictrelict DeweyvilleDeweyville channels channels seen seen today today along along the the on'shore on-shore Sabine Sabine River. River. It It isis recognized recognized that DeweyvilleDeweyville channels channels reflect reflect much much higher higher discliarges discharges than than at at present;present; however,however, there there isis disagreementdisagreement or".over th"the naturenature and conditionsconditions responsible for for thethe increasedincreased dischargedischarge as as well well as as the the ageage ofof thethe DeweyvilleDeweyville features features (Alford (Alford and and HolmesHolmes 1985). 1985). RadiocarbonRadiocarbon assaysassays onon wood fromfrom relictrelict Deweyville channelschannels onshore onshore indicate indicate an an ageage rangingranging from from 17,00017,000 to to gteater greater thanthan 30,000 yearsyears B.P.B.P. (Bernard(Bernard andand LeBIancLeBlanc 1965). Some, hor,r'ever,however, (Alforrl(Alford andand HolrnesHolmes 1985;1985; GaglianoGagliano and and ThomThom 1967) argueargue thatthat the conditions responsibleresponsible for DeweyvilleDerveyville alluvia.tionalluviation continuedcontinued upup to 6000 oror 70007000 years years ago.ago. AA the lacklack ofof radiocarbon radiocarbon datesdates hashas beenbeen oneone ofof thethe reasonsreasons behind behind thethe controversycontroversy overover the the datingdating ofof the Deweyville.Deweyville. Fortunately Fortunately, within within our our studystudy areaarea wewe werewere ableable toto obtainobtain several radiocarbonradiocarbon datesdates f.o-from swamp depositsdeposits cappingcapping DeweyvilleDeweyville channel channel features. features. The ea.rliestearliest of theseisthese is 10,14510'1'15 yearsyears B.P.,B.P., indicatingindicating"*r-p ihrt-D"*uyuill"that Deweyville channels channels in in the the study study area area are are somewhat somewhat older older than than that that date. date. Critica.ICritical toto the presentpr-esent study is thethe factfact thatthat early early human humal occupationoccupation onon thisthis sectionsection ofof thethe continentalcontinenta] shelf waswas veryvery likelylikely associated associated with with DeweyvilleDeweyville landforms. landforms. The The climaticclimatic conditionsconditions producingproducing thethe giantgiant streams and thethe environmentalenvironmental settingsetting ofof thethe Sabine Sabine River River ValleyValley duringduring DeweyvilleDeweyville times irustmust have beenbeen quitequite different frornfrom thosethose of of today. today. HowHow the the region's region's early early hunters hunters adaptedadapted toto this environment isis notnot yet entirely understood. The identified Deweyville sulfacessurfaces inin thethe studystudy area fringe both sidessides ofofthe the SabineSabine Valley and exist as a topographically level surfacesurface 1010 to to 1515 feet feet lorver lower than than the the older older Pleistocene Pleistocene Prairie/Beaumont Prairie/Beaumont surface..u.fn.". Theseiho" fringingf.inging DeweyvilleDeweyville surfacessurfaces cancan bebe followed forfor aa distancedistance of about 3030 milesmiles downdown the offshoreofishore sabineSabine valley,Valley, but but beyond beyond that that pointpoint we havehave onlyonly minimalminimal datadata and areane unsurerrnsure ofof their presence.presence' The interiorinterior portionsportions ofoI thethe offshore offshore SabineSabine Valley,valley, identified as Holocene (modern) floodplain, on were only minimally examined examined during during the the study. study. This is because all of this areaarea appearedappeared on the seismic recordsrecords asas aa flat to veryvery unevenuneven biogenicbiogenic gasgas front which absorbedabsorbed andand attenuated the penetrated this gas seismicseismic signai,signal, obscuringobscuring anyany underiyingunderlying floodplain floodplain features. features. vibracores Vibracores that that penetrated this gas front indicateindicate thattliat itit marks marks the the presence presence ofof extensiveextensive swamp and marsh/estuarine organicorganic depositsdeposits such as levees and laidlaid downdown before this areaarea waswas inundatedinundated byby risingrising seas.seas. FloodplainFloodplain landformslandforms such as levees and in seismic relictrelict channelschannels certainly existexist beneathbeneath this gas front butbut theythey could could notnot be be identified identified in seismic records.records. area was a DuringDuring the periodperiod betweenbetween 6000 toto 25'00025,000 BB.P. P' thethe Sabine RiverRiver inin the study area was a coastal estuarine ecosystem' complexcomplex and dynamicayn.-i. riverineriverine and, subsequentlysubsequently withwith seasea levellevel rise, a coastal estuarine ecosystem. ^"r,a of the offshore sabine valley Wewe must assumeassume that atat any any one one time time the the area area within within the the boundaries houndaries of the offshore Sabine Valley exhibitedexhibitedtherangeandlarietyofnaturalsettingsfoundinpresent-dayriverinealdestuarine the range and variety of natural settings found in present-day riverine and estuarine with which to model the settings settings.settings. TheThe on-shore on-shore Sabine Sabine River ititer ValleyValley servedservc4 as an analoga.alog with which to model the settings ofofthestudyareapriortornarineinundation.Asexpected,closecorrelationwasseeninthe the study area prior to marine inundation. As expected, close correlation was seen in the found along the lower sections configurationconfiguration and,nd distributioniirtribrtio, ofof manyutany of of the the geological geological featuresfeatures found along the lower sections for the buried ofof thethe modern modern SabineSabine RiverRiver ValleyVa1ley near Orange,ora,.ge, Texas,Te*.s, andarrd inin thosetlrose interpretedinterpreted for the buried has incised an alluvial valley, riverriver systemsystem inin thethe offshoreoffshore studystudy area.area. On on shore, shore, the the Sabine Sabine River River has incised an alluvial valley, deposits. Deweyville ranging,orgir,g fromt o- 33 toto 77 miles miles inin width,width, into i.to late la"te Pleistocene Pleistocene Prairie/Beaumont Prairie/Beaumort deposits. Deweyville meander and channel terraceterrace featuresfeatures fringefringe bothboth sidessides ofof thethe valleyvalley andaud thethe characteristiccharacteristic "giant""giant" meander and channel scarsscarsoftheDerveyvilleare

2828 archaeologicalarchaeological site site occurrence. occurrence. TheThe data collectedcollected olTshoreoffshore demonstrateddemonstrated thatthat extensive areas of buriedburied latelate Pleistocene/early Holocene landformslandforms areare preservedpreserved in in tliethe offshoreoffshore study study area.area. ManyN'Iany ofof the offshore settingssettings identifiedidentified are are klorvnknown onon thethe basis of onshore archaeological data data toto bebe Iocaleslocales commonlycommonly associatedassociated withwith prehistoricprehistoric remains. ThisThis primarilyprimarily geologicalgeological exercise served asas aa necessary preludeprelude forfor ourour eflorteffort toto locatelocate culturalcultural resources withinwithin thethe oflshoreoffshore studystudy area.area. VibracoresVibracores werewere takentaken atat five ofishoreoffshore locations locations selected selected as as high high probability probability locales.locales. One ofof thesethese areasareas produced data thatthat wewe havehave interpretedinterpreted asas evidence evidence ofof archaeologicala,rchaeological remains.remains. This was in thethe Sabine Pass 6 lease block locatedlocated aboutabout 10 miles olTshoreoffshore (Figure (Figure 1). 1). Th.isThis areaarea isis situated on thethe eastern sideside ofof thethe formerformer SabineSabine River R.iver Valley!'alley andand includesincludes aa portionportion of of Deweyville Deweyville floodplainfloodplain and two relict DeweyvilleDer.eyville channels. channels. FigureFigure 22 presentspresents aa plan view ofof thethe area derived from the seismic records.records. Contour lines measure feet belowbelorv the presentptesent seafloorseafloor to thethe identifiedidentified DeweyvilleDeweyville surface. The tracktrack ofof thethe seismicseismic surveysurvey vesselvessel and the vibracorevibracore locations are alsoalso shown. Figure 3 presents our geological interpretation interpretation ofof alan east-westeast-west lineline ofof vibracoresvibracores taken taken atat this location. ThisThis sectionsection extends across thethe southernsouthern tributarytributary streamstream andand intointo thethe mainmain SabineSabine Riverfuver Valley toto the northwest. BasalBasal depositsrieposits consistconsist of Deweyville terrace terrace claysclays and, and, inin thethe strearnstream and the SabineSabine Valley, freshwaterfreshwater organic organic deposits deposits laid laid dorvn down prior prior to to marinemarine inundationinundation ofof thisthis area..area. Immediately above these organic deposits is aa silty clayclay faciesfacies interpreted interpreted asas riverriver mouthmouth deposition. Blanketing this deposit is a thin stratum ofof sandy-to-siltysandy-to-silt.y clay that isis heavilyheavily burrowed and contains numerous shells of the brackish-waterbrackish-water clamclam Rangia euneala.cuneata. Foraminifera species inin this deposit indicate moderate salinities.salinities. ThisThis faciesfacies wasrvas probablyprobabl.y formedforrned with the initialilitial expansionexpansion ofofestuarine estuarine examined systems into the area. This This blanketing, blanketing, disturbeddisturbed zonezorle was\Yas notednoted inin mostmost ofof thethe areasareas examined and isis criticalcritical inill markingmarking thethe boundary boundary between between marine mariue conditionsconditions (above)(above) andand pre-inundationple-inundation conditions (below). Archaeological materialsmaterials areare expectedexpected toto be found primarily within or beneath this deposit.deposit. Above this boundary zonezone isis aa massivemassive deposit ofoI gray clayciay which represents bay/estuarine fillfilI (Figure 3). TheThe homogeneityhomogeneity ofofthis this deposit suggests relativelyrelatively rapidrapid sedimentation.sedimentation. The uppermost stratum.tra1r- inin the the section section consists consists ofof heavily heavily burrowedburrowed clayclay containingcontaining varietiesvarieties of marine shell. This represents modernmodern openopen gulfgulf seafloorseafloor deposits. Deposits of archaeological interestinterest at thisthis locationIocation includedincluded aa thin,tliin, heavilyheavily organicorganic featurefeature whichwhich rested atopatop thethe Deweyville Deweyville terracetemace borderingbordering thethe filledfilled stream.stream. These These deposits deposits were were encountered encountered inin CoresCores 2-A,Z-L,2-8, 2-B, anda1d 2-C2-C andand areare shownshown asas aa thinthin black black stratum stratum above above the the Deweyville Deweyville terraceterrace depositsdeposits in FigureFigure 3.3. This This feature feature lies lies immediately immediately belowbelow the the boundary boundary zone zone mentioned mentioned aboveabove andand appearsappears toto bebe largely largely intactintact andand undisturbed undisturbed by by marine marine inundation. inundation. Pollen Pollen samples samples from from thisthis depositdeposit containcontain highhigh percentagespercentages ofof grassesgrasses and aa diversitydiversity ofof arborealarboreal types,types, suggestingsuggesting anan upland/swampupland/swamp interface.interface. Analysis Analysis ofof vibracorevibracore samplessamples producedproduced largelarge quantitiesquantities ofof charredcharred woodwood andand vegetation,vegetation, nutnut hulls, hulls, seeds, seeds, fishfish scalesscales and bone.bone. Much\luch ofof thethe bonebone isis carbonizedcarbonized andand somesome isis definitelydelinitely calcined. InIn additionaddition toto fishfish bonebone areare fragmentsfragments fromIrom reptiles,reptiles, birds,birds, andand smallsmall mammals.mammals. TheThe quantityquantity of of bone bone fragmentsfragments isis extremelyextremely high;high; somesome ofof thethe samplessamples producedproduced projectedprojected countscounts ofof overover 700700 fragments of bone per kilogram ofof sample.sample. TheTlte vibracoresvibracores indicated that thethe bonebone concentrationconcentration covered aa relatir-elyrelatively smallsmall areaarea ofof about 100100 feet across. TheThe concentration concentration andand varietyvariety ofof bonebone in thisthis depositdeposit wereu'ere farIar greatergreater thanthan inin anyany otherother area area examined. examined. Radiocarbon Radiocarbon datesdates fromfrom thisthis locationloca.tion suggestsuggest thatthat thesethese organic organic depositsdeposits datedate to to around around 88008800 B.P.B.P. TheThe criticalcritical question,question, ofof course,course. isis whetherrvhether thesethese organicorganic depositsdeposits representrepresent culturalcultural remains.remains. InIn thethe very very small small core core samples samples collected, collected. werve diddid notnot anticipate anticipate findingfinding anan identifiable identifiable artifact.artifact. Rather,Rather, itit isis the the sedimentary sedimentary charactercharacter andand content contelt ofof thethe deposit deposit thatthat are are most most likely likely to to be be useful useful inin makingmaking thisthis assessment.assessrnent. TheThe organic organic deposits deposits exhibitexhibit aa number number of of characteristics characteristics inin content,content, configuration,configuration, andand locationlocation which which areare consistent consistent withrvith those those of of known known archaeological archaeological deposits,deposits, yetyet

2929 areare quite quite different different fromfrom thosethose ofof naturalnatura.l sediments sediments (Coleman (coleman 1966;1966; GaglianoGagliano et al.aI. 1982).l9g2). Bone Bone concentrationsconcentrations cancan occuroccur inin naturalnatural settings;settings; however,however, thethe varietyvariety andand typestypes foundfound inin thethe Block Block 66 areaarea areare not not anticipated anticipated naturally. naturally. Most Most importantly, importantly, the the co-occurrence co-occurrence ofof calcined ca.lcined andand unburned unburned bonebone inin thethe deposit deposit arguesargues againstagainst aa naturalnatural originorigin andand suggests suggests humanhuman activity.activity. InIn addition, addition, thethe locationlocation ofof thisthis depositdeposit representsrepresents anan optimumoptimum settingsetting forfor prehistoricprehistoric sitesite occurrence.occurrence. IfIf thisthis localelocale waswas occupiedoccupied around 88008800 years ago, as isis suggestedsuggested by thethe radiocarbonradiocarbon dates,dates, it it would would havehave beenbeen atat thethe juncturejuncture of of two two streams streams representing representing relict relict and and filled filled Deweyville Deweyville channelchannel segmentssegments andand wouldwould havehave beenbeen adjacentadjacent toto the the modern modern valley valley wall, wall, overlooking overlooking thethe Sabine Sabine river river floodplain floodplain and/orand/or estuary.estuary. Numerous Numerous prehistoric prehistoric archaeological archaeological sitessites havehave beenbeen foundfound inin similarsimilar settingssettings inin thethe modernmodern Sabine Sabine RiverRiver Valley.Valley. TheThe combinedcombined evidenceevidence suggests thatthat thesethese remainsremains are,are, indeed,indeed, archaeologicalarcha.eological inin nature. IfIf so,so, theythey representrepresent a a unique unique set set of of archaeological archaeological data,data, providing providing clearclear evidenceevidence of prehistoric useuse of the continentalcontinental shelf.shelf. OurOur studystudy hashas producedproduced aa large large quantityquantity of of data data and and increased increased. our our knowledge knowledge ofof aa smallsmall areaarea ofof thethe continentalcontinental shelf.shelf. TheThe methodology methodology used,used, which which integratesintegrates conceptsconcepts andand models models concerning concerning prehistoricprehistoric settlement,settlement, geologicgmlogic history, and landformlandform preservationpreservation potential,potential, shouldshould havehave generalgeneral applicabilityapplicability in thethe studystudy ofof otherother areasareas andand inin furtheringfurthering ourour understanding understanding ofof prehistoricprehistoric humanhuman utilizationutilization ofof aa generallygenerally unexaminedunexamined areaarea ofof Texas,Texas, the continentalcontinental shelf.shelf.

