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Home , 14 Comae Berenices, 23 Comae Berenices, 31 Comae Berenices, Aquarius (constellation), Coma Berenices, Corvus (constellation)

Constellations and Time Keeping used by Indigenous Communities in the Northwestern Amazonian Region

Walmir Thomazi Cardoso Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo

Abstract: Tukano, which is also used to refer to the This article is the result of research conducted from ethnic group among whom we developed 2005 to 2007 in Brazil’s Amazon region. Relying on our research. Other languages such as participant observation and ethnomathematics sources, Tuyuka and Desana are very similar and on practical sky observation activities, and on classical correspond to other ethnic groups, which sources about observed in Brazil’s Ama- our research also included. These Indians zon region, a sky mapping project was undertaken with Tukano, Desana and Tuyuka indigenous communities. live in the border region where Colombia, At the Yupuri School, an astronomical calendar was cre- Brazil and Venezuela meet. Although they ated that integrates specific environmental and climate live in different countries, they share many events based on descriptions of many constellations from similar cultural features. Languages are different indigenous communities. This investigation only one of the common aspects among found that in the northwest, Amazonian Indians mark them. rain periods, drought, planting and harvesting by the set During the last quarter of and rise of major constellations. To complement these 2005, I was invited to visit a Tukano tribe findings, non-Indian materials were also analyzed by the Instituto Socioambiental (ISA)–a mainly from the researchers of the early 20th century who worked in the northwestern state of Amazonas. well-known Brazilian non-governmental organization. A group of ISA’s anthropol- Keywords: Cultural , Indigenous ogists involved with indigenous issues in Knowledge, Amazonian Indians, Timekeep- this region received a request to call in an ing, Indigenous Calendar astronomer. This demand originated from a group of indigenous teachers concerned Introduction with traditional teaching topics at the People around the world have searched for Yupuri School. This school is one–among complex correlations between the skies other–indigenous differentiated schools in and humankind for as long as we know. this region. Following educational pro- The northwestern Amazonian peoples are grams that accommodate indigenous life, no different. They learn from each other traditions and dialogues among Indian and about the skies as observers and they are non-Indian knowledges, these institutions strongly encouraged to do so. The situa- have been stimulated by special support tion is not as unusual as some have thought from current Brazilian educational gov- (Aveni 2008; Chamberlain et al. 2005; ernment programs. Within this context, Kelley and Milone 2011; Selin 2000). anthropologists and indigenous teachers There are more than 23 different lan- planned a workshop to engage representa- guages spoken in the region known as tive members of all communities who “Dog’s Head” in the northwestern part of speak Tukano variant languages, including the Amazonas state in Brazil. (Figure 1) A the Tuyuka and Desana. significant number of these languages are Working in the region over two , based on a singular trunk language called we developed three different but connect-

Journal of Astronomy in Culture 1(1), 2016, pp. 23-39 Copyright © International Society for Archaeoastronomy and Astronomy in Culture 24 Figure 1. Dog's Head in northwestern Amazonian spired by volvelles (wheel charts or dynam- region. Detail is focused on the Tiquié River. ical circular information tools), extremely Source: http://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/ th tukano/1499 popular during the early 20 century but older even than that (Helfand 2002). Not only were the final results of circular dy- namical calendars important but also the descriptions of each . Most of them have been described by other re- searchers, mainly anthropologists and eth- nographers from late 19th and early 20th centuries (Koch-Grünberg 1969; Lévi- Strauss 2004a; Brüzzi Alves da Silva 1962). The main ones were remembered by wise elders and senior citizens as well as com- munity leaders, but this knowledge was spread out along a wide zone. Therefore, the workshops were part of a strategy to gather different ethnic leaders and elders together to determine the current state of ed workshops (Cardoso 2007). In the first indigenous astronomical knowledge and its one, we hoped to investigate some basic as- correlation with other conceptions of their tronomical concepts within Tukano cul- natural world (Cardoso 2007). ture; we started by telling them selected The corroboration of historical myths and stories from our Occidental sources through field research conducted constellations. We brought to light some in the Yupuri indigenous school allowed us myths—such as and the , to show that, besides constellations, a or other stories such as the flying horse group of people inhabiting the Middle , and her closer rela- Tiquié River region identified correlations tives, and how they were transformed into between fauna, flora and weather events constellations—for an avid group of silent and astronomical phenomena. In other students. As they became interested in the words, our work during the investigation mythology, though, there was a sudden period became broader than either the movement to tell me some histories of their study of constellations out of the Greco- constellations. They bestowed upon me Roman matrix or an attempt to set new extended miscellaneous narratives show- versions of a calendar. ing me a complex cultural big picture of The calendar itself is not only a tool for Amazonia’s territory, including the main reckoning the passage of time but also for part of their conceptual natural world showing the complex correlations among framework. positions and natural phenomena as a During the second and third work- whole. The formulation of these new cal- shops we followed similar strategies to de- endars is linked with natural resource man- scribe constellations and we developed to- agement because it is not the case of an as- gether early drafts of circular calendars. In tronomical study of measuring time in and this specific case we suggested, from our re- of itself. here can be seen as part of a search, a dynamic circular calendar in- complex landscape made up from

