Spoonriver AREA ASSESSMENT

~ v_o_lu_rn_e_3_ • Living Resources

SPOONRIvER AREA ASSESSMENT

'~ . :,:.,,,,,,,,.~ OfPAItTMFNT OF NATURAL RESOURCES SPOON RIvER AREA ASSESSMENT

VOLUME 3: LIVING RESOURCES

lliinois Department ofNatural Resources Office ofScientific Research and Analysis Natural History Survey Division 607 East Peabody Drive Champaign, lliinois 61820 (217) 333-4949

1998

300 Printed by the authority ofthe State oflllinois Other CTAP Publications

The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends, summary and 7-volume technical report Illinois Land Cover, An Atlas, plus CD-ROM Inventory ofEcologically Resource-Rich Areas in Illinois RockRiver Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The RockRiver Country: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Cache RiverArea Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Cache River Basin: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Mackinaw River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Mackinaw River Country: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources The Illinois Headwaters: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Headwaters Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Illinois Big Rivers: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Big Rivers Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Fox River Basin: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Fox River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Konkakee River Valley: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Kankakee River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report The Kishwaukee River Basin: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources Kishwaukee River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report Embarras River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report Upper Des Plaines River Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report Illinois River Bluffs Area Assessment, 5-volume technical report Annual Report 1997, lliinois EcoWatch Stream Monitoring Manual, lliinois RiverWatch ForestMonitoring Manual, lliinois ForestWatch Illinois Geographic Information System, CD-ROM ofdigital geospatial data

AIl CTAP and Ecosystems Program documents are available from the DNR Clearinghouse at (217) 782-7498 or TDD (217) 782-9175. Selected publications are also available on the World Wide Web at http://dnr.state.il.us/ctap/ctaphome.htm, or http://dnr.state.il.us/c2000/manage/partner.htm, as well as on the EcoForum Bulletin Board at 1 (800) 528-5486 or (217) 782-8447.

For more information about CTAP, call (217) 524-0500 or e-mail [email protected]; for information on the Ecosystems Program call (217) 782-7940 or e-mail at [email protected]. About This Report

The Spoon River Area Assessment examines the Spoon River basin in west central Illinois, an area that encompasses parts ofnine counties. This report is part ofa series ofreports on areas ofIllinois where a public-private partnership has been formed to protect natural resources. These assessments provide information on the natural and human resources ofthe areas as a basis for managing and improving their ecosystems. The determination of resource rich areas and development ofecosystem-based infonnation and management programs in Illinois are the result ofthree processes - the Critical Trends Assessment Program, the Conservation Congress, and the Water Resources and Land Use Priorities Task Force.

Background

The Critical Trends Assessment Program (CTAP) documents changes in ecological conditions. In 1994, using existing information, the program provided a baseline of ecological conditions. 1 Three conclusions were drawn from the baseline investigation:

I. the emission and discharge of regulated pollutants over the past 20 years has declined, in some cases dramatically, 2. existing data suggest that the condition ofnatural ecosystems in Illinois is rapidly declining as a result offragmentation and continued stress, and 3. data designed to monitor compliance with environmental regulations or the status of individual species are not sufficient to assess ecosystem health statewide.

Based on these findings, CTAP has begun tq develop methods to systematically monitor ecological conditions and provide information for ecosystem-based management. Five components make up this effort:

1. identify resource rich areas, 2. conduct regional assessments, 3. publish an atlas and inventory ofIllinois landcover, 4. train volunteers to collect ecological indicator data, and 5. develop an educational science curriculum which incorporates data collection

At the same time that CTAP was publishing its baseline findings, the Illinois Conservation Congress and the Water Resources and Land Use Priorities Task Force were presenting their respective findings. These groups agreed with the CTAP conclusion that the state's ecosystems were declining. Better stewardship was needed, and they determined that a voluntary, incentive-based, grassroots approach would be the most appropriate, one that

I See The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends, summary report and volumes 1-7. recognized the inter-relatedness of economic development and natural resource protection and enhancement.

From the three initiatives was born Conservation 2000, a six-year program to begin reversing ecosystem degradation, primarily through the Ecosystems Program, a cooperative process of public-private partnerships that are intended to merge natural resource stewardship with economic and recreational development. To achieve this goal, the program provides financial incentives and technical assistance to private landowners. The Rock River and Cache River were designated as the first Ecosystem Partnership areas.

At the same time, CTAP identified 30 Resource Rich Areas (RRAs) throughout the state. In RRAs and other areas where Ecosystem Partnerships have been formed, CTAP is providing an assessment ofthe area, drawing from ecological and socio-economic databases to give an overview ofthe region's resources - geologic, edaphic, hydrologic, biotic, and socio economic. Although several ofthe analyses are somewhat restricted by spatial andlor temporallirnitations ofthe data, they help to identifY information gaps and additional opportunities and constraints to establishing long-term monitoring programs in the partnership areas.

The Spoon River Assessment

The East Fork ofthe Spoon River rises to the north ofNeposet in Bureau County and the West Fork rises to the east ofKewanee in Henry County. The forks join near the center of Stark County to form the main channel. The river flows in a southerly direction for 161 miles before it empties into the lliinois River at Havana. For about 100 miles it runs nearly parallel to the Illinois River. The area covered in this report encompasses the entire Spoon River basin as determined by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. This basin is an approximately 1,180,951 acre watershed that includes virtually all of Stark County and portions ofBureau, Fulton, Henry, Knox, McDonough, Marshall, Peoria, and Warren counties in west-central Illinois. These are also the boundaries ofthe Spoon River Ecosystem Partnership.

This assessment is comprised offive volumes. In Volume 1, Geology discusses the geology, soils, and minerals in the assessment area Volume 2, Water Resources, discusses the surface and groundwater resources and Volume 3, Living Resources, describes the natural vegetation communities and the fauna ofthe region. Volume 4 contains three parts: Part I, Socio-Economic Profile, discusses the demographics, infrastructure, and economy ofthe area, focusing on the five counties with the greatest

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vii

Contributors

Principal Investigator William G. Ruesink

Project Coordinator. Daniel K. Niven

Editors : Daniel K. Niven, Timothy J. S. Whitfeld

Page Layout... Timothy J. S. Whitfeld, Douglas S.K. Chien

Figures Katherine J. Hunter, Liane B. Suloway

Introduction Loy R. Phillippe, Liane B. Suloway, Katherine J. Hunter, Timothy J. S. Whitfeld

Natural Vegetation Communities Loy R. Phillippe, John B. Taft

Tables for Natural Vegetation Communities Timothy J. S. Whitfeid

Birds Steven D. Bailey, Scott K. Robinson

Mammals Edward J. Heske, Joyce E. Hofmann

Amphibians and Reptiles Christop\ler A Phillips

Aquatic Biota:

Fishes Larry M. Page, Kevin S. Cummings, Christine A. Mayer

Musseis and Crustaceans Larry M. Page, Kevin S. Cummings, Christine A. Mayer

Other Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Mark J. Wetzel, Donald W. Webb

Table of Contents

Introduction Physiographic Characteristics 1 Climate Patterns 5 Vegetation History 6 CurrentLand Cover 7 Biologically Significant Features ofNatural Communities 15 Natural Vegetation Communities Comparison ofBiodiversityin the SRAA to Statewide Patterns 23 Illinois Threatened and Endangered Species 24 Disturbance, Habitat Quality, and Restoration Potential 28 Natural Areas and Nature Preserves 29 Terrestrial Natural Communtiy Descriptions 30 Fores!. , 32 Prairie .38 Savanna 44 Wetland 47 Lake and Pond 51 Cultural Habitats .52 Summary and Recommendations 52 Birds Introduction 57 Fores!. 70 Wetland 72 Savanna 73 Prairie/Grassland 75 Lakes, Ponds, Impoundments, Creeks, and Rivers 76 Cultural Habitats: Croplands 78 Cultural Habitats: Successional Fields 79 Cultural Habitats: Developed Land 80 Management recommendations 82 Mammals Introduction 85 Forest. 87 Wetland 89 Grassland 91 Amphibians and Reptiles Introduction 93 Fores!. 93 Wetland 95 Prairie ; 96 Lakes, Ponds, and Impoundments 97

xi Creeks and Rivers 97 Cultural Habitats 98 Overall Habitat Quality and Current Management Concems 98 Aquatic Biota Introduction 99 Statewide Comparison ofAquatic Biota 99 Common Species 100 Threatened and Endangered Mussels 112 Non-native Species 113 Information Gaps 113 Water Quality 114 Environmental Problems 114 Potential Management Strategies for Aquatic Species ll7 References ! 119 Appendix 1. Incomplete list of vascular plant species known from the SAA 129 Appendix 2. Plant species, listed by scientific name 151

List ofFigures

Figure 1. Subbasins in the Spoon River Assessment Area 2 Figure 2. Major drainage basins ofillinois .3 Figure 3. Natural divisions in the Spoon River Assessment Area .4 Figure 4. Cropland 9 Figure 5. Urbanland 10 Figure 6. Grassland 11 Figure 7. Forest.. 12 Figure 8 Wetlands 13 Figure 9. Open water :14 Figure 10. State and federal land 17 Figure 11. Natural areas, nature preserves, and biologically significant stream segments 20

List of Tables

Introduction Table 1. Natural division acreage 1 Table 2. Current land cover 8 Table 3. Wetland acreages 15 Table 4. State and federal land 16 Table 5. Natural areas 18 Table 6. Category I natural communities 19 Table 7. Nature preserves 21 Table 8. Threatened and endangered species 22

xii Natural Vegetation Communities Table 9. Illinois threatened and endangered plant species 25 Table 10. Terrestrial natural communities .31 Table II. Invasive and exotic plant species and eradication metbods 56

Birds Table 12. List of bird species in the Spoon River Assessment Area .58

Mammals Table 13. List of mammal species in the Spoon River Assessment Area 85

Amphibians and Reptiles Table 14. List ofAmphibian and reptile species 94

Aquatic Biota Table IS. Freshwater fishes 101 .Table 16. Freshwater fishes, by habitat. 103 Table 17. Freshwater mussels 104 Table 18. Freshwater mussels, by habitat... 106 Table 19. Freshwatercrustaceans 107 Table 20. Freshwater crustaceans, by habitat.. 108 Table 21. Aquatic macroinvertebrates 108

xiii

Introduction

Physiographic Characteristics

The Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA) is an approximately 1,845 mile2 (1,180,951 acre), watershed including virtually all of Stark County and portions of Bureau, Fulton, Henry, Knox, McDonough, Marshall, Peoria, and Warren counties in west-central Illinois (Figures 1 and 2). The SRAA ranks 35'" in size out of 51 hydrologic basins in Illinois (Sulloway and Hubbell 1994). The assessment area extends over portions of three Natural Divisions (Schwegman et al. 1973). Most of the SRAA, including portions of Fulton, Knox, McDouough, Peoria, Stark, and Warren counties, lies within the Galesburg Section of the Western Forest-Prairie Division (Figure 3). In the headwaters of the Spoon River the assessment area also includes parts of the Western Section (portions of Bureau, Henry, Knox, Peoria, and Stark counties) and parts of the Grand Prairie Section (portions of Bureau, Marshall, Peoria, and Stark counties) of the Grand Prairie Division. In Fulton County near the mouth of the Spoon River, where it enters the lllinois River, the basin includes portions of the Illinois River Section of the Upper Mississippi River and lllinois River Bottomlands Division. Table 1 gives the acreage of the SRAA that is in each Natural Division.

Table 1. Natural divisions occurring in the Spoon River Assessment Area.

I Division and Section Acres %ofSRAA

Western Forest-prairie/Galesburg Section 769,694 65.2 Grand PrairielWestem Section 278,807 23.6 Grand Prairie/Grand Prairie Section 125,083 10.6 Upper Mississippi River and lllinois River Bottomlandsllllinois River Section 7,377 00.6

Total: 1,180,951 100.0

I Data from the GIS Natural Division Coverage Database (Illinois Geograbic Information System). The Spoon River originates just north of Neponset in Bureau County and flows south southwest for 164 miles before emptying into the Illinois River at Havana (Figure 1). Elevation within the basin ranges from 865 feet above sea level in the upper reaches of the watershed near Kewanee to about 430 feet above sea level at the mouth of the Spoon River near Havana. Much of the basin is a level to gently rolling plain of glacial till and outwash. Topographic relief is provided by glacial moraines and dissection of glacial drift into valleys and ravines by the Spoon River and its tributaries. The majority of the assessment area occurs in the Galesburg Plain physiographic division, comprised largely of a strongly dissected till plain of lllinoian age (Willman et al. 1975).

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Figure 2. Major drainage basins of Illinois and location of the Spoon River Assessment Area.

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Figure 3. Natural Divisions in the Spoon River Assessment Area based on the classification developed by Scbwegman (1973).

4 The surface geology of the assessment area lying within the Galesburg Section is comprised predominately of relatively deep Monican-aged glacial drift, a drift that occurs between sediments of the Liman and Jubileean substages of Illinoian glaciation. The Illinoian glaciation is a stage that occured between the Kansan and Wisconsinan stages of Pleistocene glaciation. Here, thickness of the Monican-aged glacial drift is generally less than 50 feet thick but locally more than 100 feet thick. The western most extension of the assessment area within the Galesburg Section, most of the area about Cedar creek and Swan Creek, occurs predominately on relatively deep Liman-aged glacial drift, the earliest substage of lllinoian glaciation. Here, thickness of Liman-aged glacial drift is as much as 150 feet but commonly less than 50 feet thick. The surface geology of the assessment area within the Western Section of the Grand Prairie Division, which includes the majority of the headwaters, occurs predominately on relatively shallow Jubileean aged glacial drift, the most recent substage of Illinoian glaciation. Thickness of the Jubileean glacial drift is about 20 feet. Within the northeastern part of the headwaters (Grand Prairie Section of the Grand Prairie Division) the Jubileean substage is overlain by the Woodfordian substage, a substage of the Wisconsinan glaciation and the most recent Pleistocene glacial episode. Here the till is sandy and commonly 100 to 150 feet thick. Windblown loess and silt, also assigned to the Wisconsin stage, more than 20 feet thick is often deposited on uplands within the extreme northern part of these headwaters (Lineback 1979).

Soils throughout the SRAA are derived primarily from loess formed during the Wisconsin glacial stage, ending some 11,000 to 12,000 years ago. Loess is a silty and very desirable soil parent material (Fehrenbacher, et al. 1997a, 1997b). Loess, within the Spoon River Assessment Area, is generally 5 feet or more thick except on slopes where the loess is generally 20 to 40 inches thick (Fehrenbacher, et al. 1977a, 1977b). Bedrock and glacial till are occasionally exposed on the steep slopes in stream terraces along the Spoon River. Alfisols, soils formed under deciduous forest vegetation, are primarily concentrated on' the better drained, more sloping areas near stream valleys. Mollisols, soils formed under grassland vegetation are located primarily on the nearly level upland divides between streams. Some soils, where forest and prairies were mixed, are intermediate between prairie and forest soils. Total area of these prairie to forest transition soils prior to European settlement is unclear.· Soils in the lllinois Section of the Upper Mississippi River and lllinois River Bottomlands Natural Division near the lllinois River are formed in alluvium and'typically are high in clay and lor sand content. A few small sandy deposits are present in and near the Spoon River valley.

Climate Pattarns1

The climate in the SRAA is typical of many continental locations, in that there are rather wide temperature fluctuations. The average high temperature (OF) in the summer is in the 80s with average lows in the 50s and 60s.

1 Information in this section has been taken from the Spoon River Area Assessment, Volume 2 (lliinois Department of Natural Resources 1998), See that volume for a more detailed discussion of climate patterns and long term trends in the SRAA. 5 Winter highs are generally in the 20s and 30s with lows in the teens and 20s. Record temperature extremes range from -25°F to a high of 113°F. There is an average of six months without frost each year.

Precipitation is highest during April through September (averages of 3.10 to 4.20 inches per month) and lowest in January (1.51 inches) and February (1.42 inches), with a yearly average of 36.25 inches.

Vegetation History

The presettlement vegetation in lllinois (pre-1820) can be described generally as prairie and forest. Interpretations of the original distribution of prairie and forest (Vestal 1931, Anderson 1970, Iverson et al. 1989) indicate a predominance of prairie occupying about 60% of the state's total land area. Except for the most southerly region, which was almost entirely forested, and the Grand Prairie Region, which was only 15.5% forested, forest and prairie were fairly evenly distributed in lllinois (Iverson et al., 1989). According to Vestal (1931), the well-dissected drainage basin of the Spoon River . included more forest land than prairie. Vestal derived his map of the vegetation of lllinois based largely on information obtained from the State Soil Survey Reports and Telford's (1926) forest survey of lllinois. More specific data by Anderson (1970) relied mostly upon 1820 to 1840 original land survey records. Further resolution of the original land survey records using the lllinois Geographic Information System has allowed small parcels «500 acres) to be located. This high-resolution data has concluded that a higher percentage of prairie than forest existed in the pre-1820 SRAA (Iverson et al. 1989, Illinois Geographic Information System). About 393,845 acres (33.35%) of the SRAA was forest, including open woodland, and about 787,117 acres (66.65%) was prairie (Illinois Geographic Information System). The SRAA is within the transition zone of prairie and forest (Anderson 1983) and probably supported considerable amounts of oak savanna (Nuzzo 1986). The forests, including woodland and savanna, were confined primarily to the slopes and bottomlands associated with the major drainage's in the SRAA. Of the nine counties located at least in part within the SRAA only Fulton County has a greater percentage of forest, about 353,200 (63.2%), to prairie, about 201,100 (36.0%). Fulton County is located at the mouth of the Spoon River where it joins the Illinois River (Figure I). Prior to European settlement, counties with extensive river bottomlands were primarily forested (Iverson et al. 1989). Although primarily forested, the native vegetation in the bottomland areas (about 10% of the counties) of the Spoon River valley probably contained a mixture of trees and grasses in Fulton and Knox counties (Fehrenbacher et al. 1977a, 1977b). The SRAA contains most of Fulton, Knox, and Stark counties. Fulton County was primarily forested while Knox, 30.2% forested and 69.8% prairie, and Stark, 23.5% forested and 76.5% prairie, counties were primarily covered by prairie. Stark County is near the headwaters of the SRAA and Knox County is located between Stark and Fulton counties (Figure 1).

6 Total area of presettlement wetlands in the SRAA, based on estimated acreage of hydric soils can be inferred from county-wide data. For example, about 67% of Fulton County, 40% of Warren, and 100% of Stark and Knox counties are in the SRAA. These counties (Fulton [83,600 acres wetland acres], Warren [26,160 wetland acres], Knox [33,000 wetland acres] and Stark [24,700 wetland acres]) total about 167,460 acres of presettlement wetlands. The percentage of hydric acres prior to settlement for Fulton (24%), Knox (8%), Stark (14%), and Warren (20%) counties averages about 16.5% (estimated wetland acres taken from Havera et al. [1994]). Percentage of county generated using county acreage from Illinois Geographic Information System. Most of this was wetlands associated with floodplain forests (lakes, ponds, and sloughs) and wet prairies. The data for Fulton County may be somewhat misleading because it borders the Illinois River and the high percentage of wetland acres are along the llIinois River.

Current Land Cover

The characterization of the land cover of the SRAA is based on information from the Land Cover of llIinois database (Illinois Geographic Information System), which was derived from Landsat Thematic satellite imagery acquired between 1991 and 1995. Figures given for high quality acreages are based on the llIinois Natural Areas Inventory' Grade "A" and "B" land. They are meant only to reflect the areas that remain in an undegraded condition and to provide an opportunity to compare statewide trends of habitat destruction.

Currently, the landscape of the SRAA is dominated by agricultural land use (Table 2), chiefly cropland which occupies 64.5% of the area (Figure 4). Urban/built up areas occupy 1.6% (Table 2, Figure 5). Grasslands, mostly comprised of non-native, cool season species, make up about 18.4% of the assessment area. These grasslands, including substantial areas of pasture, occur throughout, particularly on erodible land associated with the strongly dissected topography (Figure 6). Although there are 217,715 acres of .grassland in the SRAA, only 5.6 acres of high-quality, undegraded prairie and 0.7 acres of high-quality undegraded Dry-mesic savanna remain in the assessment area. An unknown quanity of degraded prairie and savanna persists locally. Some of this degraded habitat has resoration potential.

About 165,041 acres (14%) of the assessment area is forested, with 13.4% of this area being upland forest and 0.6% being bottomland forest (Table 2). As in the presettlement landscape, these forest are concentrated along the rivers and streams associated with Spoon River watershed (Figure 7). Including savanna, about 106.7 acres (about 0.06% of remaining forest) are high-quality and undegraded.

Wetlands have also declined dramatlically in the SRAA. Based on the Land Cover of llIinois Database, (llIinois Geographic Information System), a current estimate of wetland area for the area (bottomland forest and non forested wetlands such as marshes, wet

I For a more complete description of the lllinois Natural Areas Inventory, see the section On "Biologically Significant Features of Natural Communities" later in this chapter. 7 meadows, and ponds) is about 20,034 acres or 1.6% of the assessment area. (Table 2). Wetlands in the SRAA are concentrated along the riparian corridors (Figure 8). Open water accounts for 0.6% of the SRAA (Table 2), and is found in the Spoon River and the many strip mine lakes in the area (Figure 9).

Table 2. Current land cover for the Spoon River Assessment Area.

Land Cover Acres' Percent

Cropland 761,423 64.5 Grassland 217,715 18.4 Upland forest 158,391 13.4 UrbanlBuilt-up 18,504 1.6 Nonforested wetlands 11,444 1.0 Bottomland forest 6,650 0.6 Water 6,823 0.6 Total 1,180,951 100.0

, Acreage from the Land Cover of lllinois Database (Illinois Geographic Information System)

The Illinois Wetlands Inventory (IWI) provides more detailed information about the different types of wetland acreage in the area (Illinois Geographic Information System). For the SRAA, IWI data were derived from high-altitude photography taken between 1983 and 1986. This is the most recent comprehensive wetland database available for the state. Based on IWI data, wetlands occupy 1.7% of the SRAA compared to 3.5% ofthe total area of lllinois (Suloway and Hubbell 1994). Wetlands occupy abottt 20,034 acres in the SRAA (Table 3). Open water wetlands account for 43% of the wetland acreage in the assessment area, compared to 11.4% for the state; this high percentage is due in large part to the numerous strip mine lakes. Approximately 33% of the wetland area is bottomland forest, much lower than the statewide percentage of 60.5%. Shallow marsh! wet meadow wetlands account for 11.3% of the area, followed by intermittent riverine (6.5%), shrub-scrub (2.9%), deep marsh (2.3%), shallow lake (1.0%), perennial riverine (0.4%), and lake shore (0.2%).

The mean size of contiguous forested wetlands is 4.1 acres (range < 0.1 to 147 acres); there are 1,458 separate forested wetlands in the Spoon River Assessment Area. The largest forested wetland tract is located on Littlers Creek just east of London Mills. Only three tracts are greater 50 acres.

Emergent wetlands range in size from less than 0.1 acre to 66 acres, with a mean size of 1.5 acres. There are 1,668 separate emergent wetlands in the SRAA. The largest emergent wetland is located in the lower part of the watershed near Canton, Avon, and Ellisville.

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Figure 4. Cropland in the Spoon River Assessment Area. Cropland depicted on this map includes row crops and small grains from the Land Cover of Illinois database, which is based on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery from 1991-1995.

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Figure S. Urban land in the Spoon River Assessment Area. Urban land depicted on this map includes urban/bnilt-np land and urban grassland from the Land Cover of Illinois database, which is based on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) sateI6te imagery from 1991-1995. 10 Scale 1:833800 I I{ I

Figure 6. Grasslands in the Spoon River Assessment Area. Grasslands depicted on this map are nonurban grasslands from the Land Cover of lUinois database, which is based on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) sateUite imagery from 1991-1995. Scale 1:833800 ! ...."""""""""""""..'-=====..:"..."""""""""""";".... N .'""""""""'~',-==="~""""",,,,"::!-===~"--- I

Figure 7. Forest in the Spoon River Assessment Area. Forest depicted on this map includes upland and bottomland forest from the Land Cover of Illinois database, which is based on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery from 1991-1995.

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Figure 8. Wetlands in the Spoon River Assessment Area. Wetlands depicted on this map include nonforested wetlands and bottomland forest from the Land Cover ofIllinois database, which is based aD Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) satellite imagery from 1991·1995.

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Figure 9. Open water in the Spoon River Assessment Area from the Land Cover of I1Hnois database, which is based on Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) sateltite imagery from 1991-1995.

14 Table 3. Wetland habitat of the Spoon River Assessment Area.'

%of %of Wetland Assessment Category Acrage Area Area

Palustrine Wetlands 0.00 0.0 0.0 Shrub-Scrub Wetlands 575.10 2.9 0.0 Forested Wetlands 0.00 0.0 0.0 Bottomland Forest 6.552.77 32.7 0.6 Swamp 0.56 0.0 0.0 Emergent Wetlands 0.00 0.0 0.0 Shallow Marsh/Wet Meadow 2,267.38 11.3 0.2 Deep Marsh 453.03 2.3 0.0 Open Water Wetlands 8,536.32 42.6 0.7 Subtotal Palustrine 18,385.16 91.8 1.6

Lacustrine Wetlands 0.00 0.0 0.0 Shallow Lake 206.59 1.0 0.0 Lake Shore 46.51 0.2 0.0 Emergent Lake 0.00 0.0 0.0 Subtotal Lacustrine 253.10 1.3 0.0

Riverine Wetlands 0.00 0.0 0.0 Perennial Riverine 88.88 0.4 0.0 Intermittent Riverine 1,307.18 6.5 0.1 Subtotal Riverine 1,396.06 7.0 0.1

Total Wetlands 20,034.32 100.0 1.7

I Adapted from Suloway, L. and M. Hubbell 1994.