ReferencesReferences cited

Alford, John J. andand JosephJoseph C.C. HolmesHolmes Meander 19851985 Meander scarsscars as as evidence evidence of of major major climate climate change change in in Southwest Southwest Louisiana.Louisiana. AnnalsAnnale ofof thethe Associ- Associ- ation ofof AmericanAmerican GeographersGeographers 75:395-403Z5:395-403 Aronow, Saul 1971l9?1 Quaternary Quaternary Geology. Geology In:Ground-Water ln:Ground-Water Resources Resources of of Chambers Chambers andand Jefferson Jefterson Counties,Counties, Texas,Texas, byby J. B.B. Wesselman,Wesselman, pp.pp.34-53. 34-53. Texas Water DevelopmentDevelopment Board Report 133.1BB. Austin Aten, LawrenceLawrence E. 1983f983 Indians Indians of of the the Upper Upper Texas Texas Coast. Coast. Academic Academic Press,Press, New New Yorkyork

Belknap, D.D. F.F. and J. C. KraftKraft 1981 Preservation Preservation potential potential of of transgressive transgressive coastalcoastal lithosomes lithosomes onon thethe U.S. U.S. AtlanticAtlantic Shelf.Shelf. MarineMarine Geol-Geol- ogy 42:429-44242:429-442 Bernard, H. A. 1950 Quarternary Quarternary Geology Geology of of Southeast Southeast Texas. Texas. Unpublished Unpublished Ph.D.Ph.D. dissertation, dissertation, Department Department of of Geology, Geolog;r, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge Bernard, H. A. and R. J. LeBlancLeBlanc 1965 Resume Resume of of the the Quaternary Quaternary Geology Geology of of the the Northwestern Northwestern Gulf Gulf ofof MexicoMexico Province. In:The Quater- nary oftheof the United States, edited byby H.H. E. Wright\4/right andaDd D.D. G.G. Frey,Frey, pp. 137-185.137-185. princetonPrinceton UniversityUniversity Press, Princeton Bernard, H. A.,A., R.R. J.J. LeBlancLeBIanc andand C.C. J.J. MajorI{ajor 1962 Recent Recent and and Pleistocene Pleistocene Geology Geology ofof SoutheastSoutheast Texas. In:GeologyIn:Geology olof thethe Gulf Coast and Central TexasTexas andand Guidebook of Excursions, pp.pp.175-224. 175-224. HoustonHouston GeologicGeologic Society, Houston Berryhill,Berryhill, H.H. L.,L., Jr.Jr. 1980 Environmental Environmental Geology Geology of of the the Pleistocene Pleistocene TrendTrend Area, Area, Northwest Northwest Gulf Gulf of of Mexico.I\[exico. Ms.Ms. onon file,file, USDI l\{ineralsMinerals ManagementManagement Service,Service, CorpusCorpus ChristiChristi

3030 Coastal Environments,Env ironments, Inc. 1977lg77 CulturalCultural Resources Resources EvaluationEyaluation ofof thethe Northern Northern GulfGulf ofof MexicoI\Iexico Continental Shelf. Cultural Re-Re- sources Management Studies, OfficeOfhce ofof ArchaeologyArchaeology and and IlistoricHistoric Preservation,Preservation, NationalNational Park Ser- vice, Washington,Washington, D.C. Coleman, JamesJames M.Ir{. 1966 Recent Recent Coastal Coastal Sedimentation: Sedimentation: Central Central Louisiana Louisiana Coast.Coast. CoastalCoastal StudiesStudies Institute,Institute, TechnicalTechnical Re-Re- port 29.29. LouisianaLouisiana StateState University,University, Baton RougeRouge Curray, JosephJoseph R. 1960 Sediments Sediments and and History Ilistory of of Holocene Ilolocene Transgression, TrausgressioD, ContinentalContinental Shelf, Shelf, Northwestern Northwestern GulfGulf ofof Mexico.]t{exico. In:Recent Sediments, Northwestern GulfGulf ofof Nlexico,Mexico, edited edited by by F F. P.P. Shepard,Shepard, EE. B.B. Phleger, andand T. ILH. van Andel, pp.pp.221-226. 221-226. AmericanAmerican AssociationAssociation of Petroleum Geologists,Geologists, Tulsa Gagliano, Sherwood N{.,M., CharlesCharles E. Pearsor,Pearson, Richard A. Weinstein,\\'einstein, Diane E. Wiseman and Christopher M.N{. McClendon 1982 Sedimentary Sedimentary StudiesStudies of Prehistoric Archaeological Sites:Sites: Criteria forfor the IdentificationIdentification ofofSubmerged Submerged Archaeological Sites Sites on on thethe Northern Gulf of Mexicol{exico Continental Shelf.Shelf. PreservationPreservation PlanningPlanning Services, NationalNational Park Service, U.S. DepartmentDepartment of the Interior,lnterior, Washington, D.C.D.C Gagliano, Sherwood I\1.M. andand B. G. Thom 1967 Deweyville Deweyville TerraceTerrace gulfgulf andaDd AtlanticAtlantic coasts.coasts. CoastalCoastal Studies Studies Institutellrstitute Technical Technical ReportReport No.No. 39.39. Louisiana State University,University, Baton RougeRouge Kraft, J. C.,C., D.D. F.F. BelknapBelknap andand I.I. KayanIiayan 19831983 Potentials Potentials of of Discovery Discovery of of Human Human Occupation Occupatiou SitesSites on on the the Continental Continental Shelves Shelves and and Nearshore Nearshore Coastal Zone.Zone. In:QuaternaryIn:Quaternary CoastlinesCoastlines andand MarineIUarine Archaeology,Arclraeology, editededited by P. M.lrl. Masters and N.N. C. Fleming,Fleming, pp.pp.87-120, 87-120, AcademicAcadenric Press,Press, NewNerv York\brk Masters,It{asters, P. M.N'L and N.N. C.C. FlemmingFlemming (editors)(editors) 19831983 Quaternary Quaternary Coastlines Coastlines and and Marine trIarine Archaeology. Archaeolog-v. Academic Academic Press,Press, New New YorkYork

Nelson, HenryIlenry F. 19681968 Shoreline Shoreline changes changes during during the the Recent Recent Epoch Epoch in in the the Sabine-High Sabine-Iligh Island Island Area, Area, Gulf Gulf of of Mexico. Mexico. Geo-Geo logicallogical Society of America, South Central Section,Sectiou, ProgramPrograt'n 1968:30-31 1968:30-31 Nelson, IIenryHenry F. and E. E.E. BrayBraY 19701970 Stratigraphy Stratigraphy and and history history of ofthe the Holocene llolocene sediments sedimeuts in iu the the Sabine-High Sabine-High Island Island Area, Area, Gulf Gulfof of Mexico.Mexico. In:DeltaicIn:Deltaic Sedimentation,Sedimentation, edited byby J. P. Morgan,trlorgaD, pp. 48-77.48-77. PublicationPublication No.No. 15.15. Society Society ofof Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists,I\tineralogists, TulsaTulsa Pearson, CharlesCharles E.,E., David David B. B. Kelley, Kelley, RichardRichard A. A NVeinstein \\'einstein and SherwoodSlterwood M.l{. Gagliano 19861986 Archaeological Archaeological Investigations Investigations on on the the Outer Outer Continental Continental Shelf: Shelf: A A Study Study Within\/!'ithin the the Sabine Sabine River River Val-Val- ley,ley, Offshore Louisiana and Texas. Coastal.Coa-stal Environmelts,Environments, Inc. PreparedPrepared forfor Mineralsl\{inerals ManagementManagement Service,Service, U.S. Department of the Interior,Interior, Reston,Restotr, VirginiaVirgittia Saucier,Saucier, RogerRoger T. 19741,974 Quaternary Quaternary Geology Geology of ofthe the Lower Lorler Mississippi llississippi Valley. Yalle-n-. Research Research Series Series No. No. 6.6. Arkansas Arkansas Archeological Archeological Survey,Survey, FayettevilleFayctteville

3131 ::: •■•....94. • .. fl... alo•Pl x(>3r7-{= Ila. ,AMAM. WPM'S'. .0 ., (Y\ -Y..- ,/TRANSPONDER LOCAT / (controt Potnts) ,

Figure 1.1. The The study study area area showing showing filled filled and and submerged submerged SabineSabine RiverRiver ValleyValley (after(after NelsonNelson and BrayBray 1970).1970). AlsoAlso shownshown are thethe leaselease blocksblocks which were intensively surveyedsurveyed andand the locations ofof surveysurvey con-control points.

INSET • 0 600500 looo' EM11/111 Iiirdm=a===1000' 111111W2Ell LINE 3 apiellIERWAIlur 162111MMI4 2222. 14tl -0-€ ef

-o0 •

le.+s lice jL 12t20 TRIBUTARYTRIEUTABY 3TST EAM VALLE !r'9, ,_o INCISEDr1{crsED INTO TERRACE 0 INSET FOR SEE INSET FOR 0111•• 1t2o CORE DETAILSDETAILS 6'..or■r ---'120 22 • • 0t- atm . e -0 2222 crt;t n=• s .6 .111PM1 -s Mt ii-.aaaa -idAP:r& A t){ PIM NMI I I V,/ 10Os0 b PIMA Sffiagnial PreaAiiiihiCidlia4111111MS'■ ___Inarr VP'6111)VIIMININIErs.v....-,P4rAmiramaimmo —0-o o.o"'l;lo- -10lo e3 -et-o 2222' 14I4 16 12 I 16',)\ 14 I el8618 / \64 22)N-'=.,', 22 16 X-1223200x- 1223200. @/cp 20 201820lE

Figure 2.2. PlanPlan view vicrv of of features features identified identified from from seismic seismic recordsrecords inin LeaseLease Block 6.6. Contours are inin feetfeet belowbelorv the presentpresent seafloor.seafloor.

3333

▪

NW CORE NUMBERS SE

2-1 2-H 2-G 3-B 2-F 2-E 2-D 2 C 2-8 2-A 0 -40 NEMINgiffisalifflaI3SKIVIBRIMIrailittralEPMENEVIMMIBMILak a a a Sa aGE. J --lo10 0o •III[t -50 o -IJ !,t ILlt -IJ 1IIIMIL 1.61---- * 1.. 4IC 4 .009; .... 3-0 llr UI ,i,Flonscoiii: -20 en ---... • 0-.•-!--:_at`11.7.., iton...... 7,...... 131pr1°1:71--.."1111.... “- V''.4.0 -20 o CoD -60co 4—P itt 77:::1.-'1::::::: -"Ma'.!5,-., ..... ..* t 6—P 1-0 Oo Oo 2-0 J.'' J trl falrl --3030 coto. Ido -7070 6920 elP .._ ! 104*"411 10110. - I 4—P IP" oil, -IVO 0%i 10,711'n I-F F a.c 0.A 4,1111,1ancv 1:4iiitikkiltu lrl l! 4.11:041$ ,‘W.410111. *-gult0 4,:f o Oo .1..14/1464,4ter:d AilLON.,..41 at - 40 -80 2-0 1—C 8040 6P 900 800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 DISTANCE.DlSrAl{CE, t..tfeet

Figure 3.3. GeologicalGeological cross-sectioncross-section interpreted from vibracoresvibracores inin LeaseLease Block 6. SeeSee Key for explanation of sediments and features.

OFFSHOREoFFSHOnE GULF BOTTOMBOTTOU Nigh6r.i salinity/.r .kv, TRANSGRESSIVE D E POS ITS DEPOSITS E BAY/ESTUARINE (moderate(6od.r.r. sailnliv)..nn||yl PROGPROC RA DATIONALDATIONAL t ESTUARINE/MARSHESTUAnINE/MARSH belayt.try rndand or..nt..t.y,organic clay, DEPOSITSD E POS ITS lr::1i:::11 low salinity)

RAY/ESTUARINEEAY/ESTUARINE (clay t.l.y and ..d organic or.rnt..t.r. clay, TRANSGRESSIVE Effi moderate salinity) DEPOSITSDEPOS ITS BAY/ESTUARINEaAY/ESTUARTNE (sandy (r.n., clay. .t.y, heavilyi..vtr, burrowed. low sallolio, contains mm RANGIAiANGr^ CUNEATA)CUNE^r^r PROGRADATIONALPROCRADATIONAL FLUVIAL/UPPERFLUVIAL/UPPEn ESTUARINE (silts trnr..^r and DEPOSITS tsE: .rnd..ands. veryv.:y low|.9..n.1'') oolenlly) FRESHWATERFnESHWAIER DEPOSITS (or..nr..r.y.(organic clay. F.:T.{l peal.F.l, woodygoody Peal.P.l|. wood)ro.n, AACGRADATIONAL GGRADATIONAL DEWEYVILLE TERRACETEBBACE I.I.,'(clay) DEPOSITS % DEWEYVILLE TERRACE (sand) l.rndl PLEISTOCENE PRAIRIE/BEAUI{ONTPRAIRIE/BEAUMONT mr A TERRACE

SHEILSHELL - SAMPLE NUMBERNUMTER ' ,r - fonaritFORAM OYSTER SHELL rtiM onc^NtcsORGANICS --▪ 6iArNGRAIN srZE/SIZE/ woRMWORM oROR - rotitrPOINT courflCOUNT IANGIARANGIA SHELLS]IEtL w610:11. ROOT CASTS '-• - POLLENPOILE • - GEOCHEMICAL STIELLSHELL HASH c GEOCHEXTCAT

Figure 3a. 3a. KeyIiey toto FigureFigure 3

34 Evidence of Subsistence Practices W. L. McClureN{cClure

Anthropologists cancan telltell aa lot about youryour familyfamily by looking through your kitchen and noting the appliances and implements. They cancan telltell moremore byby seeingseeing your grocery shoppingshopping list. list. If they could do this for aa year,year, theythey could could probablyprobably telltell whatwhat countrycountry your your ancestors ancestors camecame from,from, howhow many childrenchildren inin thethe house, etc.etc. AA detectivedetective cancan learnlearn aa greatgreat deal deal by by observing observing thethe contentscontents of your garbage cans.cans. Again, the longerlonger the timetime thatthat is is allowed allowed forfor investigation,investigation, the more the data thatthat cancan be be developed. developed. If If thethe anthropologist anthropologist andand thethe detective detective mademade theirtheir investigationsinvestigations at the communitycommunity trash disposaldisposal area, theythey couldcould learnlearn aboutabout the the whole whole community.community. However, However, timetime begins to be afactor.a factor. SomeSomeof of the trash getsgets incineratedincinerated andand somesome ofofit it gets consumed by gulls, rats,rats, flieiflies andand bacteria.bacteria. The longerlonger the time between the disposal ofof thethe trashtrash and the investigation,investigation, the less the information that isis available.available. SomeSome ofof thethe disposeddisposed materialmateria.l leavesleaves no trace ofof its existenceexistence while othersothers may survive indefinitely. The experts' conclusionsconclusions relativerelative to your cultural practicespractices and particularlyparticularly youryour foodfood habitshabits becomebecome lessless precise with time'time. Archeologists have have the the samesame conditionsconditions to to workwork r,r'ith. with. TheyThey usuallyusually havehave only aa veryvery smallsmall fraction ofof thethe kitchen debris toto examine. The materialmaterial at handhand maymay bebe fromfrom oneone mealmeal oror maymay be fromfrom numerousnumerous mealsmea.Is overovet anan unknownunknown numbernumber ofof years.years. However, However, archeologistsarcheologists workwork withwith what isis availableavailable and trytry toto reach reach conclusions conclusions aboutabout cultural cultural practices,practices, resource resource exploitationexploitation oror some specific aspectaspect ofof thethe liveslives ofof prehistoric prehistoric peoples. peoples. For For many many years years there there was was a a thmry theory thatthat the earliestearliesi peoplepeople to comecome toto thisthis continentcontinent followedfollowed thethe herdsherds ofof largelarge mammalsmammals andand lived lived exclusivelyexclusively on a dietdiet ofof redred meat.meat. As As transients, transients, they they left left little little evidence evidence ofof theirtheir culturalcultural practices.practices' TheirTheir tools were foundfound eithereither inin isolated locationslocations or or withwith thethe bones ofof thethe large anima.ls.animals. WhenWhen thethe large animals became extinct,extinct, the people had to change theirtheir practices. They becamebecame "hunters"hunters andand gatherers," eatingeating thethe smallersmaller animalsanimals andand suchsuch plantplant foodsfoods asas theythey couldcould harvest.harvest. This This lifestylelifestyle requirediequired movement fromfrom oneone areaarea to another asas thethe resourcesresourc-es werewere exhausted. ThisThis lifestylelifestyle alsoalso preventedptevented establishment of permanent residences. The amount of debris Ieftleft at anyany oneone campcamp sitesite was thus more than thatthat ofof thethe earlierearlier peoplespeoples but itit waswas left toto thethe elementselements until the nextnext roundround of occupation, perhaps a year or moremore later. StillStill later,later, some some ofof thethe groupsgroups learnedlearned thatthat growing growing theirtheir ownown food would a.llowallow themthem toto staystay inin the same place forfor anan extended period of time.time. Thus aa community trashtrash disposaldisposal systemsystem maymay havehave developed.developed. Food residue at anan aboriginalaboriginal sitesite wouldwould havehave been accumulatedaccumulated in aa varietyvariety ofof ways.ways. SomeSome parts wouldwould havehave beenbeen discardeddiscarded duringduring processingprocessing and cooking.cooking. OthersOthers wouldwould havehave beenbeen discardeddiscarded afterafter consumption.consumption. SomeSome maymay have been accumulated and then placed in a pit oror otherother designateddesignated dumpdump site.site. Still Still more more ofof the the residue residue wouldwould havehave beenbeen passedpassed through thethe digestivedigestive tracts ofof thethe people and disposeddisposed of inin whatever mannermanner waswas thethe culturalcultural practicepractice atat the time.time. AfterAfter the materialmaterial is discarded,discarded, itit is subjected to a varietyvariety of actions thatthat tend toto altera.lter andand reducereduce it. SomeSome wouldwould havehave been trampledtrampled underunder footfoot andand othersothers wouldwould bebe exposedexposed toto firefire duringduring subsequentsubsequent cooking atat the site.site. SomeSome wouldwould have been altered by any pets that maymay havehave beenbeen inin camp.camp. AfterAfter thethe people people movedmoved onon toto otherother locations,locations, otherother forcesforces wouldwould have been at work.work. TheThe materialmaterial wouldwould havehave beenbeen exposed to the weatherweather andand thethe activitiesactivities ofof rodentsrodents andand otherother scavengers.scavengers. WindWind andand waterwater maymay displacedisplace part or allall of the materialmaterial as well asas burybury it. OnceOnce it isis buriedburied itit isis subjectsubject toto otherother actions. actions. Soil Soil chemicals chemicals tendtend toto decomposedecompose thethe material,material, particularlyparticularly inin thethe acidicacidic soilssoils of the upper TexasTexas coast.coast. RootsRoots ofof plantsplants invadeinvade andand displacedisplace thethe objects.objects. Burrowing Burrowing insectsinsects andand mammalsmammals alsoalso wouldwould cause thethe material to bebe movedmoved andand reducedreduced toto smallersmaller pieces.pieces. ThisThis activityactivity alsoalso couldcould causecause thethe materialmaterial fromfrom separateseparate intervalsintervals ofof depositiondeposition toto comecome togethertogether withinwithin thethe soil.soil. The The passage passage of of hundreds hundreds of of years years between between deposition deposition andand recovery recovery makemake thethe process process ofof