Cardoso, W. 25

and, within indigenous concepts, supernat- Our work was developed as qualitative re- ural elements and phenomena. search and started by using ethnomathe- From the beginning of our research, matics references based on Ubiratan several Tukano Indians told us that they D’Ambrosio’s (2002) educational concep- recognized significant positions of stars in tions. Beyond their direct application the sky. They pointed to special locations within mathematical education theories, where a group of stars set together with the they are also correlated with non-formal sunset (heliacal set). These events are cor- mathematical thinking and how they are related with such natural phenomenon as connected to culture and epistemology floods and low river level; times to grow (D’Ambrosio 2005). We also worked with different plants; seeding and harvesting pe- some concepts of participatory research, riods; increasing or decreasing amounts of following Thiollent (2008), beginning with edible or other availabilities of suste- our first field research. Currently there are nance. Therefore, for them an astronomi- important discussions about methodology cal event is not only what we recognize as within the study of astronomy in cultures celestial phenomenon but also a variable (Ruggles 2015). As an interdisciplinary re- amount of events related to each other in a search area, there are different contexts complex panorama. To grasp part of this that come from both the social sciences intricate puzzle was essential to building and humanities. The matter of context has the dynamical circular calendar with shown itself to be an important issue and them. will be investigated further by the author in a forthcoming paper. Methodology Indigenous leaders and anthropolo-

Figure 2. A Tukano constellation of the Viper, represented during the first workshop in 2005.

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 26 gists of the ISA made arrangements to de- Figure 3. Naked-eye sky observation with the com- velop one workshop about the astronomy munity. (Photo by Pieter-Jan Van der Veld) of the upper Rio Negro region late in 2005. They invited me, as an astronomer, and I started to prepare some materials to take with me. I selected sky charts without any labels of our constellations, asterisms, stel- lar names or lines on them. I brought a tel- escope and binoculars. Also, I prepared some versions of sky maps with computer programs such as Stellarium. The best tech- nique to recognize the main Tukano con- stellations was the comparison between the natural sky and its simulated projection in different situations. But it was only success- their descriptions and observing the sky ful after some sessions of conversation and with the same person in different positions long talks about our own constellations. and not at the same time, we found the Our first workshop really started when constellations shown in this paper. It is they heard the Occidental myths and nar- important to emphasize the importance of ratives of the sky. We told them the stories having more than one meeting with the behind the constellations of the ancient same storyteller to double-check infor- Greeks. We waited and asked for similar mation, asking him, for example, about the topics expecting a similar behavior from position of one specific constellation in a them and they answered with narratives of distinct moment in a different night and their myths and told us about what they site of observation. It was important for consider to be their most important con- this technique, resulting in fewer mistakes. stellations. We asked about the appear- The third technique was associated ance and the location of each constellation with the students’ constellation notebooks. and eventually recognizable asterisms in During the workshops we requested that the sky. Thereafter, they made the first the group of students observe the sky dur- registers of Tukano constellations that I ing longer periods of time and register have ever seen. (Figure 2) Only after that them using a notebook with unlined sheets did we make our first shared night of sky – sketchbooks. I had taught them how to observations with the presence of the represent the observation site, his/her whole community. (Figure 3) point of view and the landscape nearby. and binoculars were not successfully used To reproduce each constellation, we ex- in these occasions. Actually they never plained a technique to maintain propor- were! The community was only interested tions using their own fingers (Cardoso in naked eye sky observation. 2007; Ventrudo 2009), and requested that The second technique used to identify they insert a key, showing each adopted their constellations was developed with sto- scale. rytellers. We selected some elders and in- We compared notebooks from differ- dividuals acknowledged to know the con- ent students in different locations because figurations of the most important constel- each student lives in a different tribe far lations according to what leaders and an- from The Yupuri School. At indigenous thropologists had found. By comparing schools in this region of Brazil, the students