Biologically Significant Features ofNatural Communities

State and Federal Land

Alihough ihe majority of ihe land in ihe SRAA is used for agricultural purposes, 4,070 acres (0.3% of the SRAA) have been set aside by ihe state or federal government in ihe SRAA as parks, conservation areas, or National Wildlife Refuges (Table 4, Figure 10). This figure does not include several state owned nature preserves in ihe area (see below). These parks and refuges give some level of protection to the natural communities in ihe area, and in some cases they are the only refuge for certain endangered species or natural communities. However, these areas do not always offer adequate protection, and they are not all situated in ihe most biologically important areas.

15 Table 4. State and federal land in the Spoon River Assessment Area.

Name Acres State Land Dickson Monnds State Park 37 Snake Den Hollow State Fish and Wildlife Area 2,362 Total state land: 2,399

Federal Land Emiquon National Wildlife Refuge um Total federal land: 1,671

I This table does not include any natural areas or nature preserves that may be state owned.

Natural Areas and Nature Preserves

In 1978, an inventory of natural areas in lllinois was completed by the University of lllinois and the Natural Land Institute under a contract with the lllinois Department of Conservation (now the lllinois Department of Natural Resources). The original inventory was a three-year project that consisted of surveys to find, evaluate, describe, and classify natural areas of statewide significance (White 1978). The lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (INA!) is an ongoing process. The methods and criteria established during the original inventory are still used today to continually update the INAI by re-evaluating the previously defined natural areas or finding new sites that qualify.

The INAI established seven categories of natural areas based on significant features. The categories are: I - High Quality Natural Communities; IT - Habitat for Endangered Species; III - Habitat for Relict Species; IV - Outstanding Geological Area&; V Approved Natural Areas and Restoration Sites; VI - Unique Natural Areas; and VII Outstanding Aquatic Areas. The INA! established a grading system to designate natural quality (White 1978). The natural quality of a community or area was graded from "A" (relatively stable or undisturbed) to "E" (very early successional or severely disturbed). In general only "A" and "B" commullities are designated as significant or exceptional features.

Seven INAI sights representing eight natural community types (4 prairies, 3 forests, and I savanna) and five geologic natural areas are found in the SRAA (Table 5). The prairie natural areas are located in Knox, Peoria, and Warren counties; forest natural areas are found in Fulton, Knox, and Stark counties; and the savanna natural area is found in Knox County (Figure 11). A total of eight natural communities that are undegraded (Category I) natural areas are found at these seven Illinois Natural Area Inventory sites. The total area of Category I natural areas within the SRAA is 111.3 acres or 0.0I% of the total SRAA (Table 6). This amount is below the proportion of the entire state (0.07%) that meets Category I criteria for the INA! (White 1978). Comparison of the acres of Category I natural communities in relation to the total remaining in Illinois are made under each community type in the following chapter of this report.

16 I pill I • I I .. ~._. ...

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SOllie 1:833800 ~ StateLand rI • Federal Land Figure 10. State and federal land in the Spoon River Assessment Area. State land is limited to parks (SP), conservation areas (SeA), forests (SF), and fISh and wildlife areas (SFWA).

17 Table 5. Natural areas in the Spoon River Assessment Area and surrounding regions.'

NA#' County Acres Name

109 Mason 99.1 Henry Allan Gleason 110 Mason 23.2 Rountree Nature Preserve 113 Warren 75.4 Massasauga Prairie 117 Peoria 45.4 Jubilee College State Park 123 Mason 395.5 Quiver Prairies 125 Fulton 36.6 Harper-Rector Woods 126 Mason 103.4 White Oak Creek Woods 128 Knox 18.6 Lake Bracken Woods 131 Tazewell 11.1 Manito Prairie 132 Tazewell 35.4 McCoy Woods 133 Tazewell 6.3 Fort Creve Coeur Hill Prairie 137 Stark 50.7 Harper's Woods 142 Peoria 13.4 Dickison Run Hill Prairie 143 Peoria 4.5 Mossville Road Hill Prairie 144 McDonough 17.4 Good Hope Marsh 145 McDonough 17.8 Lake Argyle Barren 165 Henry 16.1 Roy Reppert Prairie 166 Henry 2.5 Keener Prairie 169 Knox 3.5 Knox Prairie 172 McDonough 2.5 Sphagnum Seep 204 Peoria 134.7 Rocky Glen 205 Peoria 64.8 Grandview Woods 206 Peoria 2.5 St. Mary's Cemetery 207 Peoria 482.9 Forest Park 208 Peoria 347.4 Detweiller Woods 209 Peoria 56.9 Boyds Hollow Woods 210 Peoria 4.4 Springdale Cemetery 212 Peoria 36.8 Wokanda Camp 233 Peoria 155.0 Robinson Park Hill Prairie 364 Mason 82.1 Sand Ridge Savanna 431 Fulton 10.2 Marietta Geological Area 455 Fulton 2.9 SevlUe Geological Area 456 Fulton 3.1 Enion Geological Area 457 Knox 4.5 Wolf Bridge Geological Area 514 Bureau 42.7 Wyanet Geological Area 553 Fulton 10.4 Copperas Creek Geological Area 554 Fulton 7.4 Hipple School Geological Area 555 Fulton 1.7 Oak Grove School Geological Area 556 Fulton 2.4 Seaborne Creek Geological Area 573 Henry 5.6 Munson Township Cemetery Prairie 647 Knox 1.3 Copely Cemetery Prairie 733 Mason 47.6 Sand Ridge State Forest Illinois Mud Turtle Site 736 Mason 1.7 Eckard Railroad Prairie 749 Mercer 1.6 Brownlee Cemetery Prairie 776 Peoria 5.5 Trivoli Northwest Geological Area 850 Tazewell 211.7 Spring Lake Seeps 851 Tazewell 15.5 Fondulac Seep 864 Warren 1.2 Spring Grove Cemetery Prairie 928 Woodford 52.5 Spring Bay Fen 1064 Mason 1,389.0 Clear Lake Rookery

18 Table 5. Continued

NA#' County Acres Name

1121 Fulton 438.5 Rice Lake Eagle Roost 1122 Fulton 6.9 Duck Club Road 1127 Marshall 40.9 Leigh Woods 1129 McDonough 0.7 Walnut Grove Railroad Prairie 1131 Peoria 21.1 Hancher Woods 1136 Tazewell 774.9 Green Valley Site 1137 Tazewell 418.7 Worley Lake Heron Colony 1139 Tazewell 5.2 Cooper Park North 1143 Woodford 9.6 Blalock Creek Site 1341 Mason 860.5 Sparks Ponds 1343 Mason 202.5 Sand Lake 1347 Mason 58.6 Burns Sand Prairie 1419 Peoria 4.7 Rock Island Trail Prairie 1458 Schuyler 30.1 La Moine River 1494 Peoria 1.4 Root Cemetery Total in SRAA: 217.5

I Bold type indicates natural areas within the SRAA. , The number of the natural area (NA#) refers to the number designated in the Natural Heritage Database (Illinois Deparnnent of Natural Resources 1997) and in Figure 11.

Table 6. Category I natural communities in the Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA). (Category 1indicates natural communities that have remained relatively undisturbed and in high quality condition: (GradeAand B).'

Grades in Acres of category 1 Acres of category 1 % of Illinois category 1 SRAA in the SRAA in minois in the SRAA Total in Illinois %ofIL Community Type Grade A Grade B SRAA Grade A Grade B Total GradeA Grade B Total

Dry-mesic upland forest A,B 34.0 58.0 92.0 986.0 2084.0 3070.0 3.4 2.8 2.0 Mesic upland forest B .0:0 3.0 3.0 0.0 1473.0 0.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 Wet-mesic upland fores B 0.0 11.0 11.0 0.0 61.0 61.0 0.0 18.0 18.0 Dry-mesic prairie A,B 0.8 1.6 2.4 9.4 5.0 14.4 8.5 32.0 16.7 Mesic prairie B 0.0 0.5 1.5 0.0 220.0 220.0 0.0 0.2 0.2 Wet-mesic prairie B 0.0 1.7 1.7 0.0 99.0 99.0 0.0 1.7 1.7 Dry-mesic savanna A,B 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.3 8.9 9.2 100.0 4.5 7.6

Total 35.1 76.2 111.3 995.7 3950.9 4946.6

, White and Madeny (1978).

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ES3 Biologically Significant o 148 Nature preserve Naturallte.a within the Boundarv Stream .97 Natural area 113 M••••••ugll Pr.irle National Wildlife 126 H.rper-Rector Woods HmI 128 l.ake Br.cken Wood. ! Refuge 137 Harper'. Woods N Naturo Pre.erve. within the 188 Knox Prairie Nature preserves lind nllturlll bound.rv 431 Marietta Oeological Area llreas boundaries from 1:24000 465 Seville Geological Area i IGIS datl!lbaSt\, MII't 1996. 457 Wolf Bridge Geological Arel 100 H.rJler'. Wood. 554 Hippie School Geological Are. Significant stream dam from 114 M ...... ug. Pr.lrie 555 Oak Grove School Geologic,,1 Area Page, L M. et. al., 1992. 174 H.tJJer-Rector Woods 647 Copelv Cemetery Prairie Stream data derived from 226 Rock Isl.nd TraU Prairie 1418 Rock Isl.nd Trail Prairie 1:100000 us.a.s. OLG hydrology. Scale 1:633800 Figure 11. Natural areas and nature preserves '!o0""""""""""""""""""';'O"-=====~":""""""""""""""",,,,~".'" in the Spoon River Assessment Area. o '0 ...... 20 Nature preserves are areas of land or water in public or private ownership that are formally dedicated to receive maximum protection of significant natural features. The central goal of the nature preserve system, currently with about 236 preserves in the state, is to protect and preserve examples of all significant natural features found in Illinois for the purposes of scientific research, education, conserving biodiversity, and esthetic enjoyment. Nature preserves are administered largely by the Illinois Nature Preserves Commission (!NPC). Preserves usually are the shared responsibility of the !NPC, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources, and land owners (McFall and Karnes 1995).

Four sites dedicated as Illinois Nature Preserves occur within the SRAA (Table 7); each contains noteworthy remnants of natural communities. One nature preserve occurs in each of four counties (Fulton, Peoria, Stark, and Warren) within the SRAA (Figure 11).

Table 7. Nature preserves in the Spoon River Assessment Area and surrounding region!

NP#' Corr-NA3 County Acres Name

13 20 Peoria 375.12 Forest Park 29 109 Mason 91.89 Henry Allen Gleason Nature Preserve 76 928 Woodford 30.68 Spring Bay Fen 85 133 Tazewell 23.60 Crevecoeur 92 749 Mercer 4.84 Brownlee Cemetery Prairie 100 137 Stark 39.20 Harper's Woods 112 573 Henry 5.45 Munson Township Cemetery Prairie 114 113 Warren 10.57 Massasauga Prairie 115 864 Warren 3.96 Spring Grove Cemetery Prairie 137 131 Tazewell 25.06 Manito Prairie 148 117 Peoria 53.08 Jubilee College Forest 160 0 Henry 2.89 Greenlee Cemetery Prairie 169 207 Peoria 128.59 Forest Park South 170 234 Peoria 135.20 Robinson Park Hill Prairies 174 125 Fulton 29.21 Harper-Rector Woods 190 851 Tazewell 2.53 Bennett's Terraqueous Gardens 224 145 McDonough 19.12 Argyle Hollow Barrens 226 1419 Peoria 5.01 Rock Island Trail Prairie 230 208 Peoria 286.56 Detweiller Woods 238 1494 Peoria 1.35 Root Cemetery Savanna

I Bold indicates nature preserve boundary is within the assessment area. , The nature preserve number (NP#) refers to the number designated in the Natural Heritage Database (Illinois Depannent of Natural Resources 1997) and in Figure II. 3 Each of the nature preserves is associated with a corresponding natural area (Corr-NA) referred to in Table 5).

21 Threatened and endangered species

At least 15 species of threatened and endangered plants and animals occur in the SRAA (Table 8). Only 0.6% of the state's 363 threatened or endangered plants are known to occur in the KRAA. For other taxa, the percentage of the state's threatened or endangered species that occur in the area are as follows: mussels (0.0%), fishes (0.0%), amphibians (0.0%), reptiles (7.6%), birds (26.1 %), and mammals (11.1 %).

This list includes only those species that are known to breed in the SPAA. Migrant bird species and those that only overwinter in the area are not listed in Table 8; these species will be mentioned in the chapter that describes bird communities.

Table 8. Threatened and endangered species occurring in the Spoon River Assessment Area. (ST = state threatened; SE = state endangered: FI" = federally threatened; FE = federally endangered)

Plants: bunch-flower Melanthium virginicum ST Schreber's aster Aster schreberi ST

Reptiles; massasauga Sistrurus catenatus SE

Birds: Pied-billed grebe Podilymbus podiceps ST American Bittern Botaurus lentiginosus SE Least Bittern lxobrychus exilis SE Black-crowned Night-Heron Nycticorax nycticorax SE Northern Harrier Circus cyaneus SE Red-shouldered Hawk Buteo Iineatus SE Common Moorhen Gal/inula chloropus ST Brown Creeper Certhia americana ST Veery Catharusfuscescens ST Loggerhead Shrike Lanius ludovivianus ST Henslow's Sparrow Ammodramus henslowii SE

Mammals: River otter Lantra canadensis SE

22 Natural Vegetation Communities

The description of the vegetation for the Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA) is organized into six sections: 1) Comparison of Biodiversity to Statewide Patterns, 2) Threatened and Endangered Species, 3) Disturbance, Habitat Quality, and Restoration Potential, 4) Natural Areras and Nature Preserves,S) Natural Community Descriptions, and 6) Summary and Recommendations.

Comparison Biodiversity in the SRAA to Statewide Patterns

Patterns of Species Richness

The species richness of vascular plants within the SRAA at the time of European settlement is unknown. About 893 taxa have been reported from within the assessment area, including 185 species (about 20.7%) that are not native to the SRAA (Appendix 1). Common names are sorted alphabetically in Appendix 1 and used in the text of this report. Appendix 2 is a listing of scientific plant names with the corresponding common names. This compilation, based on available species lists, the Illinois Natural History Survey Herbarium (ilLS) Data Base, and floristic inventories from sites in the SRAA boundary, somewhat underestimates the species richness of both native and non-native taxa. As a comparison, the state of Illinois has approximately 3,204 taxa, 2,200 native and 1,004 (31 %) introduced taxa (Mohlenbrock 1986). Habitat loss often results in reduction in population sizes for many species, particularly those sensitive to habitat degradation and fragmentation. As populations decline in size, they become more likely . to undergo local extinction's. Richness of native species probably has declined in the SRAA since European settlement as a result of reduced population sizes, local extirpation, and extensive habitat destruction and .degradation; in contrast, non-native taxa have increased.

Comparison of Trends in Habitat Loss

The overall/ass of prairie and wetland habitats appears to be greater in the SRAA relative to the state as a whole. However, forest (the dominant remaining vegetation type) habitat loss appears to have occurred at a lower rate relative to statewide trends. The extent of total degradation of the prairie, forest, and wetland habitat, however, appears to be slightly greater than statewide trends. Only 0.1 % of the acreage in the SRAAis still considered to be in high-quality, undegraded condition (111.3 acres, Table 6). This exceeds the statewide levels of habitat degradation, where 0.07% of total area of the state remains in a high-quality, undegraded condition (White 1978). Trends for each community class are described below.

23 Prairie - About 0.01 % of the presettlement acreage of prairie in lllinois persists in a high quality condition (White 1978), whereas in the SRAA only about 0.001 % of the presettlement acreage of prairie remains in an undegraded condition. An unknown quantity of degraded prairie persists locally in theSRAA, particularly as small hill prairies on the bluffs bordering the Spoon River and possibly along some railroad rights-of-way. Some of this degraded prairie has restoration potential. Most acreage of relatively undisturbed prairie in lllinois is from agriculturally less suitable land such as sand deposits (about 47%) or steep loess hills (about 16%).

Forest - About 30% of the presettlement area of forest remains statewide (Iverson et al. 1989), although only about 0.3% of the remaining forest (0.1 % of the presettlement forest) remains in a high-quality condition. In contrast, the acreage of forest in the SRAA is about 42% of the presettlement total, but only about 0.06% of this remaining forest (0.03% of the original forest cover) is in high-quality undegraded condition.

Savanna - Savannas have declined in area throughout lllinois and the midwest, perhaps more than any other community class (Taft 1997), and the SRAA is no exception. About 0.7 acre of high-quality savanna is known to persist within the boundaries (Knox County) of the SRAA. The amount of original savanna is unknown for the SRAA, the original total acreage is included in the estimated area of forests.

Wetlands - Throughout Illinois, natural wetlands have declined from presettlement statewide estimates of about 23% of the land area to about 2.6% of the current land area (Havera et al. 1994), which is about II% of the presettlement total. Only about 6,000 acres remain in a high-quality condition (White 1978), representing about 0.65% of the remaining, and 0.07% of the presettlement wetland area (Havera et al. 1994). In contrast, approximately 1.7% of the SRAA remains as wetland compared with an estimate of about 16.5% originally for the four predominant counties of Fulton, Knox, Stark, and Warren. Current wetland acreage in the SRAA is as much as 12% oftbe presettlement total, though this probably overestimates the percent remaining because presettlement wetlands of portions of five counties marginally in the SRAA are not considered in the estimate of the presettlement wetland acreage. Nevertheless, the percentage of remaining wetlands in the SRAA is probably slightly higher then the percentageremaining throughout the state. Although, similar to statewide trends, only about 0.06% of the remaining wetlands, and 0.01 % of the original total, is in high-quality undegraded condition.

Illinois Threatened and Endangered Species

Seven plant species (American bur-reed, bunch-flower, prairie white-fringed orchid, Schreber's aster, showy lady's slipper orchid, western wild lettuce, white lady's slipper orchid) listed by the lllinois Endangered Species Protection Board (IESPB) as threatened or endangered (Herkert 1991, 1994) have been reported from within the SRAA (Table 9), though only two (bunchflower and Schreber's aster) are known from extant populations in the assessment area.

24 Three species known from within the SRAA (butternut, sweet Indian plantain, yellow lady's slipper orchid) are on a watch list for consideration for listing as threatened or endangered by the lllinois Endangered Species Protection Board (1994). One other species reported but not verified from the SRAA (American bur-reed) is also listed as state endangered (Weik and Baker 1975). One additonal threatened species, decurrent false aster (Boltonia decurrens), occurs within one mile of the SRAA boundary. Sixteen other threatened or endangered species are known occur close to the SRAA (within the area shown on Figure I) but are not known from within the assessment area (Table 9). These are listed as they have the potential to be found in the SRAA sometime in the future. Table 9. DIinois threatened or endangered plant species from the Spoon River Assessment Areas. (SE = state endangered, ST = state threatened, WL = state watch list, Ff = federally threatened).

Location! Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat in near Range (U.S. and Spoon River area)

American Sparganium americanum SE muddy and peaty shores and X Newfoundland and Quebec to Minnesota bur-reed shallow water south to Louisiana and Florida. Known from Kane and Winnebago counties. Early records from Cook, Du Page, Knox, Lee, McHenry, and Stephenson counties. arrowwood Viburnum molle SE forested slopes and X E Pennsylvania, Indiana to Iowa, south to limestone bluffs Kentucky and Arkansas. Known from Marshall and Peoria counties. broomrape Orobanche ludovici£ma SE blowouts in dry sand X Illinois and Indiana to Saskatchewan and prairiesand on alluvial Texas wet to California and norther Mexico. floodplains along rivers Known from Mason County and early records from Logan and Tazewell counties. bunch-flower Melanthium virginicum ST wet woods and wet prairies X X New York to Indiana and Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas. Known from McDonough and Warren Counties. Early records from Fulton, Knox, and Peoria counties. butternut Juglans cinerea WL mesic woodlands X X Minnesota to Maine and adjacent Canada. Known from Fulton, Henderson, Knox, McDonough, Mason, Peoria, Schuyler, Stark, and Tazewell counties. decurrent false Boltonia decurrens ST,Ff wet prairies, marshes, and X An Illinois River valley endemic species. aster disturbed areas along riveR. Known from Bureau, Fulton, Marshall, Mason, Peoria, Schuyler, Tazewell and Woodford counties. Early record from Logan County. forked aster Asterfureatus ST seepage zones along north X East-central United States. Early record facing bluffs from Fulton, Peoria, and Woodford counties. Known from Tazewell County. Hall's bulrush Scirpus haWi SE sand ponds X Disjunct populations in east United States and the Midwest. Known from Mason County. Hill's thistle Cirsium hillii ST dry prairies X Southern Ontario to Pennsylvania, west to Minnesota and South Dakota. Known from Bureau, Henry, and Mason counties. Early records from Fulton, Knox, Logan, McDonough, Peoria, Schuyler, and Stark counties. 25 Table 9. Continued.

Locationl Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat in near Range (U.S, and Spoon River area) kitten tails Besseya bullii ST sand savannas and gravel X Local from Michigan and Ohio to Minnesota prairies and Iowa. Known from Henderson and Tazewell counties. Early records from Logan and Mason counties. prairie spiderwort Tradescantia bracteata ST dry-mesic silt and sand X North-central United States east to Illinois. prairies; often degraded Known from McDonough and Mason Counties. Early record from Henry and Peoria counties. prairie white- Platanthera leucophaea SE,Ff mesic to wet prairies X X East-central and eastern United States. fringed orchid Known from Henry County. Early records from Fulton, Henderson, Knox, McDonough, Peoria, and Stark counties. Queen-of-the- Filipendula rubra ST fens and seeps X Eastern United States. Known from Burreau prairie County. Early records from Peoria, Marshall, Mason, and Tazewell counties. rice grass Oryzopsis racemosa ST mesic forest X Northeastern United States. Known from Bureau County, Early record from Peoria County. Schreber's aster Aster schreberi ST mesic ravine forests X X Northeastern United States. Known from Bureau, Knox, Marshall, and Peoria counties. Early records from Henry and Tazewell counties. shaved sedge Carex tonsa SE sand prairies, sand X Newfoundland to British Columbia, south savannahs,roadsides and from northeastern Uniled States to North ridges Carolina and west to Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin. Known from Tazewell County. showy lady's Cypripedium reginae SE shrub swamps, bogs, and X X Northeastern United States and the slipper orchid wet woods Appalachian Mountains. Known from Woodford County. Early records from Henderson, Knox, McDonough, Marshall, Peoria, and Tazewell counties. silvery LesquereUa ludoviciana SE blowout on dune X Western Illinois and Eastern Minnesota; bladderpod North Dakota to Kansas, west to Montana and northern Arizona and southern Nevada. Known from Tazewell County. sweet Indian Cacalia suaveolens WL riverbanks and moist low X X Rhode Island and Connecticcut to southeast plantain ground Minnesota, south to Illinois, Kentucky, and Tennessee; Maryland then down the mountains to Georgia; Known from Stark and Tazewell counties. Tennessee Astragalus tennesseensis SE dolomite and dry gravel X Tennessee, Alabama, and minois. Known ntilk vetch prairies from Tazewell County. Early record from Mason County. tubercled orchid PlatantherajIava ST floodplain forest and X Southeastern United States. Known from var. herbiola swamp Mason County. Early record from Peoria and Tazewell counties.

26 Table 9. Continued.

Locationl Common Name Scientific Name Status Habitat in near Range (U.S. and Spoon River area)

umbrella sedge Cyperus grayioides ST blowouts, dry sand prairies X Central and nonhwestern Illinois then and sand savannas disjunct to Texas and Louisiana. Known from Mason County. weak bulrush Sciprus purshianus SE seeps and sand ponds X Eastern United States. Early record from Mason County. western wild Lactuca ludoviciana SE mesic to wet prairies X X Western and central United States. No lettuce population currently known from Illinois; Early record from Stark County white lady's Cypripedium candidum SE wet-mesic prairies and fens X X Nonh-central and nonheastem United States. slipper orchid loess hill prairies Early records from Marshall, Peoria, Stark, and Woodford counties. yellow lady's Cypripedium pubescens WL mesic woodlands and hogs X X 1N0nhern and eastern United States and slipper orchid adjacent Canada. Known from Bureau, Henry, Logan, Marshall, Mason, Peoria, Schuyler, Tazewell and Woodford counties. yellow monkey Mimulus glabratus SE calcareous seeps X Michigan to Manitoba and Montana, south flower to South America. Known from Mason and Woodford counties. Early records from Peoria and Tazewell counties.

I Location in = within SRAA, near - on map of SRAA but not within boundary.