3535 understandingunderstanding thethe practicespractices ofof prehistoricprehistoric peoples difficult toto saysay the least. EvenEven the the process process ofof recoveryrecovery causes some physicalphysical deteriorationdeterioration of the material.materia.l. ArcheologistsArcheologists seldom recoverrecover remains remains of of plants plants thatthat have been used for food. The preparationpreparation andand consumptionconsumption usuallyusually leavesleaves thethe partsparts unrecognizable.unrecognizable. DecompositionDecomposition inin thethe soil soil isis rapidrapid exceptexcept forfor thosethose partsparts that that may may become become carbonized. carbonized. There There are are techniques techniques for for microscopic microscopic analysis analysis ofof plantplant residueresidue butbut II amam not not aware aware of of any any such such investigationsinvestigations beingbeing used in thethe upperupper TexasTexas coast.coast. BonesBones last longerlonger inin thethe soilsoil andand are are commonly commonly recoveredrecovered inin excavations.excavations. UnlessUnless thethe soilsoil isis passedpassed throughthrough aa fine-screen,fine-screen, only the larger bone fragments are retained. ManyMany excavationexcavation reportsreports includeinclude referencereference to the bonesbones thatthat were were recoveredrecovered with most emphasisemphasis being on bone artifacts. AnAn earlyearly archeologicalarcheological projectproject inin thethe Houston area was at thethe sitesite ofof AddicksAddicks Reservoir.Reservoir. JoeJoe BenBen WheatWheat excavatedexcavated a few sites there in thethe 1940s.1940s. TheThe sites sites date date from from early early Archaic Archaic times.times. Wheatwheat foundfound thatthat the the people people had had been been eating eating deer, deer, turtles, turtles, rabbits, rabbits, opossums, opossums, bison,bison, pronghornspronghorns andand badgers,badgers, andand perhapsperhaps a a few few clamsclams andand fish.fish. TheThe bison,bison, pronghornpronghorn andand badgerbadger no no.longer longer existexist inin thethe wildwild on thethe upperupper TexasTexas coast.coast. ThisThis typetype of of information information cancan givegive usus somesome hint aboutabout climaticclimatic changeschanges that havehave occurredoccurred sincesince peoplepeople moved intointo the area. TheThe peoplepeople who lived alongalong thethe coastcoast andand around the bays ate aa lotlot of of clams clams andand oysters.oysters. Mounds of shellsshells aboundedabounded atat thethe time that EuropeanEuropean settlerssettlers movedmoved intointo thethe area.area. A A few few ofof thesethese mounds have been excavated and they havehave beenbeen foundfound toto containcontain bonesbones ofof fish,fish, deer,deer, alligatorsalligators and otherother animals.animals. Gars Gars are are very very common common inin thesethese sites, sites, perhapsperhaps becausebecause theirtheir scalessca.les areare muchmuch more resistant toto deteriorationdeterioration thanthan areare the the scales scales andand bonesbones ofof otherother fish.fish. SomeSome ofof thethe inlandinland sitessites also include shells ofof freshwaterfreshwater clams, clams, but but manymany of of them them do do not.not. This maymay somesome day help us to make some conclusions of of tribal tribal boundaries.boundaries. It appearsappears logicallogical that someonesomeone whowho eatseats clamsclams onon thethe baybay wouldwould eat themthem whilewhile travelingtraveling inland. SitesSites withwith clamsclams areare commoncommon on the SanSan BernardBernard River and are less common onon thethe Brazos. TheThe peoplepeople on Whitewhite Oakoak BayouBayou apparentlyapparently diddid notnot eat clams,clams, eveneven though theythey werewere common.common. Onon thethe Sansan JacintoJacinto River River andand Buffalo Bufialo Bayou,Bayou, clamsclams apparently were aa minor partpart of the diet. TheThe alternationalternation ofof clamsclams andand oystersoysters in aa sitesite cancan alsoalso give us information about changing salinities inin thethe estuaries of the coast. One aspect of the consumptionconsumption of clams isis thethe impact the shellsshells have onon the soil. TheThe shellsshells change thethe acidity of the soil enough thatthat bonesbones are notnot destroyeddestroyed asas quicklyquickly as they areare inin soilssoils without the shells.shells. ExcavationsExcavations ofof clamclam shell sites along the SanSan BernardBernard RiverRiver byby thethe HoustonHouston Archeological Society Society have have allowed allowed us us to to identify identify bones bones of of animalsanimals thatthat areare notnot recovered recovered fromfrom non-clam sites. TheThe earliestearliest levelslerels of occupation have revealed thatthat thethe peoplepeople werewere eatingeating smallsmall animalsanima,ls as well asas the larger varieties. Rodents, snakes, frogs,frogs, turtlesturtles and tiny fishfish all were on the menu. ManyMany ofof thethe smallersmaller speciesspecies wouldwould nevernever have been recoveredrecovered without thethe clams'clams'influence influence or withoutwithout usingusing fine-meshfine-mesh screens for partpart ofof thethe recoveryrecovery effort. Consumption of fish that werewere shortershorter thanthan 10 10 cm cm would rvould requirerequire collectioncollection techniquestechniques differentdifferent from those used for largerlarger fish. Nets would have toto harehave finefine mesh.mesh. Perhaps the peoplepmple deliberately visited certain sites after periods of high waterwater so they could gathergather the small fish byby handhand as the ox-bows oror otherother laterallateral pools dried up. Excavations at at oneone ofof thethe clam shell sitessites alsoalso yieldedyielded the the bonesbones ofof aa smallsmall rodentrodent thatthat has become extinctextinct inin Te.xasTexas duringduring thethe lastlast 90 years. The causescauses of extinction of thethe rodent are not thought toto be thethe samesame thatthat killed killed offoff thethe largerlarger PleistocenePleistocene animals andand may notnot be thethe samesame that pushedpushed somesome of the modernmodern speciesspecies hundreds of miles toto thethe west. Perhaps thesethese remainsremains willwill lead us to thethe reasonsreasons thatthat otherother animalsanimals suchsuch asas thethe HoustonHouston toad,toad, thethe prairieprairie chickenchicken and the smooth green snake are nownow inin dangerdanger ofof extinction.extinction. Study of bonesbones fromfrom sitessites hashas notnot refuted the theorytheory about thethe earliestearliest occupantsoccupants of the areaarea beingbeing strictlystrictly meat-eaters.meat-eaters. However,llowever, it has beenbeen demonstrated that, fromfrom thethe earliest earliest levels levels ofof occupationoccupation yetyet examined,examined, smallsmall mammals,mammals, smallsmall fishfish and reptiles were onon thethe dietdiet alongalong with with thethe largerlarger animals.animals. ItIt isis mymy opinionopinion that that they ate anything

36 that theythey couldcould catch.catch.

37 Archeological ImplicationsImplica,iiij.:t""" of an EthnographicEthnographic Shell Midden

Tom D. DillehayDillehay

One problemproblem of upper Texas coast archeology thatthat has interested me over the pastpast several several years, and has stimulatedstimulated meme toto carrycarry outout thethe work work discussed discussed here,here, isis thethe functionfunction andand meaningmeaning of smallsmall shell midden sites (Aten(Aten 1983;1983; DillehayDillehay 1973), andand the socialsocial andand economiceconomic forces that formed them. InsteadInstead of of reflecting reflecting onon mymy previousprevious archeologicalarcheological workwork inin thethe Trinity RiverRiver Delta,Delta, I preferpre{er toto relaterelate anan ethnoarcheological ethnoarcheological experience thatthat I had withwith anan indigenousindigenous group at aa smallsmall curantocuronto (meaning shellfish cookout)cookout) sitesite onon thethe coast ofof south-centralsouth-centra.l Chile,Chile, wherewhere II havehave beenbeen working intermittently over the pastpast severalseveral years.years. TheThe social,social, economic,economic, and demographicdemographic aspects ofoI curantoscumntos area.re interestinginteresting inin terms of the spatialspatial andand materialmaterial patterningpatterning theythey generate,generate, andand especially in terms of theirtheir relevancerelevance to understandingunderstanding thethe archeology archeology ofof shellshell middensmiddens inin TexasTexas and elsewhere.elsewhere. I will explain briefly the ecologicalecological and ethnoarcheological setting of curantocumnto shellshell middens, and describe the majormajor aspectsaspects ofof mymy work.work. In southwestern South America, thethe cold Humboldt Current runs alongalong thethe coastscoasts ofof ChileChile and Peru,Peru, bringingbringing withwith itit anan abundant abundant supply supply and and a awide wide variety variety of of marine marine resources, resources, includingincluding various species ofof shellfish.shellfish. Three indigenous groups live aJongalong the south-centralsouth-centra,l coastcoast ofof Chile,Chile, thethe Mapuche,Mapuche, HuillicheHuilliche and Chiiota.Chilota. TheseThese groups groups havehave a a mixed mixed economy economy ofof fishing,fishing, gardening,gardening, plant gathering,gathering, hunting,hunting, andand shellfish shellfish collecting.collecting. InIn isolatedisolated coastalcoastal areas,areas, nuclearnuclea.r families families livingliving in scattered householdshouseholds subsist primarilyprimarily onon aa year-roundyear-round supplysupply ofof aquaticaquatic resourcesresources inin smallsmall bays, inlets, saltwatersaltwater estuaries, andand freshwaterfreshwater swamps. SupplementalSupplemental plants andand gamegame areare procuredprocured from adjacent woodlands and freshwater lakeslakes andand fromfrom tradetrade with interior groups. CurantosCumntos of varying sizes are one ofof severalseveral typestypes ofof sitessites producedproduced byby coastalcoastal groups.groups. (Others are inland gardening, hunting, and/or fishingfishing sites.) AlthoughAlthough a curantocvfltnto may taketake placeplace either inin maritime or inland areas, it is aa coastalcoastal tradition.tradition. PeoplePeople congregatecongregate at curantoscuranlos toto fish,fish, toto collectcollect shellfish and other close-to-shoreclose-to-shore resourcesresources includingincluding alga,e, algae, toto visit,visit, and toto planplan inter-household inter-household social and economiceconomic activities. SmallSmall curantocumnlo middens, measuring 100 to 200200 mm22 inin arealarea,l extentextent and 22 to 2020 cmcm in thickness, are generated by planned and unplanned, transitory socialsocial encountersencounters among families andand friendsfriends movingmoving up up andand downdown thethe coastcoast oror toto and from interior areas.aneas. CurantosCumntos may be attended byby asas fewfew asas fivefive people oror as many as 50, and they maymay last aa fewfew daysdays oror aa fewfew weeks. I shouldshould mention that, inin contrast,contrast, larger larger shell shell middens,middens, rangingranging fromfrom 200200 toto 700700 mm22 inin arealareal extent andand 0.50.5 toto 2.52.5 mm inin thickness,thickness, areare semi-permanentsemi-permanent toto permanentpermanent domesticdomestic sitessites ofof singlesingle or multiple households. TlieseThese middens ateare almost always locatedlocated atat the base ofof aa hillhill oror bluffbluff nearnear thethe seashore,seashore, on a large sand dune overlooking aa baybay oror inlet,inlet, or on a stream terrace withinwithin 11 kmkm ofof the coast.coast. ArcheologicalArcheological and ethnographicethnographic evidence indicatesindicates thatthat mostmost largela"rge middensmiddens havehave beenbeen intermittently occupiedoccupied sincesince at leastleast latelate prehistoricprehistoric times,times, thoughthough manymany sitessites areare probablyprobably severalseveral thousand yearsyears old.old. InIn thethe following following accountaccount II willwill focusfocus specificallyspecifically on the smallsmall curanto site.site. TheThelocationof location of a curantoiscuranto is determineddetermined byby threethree mainmain factors.factors. First andand foremost,foremost, thethe locationlocation ofof a plentifulplentiful clam bed. Second,Second, aa placeplace centrallycentrally and/orand/or convenientlyconveniqntly locatedlocated betweenbetween thethe residencesresidences ofoivisiting visiting families and/orand/or friends. And third,third, thethe presence presence ofof nearbynearby swampsswamps andand estuariesestuaries wherewhere edible plintsplants andand gamegame (e.g.,(e.g., deer, crayfish, and bird) can behe found.found' up of clams In additionaddition toto beingbeing aa socialsocial event, a curantocumnto is also a traditional meal;meal; it isis mademade up of clams potatos (wild and domesticated)' (locos,(tno", Concholepas),ion"noU1ns), nadcaialca or panquipanqui (a soft,soft, edibleedible leafy plant)'plant), potatos (wild and domesticated), heated in a hearth and other)ther minorminor plants,plants, andand occasionallyo..a.ioraliy goat cheese. All ofof thesethese elementselements areare heated in a hearth and the meal' (A' curanto may consist only of consumed, withwith shellfish.".u"dshellfish served a" as ih"" the mainmain coursecourse ofof the meal. (A curanto may consist only of