Cardoso, W. 27 remain for 15 days in the school staying become valuable information within an in- within that specific community. For the digenous knowledge system. When a con- other half of every they return to stellation or part of it is setting during - their original communities and the cycle set, Tukanos expect different, sometimes starts over again throughout the . Liv- exclusive, natural events. Floods or low ing according to this schedule, the students river levels, plants sprouting, flowers could draw constellation sets with all their blooming, planting or harvesting periods local nuances. Asking locals elders and rel- are some of the natural and cultural events atives within their tribes, they showed us related to constellations and recognizable tiny distinctions among their representa- asterisms in a specific sky position relative tions. This is important for further investi- to the horizon. Most of these events are gation because this kind of variation in the categorized and ordered by wet and dry descriptions can hide differences in cosmo- periods known as “winter” and “summer” logical concepts or eventual changes in en- respectively. Tukanos identify short and vironmental conditions. Despite this vari- long intervals of time with rain or the - ability, the big picture of sky descriptions son with heavy clouds to winter, and the was sustained overall in the documents. sunny season or the season with a low pres- We might assume that the most im- ence of clouds independent of their dura- portant natural events are correlated with tion to summer. Cold and hot days within heliacal settings of constellations, but in- the European-derived ideas of seasons digenous elders and storytellers also told us simply do not make sense among the in- about the importance of specific constella- habitants of this vast area. A regular day in tions in positions other than near the hori- Amazonian territory is humid and hot zon—and during sunset or not. Some- without seasonal dependence. times they talked about events correlated Bringing together the results of these with a constellation rising or even an aster- three different investigations, we com- ism’s movement all night long or during pared the descriptions with historical nar- the day. Sometimes they talked about con- ratives and maps (Koch-Grünberg 1969; stellations that bring bad things from the Lévi-Strauss 2004a; Ribeiro and Kenhiri eastern side of the sky. While we used this 1987; Brüzzi Alves da Silva 1962). Since information here, further research will be the late 19th and early 20th centuries, eth- necessary to delimit better where and nographers and researchers have de- when it is really important. It was not pos- scribed parts of these complex constella- sible to investigate it deeply because this tions and daily natural explanatory systems kind of knowledge is considered to be part (Cardoso 2007). This knowledge was and of an extensive personal formation that re- still is important to all these communities quires participation in rituals. because it is part of their complex lifestyle The main constellations or main con- becoming, not only a calendar for survival, stellation circle appeared in a significant but also for carrying their spiritual concep- number of observations made by students tions and cosmology. and it was confirmed by elders and indige- The result of our investigation was a nous storytellers (Cardoso 2007, 2012). group of nine main constellations and as- There is an intentional correlation among terisms, or a main ‘cycle of constellations’ those constellations and natural phenom- as we called them, along with two others ena; constellations are not an end in them- selves. Their shape, extension and position

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 28 identified in the northern and southern ce- equivalent to a big road; meanwhile little lestial hemisphere respectively (Cardoso rivers are called Igarapés and temporary riv- 2007). ers are known as Igapós, which correspond According to the different tribes/eth- to streets in our cities. But these are not nic groups and along different sides of the only of concern to humans. Fish change main river, the cycle could start in different their behavior according to the oscillation constellations. The Desana group usually of river levels. As important sources of start their calendar with the jararaca, or the protein to peoples in this region, the pres- ‘viper’ constellation, setting on the west ence or the absence of these animals is crit- horizon. When the head of the viper sets ical to any kind of action concerned with just after sunset (heliacal set) they expect environment management. If the rivers some rainy days or “winter” days – as ex- change, fish change and humans need to plained above. This occurs around the se- know about it so they can change before cond half of November to early December. them. Flowers bloom, new seeds arise, ed- Sometimes the river level increases rapidly ible insects hatch, animals migrate, etc.; during these days even without excessive river levels are related to all of these natu- rain. In these cases, the heavy rain proba- ral phenomena in a cyclical way. Moreo- bly has fallen several days before at the ver, indigenous people have identified cor- wellspring area far from the observer’s po- relations between them and celestial con- sition. Usually this event is known as Aña figurations. Duhpoa Poero – literally, ‘the Flood of Ja- As noted above, the Desana begin raraca’s Head.’ In other words, when the their calendar with aspects of the viper viper’s head is setting they expect some constellation and recognize divisions such days of flood or the river level to increase. as the head, body, venom, liver, egg sack A similar event occurs when the and the tail. These divisions signify differ- venom gland of the viper constellation is ent levels of effects. The constellation that setting heliacally, when similar flooding re- follows the viper is a representation of an sults are expected. Other fluctuations of armadillo (Pamõ in Tukano). To Tukanos river levels can be expected in all events the armadillo is the constellation that described hereafter. Following up with opens the year or constellation cycle, oc- this viper theme, a few times we came curring in early December. Considering across the description of a flood linked with the viper as the first constellation, in their the viper’s liver. This was followed by ‘the calendar the Desana recognize that the Ar- Flood of the Viper’s Body – Aña Ohpu Poero madillo follows it — as do other ethnic in Tukano language which is also spoken Amazonian groups based on western by the Desana; Aña Diepa Poero –Flood of Tukano languages. While Aña (the viper) the Viper’s Sack of Eggs; and at last Aña corresponds to our Occidental constella- Pihkoro Poero – the Flood of the Viper’s Tail, tions of (the Scorpion), or more specifically, the Flood of Ja- and the (Northern Crown), raraca’s Tail. Armadillo has an intriguing division. As we can see with this description There is an external part of its body known there are cyclical variations of river levels, as Pamõ Oaduhka, or ‘Armadillo’s bone, fol- which are of critical importance because lowed by Pamõ Duhpoa, ‘Armadillo’s head,’ they can vary almost ten meters, or more. Pamõ Ohpu, ‘Armadillo’s body’ and Pamõ Such huge variations can occur in a couple Pihkoro, ‘Armadillo’s tail.’ The sequence of hours or days. A river in Amazonia is follows the same kind of considerations