The habitats supporting the most threatened or endangered species in the SRAA are the mesic to wet prairies with four taxa historically known from the assessment area (Table 5). Of these four taxa, only one (bunchflower) presently is known from the SRAA where it occurs in a Warren County nature preserve. The only other habitat presently supporting a threatened or endangered species (Schreber's aster) in the SRAA is a mesic ravine forest within a biological field station in Knox County. The habitat for the state endangered showy lady's slipper orchid, from Knox County within the SRAA, was not given (Mohlenbrock and Ladd, 1978).

Most of the threatened or endangered species in the SRAA have centers of distribution from the central or northeastern United States (Table 9). Those threatened or endangered species from prairie habitats have more northcentral or western United States (Great Plain) distributions and reach Illinois at their eastern range extension while those from forest have more northeastern (eastern deciduous forest) distributions and reach Illinois at their western range extension. Many of the prairie species are rare as a result of their general western distribution but also as a result of extensive loss of suitable habitat. Habitat loss and degradation have made those species at their range margins rare in lllinois. One taxon, prairie white-fringed orchid (Platanthera leucophaea), that inhabits mesic to wet prairies, is listed as a threatened species by the United States Fish and

27 Wildlife Service and as an endangered species by the IESPB (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1988, Herkert 1991). The prairie white-fringed orchid is presently known from eight Illinois counties, primarily in the northeastern part of the state. Historically it has been reported in 33 counties throughout the northern two-thirds of Illinois including seven counties (Table 9) in and around the SRAA Presently the only known extant population in western Illinois is in Henry County just outside the SRAA but within the area displayed in Figure 1. A second taxon, decurrent false aster (Boltonia decurrens), known from open floodplain forest including marshes, wet prairies, and disturbed areas, is listed by both the United States Fish and Wildlife Service and the IESPB as a threatened species (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service 1988, Herkert 1991). The decurrent false aster is endemic to lllinois and a few stations along the Mississippi River in Missouri (Schwegman & Nyboer 1985). Most populations of the decurrent false aster occur in the lllinois River valley (Herkert 1991); one is located within a mile of the SRAA near Havana.

Disturbance, Habitat Quality, and Restoration Potential

In addition to habitat loss through conversion to cropland, most remnant plant communities in the SRAA have experienced anthropogenic disturbances that have resulted in differing levels of degradation. Typical consequences of intensive habitat conversion include fire absence, fragmentation, and exotic species introduction. These issues and their implications for habitat restoration potential are briefly discussed below.

Degraded plant communities (or ecosystems) are disturbed plant communities whose recovery to original condition is unlikely under normal circumstances. Disturbance is a general term referring to any perturbation. Degraded lands can be distinguished further by those that can be restored to original condition through management efforts and those which, at best, can be reclaimed to a limited degree in severe examples (e.g., strip-mined .land), or rehabilitated to a condition somewhat similar to the original but where compositional differences remain (Lovejoy 1975). Degraded lands are derelict when land uses become very limited (Brown and Lugo 1994). Perturbations that exceed the intensity, frequency, or duration of the natural disturbance regime can result in loss of species lacking tolerance or adaptations to the new levels. When certain key species, of key assemblages of species, are extirpated from a community, the systems capability for restoration is diminished and integrity is lowered. A common source of degradation in lllinois plant communities is over grazing; however, typically, multiple factors are interacting.

Fire is an example of a large-scale natural disturbance in many midwestern plant communities. Fire frequency and seasonal occurrence are important determining factor for many community characteristics. The compositional and structural characteristics of many native lllinois plant communities demonstrate some level of fIre dependency. Fire absence in these communities can result in profound changes in community

28 characteristics. For example, vegetation changes common throughout Illinois such as from prairie to shrub thicket or forest, or oak-dominated woodland to maple-dominated forest, are attributable to reduced fire frequency and fire absence.

Fragmentation is a process describing landscape change where habitat remnants become isolated by land conversion. Fragmented habitats often undergo alterations in many environmental conditions. Increased surface area compared to volume can result in changes in moisture conditions and levels of solar radiation, as well as increased opportunity for exotic species invasion and wind damage (Gehlhausen et aI., in review). High levels of fragmentation limit restoration potential of degraded sites since species immigration, needed to compensate for the local extirpations of plants with low population levels, is seriously challenged (Taft 1996, 1997). Fragmented habitats support fewer species and at lower population levels compared to less fragmented habitats. Species at lower population levels are prone to local extirpation.

Exotic species (non-native, adventive) lower natural habitat quality. Non-native taxa in a plant community may displace native taxa. The establishment of non-native taxa can result in arrested development and interfere with rates of the recovery process. The recovery potential of plant communities with appropriate ecological restoration and management is an area of much needed additional research. Specific and general recommendations for restoration of natural communities in the SRAA, including exotic species control measures, are offered in the "Summary and Recommendations" section following descriptions of Natural Communities.

Natural Areas and Nature Preserves

The Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAl) was conducted over a three-year period during the mid 1970's to document remaining significant and exceptional examples of the natural communities in Illinois (White 1978). The INAl established seven categories of natural areas based on significant features. The categories are: I - High Quality Natural Communities; II - Habitat for Endangered Species; III - Habitat for Relict Species; IV Outstanding Geological Areas; V - Approved Natural Areas and Restoration Sites; VI Unique Natural Areas; and VII - Outstanding Aquatic Areas. The INAl established a grading system to rank natural quality (White 1978). The natural quality of a community type was graded from A (relatively stable or undisturbed) to E (very early successional or severely degraded). In general only A and B communities are designated as significant or exceptional features.

Eight different terrestrial natural areas and five geologic natural areas are found in the SRAA (Table 10). The terrestrial natural areas include prairies (4), forest (3), and savanna (1). The prairie natural areas are found in Knox, Peoria, and Warren counties, forest natural areas are found in Fulton, Knox, and Stark counties, and the savanna natural area is found in Knox County (Figure 6). A total of eight natural communities that are undegraded (Category 1) natural areas are found at these seven lllinois Natural Area

29 Inventory sites. The total area of Category I natural areas within the SRAA is 112.3 acres or 0.01 % of the total SRAA (Table 4). This amount is below the proportion of the entire state (0.07%) that meets Category I criteria for the INA! (White 1978). Comparison of the acres of Category I natural communities in relation to the total remaining in Illinois are made under each community type in the following section on Terrestrial Natural Community Descriptions.

Harper's Woods (Stark County) - This privately owned 40 acre site is within the Grand Prairie Section of the Grand Prairie Natural Division. The preserve is located on the east side of and above the Spoon River floodplain and contains old growth mesic and dry mesic upland forest communities.

Harper-Rector Woods (Fulton County) - This 37.2 acre site, owned by the liJinois Department of Natural Resources, is within the Galesburg Section of the Western - Forest Prairie Natural Division. The preserve is located on the east side of the Spoon River and contains old growth wet-mesic and dry-mesic upland forest communities. The 11 acres of high quality wet-mesic upland forest represents 18% of all high quality wet-mesic upland forest remaining in Illinois.

Massasau~m Prairie (Warren County) - This 6.2 acre site, owned by the lllinois Department of Natural Resources, is within the Galesburg Section of the Western - Forest Prairie Natural Division. The preserve is located along Cedar Creek and contains wet mesic and dry-mesic prairie communities. The Illinois threatened bunch-flower is present (Table 5). The 0.8 acre of Grade A dry-mesic prairie and 1.6 acre of Grade B dry mesic prairie represent 16.7% of all high quality (Grades A and B) dry-mesic prairie in Illinois (Table 4).

Rock Island Trail Prairie (Peoria County) - This 5.1 acre site, owned by the lllinois Department of Natural Resources, is within the Grand Prairie Section of the Grand Prairie Natural Division. The preserve is located along an abandoned railroad right-of-way and contains a mesic tallgrass prairie community.

Terrestrial Natural Community Descriptions

The natural communities within the SRAA (Table 8) were determined by examining data from several sources. These include descriptions of existing community types as well as plant communities inferred to have occurred prior to European settlement and subsequent large-scale alteration of the landscape. Since native vegetation in the SRAA has been so

30 greatly converted, modified, and degraded, some of the following community types may no longer be present. Community classification follows White and Madany (1978). Botanical nomenclature follows the Flora of North America Editorial Committee (1993) for the ferns and fern allies and Mohlenbrock (1986) and Gleason and Cronquist (1991) for the monocots and dicots except for certain threatened and endangered species where nomenclature follows that used in Herkert (1991, 1994). Scientific names corresponding to the common names used in this text are in Appendix I together with the natural community association for each species reported from the SRAA; the scientific names are listed alphabetically with the corresponding common names in Appendix 2.

Specific data sources include known community types found in INA! sites, descriptions of vegetation in publications and technical reports, and habitat descriptions in the lllinois Department ofNatural Resources (1997) Natural Heritage Database and unpublished field notes. No in-depth community studies have been published on any of the natural communities within the SRAA. Weik and Baker (1975) provide brief descriptions of two forest community subclasses, upland forest and floodplain forest. They also briefly describe two additional community subclasses, a marsh and a pond. The only other published reference (Houdek 1923) briefly describes three community subclasses, floodplain forest, marsh, and seep and spring (specifically spring). Solomon (1979) provides notes on habitat of 712 species in Knox County. No ecological descriptions or floras have been published on prairies or savannas within the SRAA.

Table 10. Terrestrial natural communities known to occur or believed to have formerly occured in the Spoon River Assessment Area.'

FOREST WETLAND Upland forest Marsh dry upland forest marsh dry-mesic upland forest Swamp mesic upland forest swamp wet-mesic upland forest shrub swamp Floodplain forest Sedge meadow Mesic floodplain forest sedge meadow wet-mesic floodplain forest Seep and spring wet floodplain forest seep spring PRAIRIE Prairie LAKE AND POND dry-mesic prairie Pond mesic prairie pond wet-mesic prairie wet prairie CULTURAL Hill prairie cropland glacial drift hill prairie pastureland loess hill prairie successional field developed land SAVANNA tree plantation Savanna artificial pond dry-mesic savanna artificial lake mesic savanna prairie restoration

I Adapted from the TIlinois Natural Areas Inventory's natural communitiy classification (White and Madany 1978). 31 Forest

Approximately 393,845 acres (33%) of the SRAA was forested in about 1820 (Anderson 1970, Iverson et ai, 1989, Illinois Geographic Information System). Forests in the SRAA belong to the prairie peninsula section of the northern division described for the Oak Hickory Forest Region (Braun 1950). Forests in the SRAA are most prevalent on the slopes, ravines, and bottomlands associated with the Spoon River and its tributaries (Figure 7). In Illinois, the forest community class is made up of four subclasses: flatwoods, floodplain forest, sand forest, and upland forest. Two of these forest subclasses, upland forest and bottomland forest, are known within the SRAA (Table 10) and are discussed below.

Common ecological problems associated with forest communities, in general, include habitat degradation, fragmentation, exotic species introductions, and particularly in upland forest of Illinois, fIre absence. A typical source of habitat degradation in forests is overgrazing which often alters the compositional and structural characteristics. Such as in much of Illinois, grazing-sensitive species probably have been eliminated from many forest remnants in the SRAA. In contrast, species that increase.with grazing are often abundant in over-grazed forest remnants (e.g., thorn-bearing taxa such as red haw, honey locust, Missouri gooseberry, prickly ash, and brambles, exotic species such as Osage orange, multiflora rose, and garlic mustard, and certain weedy native species). In many cases, abundance of exotic species appears to be directly proportional to the historic grazing intensity. Recovery of these sites following cessation of grazing appears to be slow. Complete restoration may not be possible without intensive management including species reintroduction. Fire absence in upland forest communities of Illinois typically results in compositional changes in more mesic sites and primarily results in structural changes in drier sites. These changes often result in increase in both stem density of woody plants and shade. The result is often a reduction in cover and diversity of the herbaceous ground flora, typically the most diverse stratum in Illinois woodlands (e.g., Taft et aI. 1995).

Upland Forest

The total extent of upland forest in the SRAA is estimated to be about 158,391 acres or about 13.4% of the total assessment area (Table 2). A total of 106 acres of undegraded, high-quality forest remnants (0.07% of upland forest remaining) have been identifIed by the INAI (Table 6). Upland forest community subclasses may be further subdivided into natural communities according to soil-moisture characteristics. Xeric, dry, dry-mesic, mesic, and wet-mesic upland forest natural communities are recognized in Illinois in context with increasing available soil moisture (White and Madany 1978). Major tree species respond in predictable ways along these soil-moisture gradients (Adams and Anderson 1980, Fralish 1994, Taft et aI. 1995). Within the SRAA four forest natural communities are known to occur or are believed to have formerly occurred: dry upland forest, dry-mesic upland forest, mesic upland forest, and wet-mesic upland forest (Table 10). These natural forest communities are characterized in the following sections.

32 Dry uplandforest - Dry upland forests are occasional to common on ridge crests and upper slopes with dry exposures (south and southwest-facing) and can be expected scattered throughout the SRAA. No remnants of dry upland forest in the SRAA have been described in detail. No areas of dry upland forest have been identified from within the SRAA by the llIinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAl) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants (Table 6).

Dominant canopy species in dry upland forests are black oak and white oak. Occasional to common species may include pignut hickory, and yellow chestnut oak. Subcanopy species may include hop hornbeam, eastern redcedar, and shadbush. Shrub species may include aromatic sumac, black haw, dewberry, hazelnut, New Jersey tea, pasture rose, prickly ash, rough-leaved dogwood, and wafer ash. Woody vine species may include climbing bittersweet, grape honeysuckle, and Virginia creeper. Ground-cover species may include black nightshade, Canadian black snakeroot, common cinquefoil, culver's root, ebony spleenwort, elm-leaved goldenrod, hairy brome, hairy hawkweed, hairy mountain mint, hairy mellia, hog peanut, Indian tobacco, lousewort, pale Indian plantain, pale spiked lobelia, partridge pea, Pennsylvania pellitory, poverty oat grass, purple oxalis, pussytoes, Robin's plantain, sedges (Carex artitecta, C. cephalophora, C. hirsutella, C. pensylvanica), shooting star, sicklepod, slender bush clover, smooth false foxglove; soft agrimony, sweet everlasting, tall anemone, whorled milkweed, yellow pimpernel, and yellow star grass.

The primary ecological problems in dry upland forest are damage from grazing and fire absence. Relatively few exotic species pose severe problems in dry forests compared with other forest communities.

Dry-mesic uplandforest - Dry-mesic upland forest is common throughout the SRAA and found primarily on ridges and the upper to mid-level slopes of the dissected terrain associated with the Spoon River and its tributaries. The total extent of dry-mesic upland forest in the SRAA is unknown. A total of 92 acres in the SRAA of dry-mesic upland forest among three remnant sites, are recognized as high quality (Grades A and B) and of statewide ecological significance by the INAl. This represents about 3.0% of all high quality dry-mesic upland forest (Grades A and B) remaining in llIinois (Table 6). Harper Woods, the only natural area recognized by the INAl within Stark County, along the east edge of the Splmn River is perhaps the best dry-mesic upland forest in west-central Illinois.

Dominant canopy species in dry-mesic upland forests are black oak, white oak, mockernut hickory, and white ash. Occasional to common species may include, red oak, shagbark hickory, shingle oak, sugar maple, and yellow chestnut oak. Subcanopy species may include black cherry, hop hornbeam, sassafras, shadbush, and slippery elm. Shrub species may include black haw, black raspberry, hazelnut, Iowa crab, Missouri gooseberry, prickly ash, and rough-leaved dogwood. Woody vine species may include bristly catbrier, moonseed, poison ivy and Vrrginia creeper. Ground-cover species may include arrow-leaved violet, black nightshade, bottlebrush grass, Canadian black

33 snakeroot, Canadian brome grass, early horse gentian, elm-leaved goldenrod, false dandelion, field milkwort, heart-leaved skullcap, muhly grass, one-flowered broornrape, purple giant hyssop, sedges (Carex cephalophora, C. rasea), soft agrimony, spring beauty, starry campion, stickseed, tall anemone, tall melic grass, thicket parsley, twayblade orchid, Virginia three-seeded mercury, white snakeroot, whorled milkweed, wild licorice, wild yarn, and woodland argimony.

No threatened or endangered species are known from dry-mesic forest habitats in the SRAA. The major ecological problems associated with dry-mesic upland forests in Illinois are degradation from grazing, habitat fragmentation, and fire absence. Fire absence can lead to an increased importance of sugar maple in the canopy stratum and potentially lesser importance of oaks. Where oaks have been removed by selective logging practices, black cherry, shagbark hickory, slippery elm, and sugar maple are among the species that gain prominence in the canopy. Exotic species in dry-mesic upland forest include several woody plants (e.g., Japanese honeysuckle, Japanese barberry, Osage orange, shrubby honeysuckle, and tree-of-heaven).

Mesic uplandforest - Mesic upland forest in the SRAA is concentrated on the lower-to middle parts of slopes in dissected terrain associated with the Spoon River and its tributaries. The best expression of mesic forest is on north and east aspects and in protected locations of west exposures. Mesic forest occur occasionally as isolated remnants of former larger blocks of forest. A total of 3 acres in the SRAA of mesic upland forest (one site) are recognized as high quality (Grades A and B) and of statewide ecological significance by the INAI. This is about 0.2% of the high quality mesic upland forest (Grades A and B) remaining in Illinois (Table 6).

Species composition is relatively rich, including numerous taxa at each forest stratum. Dominant canopy species in mesic upland forest are American linden, red oak, shagbark hickory, sugar maple, and white ash. Occasional to common tree species may include American elm, bitternut hickory, black cherry, black oak, black walnut, butternut, hackberry, Kentucky coffee-tree, mockernut hickory, Ohio buckeye, slippery elm, white oak, and yellow chestnut oak. Subcanopy species may include blue beech, hop hornbeam, eastern redbud, and red mulberry. Shrub species may include black haw, bladdernut, choke cherry, coralberry, hazelnut, gray dogwood, leatherwood, Missouri gooseberry, paw paw, wahoo, and wild hydrangea. Woody vine species may include bristly catbrier, moonseed, poison ivy, znd riverbank grape. Ground-cover species may include American bellflower, American spikenard, anise root, bellwort, bishop's cap, bloodroot, blue cohosh, blue lettuce, blue phlox, brittle fern, broad-leaved goldenrod, Canada wild ginger, diarrhena, doli's eyes, downy yellow violet, Drummond's aster, dutchman's breeches, dwarf larkspur, elm-leaved goldenrod, enchanter's nightshade, false mermaid, false Solomon's seal, ginseng, goat's beard, goldenseal, great waterleaf, hairy sweet cicely, heart-leaved aster, hepatica, Indian pipe, Jack-in-the-pulpit, Jacob's ladder, large-flowered trillium, maidenhair fern, Mayapple, nodding fescue, northern lady fern, pale leafcup, pale touch-me-not, one-flowered cancer root, rattlesnake fern, recurved buttercup, red trillium, Schreber's aster, sedges (Carex albursina, C. blanda, C. hirtifolia,

34 C. jamesii, C. rosea, C. sparganioides), Short's aster, showy orchis, silvery spleenwort, small Solomon's seal, smooth rock cress, spring beauty, squirrel-com, tall anemone, toothwort, Virginia snakeroot, white avens, white grass, white snakeroot, white trillium, wild geranium, wild leek, wild sarsparilla, wild yam, woodland bluegrass, wooly blue violet, and yellow lady's slipper orchid.

One species from mesic upland forest is listed as state threatened, Schreber's aster (Aster schreberi), and two species listed on the state watch list, white walnut (Juglans cinerea) and yellow lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium pubescens), are reported from the SRAA (Table 9). The major ecological problems associated with mesic upland forests are degradation from grazing, habitat fragmentation, exotic species invasion, and logging. Among the more abundant exotic species within mesic upland forest include garlic mustard, multiflora rose, shrubby honeysuckle, and white mulberry.

Wet-mesic uplandforest - Wet-mesic upland forest occurs where there are localized drainage limitations on level topography. Often, drainage is limited by a slowly permeable subsoil horizon. Areas of seepage may contribute to locally saturated soils or depressions may result in ponding for variable periods. A total of 11 acres in the SRAA of wet-mesic upland forest (one site) are recognized as high quality and of statewide ecological significance by the INAl. This is about 18.0% of the high quality wet-mesic upland forest (Grades A and B) remaining in lllinois (Table 6).

Dominant canopy species are American linden, hackberry, and silver maple. Swamp white oak is an occasional species in this community. A subcanopy often is absent. Shrub species may include buttonbush. A typical woody vine species is trumpet creeper and ground.cover vegetation is typically dominated by sedges and ferns.

Floodplain Forest

. The total extent of floodplain forest in the SRAA is estimated to be about 6,650 acres or about 0.6% of the total assessment area (Table 2). No areas have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAl) as high-qUality (Grades A and B). Floodplain forests are characterized by edaphic conditions of poor drainage and slow permeability. Local areas of sand and gravel increase permeability. Floodplain forest communities in Illinois include mesic, wet-mesic, and wet floodplain forest and all three of these communities would be expected within the SRAA. Mesic floodplain forests generally occur on high terraces, wet-mesic floodplain forest generally occur on low terraces, and wet floodplain forest generally occur behind natural levees or banks of major rivers.

In general, the flooding regime, inclUding depth and duration of flooding, is a strong selective force on composition and species richness in floodplain forest (Bell 1974) and also in regulation tree growth (Robertson 1992). Wet floodplain forests are often seasonally flooded and/or have perched water during a portion of the year, often in late

35 winter and spring. Generally, flooding is of shorter duration and less frequent in mesic floodplain forest. Wet-mesic floodplain forest are intermediate. Diversity of species composition tends to increase from wet to wet-mesic to mesic floodplain forest. In general trees and shrubs typically found in the wet floodplain forest zone are most tolerant of flooding (e.g., box elder, cottonwood, green ash, silver maple, willows, buttonbush, swamp privet) while many species associated with the mesic floodplain forest zone are much less tolerant of flooding (e.g., bitternut hickory, black cherry, hackberry, redbud, red mulberry, walnut, buckbrush, gray dogwood, elderberry).

Current ecological problems in floodplain forest include siltation from silt-laden flood waters, changes in the hydrological regime (e.g., stream entrenchment of tributary streams or increased flooding duration and frequency of the major streams due to changes in the upper watershed), and exotic species invasion. A description of the composition and structure of floodplain forest in the SRAA follows.

Mesic floodplain forest - There is no estimate of the proportion of the approximately 6,553 acres of floodplain forest within the SRAA that is mesic floodplain forest. No areas of mesic floodplain forest have been identified from within the SRAA by the lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Compared with the wet floodplain forest community, a relatively greater diversity of tree species often can be found in examples of this high terrace forest since the relatively brief flooding duration and lower flooding frequency pose fewer limitations to species. Canopy tree species may include American elm, bitternut hickory, black walnut, boxelder, bur oak, eastern cottonwood, honey locust, Kentucky coffee-tree, kingnut hickory, Ohio buckeye, red ash, slippery elm, sycamore, white oak, and white walnut. Subcanopy tree species may include blue beech, downy hawthorn, eastern redbud, paw paw, and red mulberry. Shrub species may include bladdernut, Missouri gooseberry, nannyberry and pale dogwood. Vine species may include moonseed, poison ivy, riverbank grape, and Virginia creeper. Ground-cover species may include Adder's tongue fern, American pennyroyal, annual bedstraw, bitter cress, blue-eyed Mary, blue lettuce, bulbous cress, Canada clearweed, Canada wild ginger, common blue violet, common phlox, common snakeroot, cow parsnip, cup plant, false mermaid, fringed loosestrife, golden Alexander's, giant ragweed, glade mallow, grape fern, great blue lobelia, green dragon, honewort, Jack-in-the-pulpit, Jacob's ladder, late goldenrod, leather leaf, muhly, monkey flower, orange touch-me-not, purple rocket, rough cinquefoil, sedges (Carex blanda, C. davisii, C. granularis, C. grayi), sensitive fern, smooth ruellia, stickseed, stout woodreed, swamp buttercup, sweet black-eyed Susan, tall nettle, three seeded mercury, Virginia bluebell, Virginia knowtweed, Virginia waterleaf, Virginia wild rye, waxy meadow rue, white avens, white grass, white trout lily, white vervain, wild chervil, wood mint, wood nettle, wooly blue violet, yellow corydalis, and yellow ironweed.

36 No species listed as threatened or endangered by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board (IESPB) are known from mesic floodplain forest within the SRAA. One species listed on the state watch list, white walnut (Juglans cinerea),typically a species of mesic floodplain forest, is reported from the SRAA (Table 9). Ecological problems include altered flooding regime, over-grazing, and exotic species invasion. Exotic species typically associated with mesic floodplain forest include garlic mustard, motherwort, multiflora rose, Osage orange, and white mulberry.