38 shellfish butbut supplementdsupplemental foods aleare preferred')preferred.) InIn 1979,1g7g, II participatedparticipated inir.a a curantocuranto attendedattended byby 3232 individuals,individuals,24 24 adults andand eighteight children,children, at a smallsmall inlet nearnear thethe communitycomrnunity of Maullin. The site waswas situated aboutabout 100100 m inlandinland fromfrom thethe shoreline of the PacificPacific Ocean, On aa lowlow hill overlooking aa shallow freshwaterfreshwater stteam,stream, and was centrally located betweenbetween fourfour consanguinelyconsanguinely related nuclearnuclear familiesfamilies whose households were spread over a 6-km-long sectionsection o{of thethe coast. SeveralSeveral terrestrialterrestria.l resourcesresources werewere availableavailable within a 1-kml-km radius ofof thethe inlet.inlet. Although II r+'aswas atat the curanto only forfor oneone afternoonafternoon (it(it lasted for one day), I was ableable toto record severalseveral typestypes ofof behavioral behavioral data, data, andand toto mapmap the debris abandoned inin the site (Figure 1). The mealmea.l consistedconsistcd oIof about 500500 clams (or locos) gathered inin the inlet and transported to the site, fivefi.ve large nalca lear-esleaves (a(a wildrvild edible spinach-like plant) plant) collectedcollected in in thethe nearby forest, and about 70Z0 potatos brought from household gardens.gardens. A hearth measuring about 11 m in diameter and 10 cm inin depth was built. SmallSmall cobblescobbles of basalt and granitegranite werewere placedpla.ced in the pit,pit, woodwood chipschips and branches were gatheredgathered andand placed oron toptop of the stones, and then lighted. OnceOnce thethe firefire dieddied out and thethe stonesstones werewere heated, thethe potatoespotatoes andand clams, clams. wrappedt'rapped inin nalca nclcc leaves,leaves, werewere laid on top the steamingsteaming rocks. SodSod andand grassgrass were placed onon this,this, and the mealmeal heated for 2 hours. OnceOnce ready, the sods were removed, thethe shells andand potatoespotatoes were unwraPped,unwrapped, and thetlie feastingfeasting began.began' The core area of the sitesite wasrvas about 2020 mm2.2. Food Food preparation preparation tooktook placeplace inin oneone areaarea butbut consumption revolved aroundaround the hearth, fromfrom whichwhich {oodfood rvaswas drawn.drawn. During the feast, individuals would obtainobtain a portionport,ion ofof shellsshells and gathergather aa fewfew metersmeters away.away. AA fewfew individuals remained by the fire. TheThe seating, seating, oror standing, standing, planplan and and the the discard discard zones zones of of shell shell andand debris debris conditionedconditioned thethe dispersion andand tliethe physical statestate of the shells.shells. PeoplePeople gatheredgathered inin groupsgroups ofof 33 toto 55 individuals individuals andanJ droppeddropped thethe shellsshells wherewhere thethe clamsclams werewere openedopened andand consumed.consumed. ThereThere werewere severalseveral tosstoss zoneszones around the hearth.hearth. As As a a result, result, small small discontinuous discontinuous clustersclusters ofof shellshell formed inin the site, with the largestIargest near thethe hearthhearth andand severalseveral woodenwooden planks placed onon thethe ground to serve as a table. As for the resultingresulting conditionconditiol of discarded shells, trarnplingtrampling fractured a largelarge numbernumber of them.them. Little fracturationfracturatiol waswas attributable toto heatingheating oror pryingprying shellsshells open to obtain the flesh.flesh. In fact, itit was difficult to distinguish unheated shellsshells from heated ones, because very few of the latter werewere cooked oror directly exposed toto fi.refire oror high temperature, and thusthus notnot discoloreddiscolored or alteredaltered inin anyany way that waswa.s visiblevisible to thethe nakednaked eye.eye. OtherOtlier thanthal aa broken broken glassglass jarjar whichrvhich waswas crushed into the groundground near thethe hearth,hearth, therethere were were fewfew other artifacts leftleft behind.behind. Such Such perishable perishable remainsremairs asas wood rvood chips,chips, nalcanolca leaves,leaves, berryberry seeds,seeds, andand potatopotato skins skins wereu'ere discarded.discarded. II hadhad thethe opportunityopportunity toto returnreturn toto the the site site in in 1983, 1983, toto inspect inspect thethe surface surface debris.debris. GrassGrass andand brushbrush hadhad growngro\yn overover the area.area. I Iscraped scraped away arva-y aa few ferv centimeterscentimeters ofof soilsoil andand recoveredrecovered the hearthhearth andand severalseveral shells.shells. AsAs II dugdug deeper,deeper, II camecame across across aa. second second shellshell layerlayer whichwhich was an earlier curanto,cumnlo, indicatingindicating repeatedrepeated useuse ofof thethe site.site. (I(I laterlater learned lcarned thatthat a agroup group of of different different familiesfamilies heldlteld, aa curantocuranto atat thethe site site in in 1976.) 1976. ) Although Although the the two trvo layers layers werervere stratigraphicallystrati6iraphically separatedseparated byby 22 toto 3 3 cm cm of of soil,soil, therethere werewere placesplaces wherervhere small pocketspockcts of shcllshell inin the upperupper layerlayer hadhad filteredfiltered downdown andand werewere inin directdirect contactcontact withrvith materialmaterial inin thethe lower lower midden.midden. II excavatedexcavated aa 1-by-11-bv-1 m pit toto aa depth depth of of 50 50 cmcm andand observedobserved fivefive other shellshcll lenseslenses (each 2 to 44 cmcrn inin thickness).thickness). SectionsSections ofof eacheach ofof thesethese werewere inin contactcontact withrvith thethe midden midden aboveabove andand below bclorv it,it. andand eacheach containedcoutained thethe samesame typetype ofof clamclam (locos).(locos). TheThe stratigraphicstratigraphic profileprofile alsoaJso revealedrevealcd that wormrvorm andand animalanimal burrowing,burrowing, bioturbation,bioturbation, soilsoil compaction,compaction, andand apparentlyapparently humanhurnan activityactivity (excavating(excavating pits andand hearths)hearths) werervere thethe primaryprimary agenciesagencies that hadhad displaceddisplaced and compactedcompacted sectionssections of each midden. Based on the stratigraphystratigraphy ofof thesethese sections,sections, thethe sitesite couldcould bebe interpretedinterpreted asas a a single silgle midden midden deposit deposit whichrvhich accumulatedaccumulated asas aa result result of of continuous continuous occupationoccupation insteadinstead ofof ethnographicallyet hnographically knownklorvn intermittent use. AndAnd basedbased onon the the observation observation ofof similarsimilar stratigraphicstratigraphic patternspatterns and and inferred inferled processes processes atat archeological archeological sitessites and at otherother ethnographicethnographic

3939 locations,Iocations, I speculate that, asas moremore timetime passespasses andand asas the the individual individual shellshell layerslayers.in in thethe Maullin Maullin Site are continuouslycontinuously affected by natural agencies,agencies, they willwill eventually merge and compact to formform a single, thickthick shellshell middenrnidden somewhatsornewhat similar toto the depositsdeposits seen at larger,larger, moremore permanentlypermanently occupied domestic sites.sites. StratigraphyStratigraphy andand sitesite sizesize areare obvious,obvious, importantimportant factorsfactors forfor identifyingidentifying large and smallsma.ll shell middens.middens. Other factorsfactors areare artifactartifact and feature content and patterning. ForFor example, large sites usually containcontain aa greater amount and diversitydiversity of cultural debrisdebris and featuresfeatures that areare moremore specializedspecialized and internally patternedpatterned than thosethose inin smallsmall sites.sites. In conclusion,conclusion, space does notnot allow meme toto elaborate on thethe internalinternal differencesdifferences and similaritiessimilarities among differentdiflerent typestypes of middens andand between middensmiddens andand other types of sites in south-centralsouth-central Chile. Hopefully,HopefullS I have provided enough information to offerofler a fewfew insightsinsights intointo shellshell middenmidden archeology, and and particularlyparticularly intointo somesome of of the the culturalcultural andand naturalnatural agencies thatthat form and disturb them.

References cited

Aten, LawrenceLawrence 19831983 Indians Indians of of the the Upper Upper Texas txas Coast.Coast. Academic Academic PressPress

Dillehay, T.D. 19731973 Small Small Archeological Archeological SiteSite InvestigationsInvestigations ForFor InterpretationInterpretation ofof SiteSite Activities.Activitiee. BulletinBulletin ofof thethe TexasTexas Archeological SocietySociety 44:169-17744:169- 177

26r cllboncarbon A 4 complete shellslhetrs .l completr 2 •ctured shells • .4 l a *v. 0 complai—ecTes

o fracturedfrociurad stonesllone! V iQMZM1F 44 panguipongui • II metertrrler ‘a„\ woodwood -6v •

4 4 -,$e2 4 \-\i. . " .;•••1. 0

• a • a • 6.4 4 " 4 Lt w y y 4 • rs 11:7. " '

FigureFigurel..Locationofshe]IandculturalmaterialsintheMaullfncu/an,osite 1. Location of shell and cultural materials in the Maullin curanto site

40 Historic ResourcesResources ofof AddicksAddicks andand BarkerBarker ReservoirsReservoirs

Carolyn GoodGood

The GalvestonGalveston District,District, CorpsCorps ofof Engineers, Engineers, constructedconstructed AddicksAddicks andand BarkerBarker Reservoirs Reservoirs inin Harris and FortFort BendBend CountiesCounties inin thethe 1940s 1940s andand continuescontinues toto operateoperate thethe reservoirs reservoirs toto provideprovide floodflood control protection to Houston_Houston. At the timetime ofof construction,construction, JoeJoe BenBen WheatlVheat ofof thethe Smithsonian Smithsonian conducted survey and site excavation of prehistoricprehistoric moundsmounds inin thethe areas of damdam construction. The mounds yielded aa richrich arrayarray of stratifiedstratified Iithiclithic andand ceramicceramic artifactsartifacts andand humanhuman burials.burials. On thethe basis of these excavations, Wheat developeddeveloped a prehistoric chronology forfor the inland upperupper coastcoast ofof Texas that isis stillstill inin useuse today. today. Materialstr'Iaterials recoveredrecovered by WheatWheat andand inin subsequentsubsequent excavationsexcavations date from Paleo-Indian to historic.historic. InIn moremore recentrecent years,years, systematicsystematic surveysurvey byby thethe CorpsCorps ofof EngineersEngineers of approximatelyapproximately half ofof thethe 26,000 26,000 acresacres comprisingcomprising the reservoirsreservoirs has identifiedidentified a numbernumber ofof additional sites, including over 100 prehistoricprehistoric andand 4040 historichistoric sites.sites. TheThe typicaltypical prehistoricprehistoric sitesite is aa smallsmall campsite,campsite, probablyprobably occupiedoccupied by an extendedextended familyfamily or small band for{or aa briefbrief periodperiod ofof time. EvidenceEvidence fromfrom surveysurvey and sitesite excavationexcaration indicates that thesethese prehistoricprehistoric inhabitantsinhabitants werewere nomadic hunters with limited material remains.remains. Historic sites i1in the reservoirs reflect a rich heritage of 19th century German immigrant farmers and dairymen,dairymen, andand somesome ofof thethe originaloriginal ranchingranching familiesfamilies ofof Southeast Texas. ManyMany ofof thesethese families areare still represented inin the HoustonHouston area. BothBoth archival archival andand oraloral history history researchresearch havehave been conducted, and tentative plansplans areare beingbeing made toto incorporateincorporate interpretationinterpretation ofof thesethese historichistoric sites into futurefuture parkpark developmentdevelopment inin AddicksAddicks Reservoir.Reservoir. Both reservoirs are being developed for recreation,recreation, and existing facilities are heavilyheavily utilized.utilized. Ev-Ev- ery effort is being made by the Corps of Engineers to protect andand preservepreserve sitessites asas parkpark developmentdevelopment and useuse proceeds.proceeds. Unfortunately,Unfortunatel]', oneone formform ofof recreationrecreation that hashas developed developed isis thethe unauthorizedunauthorized digging and vandalismvanda.lism of knownknown historichistoric andand prehistoricprehistoric sites.sites. Such activities are highly destructive of what couldcould bebe invaluableinvaluable scientificscientific inforrnat.ion,information, andand are illegal on federal lands. UnderUnder federalfederal law, heavy fines, confiscation ofof personalpersonal property,property, aldand imprisonment can resultresult fromfrom thesethese illegalillegal activities.activities. ItIt is.is hoped hoped that that greater greater public public awareness awareness of of the the value value of of this this nonrenewable nonrenewable resource resource willwill encourage site preservation onon bothboth public and private lands.

414t PostPost WestWest BernardBernard ArmoryArmory

JoeJoe D.D. HudginsHudgins

IntroductionIntroduction

TheThe PostPost Westwest BernardBernard sitesite isis inin Whartonwharton Countycounty about about 6 6 km km (4 (4 miles) miles) west west of of Hungerford, Hungerford, nearnear aa springspring aboutabout 6969 mm (75(75 yards)yards) westwest ofof thethe presentpresent channelchannel of the West Bernard River.River. ThisThis site,site, recordedrecorded asas 41WH164lWH16 with thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological Research Laboratory at thethe Balcones Balcones ResearchResearch LaboratoryLaboratory of the UniversityUniversity of Texas in Austin, is in aa cultivatedcultivated field,field, soso somesome of the artifactsartifacts werewere exposed at the surface.surface. InitialInitial surfacesurface collectingcollecting was done byby the writer, whowho tooktook notenote ofof the heaviestheaviest concentrations ofof various types of artifacts. CultivationCultiration ofof the sitesite areaarea waswas toto bebe continued,continued, soso the writer,writer, withwith thethe consentconsent ofof thethe landownerlandowner andand thethe farmer,farmer, askedasked thethe Houston Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society toto survey thethe site further andand salvagesalvage the remainingremaining artifacts. TheThe sitesite waswas mapped,mapped, andand aa grid grid of of 5-meter S-meter squaressquares waswas setset upup coveringcovering thethe roughlyroughly rectangular area in which artifacts had been found. AA systematic search for metal artifacts waswas made using a metal detector; theythey andand nonmetalnonmetal artifacts,artifacts, such such as as fragments fragments ofof glass,glass, ceramics,ceramics, andand gunflints,gunflints, werewere plottedplotted onon the the grid grid (Hudgins (Hudgins 1987:155-159), 1987:155-1b9), andand eacheach waswas recorded,recorded, bagged,bagged, and labeled.labeled. PlanPlan mapsmaps ofof artifactartifact distributionsdistributions werewere made,made, but verticalvertical placementplacement of the artifacts waswas not recordedrecorded sincesince all were found in the disturbeddisturbed plowplorv zone.zone. The metalmetal artifactsartifacts werewere takentaken toto the the Department Department of of Nautical Nautical Archeology Archeology atat Texas Texas A&M A&M Universityuniversity inin Collegecollege Station,Station, where theythey were treatedtreated byby electrolysiselectrolysis and impregnated with aa specialspecial wax to retard further oxidation.oxidation. The WhartonWharton CountyCounty HistoricalHistorical Museum inin Wharton, Texas is the curator ofof alla,ll thethe artifactsartifacts and surveysurvey notes from the site.

History

Post Westwest Bernard was established soonsoon afterafter the massmass furlough ofof the troops atat Camp Camp Bowie Bowie in MayMay and JuneJune ofof 1837.1837. AfterAfter thethe furlough furlough mostmost ofof thethe army's army's artillery,artillery, ordnanceordnance storesstores andand 653 muskets, described asas out of order, were taken to PostPost Westwest BernardBernard (Pierce (pierce 1969:179; 1g6g:lzg; NanceNance 1963:44).1963:44). Documents in the Texas Archives showshow thatthat a wagonloadwagonload of muskets and a large amountamount of ordnance were beingbeing shippedshipped fromfrom PostPost WestWest BernardBernard to the HoustonHouston armoryarmory inin 18391839 (Williams(Williams 1984).1984). The lastlast documentdocument foundfound concerning thethe armoryarmory atat Post WestiVest Bernard is dated FebruaryFebruary 18391839 (Pierce 1969).1969). During the early years ofofthe the Republic of Texas therethere were nono standardstandard arms issued for the Texas ArmylArmy; therefore anyany weapons thatthat were available rverewere incorporated incorporated intointo thethe armory.armory. Personal arms such as flintlock muskets,muskets, rifles,rifles, pistols,pistols, andand shotgunsshotguns arrivedarrived withwith volunteer units coming to Texas. Also, therethere were 440 flintlockflintlock musketsmuskets shipped shipped ilto into Te-xasTexas byby thethe U. S. Government in 1836,1836, but most of the weapons in the TexasTexas armory were musketsmuskets capturedcaptured fromfrom thethe MeicanMexican ArmyArmy atat the Battle of San Jacinto. TheThe MexicanNlexican troopstroops werewere armedarned with British muskets, primarily the India Pattern BrownBrown BessBess (Koury 1973).1973).

Artifacts

At leastleast 65 perceutpercent ofof thethe gungun partsparts found atat the site were from BritishBritish muskets.muskets. TheTheremaininggun remaining gun parts foundfound werewere from U.u. S.s. muskets models 1795,1795, 1798, 1808,1808, 1812,1812, and and 18161816 and and fromfrom nonmilitarynonmilitary rifles,rifles, pistols,pistols, andand shotguns (Crowley(Crowlev and Brezik 1985).1985).