Cardoso, W. 29 made to Aña, or the rise and fall of the river parts observers identify its body, finishing levels with all consequences previewed. with a curved tail. As noted above for other The difference is the length of time for stellar fields, each part of this constellation which each constellation sets on the west- is related to a variation in the river level ern horizon. during its heliacal setting. There is a large While the viper comprises three of our variation in river level when the jaguar’s constellations, Armadillo is part of the Oc- whiskers are setting just ahead of the Sun cidental constellation known as Aquilla (heliacal set). After this relatively short pe- (The Eagle), in its stellar field. An im- riod begins the “Flood of the Jaguar Head” portant difference is that we can expect or Yai Duhpoa Poero followed by Yai Ohpu Po- fewer wet periods related to this constella- ero or the Flood of its Body. This process is tion and among these wet epochs we may complete when the Jaguar’s tail (Yai Pihkoro find significant dry intervals. The duration Poero) brings another flood or changes river of each one correlates to the setting times levels again. of each constellation section, but it is not a The Jaguar is spread over an correlation of cause/effect as we might area of two Occidental constellations, tak- prematurely suppose. Tukanos are not ing up the larger part of Cassiopeia and Per- clear about these relations. Even though, seus, which sets from the beginning of it would be possible, and eventually desir- March until the end of April in these equa- able among us to use it to predict causal torial latitudes. In the other part of the correlations, causality is not necessarily western horizon, our in is present in other conceptions of indigenous setting. Our Pleiades is called natural relations. Ñohkoatero in Tukano languages, which lit- After the Armadillo, there is a fish in erally means “star group” or “Star-Thing” the Tukano sky known as Mhuã, or jacundá (Epps & Olveira 2013). Ñohkoatero is actu- in Portuguese as it is a well-recognized fish ally an important time reckoning icon for species. The stars that are in this constel- many cultures (Aveni 2008; Azevedo et al. lation are inside our (the water 2010; Cardoso 2007, 2012; Epps & bearer pouring water) constellation. Mhuã Olveira 2013; Hugh-Jones 1979, 1982; is almost conjoined with another stellar Kelley & Milone 2011; Lévi-Strauss group also in the Aquarius region. This one 2004a; Riberiro & Kenhíri 1987; Ruggles represents a shrimp called Dahsiu. Both are 2015; Brüzzi Alves da Silva 1962) and connected by a myth that corresponds to along with our Occidental corre- their relative positions and orientations in lates with two other flood episodes at its he- the . liacal set. Hyades are identified as a kind of These constellations are not extensive; grill or more specifically a fish-smoking their associated floods are expected by grill (Cardoso 2007; Epps & Olveira 2013) February. Following these star groups, a known as Waikasa (in Tukano) or Girau de huge constellation rises in the northeastern Peixes (in Portuguese). These two constel- portion of horizon. Slowly, as a big cat, we lations set from April to May. can see the Jaguar constellation or Yaí (lit- Almost completing this cycle, Tukanos erally ‘jaguar’ in Tukano languages), aris- see an Adze or more precisely an “adze ing step by step, or portion by portion. handle” in Orion’s belt and making up The first recognizable part in this constel- part of his body. An adze is an important lation is the whiskers. After that observers ritual tool and appears in some mythical see its ears and its head. Following these narratives (Cardoso 2007). Named as

