nition yf! Fourth Edition

Mark H. Ashcraft Cleveland State University"

*Now at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas

PEARSON Prentice Hall

Pearson Education International Contents

Preface xiii

CHAPTER 1 Cognitive Psychology: An Introduction 1

Thinking About Thinking 4 and Cognition Defined 9 An Introductory History of Cognitive Psychology 12 Anticipations of Psychology 14 Early Psychology 15 Behaviorism and Neobehaviorism 19 Dissatisfaction with Behaviorism: The Winds of Change 22

Cognitive Psychology and Information Processing: The New Direction 29 The Assumptions of Cognitive Psychology 31

CHAPTER 2 The Cognitive Science Approach 34

Guiding Principles 35 Themes 36

Measuring Information Processes 37 Getting Started 37 Time and Accuracy Measures 38 Guiding Analogies 42 The Information-Processing Approach 44 The Standard Theory 44 A Process Model 45 The Strict Information Processing Approach 48 Some Difficulties 49 The Modem Cognitive Approach: Cognitive Science 51 Updating the Standard Theory 51 Fixing the Narrowness 5 3 Neurocognition: The Brain and Cognition Together 54 Basic Neurology 56 Brain Anatomy 59 Principles of Functioning 62 vi Contents

Split Brain Research and Lateralization 64 Methods of Investigation 65

Neural Net Models: Connectionism 71

CHAPTER 3 and Pattern Recognition 74 Visual Perception 75 Gathering Visual Information 79 Visual 82 The Argument About Iconic Memory 89 A Summary for Visual Sensory Memory 91

Pattern Recognition: Written Language 92 The Template Approach 93 Visual Feature Detection 93 Beyond Features: Conceptually Driven Pattern Recognition 96 Connectionism Modeling 101 Object Recognition and Agnosia 105 Recognition by Components 106 Agnosia 109 Implications for Cognitive Science 111 Auditory Perception 113 Auditory Sensory Memory 115 Auditory Pattern Recognition 119

CHAPTER 4 122

Multiple Meanings of Attention 123 Basics of Attention 124 Basic Input Attentional Processes 126 Alertness and Arousal 126 Reflexive Attention and the Orienting Response 128 Spotlight Attention and Visual Search 129 Contrasting Input and Controlled Attention 133 Controlled, Voluntary Attention 136 Selective Attention and the Cocktail Party Effect 138 Selection Models 139 Attention as a Mental Resource 147 Automatic and Conscious Processing Theories 148 A Synthesis for Attention and Automaticity 153 Disadvantages of Automaticity 156 A Disorder of Attention: Hemineglect 158 Contents vii

CHAPTER 5 Short-Term 163

Short-Term Memory: A Limited-Capacity Bottleneck 166 The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two 166 The Brown-Peterson Task: Decay from Short-Term Memory 169 Interference versus Decay in Short-Term Memory 170 Short-Term Memory and 175 Free versus Serial Recall 176 Serial Position Effects 176 Rehearsal Buffer 178 Retrieval from Short-Term Memory 180 Recognition Tasks 180 Short-Term Memory Scanning: The Sternberg Task 180 Multiple Codes in Short-Term Memory 185 Verbal Codes 185 Semantic Codes 186 Visual Codes 187 Other Codes 189

Working Memory 190 Early Neuropsychological Evidence 191 The Components of Working Memory 191 The Dual Task Method Applied to Working Memory 194 Testing the Working Memory Model 194 Neuropsychological Evidence 199 Individual Differences Approach to Working Memory 201 Overview 207

CHAPTER 6 Learning and Remembering 210

Preliminary Issues 213 Devices 213 The Ebbinghaus Tradition of Memory Research 216 220 Storing Information in 222 Rehearsal 223 Frequency of Rehearsal 223 Two Kinds of Rehearsal 225 Depth of Processing 226 Challenges to Depth of Processing 227 Defining Levels 227 Organization in 230 Imagery 234 Storage Summary: Specificity 236 viii Contents

Retrieving Episodic Information 238 Decay 238 Interference 238 Retrieval Failure 242 Retrieval Cues and Encoding Specificity 244 and 248 Dissociation of Episodic and 249 251 Implicit and 254

CHAPTER 7 Knowing 258

Semantic Memory 260 The Collins and Quillian (and Loftus) Model 261 Smith's Feature Comparison Model 265 Empirical Tests of Semantic Memory Models 267 Clashing Models and Explanations 269 Semantic Relatedness 273 Categorization, Classification, and Prototypes 282 Concept Formation 282 Natural Language Concepts 282 Internal Structure and the Power of Categorization 285 in Semantic Memory 287 Nuts and Bolts of Priming Tasks 287 Empirical Demonstrations of Priming 290 Priming in Other Tasks 291 Priming Is Automatic 293 Priming Is an Implicit Process 296