4242 The gun partsparts foundfound atat the the site site included included 31 31 lockplates lockplates inin various various stagesstages ofof assemblageassemblage (Hudgins(Hudgins 1985a:Table1985a:T[ble 1),251), 25 sling swivels,8swivels, 8 buttbutt plates, 1212 sideside plates,plates,32 32 rampipes,rampipes, 99 nosenose caps,caps, severalseveral gunflints,gunflints,65 65 trigger guards, severalseveral triggers,triggers,3 3 breechbreech plugs,plugs,5 5 bayonetbayonet fragments,fragments,2l 21 hammers,hammers,3 3 broken and bentbent musketmusket barrelsbarrels andand aa barrel barrel fragment fragment of of a a .45-caliber .45-caliber octagonaloctagonal rifle.rifle. AlsoAlso foundfound were a lead-dipper, tongs, dipper handles,handles, melted lead, 2424 lead musket shot, andand severalseveral ironiron andand brass canister shot (Hudgins(Hudgins 1985b). Many ofof thethe brass trigger guards,guards, rampipesrampipes andand buttbutt platesplates fromfrom the British musketsmuskets had been cut, brokenbroken or melted, and it is very likely thatthat the armorersarmorers at the postpost werewere making canistercadster shot fromfrom this material. PersonalPersona.I items such as pocket-knifepocket-knife fragments, brassbrass thumb tacks, aa brassbrass sewingsewing thimble, andand brass buttons fromfrom men'smen's clothingclothing werewere alsoalso found (Hudgins(Hudgins 1985c).1985c). These items werewere concentrated at thethe northnorth endend ofof thethe site.site. Seventy-five ceramicceramic sherdssherds and 44 fragmentsfragments ofglassof glass werewere found. found. TheseThese items were concentlatedconcentrated in thethe southernsouthern areaarea ofof thethe site.site. The The collection collection of of ceramics ceramics appearsappears toto bebe of of thethe Regency Regency periodperiod (1800-1839)(1800-1839) andand probablyprobably representrepresent dinnerwaredinnerware thatthat was usedused byby thethe menmen atat the post (Briggs(Briggs n.d.). The glassglass fragments were determined to be from wine,wine, ale, or spirit bottlesbottles (Wetzel(Wetzel 1985).1985).

Conclusions

The existenceexistence ofof such a large number ofof flintlock gun parts, togethertogether withwith evidenceevidence fromfrom correspon-correspon- dence in thethe TexasTexas ArchivesArchives (Briggs(Briggs 1983;1983; WilliamsWilliams 1984)1984) stronglystrongly suggestsuggest thatthat 41W1116 41WH16 isis indeedindeed the sitesite ofof thethe PostPost WestWest BernardBernard armory.armory. NoNo recordsrecords ofof dailydaily activitiesactivities of the men stationed at Post West Bernard have been found, butbut from thethe type and condition of thethe gun parts it appearsappears thatthat thethe men men were were involvedinvolved inin reconditioningreconditioning arms.

References cited

Briggs, Alton K. 19831983 Cultural Cultural property property of of West West San San Bernard Bernard Station, Station, an an ordance ordance depot depot ofof thethe depot depot ofof thethe ArmyArmy ofof the Republic of Texas, Wharton County,County, Texas. Unpublished;Unpublished; copycopy in writer'swriter's filesfiles n.d.n-d- PersonalPersonalcommunication communication

Crowley, David andand Frank Brezik, Jr. 19851985 Personal Personal communication communicatiorr

Hudgins, Joe D. 1985a1985a PostPost West West Bernard Bernard 1837-1839, 1E37-1839, PartPart II. IL Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety Journal 8181

1985b1985b PostPost West West Bernard Bernard 1837-1839, 1837-1839, PartPart III.III. Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety Journal 8282

1985c1985c Post Post West lVest Bernard Bernard 1837-1839, 1837-1839, PartPart IV. IV. Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety Journal 8383

19871987 Post Posi West West Bernard Bernard (41WH16) (41WH16) - Republic- Republic of of Texas Texas Armory, Armory, 1837-1839, 1837-1839, WhartonWharton County,County, Texas.Texas. Bulletin ofof thethe TexasTexas Archeological Archeological SocietySociety 57:14357:143 Koury, Michael J. 19731973 Arms Arms for for Texas. Texas. The The Old Old Army Army Press, Press, Fort Fort Collins, Collins, ColoradoColorado

43 Nance, JoeephJoseph MiltonMilton 19631963 After After San San Jacinto, Jacinto, the the Texas Texas Mexican Mexican Frontier. Frontier. University University ofof TexasTexas Press,Ptess, AustinAuetin

Pierce, Gerald S. 19691969 Texas Texas Under Under Arms. Arms. The The camps, camps, posts, posts, forts fo ands and military military towns towns of ofthe the Republic Republic of ofTexas Texas 1836-1846.183&1E46. Encino Press, Austin Wetzel, ShirleyShirley 19851985 Personal Personalcommunication communication

Williams, VernonVernon 19841984 Post Post West West Bernard Bernard station, station, Republic Republic of of Texas Texas Armory Armory andand frontier frontier outpost.outpost. Unpublished; Unpublished; copycopy inin writer's filesfiles

44 FillingFilline Some Gaps in Houston'sHouston's Unwritten History:History: TwoTwo - Examples fromfrom HistoricalHistorical ArchaeologyArchaeology

KennethI{enneth L.L. BrownBrorvn

Urban historical archaeologyarcha.eology hashas advancedadvanced tremendouslytremendously over over the the pastpast decade. Initially,Initially, the major focus of research inin this area waswas on standing structuresstructures andand associatedassociated yardyard andand outsideoutside activityactivity zones.zones. Increasingly,Increasingly, however, the focus has shifted toward the moremore traditionaltraditional archaeo-archaeological investigation ofof aa variety of thethe types of sites which occur inin urban zones around thethe world.world. That is,is, recentrecent archaeologicalarchaeological research in urban areasareas hashas tendedtended towardtoward sitessites whichwhich lacklack standing architectural remains.remains. MoreMore importantly,importantly, fromfrom thethe standpoint standpoint of of anthropological anthropological archaeology, archaeology, the research focus has increasingly become concernedconcerned withwith thethe investigation of thethe lives and activities of the "common""common" individualsindividuals within a societysociety -— the peoplepeople most often "missed""missed" in the writingwriting of traditional histories.histories. Certainly,Certainly, thethe urban urban historical historical archaeology archaeology whichwhich hashas beenbeen conductedconducted inin Houston over thethe past fourfour years has demonstrated both thisthis changechange in orientationorientation and thethe im-importance of the newnew typestypes ofof information on the pastpast whichwhich thisthis orientationalorientational changechange brings. InIn so doing, the researchresearch toto bebe discusseddiscussed in thisthis paperpaper hashas gonegone aa long long wayway toto fillingfilling inin somesome "gaps""gaps" in ourour currentcurrent knowledgeknowledge of Houston's historic past and thethe developmentdeveiopment of one of this country'scountry's largest urban centers.centers. TheThe purpose purpose ofof thisthis briefbrief paperpaper willwill bebe toto outlineoutline somesome ofof thisthis researchresebrch andand the conclusionsconclusions derived fromfrom thisthis research as they pertain toto ourour increasedincreased knowledgeknowledge of Houston's, Texas', and even the United States' past. Specifically, the the resultsresults ofof twotwo research projectsprojects will bebe summarized here:here: TheThe OldOId HoustonHouston City Cemetery Project andand thethe GeorgeGeorge R.R. BrownBrown ConventionConvention Center Project. BothBoth ofof thesethese histor-historical archaeology projects were conducted by thethe staffstaff ofof thethe Archaeological Archa.eological ResearchResearch Laboratory,Laboratory, Department ofof Anthropology,Anthropology, University of Houston, and werervere directed by Dr.Dr' KennethKenneth L.L. Brown.Brown. As aa resultresult ofof thethe continuity continuity inin research research staff,stafl, the the overall overa.ll research research objectivesobjectives andand methodsmethods werewere essentially the same,same, varying only as a result of the unique characteristics of the individual projects themselves. In both cases,cases, thethe attemptattempt was was to to employ employ historicalhistorical andand archaeologicalarchaeological methods in an attempt toto increase increase ourour knowledgeknowledge of Houston's past by generating and interpreting data relatedrelated to aa widewide varietyvariety ofof thethe peoplepeople whowho lived,lived, and died,died, inin thethe processprocess ofof thethe Houston'sHouston's development.development. Very few ofof thethe sites and thethe individualsindividuals investigated can be found in the historyhistory booksbooks writtenwritten on Houston;Houston; however, oneone wayway oror another, all of these people played a role in thatthat development.development. Another result of these two projects is that theythey havehave providedprovided data whichwhich clearlyclearly and, at leastleast in part,part, substantially substantially alteralter some some of of our our "knowledge" "knowledge" (as(as historicallyhistorically recorded)recorded) of Houston's past. History only records what people have rvrittenwritten andand modernmodern researchersresearchers have been able to locatelocate andand interpret.interpret. Archaeology Archaeology has thethe benefitbenefit ofof findingfinding remains thatthat the recordersrecorders of that historyhistory "missed,""missed," either intentionallyintentionally oror unintentionally.unintentionally. WhatWhat follows follows outlinesoutlines thesethese findings,findings, especiallyespecially as they alteralter thethe existingexisting bodybody ofof knowledgeknowledge concerning llouston'sHouston's past. However,However, a cautionary notenote isis needed at thisthis point.point. Both Both of of these these projects projects are are continuing, cortinuing, and, and, therefore, therefore, some some of ofour our conclusionsconclusions may be subject toto slightslight modification.modification. ThisThis isis especiallyespecially true of the Old Houston Cemetery Project. Thus, ourour majormajor conclusionconclusion from the CemeteryCemetery ProjectProject (viz.,(viz., thethe proposed proposed English English colony)colony) shouldshould be viewedviewed more as a partially confirmedconfirmed hypothesis than aa firmfirm conclusion.conclusion. The OldOld HoustonHouston City Cemetery Project waswas begun in 19861986 asas thethe result of a worker's tiptip that City-financed construction was destroying human graves. DuringDuring thethe coursecourse ofof thethe archaeological archaeological investigations a number of aspects of Houston's past werewere researched.researched. ForFor example,example, thethe humanhuman skeletal remains werewere investigated for information on nutritionalnutritional andand disease disease factorsfactors whichwhich affectedafected Houston's earlyea.rly occupants. ToTo a limited degree, the research waswas alsoalso anan attemptattempt to look at burialburial practices and theirtheir developmentdevelopment withinwithin Houston.Houston. ThisThis research research lookedlooked atat coffincoffin types,types, preservationpreservation

45 practices (including the development of various typestypes ofof "embalming" ofof thethe body), and methodsmethods of the disposaldisposal of the body withinwithin thethe grave.grave. However, However, probably thethe mostmost significantsignificant finding in this research was the discovery ofof whatwhat appears to bebe aa heretoforeheretofore unknownunknown EnglishEnglish colony inin this area of North America. BasedBased upon thethe methodmethod ofof interment,interment, twotwo majormajor patternspatterns ofof gravegrave constructionconstruction were defi.neddefined withinwithin thethe cemetery:cemetery: anan essentially modernmodern pattern pattern andand a pattern calledcalled thethe "black"black earth graves."graves." TheThe modernmodern patternpattern was was defined defined primarily primarily byby the the fill fil1 ofof thethe grave grave above above the the coffin. coffin. That is,is, thethe fillfil1 ofof thethe gravegrave waswas thethe soilsoil whichwhich came out of the gravegrave during its excavation.excavation. TheThe black earth graves,Braves, on the otherother hand,hand, werewere refilledrefilled with top soilsoil andand aa largelarge amountamount ofof organicorganic material. TheThe fillfill fromfrom thethe gravegrave waswas taken elsewhere,elsewhere, oror at least disperseddispersed on the groundground aroundaround the graveyard.graveyard. AtAt leastleast 40 40 of of thesethese black black earthearth graves graves werewere discovereddiscovered inin a small portion of the cemetery. UponUpon analysisanalysis of these graves,graves, it waswas determineddetermined that theythey all a.ll shared shared the the following following characteristics: the orientation of the grave was easteast to west,u/est, with the head placed to the west,west, a typically Christian pattern; thethe bodybody appearsappears toto havehave beenbeen wrappedwrapped in a shroud or at leastleast toto havehave been placed within the gravegrave withoutwithout aa coffin;coffin; the preservationpreservation of the bonebone withinwithin thesethese gravesgraves was very poor, whereaswhereas within the modernmodern gravesgraves the bonebone preservationpreservation was,was, inin allall cases,ca5e6, veryvery good; and,and, finally,finally, in allall casescases wherewhere "modern""modern" gravesgraves were excavated inin the immediateimmediate areaarea ofof a blackblack earth grave,grave, thethe modernmodern gravegrave always intrudedintruded into the blackblack earth grave.grave. TheThe finalfinal twotwo characteristics clearly demonstrate that thethe blackblack earthearth gravesgraves predatepredate thethe so-called so-called modernmodern ones.ones. The most controversial aspects ofourof our interpretationinterpretation ofofthe the data derivedderived fromfrom this project concernconcern the issuesissues of age andand thethe identity of the makers of the graves. The actual datingdating ofof thethe gravesgraves andand identification of their makers/occupiers camecame asas aa resultresult ofof twotwo piecespieces of ceramics found within the grave fill ofof oneone ofof thethe black earthearth graves, comparisons with ceramic materials collectedcollected from other early EuropeanEuropean colonialcolonia.l sites within thethe NewNew World, and thethe discoverydiscovery of an English law mandating this burialburial practice.practice. TheThe ceramics ceramics inin questionquestion areare twotwo piecespieces of Rhenish ware.Ware. This is a typetype ofof pottery producedproduced duringduring thethe 17th17th centurycentury inin Germany, Germany, andand extensivelyextensively imported byby thethe EnglishEnglish when they established coloniescolonies inin North America.America. SuchSuch aa ceramicceramic ware,ware, whilewhile not entirelyentirely absentabsent on SpanishSpanish andand FrenchFrench colonialcolonial sites, waswas generallygenerally very infrequently utilized. Thus,Thus, thesethese wouldwould not hebe expectedexpected toto bebe the the only only two two 17th 17th century century ceramics ceramics recovered,recovered, if this werewere a SpanishSpanish or a French site. However,However, thethe English lawlaw mandatingmandating thethe burial practice may be the best indicatorindicator ofof thethe identityidentity andand ageage ofof thethe blackblack earthearth graves.graves. TheThe lawlaw waswas passedpassed byby thethe LondonLondon CityCity Council,Council, at the requestrequest ofof QueenQueen ElizabethElizabeth I,I, inin 1563, 1563, andand waswas notnot rescinded rescinded until until 1685. 1685. Specifically, Specifically, thethe lawlaw required that individualsindividuals whowho dieddied ofof disease,disease, and who were toto be buried inin churchchurch yards, werewere to be buried withoutwithout aa coffin,coffin, in aa gravegrave whichwhich was toto be refilled withwith "fresh, new mould,"mould," not thethe soilsoil which originally camecame out out ofof thethe grave.grave. It waswas hoped that thethe use use of of highly highly organicorganic soilsoil andand leafleaf litter placedplaced intointo thethe grave grave wouldwould accelerateaccelerate thethe decompositiondecomposition of the individual,individual, thereforetherefore makingmaking it lessless likely thatthat thethe diseasedisease would spreadspread furtherfurther v,'ithinwithin thethe population. This isis exactly the typetype of behavior which would havehave resultedresulted inin the black earth graves,graves, especially inin the HoustonHouston areaarea where the heavy clay subsoil would havehave servedserved to to lialthalt the dispersal of the organicorganic material into the soilsoil surrounding the grave.grave. TheThe lawlaw isis alsoalso thethe onlyonly knownknown description, in any writtenwritten source,source, for this type ofof burial practice. Finally, our lirnitedlimited archaeological workwork discovereddiscovered what what appears appears toto bebe aa portionportion ofofthe the southern moat ofof thethe colony.colony. That That is, is, through through the the use use of of a 4-incha 4-inch geological geological push-coring push-coring device,device, wewe werewere able to discoverdiscover a trenchtrench 1010 feetfeet widewide andand approximatelyapproximately 1010 feet deep running east-west to thethe south ofof the blackblack earth gravegrave area.area. TheThe trench trench was was foundfound overover aa distancedista.nce ofof somesome 200 feet. AtAt first wewe thought thatthat thisthis trench trench might might be be connected connected to to the the 1800s' 1800s' cemetery cemetery inin some some fashion fa^shion —- possibly o1eone of the historicallyhistorically recorded trenches excavated forfor burialsburials duringduring one of the majormajor yellowyello* i"u".fever or or choleracholera epidemics. epidemics. The The lacklack of of bone bone and and the the extremeextreme widthwidth andand depth of the trenchtrench ground this make this interpretation unlikely.unlikely. Further, the trenchtrench clearlyclearly runsruns acrossacross the ground slopeslope in this