Wet-mesic floodplain forest - There is no estimate of the proportion of the approximately 6,553 acres of floodplain forest within the SRAA that is wet-mesic floodplain forest. No areas of wet-mesic floodplain forest have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Canopy tree species may include American elm, bitternut hickory, boxelder, red ash, hackberry, honey locust, kingnut hickory, persimmon, pin oak and silver maple. Shrub species may include pale elderberry, false indigo, Missouri gooseberry, dogwood, and swamp privet. Vine species may include bristly catbrier, poison ivy, and riverbank grape. The species diversity of the ground layer typically is lower in the wet-mesic floodplain forest than in the mesic floodplain forest. Ground cover species may include Autumn sneezeweed, beggar's ticks, blue star, bugle weed, Canada clearweed, common beggar's ticks, common blue violet, common snakeroot, cow parsnip, cowbane, dodder, false nettle, fowl manna grass, giant ragweed, green dragon, honewort, late boneset, monkey flower, Ontario aster, orange touch-me-not, panicled aster, purple rocket, sedges (Carex davisii, C. grayi. C. granularis. C. grisea, C. stipata), seedbox, sensitive fern, smartweed, stout woodreed. swamp buttercup, sweet Indian plantain, tall beggar's ticks, tall swamp marigold, Virginia wild rye, water horehound, water pepper, white avens, wild golden glow, wood nettle, and wooly blue violet.

No species listed as threatened or endangered by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board (IESPB) are known from wet-mesic floodplain forest within the SRAA. Sweet Indian plantain, a state watch list species of wet-mesic floodplain forest, is reported from the SRAA (Table 9).. Ecological problems include altered flooding regime, over grazing, and exotic species invasion. Exotic species typically associated with wet mesic floodplain forest include moneywort, motherwort, multiflora rose, Osage orange, and white mulberry.

Wet floodplain forest - There is no estimate of the proportion of the approximately 6,553 acres of floodplain forest within the SRAA that is wet floodplain forest. No areas of wet floodplain forest have been identified from within the SRAA by the lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Compared with other floodplain forest communities, fewer tree species may be found in examples of this natural community since flooding frequency and duration, typically, are limiting for many species. Canopy tree species may include black willow, box elder,

37 cottonwood, green ash, hackberry, honey locust, and silver maple. Shrub species may include buttonbush, false indigo, and swamp privet. Vine species may include bristly catbrier, riverbank grape, and trumpet creeper. Ground cover species may include balsam apple, blue star, bugle weed, clearweed, common beggar's ticks, curttop lady's thumb, ditch stonecrop, dodder, false aster, false dragonhead, false nettle, fowl manna grass, frog fruit, groundnut, late boneset, mad-dog skullcap, nodding bur marigold, mild water pepper, moneywort, Ontario aster, orange touch-me-not, panicled aster, pinkweed, sedges (Carexfrankii, C. lupulina, C. stipata), smartweed, swamp dock, swamp milkweed, tall beggar's ticks, Virginia wild rye, water horehound, water knotweed, white avens, wild blue iris, and wood nettle.

No species listed as threatened or endangered by the llJinois Endangered Species Protection Board (IESPB) are known from wet floodplain forest within the SRAA. One species listed as state endangered, showy lady's slipper orchid, is sometimes found in wet floodplain woods and is known historically from the SRAA. Sweet Indian plantain, a state watch list species typically of wet floodplain forest, is reported from the SRAA (Table 9). Ecological problems include changes in the watershed that alter the flooding regime and exotic species introductions. Exotic species include creeping Charlie, moneywort, and Osage orange.

Prairie

In Illinois, the prairie community class is made up of six subclasses: dolomite prairie, gravel prairie, hill prairie, prairie, sand prairie, and shrub prairie. Based on remnant prairies in the SRAA and inferring from soil-moisture conditions that were present prior to extensive agricultural development, the following community subclasses were present: prairie and hill prairie. In Illinois, within the prairie community subclass are five prairie natural communities: dry prairie, dry-mesic prairie, mesic prairie, wet-mesic prairie, and wet prairie. In lllinois, within the hill prairie community subclass are four hill prairie natural communities: loess hill prairie, glacial drift hill prairie, gravel hill prairie, and sand hill prairie. In the SRAA, the following natural communities are known to be present or have occurred: loess hill prairie, glacial-drift hill prairie, dry-mesic prairie, mesic prairie, wet-mesic prairie, and wet prairie (Table 10).

Common ecological problems associated with prairie, in general, include fragmentation, exotic species invasions, fire absence, and habitat degradation. Small, isolated fragments tend to support many species at low population levels (thus prone to local extinction) too remote to be enhanced through natural mechanisms of species dispersal. Small isolated prairie remnants also may be lacking appropriate pollinator species for successful sexual reproduction of many outcrossing species. The greater edge-to-volume ratios of small sites offer greater opportunities for exotic species invasions since the matrix areas typically are rich in non-native, and often invasive, species. Exotic species pose some of the most severe threats to the integrity of existing high-quality prairie remnants in the SRAA. Highly fragmented and developed landscapes also lead to altered fire regimes

38 thus often eliminating fire from prairie remnants until restoration efforts commence. Fire absence results in ecological changes such as encroachment of woody plants that eliminate many shade-intolerant prairie species. Fire absence also can lead to a severe invasion of exotic cool-season grasses like the ubiquitous meadow fescue, smooth brome, and Kentucky bluegrass. Over-grazing by domestic stock typically degrades prairie remnants by eliminating many species and promoting the increase of several weedy native and non-native species. Soil disturbance, such as past efforts at cultivation or soil scraping (typical of many railroad right-of-ways), result in loss of species and opportunities for the establishment of weedy taxa. All of these factors, and combinations of factors, tend to result in loss of species diversity and ecological integrity for all prairie community types.

Approximately 787,117 acres (67%) of the SRAA was prairie in about 1820 (Anderson 1970, Iverson et al. 1989, Illinois Geographic Information System). However, it is unclear what proportion of this belonged to each prairie subclasses. Currently about 5.6 acres of prairie (0.001 % of original amount of all prairie natural communities), found at four sites, remain in a high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded condition (Table 6). There may be noteworthy remnants of prairie in railroad rights-of-way within the SRAA that persist in a degraded condition. Many important prairie species respond in predictable ways along soil-moisture gradients. The characteristic species of each soil moisture class believed to have existed in the SRAA are described below. Limited floristic data from the SRAA are available for the prairie natural communities. For prairie communities lacking descriptions from within the SRAA, such as loess hill prairie and glacial-drift hill prairie, floristic composition of remnants in central Illinois outside the SRAA is used to provide a general characterization.

Prairie

The prairie community subclass may be subdivided into natural communities according to soil-moisture characteristics. Dry, dry-mesic, mesic, wet-mesic, wet prairie natural communities are recognized in Illinois in context with increasing available soil moisture (White and Madany 1978). Within the SRAA four prairie natural communities are known to occur or are believed formerly to have occurred; dry-mesic prairie, mesic prairie, wet-mesic prairie, and wet prairie (Table 8). These natural prairie communities are characterized below.

Dry-mesic prairie - With the exception of one small remnant in Warren County, dry mesic prairies virtually have been eliminated from the SRAA. Most of these probably occurred on upland sites throughout the assessment area on well-drained and somewhat permeable soils with moderate water-holding capacity. A total of 2.4 acres of dry-mesic prairie in the SRAA (one site) is recognized as high quality and of statewide ecological significance by the INAI. This represents about 16.7% of all high quality dry-mesic prairie (Grades A and B) remaining in lllinois (Table 6).

39 Common grass species may include big blue stem, Canada wild rye, Indian grass, June grass, little blue stem, panic grasses (e.g., Panicum lanuginosum, P. oligosanthes, P. virgatum), and porcupine grass. Common sedge species may include Bicknell's sedge, Mead's stiff sedge, and plains oval sedge. Common forb species may include alumroot, blazing star, butterfly plant, common blue-eyed grass, downy phlox, downy sunflower, field milkwort, flowering spurge, frostweed, hairy ruellia, hoary puccoon, old field goldenrod, pale purple coneflower, pale spiked lobelia, prairie blazing star, prairie coreopsis, prairie dock, prairie milkweed, prairie sunflower, prairie violet, purple milkweed, purple prairie clover, rough white lettuce, rattlesnake master, rosin plant, round-headed bush clover, showy tick trefoil, tall green milkweed, thimbleweed, white prairie aster, white prairie clover, white wild indigo, whorled miIkwort, wild bergamont, wild strawberry, and yellow star grass. Common shrub species may include gray dogwood, hazelnut, lead plant, New-Jersey tea, pasture rose, and Smooth sumac.

No threatened or endangered species are known from dry-mesic prairie habitats in the SRAA. Typical ecological problems include fire absence (and consequential woody plant encroachment), habitat degradation from soil disturbances, and exotic species invasion and establishment. Common exotic species, in general, from silt-loam prairies in Illinois may include asparagus, Canada blue grass, Kentucky blue grass, parsnip, Queen-Anne's lace, white sweet clover, and yellow sweet clover.

Mesic prairie - Mesic prairie occurs in an intermediate soil-moisture zone on the landscape between dry-mesic and wet-mesic prairie. Soils can be moderately well drained but are often saturated during short periods of the growing season. Undegraded mesic tall-grass prairie is one of the most species-dense plant communities in North America. Typical remnants often contain from 15 to 30 species in a 0.25m2 sampling quadrant. About 100 to 130 taxa of vascular plants can be found in individual, small (e.g. 5 acre), pioneer cemetery remnants in central Illinois. Degraded remnants often are not as rich in species. There may 'be remnants of degraded mesic tall grass prairie within the SRAA that could be improved with ecological management. Many remnants in central llIinois occur in pioneer cemeteries and in railroad rights-of-way. A total of 0.5 acres in the SRAA of mesic prairie (two sites) is recognized as high quality and of statewide ecological significance by the INAI. This represents about 0.2% of all high quality mesic prairie (Grades A and B) remaining in lllinois (Table 6).

Common grass species may include big blue stem, Indian grass, little blue stem, prairie dropseed, and prairie switch grass. Common sedge species may include Bicknell's sedge, Mead's stiff sedge, and plains oval sedge. Common forb species may include alumroot, black-eyed Susan, blue-eyed grass, butterfly weed, eat's foot, common spiderwort, compass plant, cream wild indigo, culver's root, downy gentian, downy phlox, downy sunflower, early goldenrod, false boneset, golden Alexander's, green milkweed, hoary puccoon, lance-leaved loosestrife, lousewort, Missouri ironweed, New England aster, pale purple coneflower, pale spiked lobelia, prairie blazing star, prairie dock, prairie Indian plantain, prairie milkweed, prairie sunflower, prairie violet, purple prairie clover, pussy toes, rattlesnake master, rigid goldenrod, rough false foxglove, rosin

40 plant, round-headed bush clover, shooting star, showy goldenrod, slender mountain mint, small-headed aster, tall coreopsis, white prairie clover, white wild indigo, wild bergamont, wild quinine, and yellow coneflower. Common shrub species may include hazelnut, leadplant, New-Jersey tea, pasture rose, and prairie willow.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from mesic prairie habitats in the SRAA. Two species listed by the IESPB as state endangered species (prairie white fringed orchid and western wild lettuce) are known from mesic prairie and are historically known from within the SRAA. The prairie white-fringed orchid is also a federally threatened species (Table 9). The western wild lettuce is probably extirpated from Illinois. Typical ecological problems in mesic prairie remnants include fire absence (and consequential woody plant encroachment), soil disturbances, and exotic species invasion and establishment. Common exotic species in mesic tall-grass prairies, particularly those in pioneer cemeteries, include: asparagus, Canadian bluegrass, common milfoil, common teasel, Cyprus spurge, Hungarian brome grass, Kentucky blue grass, orange day lily, parsnip, Queen Anne's lace, shrubby honeysuckle, white sweet clover, and yellow sweet clover. Evidence of leaf bum and mortality of plants at the edge of prairies bordering cropland suggests that herbicide drift can be a problem, at least to species at the prairie edge, and may be an unrealized confounding factor throughout prairie remnants where they occur adjacent to cropland. Off-road vehicle use of railroad rights-of-way is becoming an increasingly damaging problem for prairie remnants.

Wet-mesic prairie - This prairie community occurs in an intermediate zone between mesic prairie and wet prairie on somewhat poorly drained sites. Inundation periods are more brief than in wet prairie. Wet-mesic prairie may have been present where the Spoon River joins the Illinois River floodplain and was likely associated with more minor streams and in upland depressions. A total of 1.7 acres in the SRAA of wet-mesic prairie (one site) is recognized as high quality and of statewide ecological significance by the INAI. This represents about 1.7% of all high quality wet-mesic prairie(Grades A and B) remaining in Illinois (Table 6).

Common grass species may include big blue stem, blue-joint grass, Indian grass, prairie cord grass, prairie switch grass, red top, and tickle grass. Common sedge species may include aWl-fruited sedge, brown fox sedge, lance-fruited oval sedge, large yellow fox grass, and long-awned bracted sedge. Common forb species may include bunch-flower, camassia, closed gentian, common horsetail, common mountain mint, cowbane, culver's root, false dragonhead, golden Alexander's, grass-leaved goldenrod, late boneset, meadow anemone, Michigan lily, narrow-leaved loosestrife, New England aster, northern nigwort, prairie dock, prairie sundrops, sawtooth sunflower, slender false foxglove, smooth phlox, willow-leaved aster, winged loosestrife, and yellow coneflower. Vine species are uncommon but may include Virginia creeper. Shrub species are uncommon but may include American plum, and pale dogwood.

One species from wet-mesic prairies and listed as state threatened, bunch-flower, is reported from the SRAA. Three species listed by the lllinois Endangered Species

41 Protection Board as state endangered species (prairie white-fringed orchid, western wild lettuce, and white lady's slipper orchid) are known from wet-mesic prairie and are historically known from within the SRAA. The prairie white-fringed orchid is also a federally threatened species (Table 9). Ecological problems in wet-mesic prairie are associated primarily with enhanced drainage from tile. Fire absence can result in woody plant encroachment. Exotic species include common milfoil, glossy buckthorn, and Kentucky bluegrass.

Wet prairie - Wet prairie occurred on poorly drained and slowly permeable soils in floodplains of the major streams and in upland depressions. Due to drainage activities, habitat destruction, and altered flooding and fire regimes, very few high quality (Grades A and B) wet prairie remnants remain in centrallllinois. Wet prairie, particularly in the large stream floodplains, probably blended with wet-mesic prairie, marsh, and slough habitats according to topographic features, soil differences (e.g., available water-holding capacity), and flooding duration. No areas of wet prairie have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality, undegraded remnants.

Common grass species may include blue-joint grass, prairie cord grass, and rice cut grass. Common sedge species may include hairy-fruited lake sedge and lance-fruited oval sedge. Common forb species may include autumn sneezeweed, common boneset, common horsetail, common ironweed, cowbane, false aster, flat-stemmed spike rush, ground nut, marsh bellflower, New England aster, nodding bur marigold, panicled aster, sawtooth sunflower, slender spike rush, small-flowered water plantain, swamp agrimony, swamp milkweed, water parsnip, water plantain, wild blue iris, and winged loosestrife.

No threatened or endangered species presently are known from wet prairie habitats in the SRAA. Two species listed by the .Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board as state endangered species (prairie white-fringed orchid and western wild lettuce) are known from wet prairies and are historically known from within the SRAA. The prairie white fringed orchid is also a federally threatened species (Table 9). Ecological problems, besides the obvious factor of total habitat destruction, include increased tile drainage altering the soil moisture regime, siltation in the floodplain habitat, and invasion of floodplain forest species. Exotic species include glossy buckthorn.

Hill Prairie

Hill prairies typically occur on slopes with exposure to the south and south-west. Soil moisture conditions are usually very dry on these well drained sites. Hill prairies often occur as openings within forest. During long periods of fire absence, hill prairies often decline in area and many have been eliminated or severely reduced in size due to encroachment of woody plants (McClain 1983; Robertson et aI. 1995). For classification, hill prairies are distinguished not by soil moisture but by substrate. Four hill prairie natural communities have been recognized in Illinois, glacial drift hill prairie, gravel hill prairie, loess hill prairie, and sand hill prairie (White and Madany 1978). Glacial drift

42 hill prairies and loess hill prairies undoubtedly occurred in the SRAA and remnants may still exist.

Glacial drift hill prairie - Glacial drift hill prairies typically occur on slopes bordering streams where loess deposits have been removed by natural erosional processes exposing underlying gravelly glacial till. No areas of glacial drift hill prairie have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality, undegraded remnants. Glacial drift hill prairie remnants might occur or have occurred in the northeastern upper reaches of the Spoon River (East Fork Spoon River) where the Spoon River cuts through the Bloomington Moranic System. Glacial drift hill prairies typically support a rich assortment of native prairie plant species. Three glacial drift hill prairies from outside the SRAA in nearby Marshall (East Henry glacial drift hill prairie) and Putnam (Magnolia and Standard glacial drift hill prairies) counties were reported by Evers (1955) and their species composition is given as examples of what may be or have been present on glacial drift hill prairies in the SRAA. Only those species were listed that are known from the SRAA (Appendix I).

Common grass species may have included big blue stem, Indian grass, little bluestem, and tickle grass. Common forb species may include bastard toad-flax, blazing-star, common blue-eyed grass, compass plant, false boneset, flowering spurge, hoary puccoon, hoary vervain, old field goldemod, pale purple coneflower, prairie coreopsis, purple oxalis, purple prairie clover, slender bush clover, small skullcap, tall boneset, whorled milkweed, wild poinsettia, and yellow puccoon. Common shrub species may include fragrant sumac, Iowa crab, lead plant, smooth sumac, and rough-leaved dogwood.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from glacial drift hill prairie habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems are woody encroachment due to periods of fire absence, exotic species invasion, and grazing. Black medic, Canadian blue grass, Kentucky blue grass, and white sweet clover typically form the chief exotic species problems in glacial-drift hill prairies. A common seed source for these species in some hill prairies is horse manure. Horse trails also can be a serious degradation factor, particularly on steep slopes prone to erosion and compaction. It is possible that there remain a few, small, unmanaged glacial drift hill prairies associated with slopes along the northeast portion of the SRAA. Prompt management including prescribed fire and brush cutting can enhance any remaining sites.

Loess hill prairie - Loess is a wind-blown silty material deposited following glacial episodes. Loess hill prairies occur on steep slopes with south and west-facing exposures along the eastern bluffs. No areas of loess hill prairie have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality, undegraded remnants. Loess hill prairie remnants were likely present and perhaps common in presettlement times along the south and west-facing exposures along the Spoon River and its tributaries. Loess deposits generally ranged from 5 feet in the southern sections of the SRAA to over 20 feet in the extreme northwestern portion of the SRAA. Reavis Spring loess hill prairie from Mason County was reported by Evers (1955) and its species

43 composition is given as an example of what species may have been present on loess hill prairies in the SRAA. Only those species were listed that are known from the SRAA (Appendix I).

Common grass species may have included big blue stem, June grass, little blue stem, and purple love grass. Common forb species may include biennial gaura, blazing-star, blue eyed grass, cat's foot, compass plant, daisy fleabane, false dragonhead, flowering spurge, hairy mountain mint, hairy ruellia, hoary puccoon, hoary vervain, nodding ladies' tresses, nodding spurge, old field goldenrod, pale beardstongue, prairie groundsel, purple oxalis, purple prairie clover, rigid goldenrod, rough pennyroyal, round-headed bush clover, shooting star, sky-blue aster, smooth scouring rush, sweet everlasting, tall boneset, tall green milkweed, thimbleweed, western false-gromwell, white prairie clover, wild bergamont, wild poinsettia, and yellow puccoon. Common shrub species may include lead plant, pasture rose, and smooth sumac.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from glacial drift hill prairie habitats in the SRAA. One species listed by the IESPB as a state endangered species (white lady's slipper orchid) is known from loess hill prairie in Illinois and historically is known from within the SRAA (Table 9). Ecological problems in loess hill prairies include fire absence, grazing by domestic stock, and exotic species invasion. Many loess prairies have declined in area or disappeared since the 1950's (McClain 1983). Fire absence appears to be the most likely explanation for these changes. Woody encroachment, during periods of fire absence, from native species around the perimeter of hill prairies reduces their overall size and ultimately can eliminate them. As hill prairies decline in area, species richness and overall diversity declines (Robertson et al. 1995). Use of prescribed burning has been very effective throughout lllinois and in the Midwest in restoring hill prairie natural communities. Many other loess hill prairies have be used as pasture for domestic animals (mostly cattle) and have been degraded by over grazing. Exotic species problems increase in the grazed hill prairie and where fire has been absent for long periods. Exotic species include green foxtail, Hungarian brome grass, Japanese honeysuckle, Kentucky bluegrass, Queen Anne's lace, white sweet clover, wooly mullein, and yellow sweet clover.

Savanna

The Midwest, intermediately located between the eastern deciduous forests and grasslands of the Great Plains, has the environmental conditions and fire history that supported many savanna habitats (Anderson 1983; Taft 1997). Savannas are characterized by scattered, open-grown trees, with or without shrubs, and a continuous herbaceous ground cover typically dominated by grarninoid species (grasses and sedges) and numerous forbs. Density and percent cover of trees varies and is intermediate between open prairie and closed woodland or forest. Midwest savanna-like habitats have several unifying characteristics including: I) open canopied structure; 2) canopy dominance by a few species of oaks; 3) a ground cover usually rich in species associated

44 with tallgrass prairie; 4) the majority of floristic diversity contained in the ground-cover; and 5) dependence on fire and other disturbance for maintenance of diversity and stability. Oak-dominated systems appear dependent on periodic fire for persistence (Lorimer 1985; Abrams 1992). In a period of a few decades of fire absence, savannas in the Midwest were altered through vegetational changes and habitat destruction. There was a rapid conversion of open savanna to closed woodland forest. The once widespread oak savannas have become among the rarest plant communities (e.g., Curtis 1959; White 1978; Nelson 1985). Presently in the Midwest some former savanna and open-woodland areas can still be recognized locally by the form and density of the oldest trees in closed woodlands. Some small remnants persist where woody encroachment has been retarded (though not stopped) by droughty edaphic conditions. In addition, many savanna-like areas have been structurally maintained by livestock grazing. Typically, the ground cover at grazed sites is floristically degraded and dominated by non-native species.

In Illinois, the savanna community class is made up of three subclasses: savanna (generally on fine-textured soils), sand savanna, and barrens (local inclusions of a prairie flora within an otherwise forested landscape) (White and Madany 1978). These subclasses are further classified into natural communities based on soil moisture characteristics. Based on inferred edaphic characteristics in the SRAA prior to settlement, the following natural community types were present: dry-mesic savanna and mesic savanna. These communities sometimes merge gradually with other community types (e.g., dry-mesic prairie to dry-mesic savanna to dry-mesic upland forest and mesic prairie to mesic savanna to mesic upland forest).

Savanna

Presently a total of 0.7 acre of dry-mesic savanna among one site in the SRAA is recognized as high quality (Grades A and B), and statewide a significant natural area by the INAl (Table 6). The primary ecological problems associated with savanna habitats include fire absence, fragmentation, habitat degradation (especially grazing), and establishment of exotic species. Areas of former savanna may occur in the SRAA that could be restored or at least rehabilitated with prompt vegetation management.

Dry-mesic savanna - Dry-mesic savanna occurred in the SRAA on the upper slopes and ridge tops of areas dissected by the Spoon River and its tributaries. These savannas were ecotonal between upland prairies and the upland forest found in more mesic and fire protected ravines bordering the major river valleys (Zawacki and Hausfater 1969) and probably contained many species of loess hill prairies. In the absence of fire, these areas rapidly developed into closed woodlands. Most areas of dry-mesic savanna have been destroyed, degraded, or undergone vegetational changes. A total of 0.7 acres of dry mesic savanna (Copley Cemetery Prairie) in the SRAA are recognized as high quality (Grades A and B) and of statewide ecological significance by the INAl. This represents about 7.6% of all high quality dry-mesic savanna (Grades A and B) remaining in llIinois (Table 6). The following characterization is based on generalized descriptions provided

45 by Zawacki and Hausfaster (1969). Only those species were listed that are known from the SRAA (Appendix I).

Common to occasional tree species may have included black oak, blackjack oak, bur oak, post oak shagbark hickory, shingle oak, and white oak. Subcanopy species would have been characterized by many of the previous species in various stages of recruitment. Common shrub species may have included hazelnut, lead plant, New Jersey tea, pasture rose, prairie willow, and rough-leaved dogwood. Ground-cover species may have included a rich assortment of graminoid and forb species from prairie and woodland habitats. Common graminoid species may have included big blue stem, bottlebrush grass, Canada brome grass, closely covered sedge, common oak sedge, Indian grass, little blue stem, and poverty oat grass. Common forb species may have included broad-leaved purple coneflower, camassia, cat's foot, culver's root, hog peanut, pale Indian plantain, partridge pea, shooting star, slender mountain mint, tall coreopsis, wild quinine, wild strawberry, yellow pimpernel, and yellow star grass.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from dry-mesic savanna habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems associated with dry.-mesic savanna are similar to those discussed previously under savanna.

Mesic savanna - Mesic savannas typically were associated with prairie groves on level to slightly rolling terrain. Mesic savannas are particularly dependent on recurrent fire for maintenance. Without periodic fire, the soil-moisture conditions allow rapid development of woody vegetation. Consequently, due to several factors (e.g., fire absence, habitat loss, and over-grazing) undegraded remnants, though formerly widespread, are among the rarest plant communities in the Midwest and none are known from the SRAA.