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 30 Table 1. List of elements in the main constellation cycle and their periods of heliacal set. Occidental Tukano English Period of Heliacal Set in Rio Tiquié Reference Mhuã Jacundá (fish) Aquarius & early to middle February Freshwater Dahsiew Aquarius early to middle February shrimp first half of March – puma’s beard and Puma or Cassiopeia & head Yaí Jaguar second half of March – puma’s body mid to end of April – puma’s tail Ñohkoatero Group of Stars Pleiades middle to end of April Waikhasa Cooking grill Hyades end of April to middle May Sioyahpu Adze handle Orion middle to end of May Yhé Egret August and September Jararaca Scorpius & Aña September, October and November (snake) Sagittarius Pamõ Armadillo / Dolphin December Sioyahpu (‘adze handle’) it follows other 1987) with our own. Koch-Grünberg de- constellations into the sunset during the veloped a representational map of the last half of May. Completing the main cy- whole sky showing the Occidental constel- cle of constellations, we identified Yhé or lations and constellations identified by in- the Egret. It was described inside the Coma digenous groups that occupied the same Berenices near ’s region. We are not regions. Koch-Grünberg’s map was re- completely sure about this identification produced by Lévi-Strauss in his Le cru et le because it diverges from the historically cuit (‘The Raw and the Cooked’) in 1964. We documented descriptions, (Cardoso 2007; reproduce here a version of that map and Lévi-Strauss 2004) but the storytellers in- some description of the constellations. (Fig- terpreted this area as corresponding to a ure 4) mythic egret that sets during August and In Lévi-Strauss’s considerations of the September. Table 1 summarizes some of same stellar field presented here, we find the information of the main cycle of con- some differences among the constellations. stellations. To Koch-Grünberg, part of the The results of these field investigations constellation is associated with a fish spec- and observations with storytellers have imen known in Brazil as pacu. Other fish been compared with historical sources rest inside the Bootes (herdsman) group of (Azevedo et al. 2010; Cardoso 2007; Fer- stars, but these are the horrifying piranha. nandes-Diakuru 2006; Hugh-Jones 1979, Both constellations are on the top-left side 1982; Koch-Grünberg 1969; Lévi-Strauss of Figure 5, which shows a very small dif- 1964, 2004a, 2004b, 2008; Brüzzi Alves da ference in representation between indige- Silva 1962). We compared descriptions nous and Occidental stars. The Corona Bo- made by ethnographers such as Theodor realis (Northern Crown) constellation is as- Koch-Grünberg (1872-1924), Claude sociated with an armadillo in Koch-Grün- Lévi-Strauss (1908-2009) and by the Priest berg description. Recall that, in our re- Alcionílio Brüzzi Alves da Silva (1901- search, this animal is related with Aquila’s

Cardoso, W. 31

Figure 4. Comparison of constellations. Equatorial sky chart (from http://astro4.ast.vill.edu/ast_list.htm) modified by the author.

star field. Our occidental Scorpius constella- resent an equal number of mythical otters, tion could be seen as “the big snake” (cobra involved in a robbery of that were set grande in Portuguese) a character in a fa- on a smoke-dry fish grill represented here mous Northwestern Amazonian legend. by the dove stars. In this myth, a fisher- Our description of the viper constella- man extended his fishing net around the tion is almost coincident with Scorpius, with Orion stars (between [α Ori] and Be- the difference in length involving - telgeuse [β Ori]) and was supposedly rius. Another non-coincident description is robbed by some otters. The con- related to the indigenous constellation stellation represents an axe used in a dance known as the Egret. While its star field is ritual. It is close to our description of an related to our (Crow) constellation, “adze handle” involving a group of in Koch-Grünberg’s description, another Orion’s stars. It is not the same constella- egret’s representation could be seen in the tion but sometimes there is a similar axe Coma Berenices area as our survey showed. constellation described near Orion as we Following these stars on the north side of can see in Figure 5. the equatorial area, we can see our Leo The , and constellation where Koch-Grünberg de- constellations are not correlated with scribed a crab, from his own research. Tukano constellation descriptions, but Some of our storytellers said something there are legends about otters who robbed about a crab in the sky but no one could fish from a hero. Storytellers say that there point to it. Corresponding to similar uni- are stars that represent those otters, but dentified stars in our research, but present they were not able to describe their posi- in Lévi-Strauss’s description, there are tions. stars from Gemini, Canis Major and the Co- Lévi-Strauss also refers to Hyades and lumba constellations, along with some other Pleiades respectively as “some boys” and a stars from Orion in a total of five, that rep- “wasp swarm.” These stellar clusters – as

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 32 Figure 5. A Tukano stellar chart, including the axe at the lower right. (Photo by the author)

noted above – were identified in our inves- hand, Koch-Grünberg’s research covered tigation as a grill or, more precisely, a a wider part of Amazonian territory and smoke-dry fish-grill, corresponding to Hy- some of the constellations he recorded ades and the Pleiades as Ñohkoatero, or liter- were also seen by indigenous groups of ally a ‘group of stars’ in Tukano. Ñohkoa northwestern Amazonia. means star. Although, in a different posi- To further examine this issue, we ana- tion a smoke-dry fish grill is present in both lyzed part of an extended study drawn up descriptions. by a Salesian priest named Álcionílio Lévi-Strauss identifies, in his final map Brüzzi Alves da Silva (1903-1988), who explanations, the jaguar inside the Occi- worked during the middle of the 20th cen- dental constellation, lying near the tury. He spent almost 20 years among the Cassiopeia and Perseus stellar fields. Even Amazonian Indians and was very con- considering some coincidences, we saw im- cerned with ethnographical studies and re- portant differences among stellar arrange- ligious activities (Brüzzi Alves da Silva ments and positions between our study and 1962; Magalhães 1990). Brüzzi Alves da those conducted by Lévi-Strauss and Silva recorded and translated myths, and Koch-Grünberg. analyzed a vast amount of materials, pri- Why those differences? We know that marily during the late 1940’s and early 50s. parts of Lévi-Strauss’s description were His descriptions (1962) of Tukano constel- made specifically in a different area than lations can be found within a huge book ours, which some scholars have previously about this culture Civilização Indígena do noted (Hugh-Jones 1979). On the other Uaupés or The Indigenous Civilization of