46 area, actuallyactua,lly "connecting""connecting" twotwo low areas, and, thereforetherefore it diddid notnot likelylikely function as aa drainagedrainage ditch. AnotherAnother curiouscurious feature of thisthis trench isis thatthat in twotwo areas the ditch "juts out." InIn oneone case,case, thisthis formsforms a widewide V-shape. InIn thethe secondsecond case,case, thethe shapeshape isis harderharder toto determine determine becausebecause ofof thethe limited nature ofof our testing, but itit appearsappears toto havehave aa box-shapebox-shape set at anan angleangle to thethe orientationorientation of thethe trench.trench. A A map map drawn drawn of of early early Charlestown Charlestown in in the the Carolina Carolina Colony Colony showsshows thisthis typetype ofof moat-and-wall defensive structure. structure. Interestingly,InterestinglS this same drawing shows thatthat thethe mainmain churchchurch cemetery for this Charlestown was located in the extreme southwestsouthwest corner of the town, just insideinside the defensivedefensive structure.structure. GivenGiven that thisthis locationlocation actuallyactually appearsappears toto bebe outlinedoutlined withinwithin thethe towntown planning documents for EnglishEnglish colonies withinwithin North America, this is eveneven further, independentindependent evidence thatthat thethe 17th17th centurycentury sitesite locatedlocated withinwithin thethe areaarea of of Houston's Houston's OldOld CityCity CemeteryCemetery waswas an EnglishEnglish colony.colony. The GeorgeGeorge R.IL Brown Convention Center Center Project Project diddid notnot yield the samesame typetype ofof dramatic,dramatic, though disputed,disputed, resultsresults asas wewe havehave forfor thethe CemeteryCemetery Project.Project. However, However, forfor anan understanding understanding of Houston'sHouston's growth and development,development, thethe results of the Convention CenterCenter ProjectProject are just asas important. WithinWithin the the 13-block 13-block areaarea of of the the Convention Convention Center,Center, nono major major events events areare historically historically known to have occurred, and only a fewfew "important" peoplepeople are knownknown to havehave residedresided in thisthis area. Thus,Thus, thethe setting setting is is perfect perfect for for a a study study of of the the role role of of "everyday "everyday people"people" inin thethe development development ofof Houston. TheThe resultsresults ofof thisthis projectproject cancan be be discussed discussed underunder twotwo generalgeneral headings:headings: domestic/lightdomestic/light commercial useuse ofof space,space, andand the settlement historyhistory ofof Houston.Houston' We uncovered thethe pa.rtialpartial remainsremains of 1616 actual structuresstructures withinwithin ourour investigationinvestigation area,area, whilewhile numerous features associated with other,other, historicallyhistorically known,known, structuresstructures werewere also also encountered.encountered. However,Ilowever, allall ofof the actual physicalphysical remains of these additional structures hadhad beenbeen removed removed byby construction oror sitesite clearingclearing activities priorprior toto ourour beginningbeginning workwork connected with the constructionconstruction of the conventionconvention center. TheThe historicallyhistorically defineddefined functionsfunctions ofof thesethese structuresstructures variedvaried fromfrom familyfamily households, apartmentapartment houses,houses, and brothelsbrothels toto ChineseChinese laundries,laundries, pharmaciespharmacies and butcherbutcher shops.shops- The earliestearliest householdhousehold unit recovered appearsappears toto have been the initialinitia,l farmsteadfarmstead of Mrs.Mrs. JaneJane Wilkens, herher two daughters, and, for a shortshort periodperiod ofof time,time, aa son-in-law. son-in-law. ThisThis homestead homestead waswas occupied from 18221822 until its abandonmentabandonment inin 1824 1824 whenwhen Mrs.Mrs. WilkensWilkens movedmoved to SanSan FelipeFelipe beforebefore receiving herher headrightheadright fromfrom StevenSteven F.F. Austin in 1827.1827. (This(This couldcould actuallyactually bebe Texas' Texas'earliest earliest recorded instance of governmentally sanctionedsanctioned sexual sexual discrimination. discrimination.) ) TheThe structurestructure built on this site waswas clearly a temporarytemporary building,building, asas itit waswas constructedconstructed withoutwithout extensiveextensive useuse ofof eithereither nailsnails or glass.glass. Some Some hand-madehand-made bricksbricks werewere employed inin thethe construction ofof thethe fireplace, butbut that represents the major investmentinvestment in buildingbuilding materials forfor the structure. A A second second househouse "floor" "floor" was extensively excavatedexcavated on on anotheranother ofof thethe blocks.blocks. This one was built and destroyeddestroyed during the 1850s,1850s, on land owned at thatthat timetime by by William William Thompson, Thompson, aa merchant merchant and and government government official official inin Galveston.Ga.lveston. ThisThis structure,structure, notnot recordedrecorded inin anyany historicalhistorical documentsdocuments relatedrelated toto Houston,Houston, appearsappears to havehave served as a residenceresidence and to have been intentionally burned downdown in 1859.1859. The firefire appears to havehave occurredoccurred whenwhen thethe buildingbuilding waswas inin use,use, asas many many itemsitems were were recoveredrecovered withinwithin aa thickthick charcoalcharcoa.l and ash layer on top ofof thethe clayclay padpad whichwhich originally formed partpart of the foundation of the house. Interestingly,Interestingly, the itemsitems werewere primarily personal items of aa child (a(a girl), an adult male, and household items which would bebe utilized,utilized, inin a personal nature, byby allall membersmembers ofof aa householdhousehold (e.g., eating utensilsutensils andand dishes).dishes). MissingIUissing fromfrom thethe artifactartifact inventoryinventory ofof thethe "floor" "floor" werewere adultadult femalefemale items andand thosethose itemsitems ofof aa less less personal personal nature,nature, such such as as furniture furniture remainsremains oror cooking cooking utensils.utensils. Finally,FinallS the entire depositdeposit hadhad beenbeen buriedburied belowbelow nearlynearly oneone foot ofof fill brought onto the site almostalmost immediately after thethe househouse waswas burnedburned down.down. The The suggestion, suggestion, supportedsupported by by historic historic evidence,evidence, would be that two members of the household would be that two members of the household died in earlyearly Octoberoctober 18591g59 —- in fact, onlyonly 22 daysdays apart. As As partpart of of the the attempt attempt to to control control the the spread spread of of yellow yellow fever,fever, thethe househouse andand allall personalpersonal items of the deceaseddeceased were burned and buried.

47 From the excavation of both of these structures, andand severalseveral others,others, wewe havehave beenbeen ableable toto "look"look inside" houses as they werewere utilized during thethe 1800s.1800s. ThisThis hashas givengiven usus aa wayway of looking at the useuse of space in and aroundaround houseshouses whichwhich is different fromfrom that whichwhich can be obtainedobtained fromfrom historicalhistorical descriptions. While not as extensive, the same type of data was also generated forfor structuresstructures that had other primary functions.Iunctions. ThroughThrough thethe useuse ofof this data, wewe can look atat the patterns ofof Houston's growth as an urban center,center, both inin termsterms ofof population growth and land-use patterns. Again,Again, somesome of the information generated in this projectproject suggestssuggests some modifications toto thethe traditiona.ltraditional historieshistories of Houston.Ilouston. ForFor example, the growth of Houston, at least inin termsterms ofof thethe areaarea occupied,occupied, waswas faster than generallygenerally stated. In In all all places places where where there there is is evidence evidence of of 1870s' 1870s' occupation,occupation, wewe havehave alsoalso discovered clearclear evidenceevidence of of 1850s' 1850s' occupation. occupation. TheThe onlyonly realreal change overover thisthis time, within this area, isis thethe development development ofof lightlight commercialcommercial enterprises such as drug stores,stores, apartmentapartment houses,houses, rental houses, and butcher shops. AllAll ofof thesethese postdatepostdate 1860,1860, and aa majoritymajority ofof thesethese typestypes ofof enterprises postdate 1880.1880. Changes inin the city outside ofof thethe area can also be related to the typestypes of changes found.found. For example, thethe construction of thethe central train stationstation severalseveral blocksblocks north ofof the areaarea causedcaused majormajor andand rapidrapid changeschanges inin thethe useuse ofof thethe projectproject zone.zone. Primarily, Primarily, thethe economic economic status ofof thethe peoplepeople residingresiding in thethe areaarea decreased, decreased, thethe numbernumber ofof largelarge houseshouses divideddivided up intointo cheap apartments increased,increased, a numbernumber ofof smallsmall rentrent houseshouses werewere built, andand aa number number of of service- service- type enterprises entered thethe area (e.g., the laundry, a butcher shop, and, apparently, a brothel). Historical archaeology inin HoustonHouston hashas gone a long way toward altering somesome of the acceptedaccepted views ofof Houston'sHouston's andand Texas'Texas' history.history. Perhaps one could argue that relativelyrelatively little isis actuallyactually new otor unknown, butbut that shouldshould not bebe thethe majormajor criterion criterion inin anyany evaluationevaluation ofof thethe importanceimportance of data suchsuch as this.this. Rather,Rather, instead instead ofof needingneeding toto rewriterewrite historyhistory in orderorder toto makemake aa contribution,contribution, historical archaeology has added toto ourour knowledgeknowledge of history, primarilyprimarily byby providingproviding informationinformation about thethe pastpast notnot otherwise otherwise availableavailable to historians. ThatThat therethere are are differences differences inin the two data sets is clear;clear; suchsuch should be thethe casecase givenBivert the majormajor differencesdifferences in the researchresearch methodsmethods employed.employed. History is best served through attemptingattempting toto combinecombine thethe informationinformation inin aa meaningfulmeaningful way,wa5 rather than thethe fruitlessfruitless attempt toto defenddefend oneone set as "correct""correct" andand thethe otherother "wrong.""wrong." SuchSuch anan argumentargument servesserves only the egos ofof individuals;individuals; it it obscuresobscures what what happenedhappened inin thethe past.

48 Diverse Works/MarketWorks/Market SquareSquare Archeological Project

Roger G. MooreMoore

The DiverseDiverse Works/Market SquareSquare ArcheologicalArcheological ProjectProject was an excavation conducted in the heart ofof downtowndowntown Houston asas thethe basis for my Ph.D. dissertation in thethe DepartmentDepartment ofof Anthro-Anthro- pologypologl at RiceRice University. I undertook thethe project,project, withwith thethe invaluable invaluable assistancea-ssistance ofof thethe HoustonHouston Archeological Society,Society, becausebecause I I waswas interested interested inin Houston'sHouston's foundingfounding years.years. Among the questions I wished to address were:were: AreAre therethere anyany remainingremaining archeologicalarcheological tracestraces ofof thethe firstfirst couplecouple ofof decadesdecades of the city's development?development? WhatWhat cancan archeologyarchmlog;l tell us about thisthis earlyearly development?development? II waswas particularly interestedinterested inin thethe manner manner in in which which a aflourishing flourishing commercial commercia.I centercenter came came to to flower flower soso quicklyquickly on aa previouslypreviously empty landscape.la"ndscape. I'mI'm tempted tempted to to launch launch into into a alengthy lengthy paleontological paleontological analogyanalogy between Houston's pioneerpioneer settlers arrivingarriving viavia BuffaloBuffalo Bayou and slimyslimy Devonian Era amphibians dragging themselves outout of thethe water to find an empty nicheniche toto conquer.conquer. ThisThis analogyanalogt isis seductiveseductive because it emphasizesemphasizes bothboth the humblehumble origins andand eventual diversity ofof aa citycity that grewgrew fromfrom a few surveyors' stakesstakes onon thethe banks of a minor Texas bayoubayou toto a metropolitan area withwith overover threethree million inhabitants. However,However, inin the interest of space, I'llI'11 forego thatthat ruderude comparison.comparison. To understandundersta.nd whywhy thethe Diverse Diverse WorksWorks sitesite waswas chosen,chosen, wewe must brieflybriefly look at howhow HoustonHouston grew in its infancy.infancy. TheThe citycity ofof HoustonHouston emergedemerged abruptly inin latelate 1836, 1836, springingspringing fromIrom the mindsminds and machinationsmachinations ofof the AllenAllen Brothers, aa pairpair ofoI New York speculators.speculators. Houston's birthing groundground was a few square blocks focused onon Allen'sAllen's Landing,Landing, aa wharfwharf onon the foot of Main Street atat BuffaloBuffalo Bayou. ThisThis steamboatsteamboat landing,landing, namednamed forfor thethe city'scity's developers,developers, waswas thethe city'scity's firstfirst windowwindow to the world,world, and thethe bayoubayou was the main route intointo or out ofof thethe town.town. TheThe earliestearliest constructionconstruction inin the citycity naturallynaturally centeredcentered uponupon thisthis commercialcommercial chokepoint,chokepoint, and around thethe twotwo nearbynearby dedicateddedicated public squares. AnAn excavationexcavation site waswas sought withinwithin thisthis nuclearnuclear areaarea ofof Houston'sHouston's development.development. One was found,found, ifif truthtruth be told, byby aa visitvisit toto aa bar:bar: La La Carafe Carafe inin the the historic historic 1860 1860 KennedyKennedy BakeryBakery building on Congress Avenue. While havinghaving aa beerbeer in its tinytiny rearrear garden,garden, II lookedlooked overover thethe backback wall and knew I hadhad foundfound mymy site:site: anan open open courtyard courtyard behindbehind thethe adjacent adjacent Diverse Diverse WorksWorks art gallery. This humble,humble, 25 by 50 foot courtyard is located in aa blockblock facing on Market Square, only three blocks from Allen's Landing. TheThe courtyardcourtyard isis anan empty, empty, brick-flooredbrick-floored openopen areaarea screenedscreened behindbehind the KennedyKennedy BakeryBakery andand thethe Foley/Diverse Foley/Diverse Works\,!brks Building,Building, twotwo of the city'scity's fewfew remainingremaining 19thl9th century commercial buildings.buildings. Quick mapmap researchresearch discloseddisclosed that that thethe courtyard site had beenbeen an open space since at least 1873.1873. ItIt waswas thusthus consideredconsidered aa likelylikely candidate toto containcontain ourour objective,objective, remains dating to Houston'sHouston's earliest settlement, one with the virtuevirtue ofof notnot havinghaving aa buildingbuilding onon top of it. The first step inin thethe projectproject waswas toto compilecompile aa detaileddetailed historyhistory ofofland land useuse for the courtyardcourtyard andand its surroundingsurrounding buildings. ThisThis researchresearch confirmed thethe predictionprediction thatthat we should bebe in the areaarea of Houston's earliest settlement;settlement; inin fact,fact, we foundfound thatthat the first lot thatthat thethe Allen Allen BrothersBrothers soldsold was on this block. The lotslots containingcontaining our courtyardcourtyard changedchanged hands for the first timetime inin FebruaryFebruary 1837.1837. ThereThere areare clearclear deeddeed indications thatthat theretliere waswas at leastleast oneone permanentpermanent structurestructure builtbuilt onon the propertyproperty duringduring thethe next next twelve twelve months.months. Commercial Commercial landland functions functions quicklyquickly proliferatedproliferated onon the property:property: twotwo hotels,hotels, aa bakery,bakery, atat leastleast oneone saloon,saloon, aa grocerygrocery store,store, aa generalgeneral store and anan Indian trading postpost hadhad allall occupiedoccupied the tract byby 1860.1860. The mostmost importantimportant earlyea.rly tenanttenant waswas thethe Shakespeare Coffee House,House, aa gentlemen'sgentlemen's bar,bar, operatedoperated on the sitesite betweenbetween 18391839 and at leastleast 1854.18b4. Land ownership ofof thethe lotslots passedpassed throughthrough variousvarious handshands - - mostly thatthat of Irish immigrants - untiluntil thethe propertyproperty waswas consolidatedconsolidated by John KennedyKennedy in 1855.1855. The threethree lotslots remainedremained inin hishis family'sfamily's ownership until the mid-20thmid-2Oth century.century.