The compositional characteristics of mesic savannas is imprecisely known because so few remain. A floristic description of Root Cemetery, a small mesic savanna in Peoria County and just outside the assessment area boundary, provided much of the source for the following description (Solecki and Frye 1993). Common to occasional tree species may have included black walnut, bur oak, hackberry, shagbark hickory, shingle oak, and white oak. Common subcanopy species would have been characterized by many of the previous species in various stages of recruitment. Common shrub species may have included hazelnut, New Jersey tea, smooth sumac, and wafer ash. Common vine species may have included bittersweet and Virginia creeper. Common graminoid species may have included big blue stem, Canada wild rye, Indian grass, little blue stem, long-awned bracted sedge, Mead's stiff sedge, plains oval sedge, and prairie switch grass. Common forb species may have included bastard toad-flax, camassia, columbine, common blue eyed grass, common mountain mint, Culver's root, cup plant, daisy fleabane, feathery false Solomon seal, Flowering spurge, French grass, hairy ruellia, Jacob's ladder, red trillium, round-headed bush clover, thimbleweed, Virginia bluebells, western sunflower, white trout lily, white wild indigo, wild bergamot, and wild geranium.

46 No threatened or endangered species are presently known from mesic savanna habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems associated with mesic savannas are similar to those discussed previously under savanna.

Wetland

There are about 20,034 acres of wetland within the SRAA, about 1.7% of the assessment area (Table 3). Wetland community types in the SRAA, following the natural community classification of Suloway and Hubbell 1994 (Table 3), include floodplain forest (about 32.7% of the wetland total), marsh (13.6%), shrub swamp (2.9%), lake (1.3%), pond (42.6%), and river (7.0%). Natural wetlands in the SRAA are concentrated along the Spoon River and its tributaries (Figure 8). The excessively high number of ponds is a result of coal mining. No areas of wetland have been identified from within the SRAA by the lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

The wetland community class, according to White and Madany (1978), is comprised of seven community subclasses: marsh, swamp, bog, fen, sedge meadow, panne, and seep and spring. These subclasses are recognized mainly by vegetation differences. Four of these wetland subclasses are within the SRAA: marsh, swamp, sedge meadow, and seep and spring. In the SRAA the following natural communities may be found: marsh, swamp, shrub swamp, sedge meadow, seep, and spring (Table 8).

Marsh

A total (including sedge meadow) of about 2,720 acres of emergent marsh vegetation occur in the SRAA (Table 3)..This is about 0.23% of total assessment area. In Illinois, the marsh community subclass has only the single marsh natural community. No areas of marsh have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Marsh - Marshes are palustrine wetlands characterized by having water at or near the surface during rhost of the growing season, they were dominanated by herbaceous vegetation and have organic or mineral soils (White and Madany 1978).

The source of the natural community description for the SRAA is provided primarily from"A Preliminary Survey of Vascular Plants of the Horseshoe Lake Area, Knox County, Illinois" by Weik and Baker 1975 and "An Annotated List of Vascular Plants from Knox County, Illinois" by Solomon 1979. Common grass species may include blue joint grass, manna grass, prairie cord grass, and rice cut grass. Common sedge and rush species may include blunt spike rush, bulrush, bristly cattail sedge, common fox sedge, dark green rush, long-scaled nut sedge, marsh spike rush, and tufted lake sedge.

47 Common species may include American germander, bitter cress, bur-reed, broad-leaved cattail, bugle weed, cinnamon willow herb, common arrowleaf, common boneset, common ironweed, cow parsnip, curttop lady's thumb, false loosestrife, false nettle, fireweed, grass-leaved goldenrod, great blue lobelia, loosestrife, mad-dog skullcap, marsh yellow cress, mild water pepper, monkey flower, nodding bur marigold, pinkweed, scarlet loosestrife, seedbox, sensitive fern, short-beaked arrowleaf, small beadstraw, stalked water horehound, swamp agrimony, swamp dock, swamp milkweed, water hemlock, water horehound, water knotweed, water parsnip, and wild blue iris. Trees commonly associated with marshes include black willow, peach-leaved willow, red ash, and silver maple.

One species listed by the llIinois Endangered Species Protection Board as a state endangered species (American bur-reed) is known from marshes and is historically known from within the SRAA. Ecological problems in marshes include siltation, altered flooding regimes, invasion of exotic species, and over-abundance of aggressive, disturbance-tolerant native species. Siltation and altered flooding regime can reduce the integrity of the marsh. When changes in flooding dynamics result in increased frequency and/or duration of flooding, species intolerant of the new levels will decline .and species tolerant of the new levels will increase. Increasers under conditions of siltation and increased flooding often include common cattail, common reed, and reed canary grass. Compared with upland habitats, relatively few exotics are wetland species (Havera et al. 1994). However, a few taxa (e.g., glossy buckthorn and purple loosestrife) are serious pests that can threaten the diversity of a wetland site. Glossy buckthorn is presently known from within the SRAA (Weik and Baker 1975) and purple loosestrife is known from adjacent Peoria County. Brittle willow is another exotic species present in the SRAA that invades disturbed wetlands, including marshes.

Swamp

A total of about 575.7 acres (about 0.05% of the total assessment area) of swamp occurs in the SRAA (Table 3). In Illinois the swamp community subclass has two natural communities, swamp and shrub swamp. Each is known from the SRAA and is discussed below. No areas of swamp have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INA!) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Swamp - A true swamp is a forested, permanent or semi-permanent body of water (White and Madany 1978). A total of 0.6 acres of swamp natural community have been identified in the assessment area (Table 3).

In Illinois, swamps are generally restricted to southern llIinois because few trees can live in permanent bodies of water and t.'lose that can are mostly found in southern Illinois. Tree and shrub species may include black willow and buttonbush. Non woody species may include bitter cress, coontail, fowl manna grass, mad-dog skullcap,

48 marsh yellow cress, mild water pepper, seedbox, stalked water horehound, swamp buttercup, water horehound, water parsnip, wild blue iris, and yellow water crowfoot.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from swamp habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems are similar to the marsh natural community.

Shrub swamp - A shrub swamp (= shrub/scrub wetland using Illinois Wetland Inventory classification [Table 3]) is a wetland with at least 50% cover of shrubs (White and Madany 1978). A total of about 575 acres of shrub swamp have been identified in the assessment area (Table 3). No areas of shrub swamp have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants. Tree species are rare but may include black willow. Shrub species may include buttonbush, false indigo, pale dogwood, peach-leaved willow, and sandbar willow.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from swamp habitats in the SRAA. One species listed by the Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board as a state endangered species (showy lady's slipper orchid) is known from shrub swamps in Illinois and is historically known from within the SRAA (Table 9). Ecological problems are similar to the marsh natural community.

Sedge Meadow

The sedge meadow community subclass has only the single sedge meadow natural community. The total acreage of sedge meadow is unknown for the SRAA. This community subclass is combined with the marsh subclass as shallow marsh/wet meadow (Table 3). A sedge meadow is a wetland dominated by sedges (White and Madany 1978) and in species composition is most similar to a wet prairie. No areas of sedge meadow have been identified from within the SRAA by the lllinois Natural Areas Inventory . (INAI) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Sedge meadow - A sedge meadow is similar to a wet prairie; however, the sedge meadow is dominated by sedges rather than grasses. They have some degrees of species overlap. Generally the dominant sedge is the common tussock sedge (Carex stricta). The common tussock sedge is known from Fulton and Peoria counties and likely occurs within the SRAA. However, the only description for a sedge meadow within the SRAA list the hairy-fruited lake sedge (Carex trichocarpa) as the dominant sedge (Simon 1990). Common species may include blue vervain, common gaura, culver's root, cup plant, prairie cord grass, and red top.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from sedge meadow habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems are similar to those noted for the wet prairie natural community. Exotics that can be a serious problem include glossy buckthorn, canary reed grass, Hungarian brome, and meadow fescue,

49 Seep and Spring

This community subclass is characterized by a constant diffuse flow (seep) or concentrated flow (spring) of groundwater, typically from the lower portions of slopes of glacial moraines, ravines, and terraces (White and Madany 1978). The water chemistry of the ground water controls to some extent the species composition. The water chemistry is influenced by the material it flows through. In Illinois the seep & spring community subclass has five natural communities; seep, acid gravel seep, calcareous seep, sand seep, and spring. Seep natural communities are circumneutral and occur where the water is not strongly influenced by bedrock or parent material chemistry. Acid gravel seep natural communities occur associated with sandstone bedrock or gravel. Calcareous seep natural communities occur where the groundwater is mineralized by alkaline bedrock (e.g. limestone) and/or soil parent material like glacial drift. Sand seep natural communities emerge from sand deposits and may be calcareous, acid, or neutral. Spring natural communities occur where water outflow is such that a channel is formed. The total acres of seep and spring community subclass is unknown for the SRAA. No areas of seep & spring community subclass have been identified from within the SRAA by the Illinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAl) as high-quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants. Potentially two of these natural communities, seep and spring, may occur in the SRAA.

Seep - A seep, as explained above, is formed when groundwater comes to the surface as a constant diffuse flow. The water chemistry is circumneutral. This community may be somewhat calcareous, especially in the limestone regions along the Spoon River. Common trees species may include American elm, boxelder, and sycamore. Common shrub species may include alternate-leaved dogwood, elderberry, and peach-leaved willow. Common to occasional non-woody species may include angelica, bristly cattail sedge, Canada clearweed, cinnamon willow herb, common boneset, common horsetail, cup plant, false nettle, fen betony, fowl manna grass, grass-of-Parnassus, hog peanut, great blue lobelia, large yellow fox sedge, marsh bellflower, marsh fleabane, marsh marigold, orange touch-me-not, skunk cabbage, swamp saxifrage, sweet flag, sweet scented bedstraw, white avens, white grass, and white turtlehead. Chara, a macrophytic green algae known from the SRAA also is frequent.

No threatened or endangered species are presently known from seep habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems are similar to the marsh natural community.

Spring - A spring, as explained above, is formed where water outflow comes to the surface and forms a channel. Large springs are restricted to southern Illinois, but small springs are common throughout much of Illinois. Spring natural communities are difficult to describe, the vegetation tends to reflect the plant community from which they arise with additional species that develop along the spring run. The species found along the spring run often being those typical of the temporary and permanent streams in the area. Springs are sometimes found in conjunction with seeps and here will reflect that

50 commumtIes species composltJon. One common species often associated with spring natural communities is water cress, but it is a non-native species.

No threatened or endangered species arc presently known from spring habitats in the SRAA. Ecological problems are similar to the marsh natural community.

Lake and Pond

There are about 8,789 acres of Lake and Pond habitats within the SRAA (Figure 9), about 0.7% of the SRAA or about 43.9% of all wetland area in tlIe SRAA (Table 3). The Lake and Pond community class, according to White and Madany (1978), refers to open-water habitats and includes two community suclasses: lake and pond. These subclasses are recognized by size, with lakes being greater than 20 acres. No natural lakes are known to occur within the SRAA but 253 acres of artificial lake habitat are known to occur. There are about 8,436 acres of pond habitat within the SRAA. The majority of these (98.8%) are small artificial ponds mostly associated witII four large strip mining areas (southwestern, southeastern, eastcentral, northcentral) in the SRAA. In tlIe SRAA the following natural communities may be found: pond.

Pond

Natural ponds are shallow-water wetlands, less than 20 acres in size, that are not excavated or impounded. There are a total of about 77 natural ponds, totaling about 100 acres in the SRAA (Illinois Wetlands Inventory data). These ponds occur mostly in the floodplains along the major streams and some may be connected, so determining the exact number is somewhat arbitrary. No areas of pond community subclass have been identified from witlIin the SRAA by tlIe lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (INAI) as high quality (Grades A and B), undegraded remnants.

Pond - Perhaps the best example of a natural pond in the SRAA is Horseshoe Lake in Knox County. This pond community along Haw Creek was described by Weik and Baker (1975) and is tlIe basis of the following pond natural community description. Floating aquatic species may include great duckweed, small duckweed, and water meal. Two floating-leaved liverwort species may include Riccia and Ricciocarpus (bryophytes, not vascular plants). Emergent aquatic species may include leafy pondweed and yellow water-crowfoot. Submerged aquatic species may include water purslane. Tree species along the low wet margin may include black willow. Non-woody species along the low wet margins may include American germander, bitter cress, blue-joint grass, blunt spike rush, bur-reed, common arrowleaf, common fox sedge, common wood sedge, dark green rush, false loosestrife, long-scaled nut sedge, manna grass, marsh spike rush, marsh yellow cress, mild water pepper, monkey flower, pinkweed, seedbox, sensitive fern, swamp dock, tufted lake sedge, water hemlock, water horehound, water parsnip, and wood gray sedge.

51 Cultural Habitats

This class describes communities formed by anthropogenic activities and disturbances and includes cropland, pastureland, successional field, developed land, tree plantation, artificial lake, artificial pond, and prairie reconstruction. This is the major community class in the SRAA comprising about 66% of the total land area (Table 2). No threatened or endangered species are known from cultural habitats in the SRAA. These areas, by isolating habitats, interrupting landscape-level processes, and providing a habitat for many disturbance-tolerant, invasive native and non-native plant species, impose some of the most challenging ecological problems for natural habitats in the SRAA (see discussion below). One exception is the prairie reconstruction, termed prairie restoration by the INAl (White and Madany 1978). This is the only community type mentioned below (briefly) since it is the only example in the Cultural community class of an effort to create a natural community.

Prairie restoration

Typically, prairie reconstructions are plantings of prairie species on grassland soils where the original natural community has been destroyed. Prairie species are planted, sometimes in an effort to produce a warm-season grassland and sometimes with the goal of attempting to recreate the original prairie community. Prairie reconstruction's often are species poor and strongly dominated by a few species. The total area of prairie reconstruction is unknown from within the SRAA. Knox College has a 760 acre prairie restoration, which the college established in the early 1970's, on its biological station at Green Oaks near Victoria. None have developed into communities that mimic undegraded tall-grass prairie in species richness or structure.

Summary and Recommendations

In general, habitat loss appears to be greater in the Spoon River Assessment Area when compared with trends for the state as a whole. While habitat loss and degradation have been extensive in lllinois, trends within the SRAA appear even more severe. The SRAA has 111.3 acres remaining in a high quality undegraded condition (0.01 % of total area compared to 0.07% for the state as a whole), exceeding statewide levels of habitat degradation (White 1978). This remaining 111.3 acres accounts for 2.3% of the high quality undegraded acres remaining in lllinois. Habitat degradation for prairie appears to be slightly greater than statewide trends. However, the remaining high quality prairie is an extremely valuable natural resource. The remaining high quality dry-mesic prairie within the SRAA accounts for 16.7% of all high quality dry-mesic prairie remaining in lllinois. The SRAA retains a greater proportion of its presettlement forest acreage than the state as a whole, but levels of degradation exceed statewide trends. No areas of high quality floodplain forest are known within the SRAA. However, the wet-mesic upland forest within the SRAA accounts for 18% ofthe high quality wet-mesic upland forest remaining in Illinois.

52 Savannas have been eliminated nearly everywhere in Illinois and the amount of original savanna in the SRAA is unknown. However, the SRAA has a notable (0.7 acre) savanna remnant. This remnant accounts for 7.6% of all the high quality dry-mesic savanna remaining in Illinois and the only remnant of a Grade A dry-mesic savanna in lllinois. About the same proportion of wetlands survive in the SRAA relative to the rest of the state, however, there are relatively fewer wetlands in high quality natural condition.

Few published data are available on the floristics and ecology of the prairies, forests, and wetlands within the SRAA. Ecological data on existing natural communities, at high quality and lesser quality sites, might provide valuable information to aid individuals attempting to manage existing natural communities and/or restore various degraded sites. Reliance cannot be put upon knowledge gained solely from the remaining high quality sites within the SRAA. Little remains of high quality natural communities here and many natural communities have no high quality representatives (dry and dry-mesic upland forest; mesic, wet-mesic, and wet floodplain forest; wet prairie; mesic savanna; marsh; swamp and shrub swamp; sedge meadow; seep and spring; pond) within the assessment area. Also, remnants tend to have floristic differences (no two sites are the same), and the fact that so little prairie, forest, savanna, and wetland remain suggests we would have a poor picuture of the original (presettlement) species diversity of all natural communities within the SRAA if we relyed only on introductions from sites in the SRAA. Areas within the SRAA of lesser quality, especially grade C natural communities (White and Madany 1978), need to be discovered, studied, and where feasible begin the long restoration effort. This effort could greatly enhance the natural diversity, not only esthetically but through all levels of native species biodiversity. These data would also be valuable as a long-term monitor of conditions within existing and new sites. Floristic data, while good for Knox County, areless specific for other counties in the SRAA. Specific floristic data are lacking or incomplete for most natural communities. It is important to colect these data, not only to know what is there presently that should be maintained but also what is present that needs to be removed.

Many of the most challenging conservation issues in the SRAA are addressed primarily at the community and landscape levels. There are serious ecological problems that threaten the long-term maintenance of biodiversity in the SRAA. Throughout the natural community descriptions in the report there are consistent references to a set of related ecological problems. These are habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, exotic species invasion, and for several communities, the absence of fire. The following five steps are recommended as an approach for gaining further insights about the natural communities in the SRAA and for developing a plan for the long-term maintenance of biodiversity.

1. Inventory The lllinois Natural Areas Inventory (!NAI) provides data on the distribution and abundance of statewide significant natural communities (White 1978). However, many natural communities occur in Illinois that, though they do not meet the critical qualitative standards established for the INAI for undegrated and statewide-significant natural areas, do contain regionally noteworthy and exceptional natural features. Many natural

53 communities in the SRAA, though somewhat degraded, retain relatively high levels of ecological integrity and have potential for further improvement through restoration efforts. Since the INAI sites are few and small in total area the somewhat degraded but restorable natural communities that remain are critical for the long-term maintenance of biodiversity in the region. Noteworthy remnants among all community classes (e.g. forest, prairie) need to be identified, since no high quality mesic, wet-mesic, and wet floodplain forest remnants are known from the SRAA, identification of the degraded is central to any recovery efforts for these community types. Random plots of various means may be established to rather quickly aid in evaluation of sites with restoration potential. Similarly the Floristic Integrity Assessment method for evaluating the natural quality of habitat remnants that employs numerous parameters of community characteristics (including floristic inventory data and INAl grades), is a promising technique for distinguishing remnants of native vegetation that have restoration potential (Taft et aI. 1997). Once remnants have been identified, permanent plots would provide an excellent measure of restoration progress. Quantitative data would permit an assessment of change (frequency and density) over time. Data collected in permanent plots may be gathered by different observers with a higher degree of accuracy. Depending on what aspect(s) of the community is being targeted by restoration efforts, plots may be established to monitor herbaceous, shrub, subcanopy, or canopy layer(s).

2. Map All results from natural community inventory efforts should be categorized and mapped to provide a spatial context for the locations of habitats with differing ecological conditions. This mapping effort will aid in identifying concentrations of noteworthy natural communities which can serve as focus areas for conservation management. A map ofINAl sites (Figure Il) shows concentrations of natural areas along the bluffs of the Spoon River and its major tributaries. Trends in total area of each community class among qualitative units would serve as an aid in measuring success in restoration efforts (see below).

3. Protection The natural communities with the greatest integrity need to be protected from further anthropogenic degradation (e.g. damaging levels of grazing, off-road vehicle impacts, soil grading in railroad rights-of-way, and in some cases absence of fire). Inventory and mapping in the assessment area will aid in the prioritization of protection efforts. Highly isolated remnants pose distinct conservation and protection challenges compared with clusters of restorable natural communities. Staff of the lllinois Nature Preserves Commission (524 S. Second St. Springtield, II.. 62701) are familiar with the various protection options and incentives for private landowners.

4. Identification and prioritization of ecological problems As previously indicated, a host of related ecological problems consistently are present among remnant natural communities in the SRAA (habitat fragmentation, habitat degradation, exotic species invasion, and fire absence). Some problems can be addressed more readily than others.

54 Habitat fragmentation is a widespread problem with potential devastating consequences for ecological integrity often resulting in an interruption of biological interactions, ecological processes, species migrations, and a reduction in habitat heterogeneity (Wilcove et al. 1986). A consequence, typically, is loss of species diversity. However, a solution to restoring biological connectivity and ecosystem-level process are extraordinarily complex and costly if the goal is to recreate corridors for all species among regional habitats. High levels of fragmentation may impose limits in the long term on maintaining or enhancing biodiversity.

Habitat degradation is a widespread problem that can be slowed and/or minimized at many sites by removing the degradation factor (e.g., grazing, soil disturbances), although restoration to predisturbance condition in severe cases may require intensive vegetation management. For example, it is difficult to find a private woodland in Illinois that does not bear indications of past cattle grazing. The effects of over-grazing can be persistent. Certain species (e.g., bellwort, bloodroot, blue cohosh, many ferns, grasses, and sedge species, orchids, trilliums, etc.) appear to be sensitive to grazing disturbance and often are absent while certain grazing increasers (e.g., blackberries, common burdock, common milkweed, gooseberries, hawthorns, horse nettle, motherwort, prickly ash, sand bur, .thistles, yarrow, white snakeroot) are dominant. Usually, confounding influences are involved, increased shade, siltation, or other soil disturbances.

Exotic species invasion can be considered both a species-level and a community-level problem. Some community-level management activities address more than one ecological problem. For example, garlic mustard invasion can be reversed with appropriately timed applications of fire (Nuzzo 1991; Schwartz and Heim 1996). Other serious exotic pests such as glossy buckthorn require direct treatment or biological control (Heidorn 1991). Though the latter taxa may not yet be present in great numbers in the assessment area, exotic species known to pose severe ecological problems occur in the SRAA. Recommended control measures are summarized in Table 11.

Fire is an ecological force that historically influenced many aspects of natural communities in the SRAA. Many community types in Illinois require fire for maintenance of community characteristics and diversity. Fire absence has resulted in changes in forest structure, composition, and diversity. Invasion of mesophytic species such as sugar maple into oak-hickory forest is a statewide phenomenon related to fire absence also occurring in the SRAA. Today many forests in illinois are dominated in the canopy by oaks but have few oak saplings in the understory. Rather, shade-tolerant (and fire intolerant) species like sugar maple often are extraordinarily more common and dense than prior to settlement. An obvious consequence of this change is the possible loss of oak woodlands and the plant and wildlife species that depend on them. A rich assemblage of spring wildflowers can still be found in some woodlands because these spring ephemerals largely escape the ensuing shade of the dense overstory and thus selectively persist while typically only a few shade-intolerant species can be found in the summer and fall. Also, the spring flora often has been spared direct effects ofcattle grazing because livestock, typically, have been rotated historically to fescue pastures

55 during spring months. Infrequent application of prescribed fire appear unlikely to reverse these trends. Rather, a long-term program of repeated application of prescribed fire may be necessary before compositional stability is achieved. Nevertheless, prescribed fires can be implemented to a wide variety of remnants and community types, at little cost, and achieve measurable improvements in many parameters of ecosystem integrity.

5. Application of appropriate vegetation management Once the ecological problems for a natural community are identified and prioritized according to restoration effort and gain, a program of vegetational management needs to be implemented. Record keeping is vital to tracking activities and levels of success in implementing each treatment plan. Once remnants have been identified, permanent plots may be established to provide an excellent measure of restoration progress.

Table 11. List of selected invasive exotic species known to occur in the Spoon River Assessment Area and recommended eradication methods.

Cut & Apply Foliar Cut&/or Stump-Treatment Herbicide Prescribed Hand pull Dig Species Herbicide Application I Fire (get root) Root

Amur honeysuckle X X X black locust X-Garlon 4 Canada bluegrass X European high-bush cranberry X glossy buckthorn X-Garlon 4 X X ground ivy X X Japanese honeysuckle X X X Kentucky bluegrass X meadow fescue X X X moneywort X multiflora rose X Osage orange X sweet clover X X white mulberry X wild parsnip' X X X*

I The recommended herbicide typically, is Round-up (Glyphosate) except for black locust (Solecik 1997). 2 Plant has phototoxic properties and skin contact should be avoided.

56 Birds

Introduction

Information in this section is derived from standard references of lllinois including the lllinois Natural Heritage Database (lllinois Department of Natural Resources 1997), The Illinois Breeding Bird Atlas (Illinois Department of Natural Resources, in prep), Avian Ecological Investigations (Illinois Department of Natural Resources, unpublished reports), and the results of extensive field work by personnel from the lllinois Natural History Survey (much of it ongoing and not yet published).

The Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA) has a typical bird species list for central Illinois. At least 263 of the 299 species (88%) that regularly occur in the state (exclusive of vagrants) can be found in the area (Table 12). Of these 263 species, 131 breed or formerly bred there (Table 12). Of these 131, 34 are now either locally extinct, or are extremely rare in the area during the breeding season (species with a "r" in Table 12), which suggests that habitat loss has been a major problem in the area. Other species that are globally extinct (Passenger Pigeon Ectopistes migratorius and Carolina Parakeet Conuropsis carolinensis) formerly occurred in the Basin, as did other species that are extinct or nearly so in Illinois (e.g., Greater Prairie Chicken Tympanuchus cupido, Barn Owl Tyto alba, and Bewick's Wren Thryothorus bewickii ). At least one locally extirpated species, the Wild Turkey, has been reestablished in the Assessment Area.