Cardoso, W. 33

Uaupés. Although it has been critically re- that Ñhorkoatero, presented here as a man — viewed, the book is a valuable source for a character from a legend — with his son. understanding the relationship between a There may be some kind of mistake in this priest and his conception of indigenous life case because if it is represented by the Plei- during early 20th century. In it we do find ades, one or two characters are not suffi- a few pages dedicated to astronomy in a cient to cover all six or seven seen stars in general sense. this region. Also, in the same work, Brüzzi Alves da Silva gathered all con- Ñhorkoatero is presented as the “morning stellations told to him by an elder Piratapuya star,” which is usually related to Venus be- indigenous storyteller, in the same se- fore sunrise (Brüzzi Alves da Silva 1962). quence we have recovered. Aña, our snake, Other constellations appear here not appears also translated as stingray or the positioned as we have seen in other de- planet Venus. The second constellation, scriptions. After Ñhorkoatero, Brüzzi Alves Pamõ here is also an Armadillo. After that da Silva talks about Aña Pihkoro (stingray he talks about a “fence for parakeets” tail); in our research it is the viper’s tail. called here Kai Sariró. (Figure 5) We saw a Following Aña Pihkoro he mentions the description of a constellation with the same Kocti-pa’s (scorpion) constellation and only name, but meaning “circular dance” to the after that, Kodyérime’sa (group of [its] eggs) tribe’s wise men. The fourth constellation – probably the viper’s eggs. We can realize in this list is Dahsiew; next was Yai’s constel- some kind of mistake in this description’s lation, followed by Sioyahpu’s constellation, arrangement. Three other groups repre- Waikhasa and Yhé. Particularly in the case sent the Jaguar’s whiskers, the Jacundá fish of Sioyahpu, even Brüzzi Alves da Silva (our Mhuã out of the sequence) and a leg- identified this group of stars as an adze endary fawn. Brüzzi Alves da Silva (1962) handle, but he did not recognize it as a rep- also shows a diagram with ten of these con- resentation of a ritual tool (Hugh-Jones stellations represented as drawings but he 1979). did not relate each star group with partic- Until this point, the sequence is almost ular astronomical areas. As he illustrates the same as obtained in our research. In in his manuscript (1962:260), some repre- the following pages of his book, Brüzzi sentations are reproduced, probably as Alves da Silva displays the indigenous they were made by the storyteller or as they “months” calendar and it is clearly related have been interpreted by the researcher. with the constellations sequence. The 10th Therefore, our constellations are very month is Yai Öxséka Poero (The Flood of the similar, in sequence, to those which we Jaguar’s Whiskers) and the 11th month is have seen in Brüzzi Alves da Silva’s work. called (Ñhorkoatero’s flood), but it does not Some differences can be pointed out in dis- match completely with our identified se- tinct cases, through different astronomical quence. From here to the end of his list researcher’s knowledge bases and the dif- there are many differences. The next con- ferent periods of time. We trust our results stellation is Dyayó (otter). I did not describe compared with Koch-Grünberg, Lévi- or identify this constellation because the Strauss and Brüzzi Alves da Silva, but we storytellers did not tell me exactly where it recognize that this is still a work in pro- is. They did not know, even though they gress. Surely we or other researchers need did tell me about the existence of this con- to follow up on the constellation descrip- stellation (Cardoso 2007). Following the tions and verify our initial results. Some otter, we find a Böö (piranha) and only after constellations were not described as we