49 The documentarydoctmentary recordrecord waswas invaluable inin helpinghelping usus toto direct,direct, and more importantl5importantly, to under-under- stand thethe excavations.excavations. ElevenEleven 1-by-1l-by-1 metermeter pits,pits, joinedjoined inin two two excavation excava.tion blocks,blocks, werewere eventuallyeventually excavated by 'natural''natural'levels levels atat thethe site.site. We We were were relievedrelieved to discoverdiscover that thethe sitesite did,did, inin fact,fact, offeroffer an undisturbedundisturbed glimpseglimpse ofof Houston'sHouston's genesisgenesis in the fragmentsfragments ofof ceramics,ceramics, bone, glass, and metalmetal driven into thethe muddymuddy originaloriginal surfacesurface by the footstepsfootsteps ofof its founders.founders. Moreover,Moreover, these first traces were overlain by four feet of fillfill divisible into as manymany asas 17 17 distinct distinct levels, levels, levels levels whichwhidr formedformed a minutelyminutely subdividedsubdivided chronicle ofof thethe 19th and early 20th20th century.century. WeWe areare immensely immensely aidedaided inin dating thethe stratastrata by by the the presence presence of of two two important important disconformities: disconformities: thethe fires fires ofof 1860 1860 andand 1888, 1888, marked by charcoalcharcoa,l and debris levels inin thethe profile. Thanks toto documentarydocumenta.ry records,records, wewe are ableable to datedate thesethese events,events, and their associatedassociated strata,strata, toto thethe day.day. ThatThat granted granted us us four four independently independently absolute-dated brackets for the stratigraphy: thethe naturalnatural ground ground surface surface (1837),(1837), firefire #1S1 (1860), (1860), firefire #2 (1888),(1888), andand thethe currentcurrent brickbrick pavementpavement (1969).(1969). Analysis of the artifacts fromfrom thethe DiverseDiverse Works/MarketWorks/Market SquareSquare excavationexcavation isis continuing.continuing. WeWe can touchtouch uponupon somesome ofof thethe moremore importantimportant discoveries,discoveries, however.however. First,First, wewe achievedachieved our primaryprimary objective: toto findflnd materialmaterial tracestraces ofof thethe firstfirst fewfew months and yearsyears of Houston's settlement. WhileWhile we found no signs ofof thethe tents andand packingpacking cases frequently citedcited as the firstfirst housinghousing in thethe city,city, we collected aa satisfying samplesample ofof earlyearly materialmaterial culture.culture. TheThe faunalfaunal resultsresults werewere particularlyparticularly gratifying from this andand subsequentsubsequent levels;levelsl our diagnostic bone count numbers not inin thethe dozens,dozens, but inin thethe hundreds. hundreds. Ceramics, Ceramics, even even from from the the period period of of 1860 1860 and and before, before, were were likewise likewise collectedcollected by thethe kilogram.kilogram. BothBoth whitewarewhiteware andand earthenwareearthenware werewere abundant, andand aa numbernumber ofof indisputableindisputable pearlware vessels havehave beenbeen identified.identified. Decorative techniques exhibited include hand-painted, shell-shell- edged (scalloped and straight),straight), transfer-printedtransfer-printed (various(various colors), colors), flow flow blue,blue, embossedembossed whiteware,whiteware, spatterware andand spongeware,spongeware, annular,annular, andand mochamocha designs.designs. We collected and measured the thicknessesthicknesses of thousands ofof piecespieces of window glass inin order to contribute toto thatthat growing growing bodybody ofof chronologicallychronologica.lly sensitivesensitive data.data. WeWe recorded the form, and are interpreting thethe functionfunction ofof numerousnumerous features, includingincluding two privies:privies: a multiple compartment, early flush model dating toto thethe 1880s,1880s, andand thethe muchmuch older,older, wooden-shoredwooden-shored outhouse pit associatedassociated withwith the ShakespeareShakespeare House. AA goodgood bit waswas learnedlearned aboutabout site-formationsite-formation processesprocesses inin thethe city,citS includingincluding thethe criticalcritical rolerole ofof calamitiescalamities suchsuch asas firesfires in enhancingenha.ncing thethe archeologicalarcheological record.record. (Fire(Fire levellevel dates are notnot thethe onlyonly benefit;benefit; thethe subsequentsubsequent clean-upsclean-ups resulted in bothboth casescases inin thethe emplacementemplacement ofof a thick levellevel of sterile clay. These clay layers covered upup the fire debris prior toto rebuilding,rebuilding, formingforming incidentally a stratigraphic sealseal protectingprotecting thethe integrityintegrity ofof earlierearlier deposits.) We were atat first surprised to find a number of round-shotround-shot cannon balls, an unanticipated bonusbonus of the excavation.excavation. WhileWhile selectingselecting thisthis locationlocation onon geographicalgeographical grounds to findfind tracestraces ofof earliestearliest Houston, we did not realize that wewe hadhad simultaneouslysimultaneously selectedselected the sitesite ofof aa ConfederateConfederate arsenala,rsenal and cartridgecartridge factory.factory. OtherOther ConfederateConfederate militarymilitary paraphernaliaparaphernalia includedincluded grapeshot,grapeshot, EnfieldEnfield MinieMini6 balls, military percussion caps, "bucksbuck and ball" loadload buckshot,buckshot, confiscatedconfiscated U. S. infantry military buttons, andand aa bayonet.bayonet. We look forwardforward toto the pointpoint atat which which thethe analysis analysis isis complete, complete, confidentconfi.dent thatthat some some modestmodest contribution will be made toto thethe archeological, archeological, historical, and humanistic record of the citycity ofof Houston. AndAnd wewe all had aa greatgreat time;time; whatwhat moremore couldcould anan archeologistarcheologist askask for than anan excavationexcavation in thethe backyardbackyard ofof aa saloon?sa.loon?

50 AA DiscussionDiscussion ofof MethodologyMethodology inin HistoricalHistorical ArchaeologyArchaeology Texas B. AndersonAnderson

The historical archaeologistarchaeologist possesses a rich datadata basebase for his/her research.research. However,However, oneone cannot overemphasize thethe importanceimportance ofof integrating integrating the the documentarydocumentary and and artifartualartifactual data.data. Both must be guided by the samesame researchresearch goals and questions. AA prioritizedprioritized listlist ofof informationinformation neededneeded from the documents must be developeddeveloped by the archaeologist. The documentary data shouldshould bebe reevaluatedreevaluated as thethe excavationsexcavations progress and new questions are formulated as needed to further thethe researchresea.rch goals. TheThe lineline ofof communicationcommunication between thethe archaeologist andand thethe archivist is justjust as important as thatthat betweenbetween thethe archaeologist archaeologist andand hishis fieldfleld crew.crew. As anyone who hashas worked onon anan archaeologicalarchaeological projectproject soonsoon learns,learns, excavations create questions as wellwell as answers.answers. And,And, although although some some archival archi val research research shouldshould bebe done done even even before before excavationexcavation plans are finalized, itit is equally importantimportant to return toto thethe writtenwritten sources sources duringduring andand eveneven afterafter excavations areare completed. It is notnot unusualunusual forfor excavationsexcavations to generate information at oddsodds withwith thethe documents and/orand/or acceptedaccepted interpretationsinterpretations of of past past events. events. On On the the basis basis of of informationinformation recoveredrecovered during thethe excavationexcavation process, it maymay alsoalso be possiblepossible to synthesizesynthesize disparate fartsfacts and toto clarifyclarify poorly understood processesprocesses and relationships.relationships. Two problems encountered during archaeologicalarcharological researchresearch atat the 18591859 AshtonAshton VillaVilla inin Galve-Galve- ston, TexasTexas (41GV65(41GV65 - sponsoredsponsored byby RiceRice UniversityUniversity andand thethe Houston Houston Archeological Archmlogical Society)Society) cancan illustrate how the archaeologicalarchaeologica.l data data waswas testedtested againstagainst thethe written records. ThroughThrough anan on-on- going process, the data retrievedretrieved fromfrom excavationsexcavations and that retrievedretrieved fromfrom thethe documents documents werewere integrated toto provideprovide a moremore completecomplete understanding ofof eventsevents inin thethe past andand toto allowallow aa moremore accuratea.ccurate interpretation of the nature ofof aa particularparticular kindkind ofof site. The citycity ofof GalvestonGalveston underwentunderwent aa massivemassive grade-raisinggrade-raising afterafter a hurricanehurricane andand tidaltidd wavewave destroyed much of the city in SeptemberSeptember 1900.1900. TheThe fillfill usedused toto raiseraise thethe gradegrade waswas dredgeddredged fromfrom Galveston Bay and barged through a canalcanal dug for that purposepurpose justjust insideinside thethe newlynewly constructedconstructed seawall. SectionsSections of the citycity werewere dammed off and thethe structuresstructures within within eacheach section section were were jackedjacked up. WetWet sandsand andand muckmuck werewere then pumped around and underunder thethe structures.structures. CatwalksCatwalks werewere built from the networknetwork of dam wallswa.lls to thethe buildings.buildings. One of our first goals was toto determine thethe depth ofof the fillfill and whetherwhether thethe disasterdisaster precedingpreceding the grade-raisinggrade-raising had destroyed the pre-1900 livingliving surfaces.surfaces. TheThe recordsrecords atat the Villa and initialinitial research at thethe nearbynearby RosenbergRosenberg LibraryLibrary impliedimplied that thisthis areaarea was was includedincluded inin thethe massivemassive grade-grade- raising efforts.efforts. The estimatesestimates of the depth ofof thethe fillfill atat thethe Villa Villa werewere fromfrom threethree toto sixsix feet,feet, depending on the source.source. (However,(However, the six-footsix-foot estimate seemedseemed excessive justjust on the basis of the present heightheight of the half-buried,half-buried, wrought-ironwrought-iron fence bordering the site.) TheThe lowerlower sectionssections of the Villa and its dependenciesdependencies were a.lsoalso buried and the docentdocent manualmanual describeddescribed howhow the wetwet sandsand waswas pumped onto the site and around the structures.structures. Our firstfirst excavationexcavation pitpit (A-1 on the SiteSite Plan,Plan, FigureFigure 1)1) alongalong thethe west west sideside ofof thethe presentpresent driveway revealed a well-preserved nineteenth-centurynineteenth-century brickbrick drivewaydriveway two feet below present ground surface. TheThe drivewaydrive'*'ay was edged with a cement-coveredcement-covered (parged)(parged) brickbrick curb.curb. The curb hadhad beenbeen built upup withwith twotwo moremore rows of bricks,bricks, withwith mortarmortar left bulging overover andand aroundaround the curb in contrast toto thethe earlierearlier elegantelegant workmanship.workmanship. TheThe fillfill outsideoutside thethe curbcurb containedcontained darkdark soil,soil, brickbrick fragments,fragments, ash, aa fewfew smallsma.ll artifacts and bonebone fragments.fragments. InsideInside thethe curb,curb, thethe fill fiII waswas cleanclean sandsand containingcontaining a few largelarge brick fragmentsfragments restingresting onon thethe old driveway. ThisThis lightlight sand extended over thethe top of the curb, diminishingdiminishing as it continuedcontinued across the yard. At thisthis pointpoint therethere werewere moremore questionsquestions than answers,answers, and a return toto thethe Rosenberg Rosenberg LibraryLibrary seemedseemed in order. AA time-consumingtime-consuming search ofof thethe newspaper articles relatingrelating to the gradegrade-raising-raising

51 oJ.o' 8ffi1*. fl csrlrtctrndcncie, Ashton Villa o:6eo SiteSite PlanPlan

Figure 1.1. AshtonAshton Villa Villa sitesite planplan

proved successful; twotwo sentencessentences inin aa 1906 articlearticle helpedhelped explainexplain ourour excayationexcavation unit. AA fewfew blocks,blocks, which included Ashton Villa and otherother expensiveexpensive homes,homes, werewere excluded from the process of pumping in wet sand to raise the grade. However,Houever, sand had been pumped onto BroadwayBroadway Boulevard bordering thethe southsouth edgeedge of the site. TheThe articlearticle statedstated thatthat the the land land owners owners wouldwould bebe alloweda.llowed to buybuy atat costcost (about 2121 centscents aa cubiccubic yard)yard) somesome ofof thethe sandsand fillfill fromfrom thethe sidessides of the boulevard.boulevard. This information, along withwith thethe stratigraphy and thethe masonrymasonry inin thethe excavationexcavation pit, indicatedindicated thatthat thethe ownersowners hadhad attemptedattempted toto retain retain use use of of theirtheir driveway driveway afterafter buildingbuilding upup thethe curbcurb andand fillingfilling theirtheir lawnlawn with toptop soil.soil. However,However, because the grade on BroadwayBroadway was raised, the site and especially the drivewaydriveway would not havehave draineddrained well.well. TheThe Browns' Brow15'driveway driveway waswas finallyfinally filled,filled, possiblypossibly with sand from Broadway oror withwith sandsand brought in from thethe west endend ofof thethe .island.island. At this time the sandsand was placed over thethe yard as well, darkdark soil placedplaced onon toptop of that andand thethe sodsod onceonce againagain replacedreplaced or newnew grass was planted. This informationinformation emphasizesemphasizes the rolerole ofof socio-economicsocio-economic forcesforces in in determiningdetermining stratigraphy.stratigraphy. In an urbanurban site,site, itit isis insufficient insufficient toto merelymerely describe the soil. OneOne mustmust examineexamine the writtenwritten recordsrecords critically and evaluateeva.luate the role played byby thethe historic eventsevents inin determiningdetermining notnot justjust the artifacts,artifarts, but thethe soilsoil itself.itself. Another aspect of the AshtonAshton Villa excavations maymay bebe usedused toto illustrateillustrate the importance ofof the

52 archival/archaeological nexus.nexus. The nineteenth-centurynineteenth-century firefire insuranceinsurance maps showshow the kitchen,kitchen, breezeway,breezeway, stable and carriagecagiage house aligned along the alley on the backba.ck (north) edgeedge ofof the site,site, leavingleaving approximatelyapproximately threethree feetfeet between the backback wallwall of these dependencies and the alleyalley itself.itself. A majormajor goalgoal ofof thethe projectproject waswas toto expandexpand ourour understandingunderstanding ofof thethe functionalfunctional aspectsaspects of a nineteenth-century urbanurban residentia.lresidential site.site. ThisThis datadata couldcould thenthen bebe compared compared withwith contemporarycontemporary sites inin otherother geographic geographic locationslocations andand ofof differentdiflerent ethnic/socio-economicethnic/socio-economic status,status, asas wellwell as withwith present-day urban residentialresidential sites. ThisThis researchresearch willwill allowallow a greatergreater understandingunderstanding ofof thethe forcesforces which determined these differencesdifferences and similarities. At the present,present, thethe yardyard onon thethe west west sideside ofof thethe VillaVilla just inin frontfront ofof thethe dependenciesdependencies is rather formal. AA largelarge patiopatio hashas beenbeen builtbuilt inin frontfront ofof thethe stable stable (now (now the the ticket ticket office offi.ce toto thethe museum)museum) and extendingextending fromfrom that toto the the former former location location of of thethe family family roomroom andand kitchen kitchen are are brick brick walkways,walkways, gardens and a fountain.fountain. Although a privyprivy waswas aa commoncommon dependency at pre-twentieth-centurypre-twentieth-century sites,sites, thethe Villa'sVilla's docentdocent manual emphasizes thatthat the owner/builder,owner/builder, aa mastermaster masonmason withwith hishis ownown constructionconstruction crewcrew (as(as well as a merchant,merchant, banker,banker, andand railroadra.ilroad companycompany president), had designeddesigned the Villa with attic cisterns which fedfed lavatorieslavatories andand waterwater closets.closets. TheThe ideaidea thatthat thethe VillaVilla had nono priviesprivies waswas dear to the mythologymythology of the site, asas itit markedmarked thethe progressive/eliteprogressive/elite naturenature ofof itsits originaloriginal owners.owners. Nineteenth-century photographsphotographs showedshowed aa densedense wallwall of trees and bushes in front of the taigetedtargeted area andand therethere werewere nono photographs ofof thethe areaarea betweenbetrveen thethe lineline of shrubbery andand thethe dependencies.dependencies. However, thethe 1889 firefire insurance insurance map map sho,.r'edshowed trvo two sma.ll small structures structures about about thirtythirty feet in front of the stable. A systematic probe-testprobe-test ofof thethe yardyard inin frontfront ofof thethe stablestable ledled usus toto believebelieve therethere waswas aa continuouscontinuous structure fromfrom thethe drivewaydriveway to aa pointpoint directlydirectly southsouth ofof thethe westwest wallwall of the stable.stable. AnAn excavationexcavation unit 66 byby 66 feetfeet (A-5(A-5 on thethe SiteSite Plan)Plan) waswas openedopened on the edge ofof thethe potential structure at thethe point southsouth ofof thethe westwest wallwall ofof thethe stable.stable. Approximately Approximately ninenine inchesinches belowbelow groundground surface,surface, aa lineline of bricks extended fromfrom thethe northwest cornercorner ofof thethe unitunit dongalong thethe west and south sidessides to thethe southeast corner. FurtherFurther excavations excavations determined thatthat thisthis waswas thethe toptop (remaining) (remaining) coursecourse of a brick wall.wa.ll. The wall,wall, or whatwhat wasrvas leftleft ofof it, waswas approximatelyapproximately twotwo feetfeet high.high. Another brickbrick structurestructure waswas discovereddiscovered just insideinside thethe lowestlorvest coursecourse of bricks in thethe westwest wall.wall. These bricks paralleledparalleled thethe westwest wallwall andand thenthen extended inin a line across the north edgeedge of thethe excavation unit,unit, then southward to its intersectionintersection with the wall in the south balk. At thisthis pointpoint wewe onceonce againagain reviewedreviewed relevantrelevant photographsphotographs andand mapsmaps atat the Rosenberg.Rosenberg. TheThe 18851885 Koch Bird's-Eye viewView MapMap of Galveston had been drawn from thethe BayBay lookinglooking southwardsouthward toward thethe GulfGulf and thusthus hadhad aa view view ofof thethe backback ofof AshtonAshton Villa.Villa. AlthoughAlthough anyany structuresstructures southsouth of the stablestable werewere hidden, an ornateornate finialfinial could be seen over the top of the stablestable roof.roof. Nineteenth-century priviesprivies werewere oftenoften "dressed"dressed up"up" with elaborate cast ironiron finialsfinials (the(the 1859 l85g Maxwell MansionMansion inin PhiladelphiaPhiladelphia hashas anan extentextent dependency with justjust suchsuch a finial).finial). Excavations revealed aa typicdtypical largelarge privyprivy vault (similar to one illustrated in thethe 19291929 HandbokHandbook ofol BuildingBuilding ConstructionConstruction by Hool and Johnson [1929: pagepage 1301]). TheThe toptop stratastrata inside the vaultvault consisted of alternate layerslayers of dark soilsoil and lime.lime. BelowBelow this it waswas filledfilled with artifacts,artifacts, includingincluding over 31 pounds ofbeef,of beef, pork,pork, mutton.mutton, turkeyturkey andand chickenchicken bones,bones, 4949 whole oror partialpartial glass containers, and 2525 wholewhole (or reconstructible) ceramicceramic vessels, metalmetal and wood art.ifacts,artifacts, grape and watermelonwatermelon seeds, peach pits, pecanpecan shellsshells andand coffeecoflee beans (Anderson(Anderson 1985).1g85). This excavation unitunit destroyeddestroyed the the myth myth that that allall thethe inhabitants atat the sitesite hadhad useuse ofof thethe indoor water closets. ItIt alsoalso expandsexpands ourour understandingunderstanding ofof howhow thethe sitesite functioned.functioned. SinceSince therethere was no backyard at thethe site,site, this this was was a a work work area,area, screened screened fromfrom viewview byby landscapinglandscaping and aa brickbrick wall. TheThe brickbrick wallwall surrounded the areaarea inin frontfront ofof thethe stable, stable, extending extending fromfrom the the driveway driveway westwest