The SRAA is typical of primarily agricultural areas of central Illinois for birds. Most wildlife habitat exists where it is too steep or wet to plow or in small city parks. As such, it is not an ideal place to focus management efforts on restoring habitat specifically for breeding birds of forest habitats. It is extremely likely that the nesting success of species in these habitats is so low that they are likely population sinks in which reproductive success is too low to compensate for adult mortality for most species (Brawn and Robinson 1996). This situation is unlikely to change for species in forest habitats even with large scale restoration efforts in the SRAA. Grassland habitats are patchily distributed, and currently contain few significant populations of grassland birds. On the other hand, many migrating or overwintering birds do not require large, unfragmented habitats. The large number ofthese species (at least 132 species; see Table 12) coupled with the low availability of forest, wetland, and grassland habitat throughout all of central Illinois suggests that migrants should occur at very high concentrations in suitable habitat during spring and fall. Therefore, the scarcity of nonagricultural habitat in the SRAA makes it an ideal place to concentrate on enhancing habitat for migrating birds passing through the area on their way north to breeding areas or south to wintering areas. Small improvements in habitat quality could have a large benefit to many migrating birds that use these areas. Ongoing wetland restoration such as that taking place in the Emiquon National Wildlife Refuge also has high potential for creating nesting and migration

57 habitat for many species on the threatened and endangered list for lllinois. Wetland restoration should be one of the highest management priorities for this area.

The bird species that live in the SRAA are ecologically diverse, and although some species are able to live in a variety of habitats, many species are adapted to living in only one or a few habitats (Table 12). The sections following Table 12 describe the bird communities typically found in the major habitat types of the SRAA, as well as the unique environmental problems and management solutions for bird communities in each habitat.

Table 12. Bird species that regularly occur in the Spoon River Asessment Area. These are species that are likely to be present all or most years. This list excludes extinct species and the many wandering or ''vagrant'' species that have been recorded in the area. The purpose is to list only those species that have or could have significant populations in the area. The table also lists the habitats that are most likely to be occupied during each season.

Species'" Breeding'·'·7 Winter'" Migrant'"

Common Loon L Gavia immer Pied·billed Grebe - ST LW'" LW Podilymbus podiceps Homed Grebe L Podiceps auritus Double-crested Cormorant· ST L Phalarocorax auritus American Bittern - SE W,r) W Botaurus lentiginosus Least Bittern • SE W(r) W lxobrychus exilis Great Blue Heron LWFsF LW LW Ardea herodias Great Egret - ST LW Ardeaalbus Little Blue Heron - SE LW Egretta caerulea Cattle Egret CGW Bubulcus ibis Green Heron LWFs LWFs Butorides virescens Black-crowned Night.Heron • SE LWFs'" FsW Nycticorax nycticorax Yellow·crowned Night.Heron - ST Fs Nycticorax violaceus Mute Swan LW Cygnusolor Tundra Swan LW Cygnus columbianus

58 Table 12. Continued

Species l.2 Breeding""? Winte!"'" Migrant'"

Greater White-fronted Goose LW LW Anser albifrons Snow Goose LC LWC Chen caerulescens Canada Goose LWC LWCR LWCR Branta canadensis Wood Duck FsW FsWL Aixsponsa Green-winged Teal WL Anas crecca American Black Duck WLFsC Anas rubripes Mallard WCLFsG WCLFs WCLFs Anas platyrhynchos Northern Pintail WCL Anasacuta Blue-winged Teal WG") WL Anas discors Northern Shoveler W,,) WL Anas clypeata Gadwall WL Anas strepera American Wigeon WL Anas americana Canvasback LW Aythya vaUsineria Redhead LW Aythya americana Ring-necked Duck LW Aythya collaris Greater Scaup LW Aythya marila Lesser Scaup LW Aythya affinis Surf Scoter L Melanitta perspicillata Common Goldeneye L L Bucephala clangula Bufflehead L LW Bucephala albeola Hooded Merganser Fs (r) LFsW Lophodytes cucullatus Common Merganser L L Mergus merganser

59 Table 12. Continued

Species 1.2 Breeding"'" Winter'" Migrant'"

Red-breasted Merganser LW Mergus serrator Ruddy Duck LW Oxyura jamaicensis Turkey Vulture FGCFs Say FGCFs Say FGC S SayFs Cathartes aura Osprey- SE L Pandion haliaetus Bald Eagle - SE, FT L Haliaeetus leucocephalus Northern Harrier - SE GW'<) GCW GCW Circus cyaneus Sharp-shinned Hawk - SE FS RFs Say FS RFsSay Accipiter striatus Cooper's Hawk F S Say FS R Say FS RSay Accipiter cooperii Northern Goshawk FS FSWL Accipiter gentilis Red-shouldered Hawk - SE Fs (r) Fs Fs Buteo lineatus Broad-winged Hawk F(r) F Buteo platypterus Red-tailed Hawk CGRS CGRS CGRS Buteo jamaicensis Rough-legged Hawk CG Buteo lagopus Golden Eagle FSG Aquila chrysaetos American Kestrel RCGSay RCG Say RCGSay Falco sparverius Merlin All Faleo columbarius Peregrine Falcon - SE, FE All Faleo peregrinus * Gray Partridge CGS CGS CGS Perdix perdix * Ring-necked Pheasant CGS CGS CGS Phasianus colehicus Wild Turkey F S Say Fs F S SayFsC FS SayFsC Meleagris gallopavo Northern Bobwhite S GC Say S GC Say S GC Say Colinus virginianus Yellow Rail - SE GW Coturnicops noveboracensis

60 Table 12. Continued

Species1.2 Breeding'·6.' Winter·6 Migrant'·'

King Rail - ST GW Rallus elegans Virginia Rail WG Rallus limicola Sora w(r) WG Porzana carolina Common Moorhen. ST w(r) W Gallinula chloropus American Coot w{r) L WL Fulica americana Black-bellied Plover LW Pluvialis squatarola American Golden-Plover WLCG Pluvialis dominica Semipalmated Plover W Charadrius semipalmatus Killdeer WRGC WRGC Charadrius vociferus Greater Yellowlegs W Tringa melanoleuca Lesser Yellowlegs W Tringa flavipes Solitary Sandpiper W Tringa solitaria Willet W Catoptrophorus semipalmatus Spotted Sandpiper L W Actitis macularia Upland Sandpiper - SE G{r) G Bartramia longicauda Hudsonian Godwit W Limosa haemastica Ruddy Turnstone W Arenaria interpres Sanderling W Calidris alba Semipalmated Sandpiper W Calidris pusilla Western Sandpiper W Calidris mauri Least Sandpiper W Calidris minutilla White-romped Sandpiper W Calidris fuscicollis

61 Table 12. Continued

Species'" Breeding"'" Winter'·' Migrant'"

Baird's Sandpiper WG Calidris bairdii Pectoral Sandpiper CWG Calidris melanotos Dunlin W Calidris alpina Stilt Sandpiper W Calidris himantopus Buff-breasted Sandpiper WG Tryngites subruficollis Short-billed Dowitcher W Limnodromus griseus Long-billed Dowitcher W Limnodromus scolopaceus Common Snipe w(r} WG Gallinago gallinago American Woodcock FFsS FFs S Scolopax minor Wilson's Phalarope - SE LW Phalaropus tricolor Red-necked Phalarope LW Phalaropus lobatus Franklin's Gull LWC Larus pipixcan Bonaparte's Gull LWC Larus philadelphia Ring-billed Gull LWC LWC Larus delawarensis Herring Gull L WLC Larus argentatus Caspian Tern L Sterna caspia Common Tern· SE L Sterna hirundo Forster's Tern· SE LW Sterna forsteri Black Tern· SE LW Chilidonias niger * Rock Dove RC RC RC Columba livia Mourning Dove RCS RCS RCS Zenaida macroura Black-billed Cuckoo S FS Sav Coccyzus erythropthalmus

62 Table 12. Continued

Species l.2 Breeding'·6., Winter'·6 Migrant,·6

Yellow-billed Cuckoo F S Fs Say F S Fs Say Coeeyzus americanus Barn Owl- SE CGSav Tyto alba Eastern Screech-Owl RSSav RSSav RSSav Orus asio Great Horned Owl FCRFsSav FCRFs Say FCRFsSav Bubo virginianus Snowy Owl C Nyctea scandiaca Barred Owl FFs FFs FFs Strix varia Long-eared Owl· SE FS FS Asio otus Short-eared Owl - SE G G Asio flammeus Northern Saw-whet Owl FS FS Aegolius aeadicus Common Nighthawk RSav RGC Chordeiles minor Whip-poor-will FSav FSav Caprimulgus vociferos Chimney Swift RFS FsSav All Chaetura pelagiea Ruby-throated Hummingbird F S RFs Say FS RFs Say Arehiloehus colubris Belted Kingfisher LW LW LW Ceryle alcyon Red-headed Woodpecker FsRC FFs Say FFsCRSav Melanerpes erythroeephalus Red-bellied Woodpecker FFsS RSav FFs S R Say FFsS RSav Melanerpes earolinus Yellow-bellied Sapsucker FFsR Say Sphyrapicus varius Downy Woodpecker FFsRS Say FFsRS Say FFs R S Say Pieoides pubescens Hairy Woodpecker FFs SavR FFsRS Say FFsRS Say Picoides villosus Northern Flicker SFRSavFs SFRSavFs S FRSavFs Colaptes auratus Pileated Woodpecker FFs Say (,) FFsSavR FFsSavR Dryocopus pileatus Olive-sided Flycatcher FFsRS Say Contopus cooperi

63 Table 12. Continued

SpeciesJ.2 Breeding"'" Winter'·' Migrant'"

Eastern Wood-Pewee FFsRSav FFs RSav Contopus virens Yellow-bellied Flycatcher FSFs Empidonax flaviventris Acadian Flycatcher FFs FFs Empidonax virescens Alder Flycatcher W SSav Empidonax alnorum Willow Flycatcher WS W S Say Empidonax traillii Least Flycatcher F Say (" F S RFs Say Empidonax minimus Eastern Phoebe RFs RFs Sayornis phoebe Great Crested Flycatcher FFs Say FFsS RSav Myiarchus crinitus Eastern Kingbird S GC Say S GAFC Say Tyrannus tyrannus Horned Lark CG CG CG Eremophila alpestris Purple Martin LRWG LWG Progne subis Tree Swallow LWFsG LWFsG Tachycineta bicolor Northern Rough-winged Swallow LWFsG LWG Stelgidopteryx serripennis Bank Swallow LWG LWG Riparia riparia Barn Swallow CRWLGS CRWLGS Hirundo rustica Cliff Swallow LWG(" LWG Petrochelidon pyrrhonota Blue Jay RFFsSCSav RFFsS C SaY RFFs S CSav Cyanocitta cristata American Crow All All All Corvus brachyrhynchos Black-capped Chickadee FSRFsSav FS RFsSav FS RFsSav Poecile atricapillus Tufted Titmouse FRFsSav FRFs Say FRFs Say Baeolophus bicolor Red-breasted Nutbatch R FR Sitta canadensis White-breasted Nuthatch FR Fs Say FRFsSav FRFs Say Sitta carolinensis

64 Table 12. Continued

Species 1.2 Breeding'·6., Winter"·6 Migrant,·6

Brown Creeper - ST Fs lr) FFsR FFsR Certhia americana Carolina Wren R FFs S Say R FFs S Say R FFs S Say Thryothorus ludovicianus House Wren RFS Say RFS Say Troglodytes aedon Winter Wren FFsW FFsW Troglodytes troglodytes Sedge Wren WG WG Cistothorus platensis Marsh Wren W Cistothorus palustris Golden-crowned Kinglet FFsRSav FFsRSav Regulus satrapa Ruby-crowned Kinglet FS Say Regulus calendula Blue-gray Gnatcatcher FFs S Say FFs S Say Polioptila caerulea Eastern Bluebird C GR SSav SFRCSav SFCGRSav Sialia sialis Veery-ST FFs "j FFs RSav Catharus fuscescens Gray-cheeked Thrush FFs RSav Catharus minimus Swainson's Thrush FS RFsSav Catharus ustulatus Hennit Thrush S FRFsSav S FRFs Say Catharus guttatus Wood Thrush F FRFsSav Hylocichla mustelina American Robin RSFFsSav RS FFsSav RSFFsC GSav Turdus migratorius Gray Catbird S Fs R Say S Fs RSav Dumetella carolinensis Northern Mockingbird RS RS RS Mimus polyglottos Brown Thrasher S RCGSav S RCSav Toxostoma rufum American Pipit CW Anthus rubescens Cedar Waxwing RS FFs Say RSFFsSav RS FFsSav Bombycilla cedrorum Northern Shrike GCS Lanius excubitor

65 Table 12. Continued

Species J.2 Breeding'·6., Winter'·6 Migrant'"

Loggerhead Shrike - ST G S C,,) GSC GSC Lanius ludovicianus * European Starling RCFFsSav RCFFs Say RCFFsSav Sturnus vulgaris White-eyed Vireo S Fs Say S Fs Say Vireo griseus Bell's Vireo SG SG Vireo bellii Blue-headed Vireo FFs Say Vireo solitarius Yellow-throated Vireo FFs FFsR Vireo flavifrons Warbling Vireo S RFs Say S RFFsSav Vireo gilvus Philadelphia Vireo S FRSav Vireo philadelphicus Red-eyed Vireo FFs Say FFs S R Say Vireo olivaceus Blue-winged Warbler S (<) S FRSavFs Vermivora pinus Golden-winged Warbler FS FsRSav Vermivora chrysoptera Tennessee Warbler FRS FsSav Vermivora peregrina Orange-crowned Warbler SFRSavFs Vermivora celata Nashville Warbler S FRSavFs Vermivora rujicapilla Northern Parula Fs (,) FFsRSav Parula americana Yellow Warbler SW SWR SavFs Dendroica petechia Chestnut-sided Warbler S FFsRSav Dendroica pensylvanica Magnolia Warbler F S RFs SaY Dendroica magnolia Cape May Warbler RFFs Say Dendroica tigrina Black-throated Blue Warbler FRFsSav Dendroica caerulescens Yellow-romped Warbler FFs Say FS RFsSav Dendroica coronata Black-throated Green Warbler FRFsSav Dendroica virens

66 Table 12. Continued

Species'" Breeding'·6.? Winter'·6 Migrant,·6

Blackburnian Warbler FFsRSav Dendroica fusca Yellow-throated Warbler Fs (r) FFs Dendroica dominica Pine Warbler FFs SavR Dendroica pinus Prairie Warbler S Dendroica discolor Palm Warbler Fs S F R W G Say C Dendroica palmarum Bay-breasted Warbler FRFsS Say Dendroica castanea Blackpoll Warbler FFs RS Say Dendroica striata Cerulean Warbler FFs (,j FFs RSav Dendroica cerulea Black-and-white Warbler F (,j FRFsSavS Mniotilta varia American Redstart Fs FFs S RSav Setophaga ruticilla Prothonotary Warbler Fs(r) Fs Protonotaria citrea Worm-eating Warbler Fl,j F Helmitheros vennivorus Ovenbird F FRSSav Seiurus aurocapillus Northern Waterthrush FsR Seiurus noveboracensis Louisiana Waterthrush F {r) FFs Seiurus motacilfa Kentucky Warbler F F SavFs Oporornis fonnosus Connecticut Warbler S FFs SavR Oporornis agilis Mourning Warbler S FFs SavR Oporornis philadelphia Common Yellowthroat GCWSRSav GCWSRSav Geothlypis trichas Hooded Warbler FIr) FR Wilsonia citrina Wilson's Warbler S FFsRSav Wilsonia pusilla Canada Warbler FFsS RSav Wilsonia canadensis

67 Table 12. Continued

Species'" Breeding"'" Winter'" Migrant'"

Yellow-breasted Chat S S Say Icteria virens Summer Tanager F Sav'" FSavR Piranga rubra Scarlet Tanager FFs Say FFs Say R Piranga olivacea Northem Cardinal RFFsSC Say RFFs SC Say RFFsS C Say Cardinalis cardinalis Rose-breasted Grosbeak FFs Say S FFsRS Say Pheucticus ludovicianus Blue Grosbeak Say S,,) Say S Guiraca caernlea Indigo Bunting FFs S Say FFs S C Say Passerina cyanea Dickcissel GC GC Spiza americana Eastern Towhee SF SF SFFsR Pipilo erythrophthalmus American Tree Sparrow S GCR WSav SGCR WSav Spizella arborea Chipping Sparrow RFSav R F Say G S Spizella passerina Clay-colored Sparrow S Spizella pallida Field Sparrow S GC Say SGWSav S GCW Say Spizella pus;[[a Vesper Sparrow CG CG Pooecetes gramineus Lark Sparrow SCG SCG Chondestes grammacus Savannah Sparrow G G GCW Passerculus sandwichensis Grasshopper Sparrow G G Ammodramus savannarum Henslow's Sparrow - SE G(r) G Ammodramus henslowii Le Conte's Sparrow GW Ammodramus leconteii Nelson's Sharp-tailed Sparrow W Ammodramus nelsoni Fox Sparrow SFsF SFsFRSav Passerella iliaca Song Sparrow RSWCG RSWCG RSWCG Melospiza melodia

68 Table 12. Continued

Species J.2 Breeding'·6., Winter'·6 Migrant'·6

Lincoln's Sparrow SWFsR Melospiza lincolnii Swamp Sparrow W(r) WFsSG SWFsG Melospiza georgiana White-throated Sparrow RS FFsSav R S FFsSav Zonotrichia albicollis Harris' Sparrow SRG Zonotrichia querula White-crowned Sparrow SRG SRG Zonotrichia leucophrys Dark-eyed Junco R S FFs G Say C R S FFsGSavC Junco hyemalis Lapland Longspur CG CG Calcarius lapponicus Smith's Longspur CG Calcarius pictus -Snow Bunting CG Plectrophenax nivalis Bobolink G GW Dolichonyx oryzivorus Red-winged Blackbird WCRGSSav CGFFs WCRGSSav Agelaius phoeniceus Eastern Meadowlark GC GC GC Sturnella magna Western Meadowlark GC GC Sturnella neglecta Yellow-headed Blackbird - SE W Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus Rusty Blackbird CFs RCFsW Euphagus carolinus Brewer's Blackbird CG Euphagus cyanocephalus Common Grackle RWFsF CFFs RFFsCSav Quiscalus quiscula Brown-headed Cowbird All CRFFs All Molothrus ater Orchard Oriole SRWSav S R WFFsSav Icterus spurius Baltimore Oriole RFFs S Say FFs RS Say Icterus galbula Purple Finch FFsR FFsRS Say Carpodacus purpureus * House Finch RS RS FFsRS Say Carpodacus mexicanus

69 Table 12. Continued

Species'·2 Breeding'"" Winter'fi Migrant,·6

Red Crossbill FR FR Loxia curvirostra White-winged Crossbill FR FR Loxia leucoptera Common Redpoll GSRF Carduelis jlammea Pine Siskin RSF RSF Carduelis pinus American Goldfinch SRG S RG FFsSav S RGFFsSav Carduelis tristis Evening Grosbeak RFFs RFFs Coccothraustes vespertinus * House Sparrow RC RC RC Passer domesticus

I Bold type indicates: state threatened - ST, state endangered - SE, and/or federally endangered - FE. 2 * designates an introduced species. 3 Breeding = species that currently or historically have bred in the area. 'Winter = species present from December through February. , Migrant = species present during the March-May and late August-November periods. o The following habitat codes are used: L = Lakes, ponds, impoundments, rivers, larger streams C = Crops G = Grassland (in1cuding pasture and hayfield) W = Wetland (seasonally flooded, open habitats such as marshes and sedge meadows) Fs = Forested swamp (forested wetland, including wet floodplain forest) Sav = Savannah F = Upland and mesic forest R = Residential areas (including urban centers and the "urban forest") S = Shrublands (open habitats dominated by shrubs, including old fields). • 7 '" designates a species that is currently a rare and local breeder and may be locally extirpated. Some of these species are good candidates for reestablishment in restored habitats.

Forest

Most of the remaining forest habitat in the SRAA is found in private tracts along the Spoon River and its tributaries (Figure 7), and also in the Emiquon National Wildlife Refuge.

Regularly Occurring Species

Typical breeding species of forest habitats in the SRAA include Wild Turkey, YeIlow billed Cuckoo, Barred Owl, Whip-poor-will [especially edges of woodlands], Ruby throated Hummingbird, Red-bellied Woodpecker, Hairy Woodpecker, Downy

70 •

Woodpecker, Eastern Wood-Pewee, Acadian and Great Crested Flycatcher, Blue Jay, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, White-breasted Nuthatch, House Wren, Carolina Wren, American Robin, Wood Thrush, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Yellow-throated Vireo, Red-eyed Vireo, Ovenbird, Lousiana Waterthrush [rare this far north], Kentucky Warbler, Scarlet and Summer Tanager, Northern Cardinal, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, [mainly along edges], and Brown-headed Cowbird. Cooper's Hawk is likely to be an increasing nesting species. Many of these species are likely to be common in woodlots of 100 acres or greater. Pileated Woodpeckers also nest in some of the forest tracts. See Table 12 for a more complete list of forest species occurring in the forest of the SRAA.

Although pines are not native to the SRAA, there are pine plantations in the area which have unusual bird communities. In addition to more generalized forest species, these habitats occasionally attract nesting Long-eared Owls (SE) and Northern Saw-whet Owls [also in winter], although these species have not been known to nest in this area. Chipping Sparrows are often the most abundant species nesting in pine plantations. In winter, pines attract winter finches (e.g., both Crossbills, Pine Siskin), Yellow-bellied Sapsuckers, and Red-breasted Nuthatches.

Threatened and endangered species - Very few threatened or endangered species nest in forests of the SRAA. Occasional nesting species include Black-crowned Night-Heron (State Endangered - SE), Red-shouldered Hawk (SE) and Brown Creeper (State Threatened - ST), all of which are probably restricted to forested wetlands (see the "Wetland" section of this chapter). The Veery (ST) breeds rarely and in small numbers.

Exotic species - European Starlings were introduced into this country in 1890-1891 and spread to Illinois by 1922 (Bohlen and Zimmerman 1989). They are now one of the most abundant species in Illinois, and they are detrimental to native species because they compete with residents for nesting cavities, especially in smaller forest tracts.

Population Dynamics and Management

Many bird species are declining across part or all of their breeding range in the mid-west (PeteIjohn et al. 1994). The causes of such changes are likely related in part to problems with reproduction in highly fragmented landscapes. The primary factors controlling productivity of birds in the SRAA are predation on eggs or young in nests, and brood parasitism by Brown-headed Cowbirds. Cowbirds lay their eggs in the nests of other species and often destroy one of the hosts eggs when they lay their own. Cowbird young also grow faster than their host young and out-compete them for food, often leading to the starvation of the host young. Rates of nest predation and brood parasitism generally increase as a habitat become more fragmented, creating more feeding habitat for cowbirds and travel corridors for mammalian predators such as raccoons that often inhabit the edges of open country (Robinson et al. 1995). Given the relatively small size of most forest tracts, it is likely that levels of nest predation and brood parasitism by

71 Brown-headed Cowbirds are extremely high (Robinson et. aI., in press). In general, nest predation rates in lJIinois forests of less than 500 acres average 70-90% and parasitism levels for cowbird hosts average 80%. These levels are so high that woodlots in this region are very likely to be population sinks (Brawn and Robinson 1996) in which reproduction is far below rates necessary to sustain regional populations.

Remarkably, in spite of low productivity, many of the species that nest commonly in regional woodlots are not obviously declining. This strongly suggests that their populations are being rescued by the settlement of individuals from much larger forest tracts outside of the region, or even outside of the state (Brawn and Robinson 1996). Therefore, to understand the population dynamics of breeding forest birds, it is necessary to monitor both population size and nesting success. Previous research on this subject in lilinois (Robinson and Hoover 1996) suggests that the best candidates for forest restoration are tracts that are, or can be 500 acres or larger, such as the larger tracts along the Spoon River. As will be described below, savanna restoration may be the best strategy for many sites given the high value of oaks to migrant birds (Graber and Graber 1983) and as a source of mast.

Wetland

Although historically there had been considerably more wetland in the SRAA (wet prairie, shallow marsh), wetland habitats in the SRAA are now rare (Figure 8). Much of the wetland area has been drained for agricultural purposes. However, there are some large areas of old strip-mined land in both Knox and Fulton counties that contain marginal wetland type habitats and their associated bird communities, and possibly hold considerable potential for restoration. For a more detailed disussion on this habitat, see the preceding "Natural Vegetation Communities" section.