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 34

Figure 6. a circular calendar from a Colombian in- it, there is also an associated meaning. In digenous community the table above we describe constellations in heliacal settings; further research is re- quired to gather information about rising constellations. Variation in a river level, flourishing, fructification time, fishing best and worst periods, hunting time and spe- cific rituals time, among others natural phenomena are parts of these kinds of as- sociations. Following all these events Tukanos observe lunar phases and give them special names. Lunar phases do not have only four or eight important names for Tukanos as we have in our culture. Each day and shape has a special name. Tukanos believe that the moon “eats” an animal called cutia in Portuguese (Dasy- procta leporina) or a Brazilian ‘agouti’ (in English), so, day after day, during the first half of the month, the Moon keeps eating pointed out before (Cardoso 2007). parts of this agouti until it eats its skin, ac- It is worth qualifying that although quiring its “full” characteristic aspect. Af- Brüzzi Alves da Silva worked in the same ter that the Moon stops eating (getting region during the 1960’s and I worked fewer visible portions each day on the se- there from 2005 to 2007, my astronomical cond half of the month) until the time to knowledge and techniques used to describe hunt another agouti arrives, at the New constellations are quite different. During Moon phase, starting another cycle. This the workshops, I worked with elders who cycle starts over again and again every knew astronomical traditions and circular month. calendars. I could work with different sto- All this information has been brought rytellers in distinct periods and conditions together in a circular calendar. Specifi- and I was able to compare these results cally, we proposed to arrange all of it in dy- with student notebooks. The results have namical cycles similarly to volvelles. These revealed coherent correlations among con- “tools and toys” were very common during th stellations and natural phenomena as re- 20 century but they are older than this. viewed in the next part of this paper. Volvelles or ‘wheel charts’ were famous as calculus rulers. Using basically two Results and discussion wheels, the first with accurately spaced in- Tukano constellations take a central role in formation and a second concentric wheel their cosmological conception. They con- with open adjusted windows, questions ceive an organized world with correlations and answers would be solved with circular among star positions and events. When movements, framing questions along with some group of stars or even a constellation answers. rises after sunset, that announces a specific In our specific case, we built a circular event. When a constellation or part of it is dynamic calendar with a common axis. setting along with the sunset or right after Our last version gave increasing radii to

Cardoso, W. 35 each circle, so that groups of information the last circle shows lunar phases as ex- or information categories could be related plained above. to each other. The first one was built with Each circle moves independently. Tukano constellations, the second with Mounted in an envelope that has a hori- floods or low river levels and average zontal line representing the horizon where weather conditions, the third with chosen we can see each constellation setting (heli- fish species (a hard choice as anyone can acal set). In the second circle we can select guess in the Amazonian basin). The fourth weather conditions and a river level put- was composed of animals that hunt fish, ting this frame just over the horizon line, fruits and food as a whole; the fifth the cir- the third circle can be positioned near the cle of flourishing and fructifying foods same line and presents groups of fish that gathered from the chosen plants; the sixth are going up or down the main river, and circle is related to rituals known as dabucu- so on to the other circles. ris, (these rituals are sometimes used to The main reason for creating this bless food from bad influences in general volvelle was the possibility of grasping and or to allow its division among families); and

Figure 7. Astronomical-environmental calendar constructed in 2007.

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 36 Figure 8. A Tukano Maloca, or ‘Longhouse’ from the Tiquié River region (S. José II).

learning astronomical basics in an indige- tions or moon phases — all are somehow nous school manner. Promoting a com- related to each other. Tukano communi- prehensible and friendly representation of ties are rebuilding these rituals and cere- a calendar, students could experience the monials houses known as “Malocas.” correlation among astronomical and other These important communal buildings are natural processes and phenomena. This also related to indigenous cosmological was a result of the collaboration among model. The position (relative to cardinal partners as anthropologists, indigenous points) and parts of these buildings (pillars) community members as elders, women, are representations of elements of the Uni- men and young students inside the school verse such as positions of stars, constella- and the researcher himself. There were tions and movements, e.g. anaconda and many others “versions” of the same circu- dancers in a ritual (Hugh-Jones 1979; lar dynamical calendar developed in Reichel-Dolmatoff 2008). groups with a smaller number of partici- In our research we saw the communal pants during the workshops (Cardoso relevance of the Maloca. It is not only the 2007). ritual site in a community, but also a space As noted above, astronomical events used to hold school activities and work- have a central importance in cosmological shops. There are two doors in a Maloca. models for western Amazonian indigenous One is oriented to the east side (men’s peoples. From common sense ordinary ac- door) and another one to the west side tivities to complex rituals, stars, constella- (women’s side). The projection of the ce-