53 and then northnorth toto connectconrect withwith aa gategate nextnext toto thethe cornercorner ofof thethe stable.stable. The The area area inside inside thethe wallwall is "paved""paved" withwith crushedcrushed oyster shell. ThisThis waswas undoubtedly a stableyard and thethe privyprivy waswas builtbuilt inside the stableyard, probably for use by the stable handshands andand perhapsperhaps thethe householdhousehold servants.servants. It isis apparentapparent from from thethe research research that that this this urban urban residence residence was was self-contained self-contained inin manymany ways.ways. Horse andand carriage werewere thethe mainmain modes ofof transportationtransportation and we now seesee thatthat aa largelarge portionportion of the estateestate waswas relatedrelated to to their their maintenance maintenance and and housing. housing. The The socio-economic socio-economic differencesdifferences whichwhich are obvious inin ruralrural SouthernSouthern estatesestates areare just just asas apparentapparent inin an urban setting. TheThe researchresearch at Ashton Villa has increased ourour understandingunderstanding ofof thethe nature of a nineteenth-centurynineteenth-century urban estate and revealedrevealed how eventsevents atat thatthat sitesite related toto thethe broaderbroader socio-culturalsocio-cultura.l context. If we believe thatthat a thoroughthorough understanding ofof thethe past is basicbasic toto ourour understandingunderstanding ofof thethe present and our planning for the future, greatergreater emphasisemphasis must be givengiven toto archaeologicalarchaeological research. The failurefailure to conductconduct archaeologicalarchaeological researchresearch atat historic sitessites results in thethe permanentpermanent lossloss ofof information. Archaeology, combined withwith goal-specific archiva.larchival research,research, isis especiallyespecially important important in the devel-development ofof anan historichistoric househouse museum.museum. AnAn historichistoric house,house, especiallyespecially oneone removedremoved from its originaloriginal site withoutwithout thethe benefitbenefit ofof relatedrelated archaeology,archaeology, is an artifact withoutwithout aa fullfull contextcontext — anan heirloomheirloom with a partialpartia.l history.history. -

References cited

Anderson, TexasTiexas B.B. 19851985 Cognitive Cognitive Structures, Structures, Status Status and and Cultural Cultural Affiliation: Affiliation: Archaeological Archaeological InvestigationsInvestigations atat AshtonAshton Villa,Villa, Galveston County, Texas. DoctoralDoctoral Dissertation,Dissertation, RiceRice UniversityUniversity Hool, George A.,A., andand Nathan C. JohnsonJohnson (Editors-In-Chief)(Editor+ln-Chief) 1929L929 Waterless Waterless Toilet Tcilet Conveniences. Conveniences. In:HandbookIn:Handbook ofof BuildingBuilding Construction: DataData forfor Architects,ArchitectE, De-De- signing and ConstructingOonstructing Engineers,Engineers, and and Contractors, Contractors, Vol. Vol. 2,9:1300-03. 2,4:1300-03. McGraw-Hill, McGraw-Hill, NewNew YorkYork

54 Authors

J. RichardRichard AmblerAmbler was Executive Director ofof thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological SalvageSalwage Project fromfrom 19651965 to 1967.1967. SinceSince 19671967 he has beenbeen atat Northern Northern Arizona Arizona University, University, wherewhere hehe isis now now ResearchResearch Professor Emeritus of Anthropology. MostMost of his archeologicalarcheological workwork hashas beenbeen inin the FourFour CornersCorners country of the Southwest.Southwest.

Kenneth L.L. BrownBrown received hishis Ph.D. inin anthropologyanthropology inin 19751975 fromfrom thethe UniversityUniversity ofof Penn-Penn- sylvania. HeHe hashas beenbeen teachingteaching atat thethe UniversityUniversity ofof HoustonHouston sincesince 1977,1977, and has been the Chairman of the AnthropologyAnthtopology DepartmentDepartment therethere sincesince 1983.1983. HisHis researchresearch includesincludes directing major projectsprojects in NorthNorth Carolina,Carolina, Guatemala,Guatemala, and Texas.Texas. ForFor thethe past past ten ten years, years, his his research research focusfocus hashas beenbeen in thethe areasareas ofof historicalhistorical archaeologyarchaeology and urbanurban archaeology.archaeology. HeHe isis currentlycurrently directingdirecting workwork on a slaveslave plantation inin BrazoriaBrazoria County,County, Texas,Texas, asas wellwell as completing the research on the OldOld HoustonHouston Cemetery Project andand thethe GeorgeGeorge R.R. BrownBrown ConventionConvention Center Project.

Tom D. DillehayDillehay is anan AssociateAssociate Professor inin the DepartmentDepartment ofof AnthropologyAnthropologr at thethe Uni-Uni- versity of Kentucky and isis directordirector ofof thethe KentuckyKentucky AnthropologicalAnthropological ResearchResearch Facility.Facility. HeHe receivedreceived his doctorate fromfrom the UniversityUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin inin 1976.1976. HeHe hashas carriedcarried outout fieldworkfieldwork in the southern GreatGreat PlainsPlains andand inin thethe eastern eastern United United States.States. Beginning Beginning inin 1972 1972 hehe livedlived inin ChileChile andand Peru, doingdoing archeologicalarcheological research on thethe politicalpolitical andand economic economic systemssystems ofof pre-Hispanicpre.Hispanic societiessocieties of the Andes.Andes. WhileWhile inin South South America America he he held held severalsevera.l academicacademic positions.positions. InIn 1979 1979 Dillehay Dillehay tooktook his present position, but hehe travelstravels toto South South America America everyeyery yearyear toto do do fieldwork.fieldwork.

Harold DrollingerDrollinger isis a staff archeologistarcheologist with thethe ArcheologicalArchmlogical Research Laboratory, TexasTexas A&M UniversitSUniversity, and and is is aa graduategraduate studentstudent in the Anthropology Department at thethe university.university. HeHe has donedone fieldworkfieldwork and researchresearch inin Texas,Texas, Illinois,Illinois, Mississippi,Mississippi, NewNew MexicoMexico and Belize.Belize.

H. BlaineBlaine EnsorEnsor isis a staffstaff archeologistarcheologist withwith thethe Archeological Archeological ResearchResearch Laboratory,Laboratory, TexasTexas A&M University. Other positionspositions heldheld includeinclude staffstaff archeologistarcheologist with thethe UniversityUniversity ofof Alabama-Alabama- Tuscaloosa and the UniversityUniversity of West Florida.

Joan FewFew did herher undergraduateundergraduate workwork inin historyhistory atat Southwestern Southwestern University University inin Georgetown, Georgetown, Texas; completed an M.A. degree inin anthropologranthropology at the UniversityUniversity ofof Houston in 1986;1g86; andand taught history in thethe HoustonHouston Independentl-ndependent SchoolSchool District for 1414 years. SheShe hashas servedserved asas PresidentPresident ofof the HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArchmlogical SocietySociety andand currentlycurrently servesserves onon thethe Board of DirectorsDirectors of thethe TexasTexas Archeological Society.Society. HerHer researchresearch andand publicationspublications havehave dealtdealt primarily with nineteenth-century Texas.

Carolyn Good is an archeologistarcheologist with the GalvestonGalveston District ofof thethe CorpsCorps ofof Engineers.Engineers. SheShe received an M.A. in anthropology andand geologygmlogy from the UniversityUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin inin 1978lg78 and has donedone fieldwork inin NorthNorth and South Dakota, MontanaMontana and Texas.Texas. HerHer currentcurrent responsibilitiesresponsibilities with thethe CorpsCorps ofof Engineers Engineers include include fieldfield survey,survey, administrationadministration ofof archeological archeological contracts,contractg, coor-coor- dination ofof constructionconstruction projects,projects, andand managementmanagement ofof historichistoric propertiesproperties inin AddicksAddicks and Barker Reservoirs.

55 Richard L. Gregg is a geophysicist in the Computer ScienceScience Department ofof ShellShell DevelopmentDevelopment Company. ForFor aa numbernumber ofof yearsyea.rs hehe has beenbeen anan activeactive membermember ofofthe the HoustonHouston ArcheologicalArcheological SocietySociety andand thethe TexasTexas ArcheologicalArcheological Society,Society, having held severalsevera,l offices in in thesethese organizations.organizations. Currently,Currently he is the editoreditor ofof thethe Houston Houston ArcheologicalArcheological Society Journal.

FrankFlank Hole received his Ph.D. from thethe UniversityUniversity ofof ChicagoChicago inin 1961.1961. FromFrom 19621962 toto 19791979 he was with RiceRice University in the DepartmentDepartment ofof Anthropology.Anthropology. SinceSince 19801980 hehe hashas beenbeen ProfessorProfessor in thethe DepartmentDepartment of of AnthropologyAnthropology atat Yale YaJe University. University. HeHe has has done done archeological archeological fieldworkfieldwork in the United States,States, Mexico,Mexico, Iran, SyriaSyria andand France;Flance; hishis recentrecent fieldwork fieldwork isis concernedconcerned withwith thethe originsorigins ofof domestication of both cerealscerea.ls andand livestock.livestock.

Joe D.D. HudginsHudgins is anan avocationalavocational archeologista.rcheologist and aa member member of of the the Texas Texas Archeological Archeological Society, the Houston Archeological Society,Society, and and thethe Wharton CountyCounty HistoricalHistorica.l Commission.Commission. AA 19601960 graduate ofof Texas A&M University in animal husbandry, hehe isis aa lifelonglifelong resident of Hungerford, Texas, where hehe andand his brothers operate their registered Brahman cattle ranch.

W.\M. L.L. McClureMcClure is a registeredregistered professionalprofessional engineer and hashas beenbeen involvedinvolved withwith developmentdevelopment ofofthe the freeway system in Houston since 1954. He is nownow buildingbuilding tolltoll roadsroads inin HarrisHarris County. BillBiIl has had aa lifelonglifelong interest inin biologybiolog3r and archeology,archeolog3r, andand now spendsspends his spare time in aa combinationcombination of the twotwo interestsinterests byby identificationidentification andand analysisanalysis ofof faunalfaunal remainsremains fromfrom archeologicalarcheological sites.

Roger Moore received hishis B.A. fromfrom FloridaFlorida State UniversityUniversity in 19741974 and his M.A. from RiceRice University in 1982. HeHe has beenbeen activeactive inin locallocal archeologyarcheology sincesince moving to HoustonHouston inin 1976,1976, and has operated aa contractcontract archeology archeology firm,firm, MooreMoore ArcheologicalArcheological Consulting, since 1983. His primary research interest is inin urbanurban archeology. archeology. Mr. Mr. Moore Moore joinedjoined thethe Houston Houston Archeological Archeological SocietySociety inin 1977.1977.

Michael J. O'BrienO'Brien received hishis B.A. in anthropologyanthropology from RiceRice UniversityUniversity in 19721972 andand his Ph.D.Ph.D. inin anthropologyanthropology fromfrom The UniversityUniversity of Texas at AustinAustin inin 1977.1977. He He was was employed employed as aa researchresearch associateassociate withwith thethe University University ofof Nebraska-Lincoln Nebraska-Lincoln from 19771977 to 19801980 and directeddirected the CannonCannon ReservoirReservoir Human Ecology ProjectProject in northeastern Missouri.Missouri. HeHe currentlycurrently isis AssociateAssociate Professor in the Department ofof AnthropologyAnthropology andand AssociateAssociate DeanDean inin thethe College College ofof ArtsArts andand ScienceScience at thethe University University ofof Missouri-Columbia.Missouri-Columbia.

Leland W. PattersonPatterson is anan activeactive avocationalavocational archeologistarcheologist whowho has publishedpublished 220220 articlesa.rticles and reportsreports onon variousvarious archeologicalarcheological subjects, suchsuch asas lithiclithic technology,technology, Texas prehistory,prehistor5 cultural resource management and very early man in the New lVorld.World. He isis a past President ofof the HoustonHouston Archeological Society.Society. PattersonPatterson is ManagerManager ofof EnvironmentalEnvironmental AffairsAfairs for TennecoTenneco Inc.

Charlescharles E. PearsonPearson is aa nativenative ofof St.st. Simons Simons Island,Island, Georgia.Georgia. HeHe received received hishis Ph.D.Ph.D. inin anthropology from thethe UniversityUniversity ofof GeorgiaGeorgia in 1979.1979. SinceSince 19791979 he has been anan archeologistarcheologist with CoastalCoasta.l Environments, Inc. in Baton Rouge,Rouge, Louisiana, andand is currently Director of the CulturalCultura.l ResourcesR.esources Division. He has beenbeen involvedinvolved in numerousnumerous archeologicalarcheological projectsprojects in Louisiana,Louisiana, Texas,Texas, Mississippi and Arkansas, including excavation of the Spanish merchant vesselvessel El-EI NuevoN'u,eruo ConstanceConslante which sank off thethe Louisiana coast inin 1766. His curentcurrent research interests include the FrenchFlench and and Spanish Colonial periodperiod ofof LouisianaLouisiana as as wellwell as as the the studystudy of human adaptations toto riverineriverine and coastalcoasta.l ecosystems.ecosystems.

56 Harry J. ShaferShafer is ProfessorProfessor ofof AnthropologyAnthropology atat TexasTexas A&M A&M University.University. He received his Ph.D. degree from the UniversityUniversity of Texas at Austin.Austin. ShaferShafer hashas conducted conducted archeological archmlogical researchresearch in manymany partsparts ofof TexasTexas andand is is involved involved inin aa long-termlong-term researchresearch programprogram inin the the Mimbres Mimbres Mogollon Mogollon areasareas ofof New Mexico. He has also been involved inin the Colha Project, BelizeBelize sincesince 1979.1979. ShaferShafer has numerous publications resulting {romfrom these research activitiesactivities andand is author ofof Ancient Texans, a book on thethe ancientancient peoplespeoples ofof thethe Lower Lower PecosPecos regionregion ofof Texas.Texas.

PatriciaPatricia WheatWheat is is the the Principal Principal of Lower SchoolSchool at at RiverRiver OaksOaks Baptist School.School. SheShe receivedreceived a B.A. andand M.A.M.A. inin historyhistory fromfrom the UniversityUniversity of Texas atat Austin. PamPam hashas beenbeen activeactive inin localloca^l and state archeologicala,rcheologica.l societiessocieties forfor 1515 years, with a primary interestinterest inin publicpublic awarenessawareness and education;educationl she is a frequent lecturer, directordirector ofof workshops,workshops, andand coordinatorcoordinator ofof hands-onhands-on archeologicalarcheological exhibits. She is the authorauthor ofof thethe filmstripfilmstrip "Evidence"Evidence of the Past," andand waswas projectproject directordirector forfor thethe TexasTexas Archeological Society exhibit,exhibit, "Archeology inin Texas -— Lifeways of of thethe Past."Past."

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