Regularly Occurring Species

The loss of natural wetland habitats makes it somewhat difficult to characterize a typical wetland species in the SRAA. Currently, only a few species are likely to be common, including the Canada Goose, Mallard, Wood Duck [forested wetlands], Great Blue Heron, Green Heron, Killdeer, American Woodcock, Barred Owl, Ruby-throated Hummingbird [forested], Red-headed Woodpecker [forested], Great Crested Flycatcher [forested], Acadian Flycatcher [forested], Willow Flycatcher [scrubby, riparian corridors], Northern Rough-winged Swallow, Tree Swallow, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher [forested], Yellow-throated Vireo [forested], Warbling Vireo [riparian corridors], Yellow Warbler, . Common Yellowthroat, Common Grackle, Red-winged Blackbird, Baltimore Oriole [riparian corridors], Indigo Bunting, and Song Sparrow. Other species that would likely recolonize or increase greatly in restored wetlands include the Pied-billed Grebe and Blue-winged Teal [marshes], Hooded Merganser [forested], Northern Harrier [marshes, especially in grassland areas], Red-shouldered Hawk [wide, forested river corridors],·

72 American and Least Bitterns [marshes], Virginia and King Rails [marshes], Common Moorhen, American Coot, Common Snipe, Brown Creeper [forested], Marsh Wren [marshes], Sedge Wren, Prothonotary Warbler [forested], Louisiana Waterthrush [forested], American Redstart [forested], and Swamp Sparrow. Other species found in the wetlands of the Spoon River are listed in Table 12.

Threatened and endangered species - Currently, only a few threatened or endangered species inhabit the wetlands of the SRAA including Northern Harrier (SE), Least Bittern (ST), and Brown Creeper (ST) (Kleen, in Iitt.). But, restored wetlands (especially marshes) would have a high potential to include many species, including the Pied-billed Grebe (ST), Red-shouldered Hawk (ST), American Bittern (SE), Black Rail (SE), King Rail (ST), Virginia Rail (ST), and Common Moorhen (ST). Former strip-mined land near Canton in Fulton Co. and northwest of Williamsfield in Knox Co., as well as scattered small wetlands throughout the Spoon River basin, are where many of these state threatened and endangered species occur, at least occasionally.

Exotic species - No non-native species pose a major threat to native wetland birds in the SRAA, although Mute Swans, which have been introduced from Europe, could possibly become established.

Population Dynamics and Management

Currently, the main problem for birds inhabiting wetlands is a lack of habitat. Forested wetland species likely suffer from the same problems with fragmentation that affect forest species (cowbird parasitism and nest predation). We know little, however, about the effects of fragmentation on other wetlands habitats. In fact, there have been no studies of the population dynamics and nesting success of wetland birds in the region. Potentially, wetland species are more resist,jllt to fragmentation, which may make this habitat a good target for restoration efforts in largely agricultural landscapes. Wetland habitats are also used heavily by migrating waterfowl, shorebirds, rails, and long-legged waders (herons, bitterns, and egrets). These habitats therefore have the potential to be important stopover sites for birds during migration. Wetland restoration should be a high priority in the region for birds for reasons outlined above, and may be especially beneficial in the former strip-mined areas mentioned previously, where several wetland species currently occur.

Savanna

Savanna habitats were once widespread in the Midwest. However, in recent decades as fire has become effectively suppressed, savanna habitats have been greatly altered through vegetative change. In addition to these changes, much of the savanna area has been lost to development and agriculture. As a result of these factors, savannas have become one of the rarest plant communties in the region (see section on "Savannas" in the Natural Vegetation Communities chapter of this report).

73 Regularly Occurring Species

Savannas share many species with forest habitats. Perhaps the most typical species of savannas would be Whip-poor-,-,:ill, Red-headed Woodpecker, Great Crested Flycatcher, Eastern Wood-Pewee, Least Flycatcher [rare, but often associated with open woodlands], Blue Jay, House Wren, American Robin, Eastern Bluebird, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Yellow-throated Vireo, Baltimore Oriole, Summer Tanager, Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Indigo Bunting, American Goldfinch, Lark Sparrow, Field Sparrow, and Chipping Sparrow. Of these species, the Summer Tanager may be the most specialized to savannas at this latitude. Other forest species remain common in savannas, including the Wild Turkey, Great Horned Owl, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Northern Flicker, Red-bellied, Downy, and Hairy Woodpeckers, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, White breasted Nuthatch, House Wren, Brown-headed Cowbird, Scarlet Tanager, and Northern Cardinal. Blue Grosbeaks may also be restricted to open, sandy areas such as savannas at the northern edge of their range in central Illinois. The open, park-like structure of some savannas also attracts some species that are more characteristic of grassland habitats, such as the Red-tailed Hawk.

Threatened and endangered species - None of the species inhabiting savannas in this area are threatened or endangered, although the Barn Owl (SE) may have been a bird of very open savannas. Loggerhead Shrikes (ST) may occasionally use the more open type savanna areas.

Exotic species - European Starlings are now one of the most abundant species in Illinois, and they are detrimental to native savanna species because they compete with resident birds (especially woodpeckers) for nesting cavities.

Population Dynamics and Management

Savannas may be associated with high levels of cowbird abundance and parasitism levels. However, many of the species that are most abundant in savannas are resistant to cowbirds (e.g., cavity nesters, American Robins, Baltimore Orioles). Unlike many forest birds, these species are able to recognize cowbird eggs and either eject them from their nests or rebuild the nests over them (Rothstein and Robinson 1994). The partial dependence of Cerulean Warbler on oaks may suggest that management practices such as burning that help maintain oaks will favor this rapidly declining species (Vanderah 1995). A detailed study of the effects of savanna restoration on bird populations, ecology, and nesting success is underway in adjacent watersheds (J.D. Brawn, unpubl. data). This study should be fully applicable to savannas in the SRAA.

Savannas also appear to be a very favorable habitat for migrants. The heavy use of oaks by spring migrants (Graber and Graber 1983) and by mast-consuming species suggests that savanna restoration should be a high priority for birds in this region.

74 Prairie/Grassland

Native prairie habitat is extremely rare in the SRAA (see the section on Natural Vegeta tion Communities), however, many bird species that historically lived in prairies are also able to live in grassland habitat such as hay fields, and sometimes pastures. These habitats are, however, also relatively uncommon in the SRAA. There are only about 218,000 acres of grassland in the basin (18% of the land area), and most of this habitat occurs as narrow strips along the edges of country roads (Figure 6). However, there is approximately 1000 acres of grassland habitat within Snakeden Hollow State Fish and Wildlife Area (SFWA) which has high potential for restoration as a productive area for grassland bird species. Although other patches of available grassland habitat in the SRAA are small, they have considerable potential for restoration. Some of the larger areas of partially reclaimed strip-mined land mentioned previously under the wetlands division also provide another source of grassland habitat in this area. Pastures in the area are mostly heavily grazed and little-used by grassland birds. They are also favored sites for foraging Brown-headed Cowbirds.

Regularly Occurring Species

Typical species - In the SRAA, typical species in grassland habitats include a subset of those found on larger grasslands throughout the state: Red-tailed Hawk, American Kestrel, Northern Bobwhite, Ring-necked Pheasant, Eastern Kingbird, Horned Lark [in recently burned sites], Barn Swallow, Brown Thrasher [shrubs], Bells Vireo [shrubs], Common Yellowthroat, Eastern Meadowlark, Western Meadowlark, Red-winged Blackbird, Dickcissel, Savannah Sparrow, Grasshopper Sparrow, Vesper Sparrow, and Field Sparrow. See Table 12 for a more complete list of grassland species found in the SRAA region.

Threatened and endangered species - Currently, the Northern Harrier (SE), Upland Sandpiper (SE), Loggerhead Shrike (ST), and Henslow's Sparrow (SE) are the only endangered grassland species known to breed in the area.

Exotic species - Three introduced species are found in the grasslands of the SRAA. The Ring-necked Pheasant, which is native to Asia, was first released in Illinois in about 1890 (Bohlen and Zimmerman 1989) and they continue to be released. Pheasants are abundant in prairie remnants statewide and in the SRAA. Small numbers of Gray Partridge, which are native to Europe and Asia, are known to breed in the area, although this is at the southern edge of their range in Illinois. European Starlings feed in grasslands following grazing, mowing, or burning.

Population Dynamics and Management

Certain species, such as the Upland Sandpiper, Grasshopper Sparrow and Bobolink, have declined precipitously as grasslands have been converted to row crops (Herkert 1991).

75 Currently, prairie remnants and other grassland habitats are probably too small to sustain regular breeding populations and successful nesting of most prairie species. For example, the Short-eared Owl is highly area-sensitive and will require larger grasslands than exist currently to maintain a regular breeding population. Henslow's Sparrows (SE) have bred in the area. This species is also area-sensitive and requires taller, ranker grass that has not recently been burned (Herkert 1994). King Rails (ST) and Northern Harriers (SE) would also be good candidates for reestablishment in restored grasslands. Upland Sandpipers (ST) nest in some areas, but they require mowing, grazing, or burning to keep the grass short. Upland sandpipers are also area-sensitive and likely require larger grassland areas than are currently available to sustain a viable population. Other rare or locally extirpated species that would be likely to increase rapidly if grasslands were restored include Barn Owl, Sedge Wren, Loggerhead Shrike (ST), and Bobolink. Because the currently available grasslands in the area are generally too small to sustain threatened and endangered grassland birds over the long run, prairie restoration and enhancement will be needed to attract grassland birds.

Removal of woody vegetation may also be beneficial. Shrub removal would likely negatively affect Bell's Vireos, but this species can also be managed in game areas or in .prairie remnants that are too small to be useful for grassland birds. Other shrubland species that would be lost are of little or no regional concern because they have large global populations and are common throughout Illinois (e.g., Gray Catbird, Brown Thrasher, House Wren). Perhaps the best way to maintain desired shrubland birds (Bell's Vireo, Willow Flycatcher, Yellow-breasted Chat) would be to allow willow thickets to grow in low, wet areas that would not burn in most areas. Natural hazel thickets may also have provided habitat for these species historically. The guidelines provided by Herkert et. al. (1993) for grassland management should be followed. In particular, dense, tall stands of prairie grasses are rarely used by grassland birds and should be avoided.

Migrant and wintering birds use grasslands as stopover habitat, especially Smith's and Lapland Longspurs, Snow Buntings, LeConte's Sparrows, American and Sprague's Pipits, Loggerhead and Northern Shrikes, various rails, bitterns, American Golden Plovers, Pectoral and Buff-breasted Sandpipers, Short-eared and Snowy Owls, and Rough-legged Hawks. Given that much of the global population of Smith's Longspur likely passes through Illinois in the spring, enhancement of prairie/grassland habitat in central Illinois should directly benefit this poorly known species. The same could be said for the American Golden Plover, but they also use plowed fields, obviously a much less threatened habitat.

Lakes, Ponds, Impoundments, Creeks, and Rivers

In the SRAA there are few natural but many artificial examples of pond and lake associated habitats. Open water accoounts for only 0.6% of the SRAA and none of this area would be described as high quality habitat. Many of the ponds in the area are associated with former strip-mined areas or small, man-made reservoirs. It is also

76 unlikely that natural ponds associated with prairie vegetation occur within the SRAA. All the lakes within the SRAA are classified as artificial impoundments. Relative to the rest of the state, the creeks and rivers of the SRAA are in relatively good health (see section on "Aquatic Biola"). Nonetheless, as with other habitats, creeks and rivers in the region have been greatly altered. There are no threatened or endangered species breeding in the these habitats in the SRAA, however, marshy vegetation along lakeshores would likely attract wetland species (see the Wetland section of this chapter).

Regularly Occurring Species

Typical species - Although Spotted Sandpipers may occasionally breed around lakes, ponds, and impoundments, there are usually few characteristic breeding birds. Common Yellowtroats, Common Grackles, Red-winged Blackbirds, Song Sparrows, and a few Swamp Sparrows likely nest along ponds, especially those with gradual shorelines and some emergent vegetation (e.g. cattails) along the edge. Barn, Cliff, Tree, and Northern Rough-winged Swallows, and Purple Martins forage over these open-water habitats as long as nest sites are available. Green Herons often nest along ponds lined with dense, woody vegetation.

Among the species found along creeks and rivers are the following: Canada Goose, Mallard, Wood Duck [forested], Hooded Merganser [forested], Cooper's Hawk [forested corridors], Great Blue Heron, Green Heron [forested], Killdeer, Great Horned Owl [forested], Barred Owl [forested), Belted Kingfishers, Eastern Phoebe [especially near bridges], Willow Flycatcher [shrubby margins), Barn Swallow, Northern Rough-winged Swallow, House Wren [in woody debris], Cedar Waxwing, Warbling Vireo [woody corridors, especially cottonwoods and willows], Yellow Warbler [shrubby corridors], Common Yellowthroat [grassy and shrubby streamsides], Common Grackle, Red-winged Blackbird, Orchard Oriole [willow-lined streams], Baltimore Oriole [woody corridors], Indigo Bunting, and Song Sparrow [shrubby streamsides].

Exotic species - The Mute Swan is the only non-native species that would be likely to occur in the area. Although they are rare in Illinois, some may visit local ponds.

Population Dynamics and ~estoration

By far the most important role of lakes, ponds, and impoundments is as resting habitat for migrating waterbirds. These open-water habitats are often the only deepwater habitat available for loons, grebes, scaup, Common Goldeneyes, Buffleheads, and mergansers, all of which dive to catch food. Similarly, gulls and terns often forage over open water during migration. At low water, the edges of lakes are also used by shorebirds, herons, and egrets. All species of swallows use open-water for foraging, especially during cold weather. A comparative study of the use of various ponds, lakes, and impoundments by migrating birds might help improve their design and management, but probably the most

77 useful way to enhance these habitats is by increasing the amount of emergent vegetation along their edges. This essentially involves creating shallow wetlands along the edges of open water.

We lack data on populations and nesting success of birds in riparian corridors of varying widths and of their use by migrants. However, increasing the amount of woody riparian corridor habitat should enhance populations of many species, and would help restore natural hydrology. Restoring the hydrology would, in turn, improve wetland habitat in the floodplain, both in woody backwaters and in oxbows (see above). It would also be interesting to measure the movements of migrants along corridors to determine if they act as flyways.

Cultural Habitats: Cropland

Agricultural areas generally provide poor habitat for most birds - plant diversity in cropland is much lower than in the original habitats. However, it is still important to consider the role of agricultural habitats for supporting bird populations because in the SRAA 64.5% of the land has been usurped for crop production (Table 2, Figure 4). There are no threatened or endangered species that rely exclusively on cropland.

Regularly occurring Species

Cropland bird communities in the SRAA have the same bird species that are common statewide in this structurally simple habitat: Mallard, Red-tailed Hawk, American Kestrel, Ring-necked Pheasant, Killdeer, Rock Dove, Mourning Dove, Great Horned Owl, Eastern Phoebe [farmsteads), Horned Lark, Barn Swallow, American Crow, Eastern Bluebird, Loggerhead Shrike (ST), European Starlings, House Sparrow, Common Grackle, Brown-headed Cowbird, Red-winged Blackbird, Vesper Sparrow, and Field Sparrow. Intensively farmed areas offer little in the way of stopover habitat except around farmsteads and wet fields in the spring for shorebirds. Some species characteristic of recently burned and heavily grazed, dry grasslands have adapted to croplands, including the Horned Lark, Vesper Sparrow, and Loggerhead Shrike (ST). The shrike, however, also requires spiny hedgerows for nesting; it is now rare in the area.

Introduced species thrive in the agricultural habitats of the SRAA. In fact, four of the most abundant species in the cropland of the Spoon River area, Ring-necked Pheasant, Rock Dove, European Starling and House Sparrow, were all introduced from Europe or Asia. In addition, the Gray Partridge, another introduction from Europe and Asia, is a much less common species to be found in the area.

Population Dynamics and Management

Warner (1994) documented the low populations and extremely low nesting success of birds in Ford County, an area of very intensive agriculture. On the other hand, increasing

78 grassy cover along roadsides, drainage ditches, and around farmsteads can substantially increase grassland bird habitat. Within an agricultural landscape, the CRP can also benefit cropland birds by providing nesting cover and attracting such species as Henslow's, Grasshopper, and Savannah sparrows.

Cultural Habitats: Successional Fields

Successional habitats, such as abandoned fields and pastures, are relatively uncommon in the SRAA. These habitats, which are often dominated by non-native plant species of shrubs and vines, may be structurally similar to native successional habitats that historically occurred along the edges of meandering rivers or in large treefall gaps. Such habitats usually have dense, protective cover and are often rich in fruit producing plants, and therefore offer rich habitat for breeding and migrating birds. However, given the scarcity of natural shrublands in the Midwest, we know little about this community. Nonetheless, many local species that use shrubby vegetation now depend almost entirely on anthropogenic disturbances to set back succession.

Regularly Occurring Species

Typical species - Successional habitats dominated by forbs, shrubs, and saplings offer rich habitat for many breeding birds. Typical species include Northern Bobwhite, Ring necked Pheasant, American Woodcock, Mourning Dove, Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Black billed Cuckoo, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Northern Flicker, Downy Woodpecker, Eastern Kingbird, Willow Flycatcher [wet thickets], Blue Jay, Black-capped Chickadee, House Wren, Carolina Wren, Gray Catbird, Brown Thrasher, American Robin, Eastern Bluebird, Blue-gray Gnatcatcher, Cedar Waxwing, White-eyed Vireo, Bell's Vireo [very young thickets], Yellow Warbler, Common Yellowthroat, Yellow-breasted Chat, Red winged Blackbird, Orchard Oriole, Baltimore Oriole [older thickets], Northern Cardinal, Rose-breasted Grosbeak [older thickets], Indigo Bunting, House Finch, American Goldfinch, Eastern Towhee, Lark Sparrow [sandy soils, open thickets], Field Sparrow, and Song Sparrow. Successional habitats add greatly to local diversity, but virtually none of these species are in any trouble,although the Yellow-breasted Chat and Field Sparrow are declining nationally. Two species typical of shrublands elsewhere in the state, Blue winged Warbler and Prairie Warbler, are rare or absent form the area. Kentucky Warblers and Wood Thrushes also nest in late-successional thickets.

Threatened and endnagered species - The Loggerhead Shrike (ST) is the only threatened or endangered species known to use the successional habitats in the SRAA.

Exotic species - Most species found in successional habitats are native, although Ring necked Pheasants and Gray Partridges use early successional fields, and House Finches breed in shrubbery. .

79 Population Dynamics and Management

Although pest predation rates appear to be very high in successional habitats, brood parasitism levels are generally moderate-to-low (Robinson et. aI., in press). Some species nesting in these habitats eject cowbird eggs (Gray Catbird, Brown Thrasher, Cedar Waxwing, Eastern Kingbird, Baltimore Oriole, American Robin), nest in cavities that are inaccessible to cowbirds (both Wrens, Chickadees, Eastern Bluebird), abandon many parasitized nests (Yellow Warbler, Bell's Vireo, Field and Chipping Sparrows), defend their nests aggressively (Red-winged Blackbird, Eastern Kingbird, Willow Flycatcher, Common Grackle), have inappropriate diets for cowbird nestlings (House Finch, American Goldfinch), or continue nesting until very late in the season when cowbirds have stopped laying and nest predation rates generally decline (Mourning Dove, Yellow billed Cuckoo, Gray Catbird, Cedar Waxwing, White-eyed Vireo, Northern Cardinal, Indigo Bunting, American Goldfinch, and Eastern Towhee). As a result, early successional species may be able to thrive even in small patches in agricultural landscapes. An intensive study of habitat requirements, nesting success, and population dynamics of shrubland birds is now underway (S. K. Robinson, J. D. Brawn, and E. J. Heske, unpub!. data). This project has a statewide component, although the intensive field work is being carried out in the Middle Fork Fish and Wildlife Area in Vermilion County. The results of this study should be applicable to shrubland birds in the SRAA. Shrubland species may be excellent target species for lands managed to promote game species, especially Northern Bobwhites.

In addition to use during the breeding season, shrublands are very heavily used by migrating species, especially in habitats mingled with scattered trees. Shrubland preferring migrants include Black-billed Cuckoo, Northern Saw-whet Owl [mainly in evergreens], Yellow-bellied Flycatcher, Alder Flycatcher, Least Flycatcher, Philadelphia Vireo, Golden-winged Warbler, Orange-crowned Warbler, Chestnut-sided Warbler, Mourning Warbler, Connecticut Warbler, Wilsons Warbler, Canada Warbler, Harris' Sparrow and Lincoln's Sparrow. Shrubland habitats therefore provide real benefits to migrant birds and greatly increase local biodiversity.

Cultural Habitats: Developed Land

Residential and urban areas represent only about 1.6 % of the SRAA (Table 2, Figure 5). These areas, scattered with lawns, parks, and other manicured vegetation, offer suitable breeding habitat for relatively few bird species.

Regularly Occurring Species

Typical species - Typical breeding species include Red-tailed Hawk [in more sparsely inhabited areas], American Kestrel [especially farmsteads], Killdeer, Rock Dove, Mourning Dove, Eastern Screech-owl, Great Homed Owl, Common Nighthawk, Chimney Swift, Ruby-throated Hummingbird, Northern Flicker, Red-bellied Woodpecker

80 [urban forests], Eastern Wood-Pewee, Eastern Phoebe, Barn Swallow, Purple Martin, Blue Jay, American Crow, Black-capped and Carolina Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, White-breasted Nuthatch, House Wren, Carolina Wren, Northern Mockingbird, Gray Catbird, Brown Thrasher, American Robin, Eastern Bluebird [farmsteads], European Starling, Warbling Vireo, Common Yellowthroat, House Sparrow, Common Grack]e, Brown-headed Cowbird, Baltimore Oriole, Northern Cardinal, House Finch, Pine Siskin [sporadic], American Goldfinch, Chipping Sparrow, and Song Sparrow.

Developed lands contain an unusual mix of species that can use ornamental shrubs (e.g., Northern Mockingbird, Northern Cardinal, Song Sparrow), shade trees (e.g., Baltimore Oriole, Warbling Vireo, Black-capped Chickadee, Tufted Titmouse, Eastern Wood Pewee), short mowed grass (e.g., American Robin, Common Grackle, Northern Flicker, American Crow, Brown-headed Cowbird, Mourning and Rock Doves, European Starling, and Chipping Sparrow), and can nest safely in human structures (e.g., American Kestrel, Killdeer [roofs, roads], Common Nighthawk [roofs], Chimney Swift, Eastern Phoebe, Barn Swallow, Purple Martin, House and Carolina Wrens, American Robin, Eastern Bluebird, European Starling, House Sparrow and House Finch). This community has no parallel in the natural world.

Threatened and endangered species - Now that the Bewick's Wren is virtually absent from the region, there are no threatened or endangered species found in residential or urban areas other than the Loggerhead Shrike, which often forages in mowed grass of rural farmsteads.

Exotic species - Many species in developed areas are introduced. Huge populations of introduced European Starlings, House Sparrows, Rock Doves, and House Finches compete with native species for nest sites and food at bird feeders. House Finches are native to the western United States but after a population was released on Long Island in the 1940s, they spread west from New York and are now common in the urban and rural areas of Illinois.

Population Dynamics and Management

Developed areas are characterized by abnormally high population densities of species that occasionally or regularly depredate nests (e.g., Blue Jay, American Crow, House Wren, Gray Catbird, Common Grackle, and Brown-headed Cowbird). Bird feeders further augment populations of many species in rural or urban areas, especially the House Finch, by increasing winter survival.

Although not well suited to support many native breeding birds, developed land, such as tree-lined residential areas, can be important for migrating landbirds. These species make heavy use of shade trees in developed areas and, when available, also use shrubs. Typical migrants of urban forests include Cooper's and Sharp-shinned hawks [both forage at bird feeders], Common Nighthawk, Ruby-throated Hummingbird [especially at feeders], Northern Flicker, Yellow-bellied Sapsucker, Red-breasted Nuthatch [conifers], Brown

8] Creeper, Hermit Thrush, Golden-crowned Kinglet, Ruby-crowned Kinglet, Cedar Waxwing, Red-eyed Vireo, Tennessee Warbler, Cape May Warbler [conifers], Black throated Green Warbler, Blackburnian Warbler, Bay-breasted Warbler, Blackpoll Warbler, American Redstart, Rusty Blackbird, Evening Grosbeak [feeders], Purple Finch [feeders], Pine Siskin [feeders, conifers], American Goldfinch [feeders], Eastern Towhee [feeders], Dark-eyed Junco [feeders], American Tree Sparrow, White-crowned Sparrow, and White throated Sparrow.

Nesting success of species of developed areas has not been systematically studied. Such studies could lead to recommendations for enhancing populations of the native species that have adapted to human developments. However, high populations of predatory birds, domestic cats, and other mammalian predators may make it difficult for many species that build open-cup nests in accessible locations to nest successfully.

Management Recommendations

For breeding birds, we recommend the following stategies for improving habitats:

Forest - The SRAA currently has few high-quality areas for breeding birds. Emiquon National Wildlife Refuge in Fulton County (Figure 10) has the best potential for creating large (> 500 acres), forest-interior tracts. This site as well as areas under private ownership already have small numbers of breeding Wood Thrush, American Redstart, Kentucky Warbler, Louisiana Waterthrush, Ovenbird, and Red-eyed Vireo. Cowbird parasitism is a likely problem at these sites, but nest predation rates are unknown.

Most other upland sites in the basin are small and have little potential to be enlarged sufficiently to create interior habitat for forest or grassland birds. Breeding birds may not be the best focus for management of small sites. For these areas, plant community restoration coupled with judicious consideration of the needs of migrant birds (some shrubby areas and oak trees) might be the best management strategy.

Wetland - Wetland restoration (~n.cluding marshes and riparian corridors), especially in old strip-mined areas, is another viable strategy for this region. Wetlands have many threatened and t;ndangered species that may not be as sensitive to fragmentation as forest and grassland birds. They are also heavily used by migrating birds.