Cardoso, W. 37 lestial equatorial line passes over the roof research can be related to methodological top of this Maloca and joins the two men- issues. Ethnomathematics can be used as tioned doors. This tribe lives near the a reference to build, on a step-by-step ba- equatorial line (latitude almost 0°). There- sis, new investigative procedures. Through fore, both doors are aligned with the East the use of sketchbooks and astronomical and West cardinal points. Comparing the observations we could compare different Tuyuka Maloca door alignment with a traditions in constellation descriptions. measurement of east-west astronomical This kind of register allowed the evaluation line we verified a difference of no more of constellation extent, the use of propor- than two degrees (Cardoso 2007). tions in drawings and representations, se- During our last workshop with the stu- quences of stars and observation periods in dents, we considered a Maloca rooftop as different tribes. a projection of the line The Yupuri School students come (Figure 8) and we drew some Tukano sky from different parts of the community and charts. (Figure 6) The roof top represents were also encouraged to ask for infor- the Celestial Equator line while each roof mation from elderly members in their side symbolizes the projection of one celes- tribes. But we can follow and apply other tial hemisphere. This was an example of methodological procedures to test some of an exercise performed with students. We our research answers. For example, par- recognize the importance and complexity ticipatory research and action research of sky representations and its meaning to (Thiollent 2008) are some of the new forth- the cultures inside this vast region. In ad- coming methodologies applied in our in- dition, it is one didactic strategy to give vestigations. Interpretation is a key word more significance to a built knowledge as a in cultural astronomy and methodological communicative educational tool. procedures, and they are still a work-in- progress in this area. Final considerations Time reckoning and tracking star Constellations and everyday life are inti- movements are not something unique to mately connected for indigenous groups these cultures of Rio Negro region. It is a who live in a vast area in the northwestern widespread behavior shared by peoples all portion of the Amazonian region. This sit- around the world. But the number and ar- uation provides a substantial amount of in- rangement of stars show that specific sets vestigative possibilities given the diverse of constellations, and how they are inter- ethnicities in the region and a strong cor- connected among themselves and among relation among terrestrial and celestial the natural environment is unique. We events. New challenges such as: compar- shared a version of the Tukano constella- ing this study to other ethnicities and cul- tions with one of the most popular known tures, developing new strategies to investi- free astronomical software providers. In- gate known and unidentified Tukano con- side the latest Stellarium (www.stellar- stellations, applying the same techniques ium.org) version anyone can see the repre- and methodologies in other situations to sentation lines among stars of each investigate astronomy in cultures in other Tukano-described constellation. These human groups — these are just some ex- are not the definitive Tukano constella- amples of what could be done with this sort tions, but a result of our research that of work. might match some historical sources. The central question initiated by our Thus, the constellation sequences and star

JAC, Vol. 1, No. 1, 2016 38 positions correspond with older descrip- relation to it at all. This research leads me tions. to believe that it is time to establish new The dynamical circular calendar was a terms to grasp other ways to bring together tool built in an affirmative politics concept time and nature again. to help Tukanos in the organization of their astronomical knowledge within the Acknowledgements communal indigenous school. Therefore it We acknowledge the Instituto Socioambien- is not an exclusive proposal of this research tal – ISA for infrastructural and financial or its researcher. It is built from a shared support of this research; Prof. Ana Caro- experienced workshop and a participatory lina Pimentel for her suggestions and research period. I usually say that it is a translation supervision; and Prof. Jane- result from a “third space.” This is not in- cleide Moura de Aguiar for further discus- digenous or non-indigenous exclusive sion and suggestions. knowledge but a shared space where part of our and their knowledge can build References bridges inside an affirmative politics con- Aveni A. F., (Editor). cept. Hence it is part of a research process. 2008 Foundations of New World Cultural Astron- New circular calendars and other kind omy. University Press of Colorado, Boul- of representations have been developed der. since then. Part of the follow up results Azevedo, H. V. V. B., M. Oliveira, D. A. S. Azevedo, U. J. V. Azevedo, W. T. Cardoso and from an attempt to answer an increasing C. L. Gonçalves. demand orientated to environmental man- 2010 “Calendário Astronômico do Médio agement pressures. Since late 2005, indig- Rio Tiquié: conhecimentos para educação enous environmental management agents e manejo,” in Manejo do Mundo: conhecimen- (‘agentes indígenas de manejo ambiental’) con- tos e práticas dos povos indígenas do Rio Negro. centrated their attention on the manipula- A. Cabalzar (editor). ISA/FOIRN, São tion of fish diary registers resulting in new Paulo, pp. 56-66. calendar versions, showing the dynamicity Brüzzi Alves da Silva, A. of this kind of study. 1962 Civilização indígena do Uaupés. Linográfica editora, São Paulo. To build calendars as the one pre- Cardoso, W. T. O sented here, in this study, we needed to un- 2007 O Céu dos Tukano na escola Yupuri: constru- derstand the importance of each constella- indo um calendário dinâmico. [thesis]. Pon- tion setting and the conceptual mainframe tifícia Universidade Católica de São background that supports it. As important Paulo: PUC-SP, São Paulo. as recognizing correct stars and stellar http://www.sapientia.pucsp.br/tde_ar- fields that a specific constellation com- quivos/13/TDE-2007-12-20T15:43:07Z- prises and comparing it with other older 4584/Publico/Walmir%20Thom- descriptions on the same topic is develop- azi%20Cardoso.pdf ing a sense of dialogue among cultures. In- 2012 “Parceria entre o céu e a Terra,” in Ed- ucação Escolar Indígena do Rio Negro 1998- digenous science is different from our Oc- 2011. F. D. Cabalzar (editor). Instituto cidental science. Basic concepts are differ- Socioambiental, Federação das Organi- ent. Our calendar in the past was based on zações Indígenas do Rio Negro: FOIRN, concepts joined with astronomy almost ex- São Paulo, pp.188-195. clusively, but today our environment and Chamberlain V. D., J. B. Carlson, M. J. our time reckoning apparently has no cor- Young (Editors).

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