Context, Connectionism, and the Brain 298 Context 298 Connectionism 301 Connectionism and the Brain 303

CHAPTER 8 Using Knowledge in the Real World 308

The Seven Sins of Memory 310 and Semantic Integration 311 Bartlett's Research 312 Schemata 314 Semantic Integration 316 Technical and Content Accuracy 320 Contents ix

Propositions 322 The Nature of Propositions 322 Strengths of Propositional Theories 326 Rules for Deriving Propositions 328 Are Propositions Real? 330 Propositions, Semantic Networks, and Scripts 334 Scripts 335 Evidence of Scripts 339 False , , and "Forgotten Memories" 341 False Memories 341 Leading Questions and Memory Distortion 344 The 346 Source Misattribution and Misinformation Acceptance 347 Stronger Memory Distortion Effects 351 Repressed and Recovered Memories 352 Autobiographical Memories 353 The Bahrick Work 354 The Relationship of Laboratory to Real-World Memory 357 The Irony of Memory 358

CHAPTER 9 Language 362

Linguistic Universals and Functions 364 Defining Language 364 Universals of Language 365 Animal Communication Systems 370 Five Levels of Analysis, a Critical Distinction, and Whorf's Hypothesis 372 Phonology: The Sounds of Language 376 Sounds in Isolation 376 Combining Phonemes into Words 381 Speech Perception and Context 382 A Final Puzzle 385 Syntax: The Ordering of Words and Phrases 387 Chomsky's Transformational Grammar 389 Limitations of the Transformational Grammar Approach 393 The Cognitive Role of Syntax 394 Lexical and Semantic Factors: The Meaning in Language 397 Morphemes 398 The Lexical Representation 399 Case Grammar 399 Interaction of Syntax and Semantics 402 x Contents

Evidence for the Semantic Grammar Approaches 404 Case Grammar, Propositions, and Comprehension 406 Srain and Language 407 Aphasia 407 Generalizing from Aphasia 411 Language in the Intact Brain 412

CHAPTER U(0) Comprehension: Written and Spoken Language 415

Getting Started: An Overview 416 Conceptual and Rule Knowledge 416 Traditional Comprehension Research 418 Online Comprehension Tasks 421 Comprehension as Mental Structure Building 422 A Situation Model Approach to Comprehension 429 Reference, Inference, and Memory 430 Reference 430 Implication and Inference 431 Simple Reference and Inference 431 Inferences During Comprehension 43 3 The Processes and Extent of Drawing Inferences 434 Reading 437 Gaze Duration Procedures 437 Basic Online Reading Effects 441 A Model of Reading 443 Summary 447 Spoken Language and Conversation 449 The Structure of Conversations 450 Cognitive Conversational Characteristics 451 Empirical Effects in Conversation 455

CHAPTER HH Decisions, Judgments, and Reasoning 461

Formal Logic amd Reasoning 463 Syllogisms 463 Conditional Reasoning: If P Then Q 466 Hypothesis Testing 472 decisions 473 Decisions About Physical Differences 474 Decisions About Symbolic Differences 475 Decisions About Geographic Distances 481 Contents xi

Decisions and Reasoning Under Uncertainty 482 Algorithms and Heuristics 483 Heuristics, Biases, and Fallacies 486 The Representativeness Heuristic 487 The Availability Heuristic 492 The Simulation Heuristic 494 The Undoing Heuristic: Counterfactual Reasoning 495 Adaptive Thinking and "Fast, Frugal" Heuristics 500 The Ongoing Debate 501 Limitations in Reasoning 505 Limited Domain Knowledge 505 Limitations in Processing Resources 511 Appendix: Algorithms for Coin Tosses and Hospital Births 514 Coin Tosses 514 Hospital Births 515

CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving 516

The Status of the Problem-Solving Area 518 Gestalt Psychology and Problem Solving 519 Early Gestalt Research 520 Difficulties in Problem Solving 522 Insight and Analogy 526 Insight 526 Analogy 530 Neurocognition in Analogy and Insight 534 Basics of Problem Solving 537 Characteristics of Problem Solving 538 A Vocabulary of Problem Solving 539 Means-End Analysis: A Fundamental Heuristic 545 The Basics of Means-End Analysis 546 Means-End Analysis and the Tower of Hanoi 546 General Problem Solver 550 Adaptive Control of Thought 552 Improving Your Problem Solving 555 Increase Your Domain Knowledge 555 Automate Some Components of the Problem-Solving Solution 556 Follow a Systematic Plan 556 Draw Inferences 557 Develop Subgoals 557 Work Backward 558 Search for Contradictions 558 xii Contents

Search for Relations Among Problems 559 Find a Different Problem Representation 559 If All Else Fails, Try Practice 561

Glossary 565 References 577 Photo Credits 609 Name Index 613 Subject Index 620