Shrublands - Integrating the needs of shrubland songbirds and game animal management may be a good approach to managing Fish and Wildlife Areas.

Grassland - Grassland restoration also has an excellent potential to bring back populations of many threatened and endangered species. But, it cannot be done piecemeal. Sites must be relatively large (>I00 acres; for example the grasslands at Snake Den Hollow) and dedicated to grassland management. Although restoration of native prairie grasses is a valid, long-term goal, introduced, cool-season grasses have the

82 potential to act as good surrogate habitat for many species. Woody vegetation removal (except perhaps in areas that are too wet to burn) may be necessary to attract some birds and to increase their nesting success. Rotational mowing, burning, or grazing may maximize the number of grassland birds that can nest in an area. .

Developed and agricultural areas - Developed areas, especially urban forests and parks, can be managed to improve habitat by encouraging oaks and leaving shrubby areas for migrants. Agricultural areas benefit from increased cover provided by eRP fields, shrub lined drainage ditches, and unmowed roadsides.

Mammals

Introduction

Information in this section has been compiled primarily from range maps and known records in Hoffmeister (1989) and the lllinois Natural Heritage Database (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). Taxonomy follows Wilson and Reeder (1993). The Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA) has not been thoroughly surveyed for many species of mammals. There are no records from the SRAA for many widespread species (Hoffmeister 1989), particularly small mammals such as insectivores and bats, although the area is included in their geographic ranges.

Mammal species known or likely to occur in the SRAA are listed in Table 13. The 47 species in this table represent 78% of the approximately 60 mammal species that currently occur in Illinois (Hoffmeister 1989). The population status ofthese species in the SRAA is unknown; therefore, designations in Table 13 are projections based on their status in other parts of lllinois. Of the nine mammal species listed as threatened and endangered in Illinois (Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board 1994), only the river otter, Lutra canadensis, has been recorded within the SRAA (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997, Bluett 1997). Two additional threatened or endangered species (bobcat - Felis rufus, Indiana bat - Myotis sodalis) have been reported outside of the assessment area boundary but within the area displayed on maps in this report (Figure I). Because of the significance of these species, and because they could occasionally occur in the SRAA, they are included in the species list. The Illinois River basin, including the SRAA, has been listed as a top priority for reintroduction of the river otter.

Table 13. List of mammal species known or likely to occur in the Spoon River Assessment Area.'

Order Common name' Scientific name Habitat' Population status"s

Marsupials Didelphimorphia Virginia opossum Didelphis virginiana W,G,F C Insectivores Insectivora masked shrew Sorex cinereus W, G, F (mesic) C? northern short-tailed shrew Blarina brevicauda W,G,F C least shrew Cryptotis parva G U? eastern mole Scalopus aquaticus G,F C Bats Chiroptera little brown bat Myotis lucifugus F, caves, buildings C Indiana bat (FEISE) Myotis sodalis F, caves R? northern long-eared bat Myotis septentrionalis F, caves, buildings C silver-haired bat Lasionycteris noctivagans F, caves (hibernation) U? eastern pipistrelle Pipistrellus subflavus F, caves, buildings C

85 Table 13. Continued.

Order Common name' Scientific name Habitat' Population status'" big brown bat Eptesicus fuscus F. caves, buildings C red bat Lasiurus borealis F C hoary bat Lasiurus cinereus F U? evening bat Nycticeius humeralis F, buildings U? Rabbits Lagomorpha eastern cottontail Sylvilagus floridanus G,F C Rodents Rodentia eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus F C woodchuck Marmota monax G, F (edges) C thirteen-lined ground squirrel Spermophilus tridecemlineatus G C Franklin's ground squirrel Spermophilus franklinii G U? gray squirrel Sciurus carolinensis F, urban U fox squirrel Sciurus niger F C southern flying squirrel Glaucomys volans F C plains pocket gopher Geomys bursarius G C beaver Castor canadensis W C western harvest mouse Reithrodontomys megalotis G C? deer mouse Peromyscus maniculatus G C white-footed mouse Peromyscus leucopus W, G, F (mostly F) C meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus G C prairie vole Microtus ochrogaster G C woodland vole Microtus pinetorum F U? southern bog lemming Synaptomys cooperi W, G U? muskrat Ondatra zibethicus W C Norway rat * Rattus norvegicus buildings C house mouse * Mus musculus G, buildings C meadow jumping mouse Zapus hudsonius W, G, F U? Carnivores Carnivora coyote Canis latrans W,G,F C red fox Vulpes vulpes W,G,F C gray fox Urocyon cinereoargenteus F U? raccoon Procyon lotor W,G,F C least weasel Mustela nivalis G U? long-tailed weasel Musielafrenata W,G,F C mink Mustela vison W, G (mostly W) C badger Taxidea taxus G U striped skunk Mephitis mephitis W,G,F C river otter (SE) Lutra canadensis W R? bobcat (ST) Felis rufus F R Even-toed ungulates Artiodactyla white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus W,G,F C

I Compiled from range maps and known records reported in Hoffmeister (1989) and TIlinois Natural Heritage Database (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). 2 Bold type indicates a federally endangered (FE). an lllinois endangered (SE), or an TIlinois threatened (ST) species. • = exotic species. , Habitats: W = wetland, G = grassland, F = forest. 4 Population status; C = common, U = uncommon, R = rare, ? =status uncertain , Subjective estimate based on personal experience of E. J. Heske and J. E. Hofmann in TIlinois. 86 Forest

Typical Species

Mammal species known or likely to occur in the SRAA that are restricted to forested habitats include the hoary bat, eastern chipmunk, gray and fox squirrels, southern flying squirrel, woodland vole, gray fox, and bobcat. Species that are primarily associated with forested habitats but also occur in other habitats include the red bat, white-footed mouse, and raccoon. Other species of bats use forested habitats extensively, although many roost under bridges or in buildings. Some species, such as the eastern cottontail, woodchuck, and white-tailed deer, require wooded habitat at certain times of the year or specialize in the use of forest edges. Additional habitat generalists typically found in forests in the SRAA are listed in Table 13.

Most species of mammals associated with forests are not restricted to one type of forest (i.e., upland or floodplain) and use a variety of forest types seasonally or opportunistically. However, species that hibernate (woodchucks, eastern chipmunks) or are primarily fossorial (woodland voles) need well-drained, unflooded soils. Fox squirrels are more strongly associated with upland forests, but also can occupy open forests, woodlots, and fencerows (Hoffmeister 1989). Gray squirrels require extensive tracts of forest, although they also occur in many urban areas, and are scarce or absent from most of the SRAA (Nixon et al. 1978). Tree squirrels, flying squirrels, and chipmunks tend to be most abundant in forests with a heavy component of mast producing trees such as oaks and hickories. Gray fox are most abundant in upland forests, but also may be abundant in bottomland forests (Hoffmeister 1989). Raccoons are most abundant in forest tracts with proximity to water (Hoffmeister 1989).

Threatened and Endangered Species

No records of threatened or endangered species of mammal associated with forests have been reported for the SRAA. Bobcats have been sighted in Singing Woods, 4 miles north of Peoria, in 1994, and near the Forbes Biological Station, Mason County, in 1986 (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). A bobcat also was sighted in the Pecumsaugan Creek/Blackball Mines Nature Preserve in LaSalle County in 1993 (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). This nature preserve is also the home of a large hibernating colony of Indiana bats (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). Indiana bats have been reported from Henderson County, west of the SRAA, and McDonough County, southwest of the SRAA during the summer (lllinois Department of Natural Resources 1997), and migrating individuals have been found in Macomb and McDonough counties (Clark and Clark 1987). It is possible that Indiana bats could occasionally occur in forested areas of the SRAA.

87 Habitat Requirements and Distribution of Listed Forest-dwelling Species that could possibly occur in the Spoon River Assessment Area

Bobcat - Optimal habitat for bobcats in the Midwest would be rough or rolling terrain where large tracts of second-growth forest with dense underbrush were interspersed with open areas (e.g., clearings or successional fields), streams, and rock outcrops (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, McCord and Cardoza 1982). Bobcats also inhabit floodplain forests along major rivers and swamps (Hoffmeister 1989). Rollings (1945) thought that key factors in bobcat habitat selection were prey abundance, protection from severe weather, the presence of suitable den sites, dense cover, and a lack of human disturbance. Small caves, rock crevices, rock piles, logs, stumps, hollow trees, dense thickets, and brush piles are used as resting sites and natal dens (Jackson 1961, Schwartz and Schwartz 1981, McCord and Cardoza 1982). Bobcats change resting sites frequently, except for females with young who occupy dens in inaccessible areas. Bobcats travel extensively while hunting and require large tracts of suitable habitat (Rollings 1945, McCord and Cardoza 1982). Male bobcats in Missouri have annual home ranges of 46 to 72 lan2 and females have ranges covering 13 to 31 lan2 (Schwartz and Schwartz 1981). Rhea (1982) identified areas greater than 259 lan2with more than 50% forest cover and good interspersion of open areas, streams, and rocky terrain as optimal habitat for viable breeding populations of bobcats. According to these criteria, the best potential breeding habitat in lllinois is located in the Shawnee Hills region, along the lower lllinois River, and in the northwestern corner of the state. There are recent records of bobcats for 24 counties, most of which are in southern and northwestern lllinois (lllinois Department of Natural Resources 1997).

Indiana bat - Indiana bats congregate in a limited number of caves or mines for hibernation, but are more widely dispersed during the summer. Indiana bat maternity colonies roost primarily beneath slabs of exfoliating bark on dead trees, but have also been found beneath the "shaggy" bark of certain live hickories and in tree cavities (Cope et aI. 1974, Humphrey et al. 1977, Gardner et aI. 1991, Callahan 1993, Kurta et aI. 1993a,b). Males and nonreproductive females may also roost in caves or abandoned mines. 'Roost trees used by this species have been located in both upland and floodplain forests; most are relatively large (>22 em dbh). Tree species1 that have been used by maternity colonies in Illinois are slippery elm, northern red oak, shagbark hickory, silver maple, cottonwood, post oak, bitternut hickory, white oak, American elm, sycamore, and green ash (Gardner et aI. 1991, Gardner and Hofmann, unpublished data, Kurta et aI. 1993a,b). Indiana bats forage in and along the canopy of both riparian and upland forests (Humphrey et aI. 1977, LaVal et al. 1977, Brack 1983, Clark et aI. 1987, Gardner et aI. 1991). There are recent summer records oflndiana bats in 23 counties in central and southern Illinois (Gardner et aI. 1996, Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997).

I Scientific names of tree species are given in Appendix 1.

88 Exotic Species

The Norway rat and house mouse are the only known exotic mammals in the area. The Norway rat, in particular, is strongly associated with human structures. Both species may be found in woodlots in proximity to human structures, but neither is generally considered a forest species. These species are now so widespread that they are part of the mammalian fauna throughout the United States. Not much can be done to rectify this situation and it is not one for concern. Domesticated animals such as house pets frequently cause problems for wildlife. Feral and house cats (Felis silvestris), in particular, can have severe negative impacts on native songbirds and small mammals (Warner 1985, Coleman and Temple 1996).

Information Gaps

Data on the population status of several forest-dwelling species are not available. Additional information on the distribution and abundance of the Indiana bat, silver-haired bat, hoary bat, evening bat, woodland vole, and gray fox would be valuable. Updating the status and distribution of gray squirrels in the SRAA, and determining the reasop.s for its absence or scarcity in forested tracts in this region, would be of interest. Determining whether the remaining forest tracts can support resident bobcat or serve as a dispersal route for transient individuals would help guide management decisions for this species.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Protecting both upland and floodplain forested tracts and maintaining dispersal corridors such as the forested riparian zone along the Spoon River could enhance the suitability of the SRAA as habitat for gray fox and bobcat. Only about 14% of the SRAA is forested, and much of this area is concentrated along the river. Managing the remaining forests to maintain large snags with exfoliating bark or cavities would provide roosting habitat for forest-dwelling bats, including Indiana bats, and den sites for other mammals such as the southern flying squirrel.

Wetland

Typical Species

Mammal species occurring in the SRAA whose life history requires wetland habitats include the beaver, muskrat, and mink. In addition, all species of bats found in the SRAA would use wetland areas, primarily as foraging habitat. The masked shrew, northern short-tailed shrew, and meadow jumping mouse use wetlands extensively in addition to mesic forests or grasslands. Other habitat generalists that use wetlands are listed in Table 13. Because the same subset of mammal species found in the SRAA is likely to be associated with lakes, ponds, impoundments, creeks, and rivers as well as marshes, this

89 section should serve as a report on mammals in mesic habitats in general. Small mammals such as the northern short-tailed shrew and meadow jumping mouse may be found in mesic areas without standing water, whereas the larger mammals such as the beaver and muskrat require open water (still or moving) habitats. River otters were reintroduced to the SRAA in 1996; sightings and reintroductions of river otters elsewhere in the Illinois River system suggest that this species could eventually become established in the SRAA.

Threatened and Endangered Species

Twenty-four river otters (12 male, 12 female) were reintroduced to the Spoon River near London Mills in April 1996 (Bluett 1997). Other reintroductions and sightings of river otters have been reported in the lllinois River drainage a few miles east of the SRAA, however, in Bureau and Peoria counties (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997, Bluett 1997). The Illinois River basin, including the SRAA, is considered one of the top priorities for reintroduction of the river otter.

.Habitat Requirements and Distributions of Listed Wetland Species

River otter - River otters occupy a variety of aquatic habitats, from coastal swamps and marshes to high mountain lakes (Toweill and Tabor 1982). They are abundant in estuaries, the lower reaches of rivers, and the tributaries and lakes of unpolluted river systems, but scarce in densely populated areas, especially if the water is polluted (Toweill and Tabor 1982). In Illinois, river otters have been found in shallow lakes, sloughs, cypress swamps, rivers, streams, drainage ditches, and ponds (Anderson 1982, Anderson and Woolf 1984). Habitat used by river otters in northwestern Illinois has the following characteristics: isolation from the main river channel (providing a relatively stable water level), extensive riparian forest (or emergent herbaceous vegetation), the persistence of open water during winter, good water quality (and healthy fish populations), the presence of suitable den sites (e.g. beaver lodges, log piles, exposed tree roots), and minimal human disturbance (Anderson and Woolf 1984). The shape of river otter home ranges is determined by the type of habitat and their size is influenced by prey abundance, topography, weather conditions, and the individual's reproductive status (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). At the Lamine River Wildlife Area in Missouri otter home ranges were 11-78 km in length (Erickson et al. 1984). Only a portion of the range is used at any time; activity centers are located in areas with abundant food and suitable shelter and are changed frequently (Melquist and Hornocker 1983). River otters may travel long distances, 160 km or more, in search of suitable habitat (Jackson 1961). Recent river otter records exist for 35 llIinois counties (lliinois Department of Natural Resources 1997). The main breeding populations of river otters inhabit the backwaters and tributaries of the Mississippi River in Jo Daviess, Carroll, Whiteside, and Rock Island counties in northwestern lllinois (Anderson 1995). Smaller populations also occur in the Cache and Big Muddy river systems of southern Illinois and the number of reports along the Rock River and the middle portion of the Mississippi River have been increasing (Anderson 1995). 90 Exotics

House mice occasionally can be found in wetland habitats. This species is so widespread that it is now part of the mammalian fauna throughout the United States. There is not much that can be done to alter this situation and it is not one for concern. House cats also can sometimes have severe impacts on native songbirds and small mammals.

Information Gaps

Many wetlands, especially emergent wetlands, currently exist as isolated habitat patches. The ability of wetland-associated mammals to disperse between such wetlands should be examined. Surveys to determine the distribution and status of masked shrews, southern bog lemmings, and mink should be conducted. Beaver have been increasing in abundance throughout the state. The status of beaver populations in the SRAA and their impact on the physical structure of riparian systems should be evaluated. The success of reintroductions of the river otter should be monitored.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

The preservation (and, if necessary, restoration) of riparian forest along the Spoon River and associated drainages could promote establishment of river otters in the SRAA, especially if introductions in the lllinois River system produce potential immigrants. Reduction of silt and chemical runoff into wetland habitats also will improve their ability to attract and support river otters.

Grassland

. Typical Species

Mammal species likely to occur in the SRAA that are restricted to grassland include the least shrew, thirteen-lined and Franklin's ground squirrels, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, meadow vole, prairie vole, least weasel, and badger. Other species strongly associated with grasslands include the masked shrew, northern short-tailed shrew, eastern cottontail, woodchuck, southern bog lemming, and meadow jumping mouse. Additional species that use grasslands include the habitat generalists listed in Table 13.

Most grassland species of marrllnals are not restricted to native or undisturbed grassland habitat. Rather, the structure of rights-of-way, small grain fields, agricultural field edges, pastures, old fields, prairie restorations, and similar constructed or disturbed sites provides suitable habitat for many of these species. Thirteen-lined ground squirrels are most abundant in short grasses, whereas Franklin's ground squirrels are found in grasses of intermediate height (Hoffmeister 1989). Both species prefer areas that provide an unobstructed view; thus, tall grasses are inhabited rarely. The masked shrew, meadow

91 jumping mouse, southern bog lemming, and, to a lesser extent, the meadow vole generally prefer more mesic grasslands (Hoffmeister 1989). Eastern cottontails and woodchucks are most abundant where grassland habitat occurs in proximity to other habitat types and may be considered edge species. Other species use a variety of grassland habitats opportunistically.

Threatened and Endangered Species

None of the mammal species primarily associated with grasslands in the ffiAA is listed as threatened or endangered in Illinois.

Exotics

The Norway rat and house mouse are strongly associated with human structures, but both species may be found in grasslands in proximity to such structures. The house mouse in particular can sometimes reach substantial numbers in grasslands near buildings. These species are now so widespread that they are part of the mammalian fauna throughout the United States. Not much can be done to alter this situation and it is not one for concern. House cats can have severe impacts on grassland-nesting songbirds and possibly small mammals.

Information Gaps

Additional information on the distribution and population status of the Franklin's ground squirrel, western harvest mouse, southern bog lemming, meadow jumping mouse, and least weasel would be useful. Franklin's ground squirrel, in particular, appears to have become uncommon throughout much of its former range in Illinois. The status of the badger in Illinois was recently investigated by Warner and Ver Steeg (1995), but population status in the SRAA should be determined more precisely. Although the red fox is not strictly a grassland species, it is most often associated with grasslands and other open habitats. There are suggestions that recent increases in the abundance of coyotes could have negatively affected populations of red fox, and the status of red fox populations in the SRAA should be evaluated.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Restored grasslands could provide valuable sites for reintroductions of Franklin's ground squirrels in areas where they no longer occur. Prairie restoration, coupled with the preservation of native prairie and other grassland habitats, would provide additional habitat for badger and red fox.

92 Amphibians and Reptiles

Introduction

Information in this section has been compiled from range maps in Smith (1961), the Illinois Natural Heritage Database (Illinois Department of Natural Resources 1997), the lllinois Amphibian and Reptile Vouchered Database (an lllinois Natural History Survey [INHS] computer database that contains information on specimens from museum, university, and private collections), unvouchered records from the literature, and unvouchered records taken from reliable biologists and naturalists. There has not been a systematic survey of the amphibians and reptiles of the Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA). The SRAAcontains portions of2 of Smith's (1961) II Herpetofaunal Divisions for the state; Grand Prairie and Western Division Woodlands.

Amphibian and reptile species that are known or likely to occur in the SRAA are listed in Table 14. The 12 amphibian species and 26 reptile species in Table 14 represent 30% of the amphibian species and 43% of the reptile species of the State. The state endangered massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, is known to exist in the SRAA. It is a snake of the once extensive wet prairies of Illinois. It will be discussed in the wetland section below. One other state listed species, the timber rattlesnake, Crotalus horridus, has been extirpated from the SRAA. There have been no reports of exotic reptile species in the SRAA.

When referring to the habitat designations in Table 14, keep in mind that most amphibian and reptile species are not restricted to a single habitat type. For example, all but two of lllinois' amphibians require some type of aquatic habitat (wetland, pond, creek or river) for breeding but the adults can also be found in a variety of terrestrial habitats. Some species require a combination of two habitat types throughout their life. For example, the Smooth Green Snake requires prairie or forest habitat, but wetlands must be present. On the other hand, some species have narrower habitat requirements than the designations in Table 14 might suggest. For example, the Queen Snake is listed as occurring in rivers and creeks, but it is only found in medium-sized creeks with rocky substrates.

Forest

Typical Species

Amphibian species of the SRAA that are typical of forested habitats include the spring peeper and both species of gray treefrog. As outlined above, most amphibians also require aquatic habitats for breeding. The gray treefrog and spring peeper breed in forested wetlands and upland forested ponds. Among the reptiles of the SRAA, the brown snake is typical of forested areas.

93 Table 14. Amphibian and reptile species known or likely to occur in the Spoon River Assessment Area with an indication of habitat preference and relative abundance.

4 Common Name'·2 Scientific Name Habitae Abundance

Amphibians tiger salamander Ambystoma tigrinum F,W,P,L U slimy salamander Plethodon glutinosus F U SIren Siren intermedia W,R ? American toad Bufo americanus U C Fowler's toad Bufo woodhousii F,W,P C cricket frog Acris crepitans L,R C striped chorus frog Pseudacris triseriata U C Cope's gray treefrog Hyla chrysoscelis F,W C eastern gray treefrog Hyla versicolor F,W C bullfrog Rana catesbeiana U C northern leopard frog Rana pipiens F,W,R U southern leopard frog Rana sphenocephala F,W,R U

Reptiles snapping turtle Chelydra serpentina W,L,R C musk turtle Sternotherus odoratus W,L,R U painted turtle Chrysemys picta W,L,R C ornate (western) box turtle Terrapene ornata P U slider Trachemys scripta W,L,R C spiny softshell turtle Apalone spinifera W,L,R U slender glass lizard Ophisaums attenuatus P R five-lined skink Eumeces fasciatus F U broadhead skink Eumeces laticeps F U eastern hognose snake Heterodon platirhinos F,W,P U racer Coluber constrictor U C smooth green snake Opheodrys vernalis W,P U smooth earth snake Virginia valeriae F U rat snake Elaphe obsoleta F,W,P U fox snake Elaphe vulpina W,P,C C bullsnake Pituophis catenifer P U milk snake Lampropeltis triangulum F,W,P U plains garter snake Thamnophis radix U C common garter snake Thamnophis sirtalis U C brown snake Storeria dekayi U C red-bellied snake Storeria occipitomaculata F,W U Graham's crayfish snake Regina grahamii W,L U queen snake Regina septemvittata R U northern water snake Nerodia sipedon U C massasauga • SE Sistrums catenatus W,P,F R timber rattlesnake· ST Crotalus horridus F X

I Nomenclature follows Collins (1990) unless noted. 2Bold type indicates a state threatened species (ST) or state endangered species (SE). 3 Habitats: F =forest W =wetland P =prairie and savanna L =lakes, ponds, impoundments R =rivers & creeks C =cultural U =ubiquitous (all habitats) 4 Abundance: C =common U =uncommon R =rare X =extirpated

94 Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Maintaining small, temporary, fishless ponds in forests of th eSRAA would benefit many of the reptiles and amphibians of the region as well as other species groups that depend on them for food. Creating or restoring small, fishless ponds in upland forests is particularly valuable because these habitats are among the rarest in the SRAA and the state. The tiger salamander, American toad, gray treefrog, and northern leopard frog are among the amphibians that breed in this habitat. The musk turtle, brown snake, red bellied snake, and northern water snake would benefit from restoration or creation of woodland ponds.

Wetland

Typical Species

Amphibian species of the SRAA that are typical of wetland habitats include the green frog and southern leopard frog. As outlined above, almost all amphibians require some type of aquatic habitat for breeding and most breed in wetlands. Among the reptiles of the SRAA, the painted turtle and cornmon garter snake are typical of wetlands. These species reach their greatest abundance in wetland habitats. The state endangered massasauga is found in a variety of wetland habitats, but it prefers wet prairie areas with heavy grass cover or floodplain forest adjacent to open fields. The activity period in centrallllinois is probably mid-April to October. In some parts of their range, massasaugas move from moist prairie conditions to drier habitats in the spring. Massasaugas are often found in association with crayfish burrows which they use for shelter and hibernation. They may also overwinter in mammal burrows, old tree stumps, and rock crevices. They apparently do not hibernate with other snake species.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Maintaining even small, temporary wetlands in the SRAA would benefit almost all of the reptiles and amphibians of the region, as well as other groups that depend on them for food. The importance of cattail marshes under one acre should not be underestimated. Species such as the southern leopard frog, striped chorus frog and American toad can often utilize small, seemingly isolated wetlands. These species have excellent dispersal abilities and can move from wetland to wetland across inhospitable terrain such as agricultural fields and vacant lots. For most amphibians, however, agricultural fields and vacant lots are barriers to dispersal. For these species to persist in the landscape, small wetlands must be connected to other wetlands by corridors of natural vegetation. For this reason, mowing in the vicinity of wetlands should be avoided and grassy filter strips should be planted and greenways developed, especially along rivers and creeks.

95 The massasauga requires open grassland adjacent to wetlands. The presence of crayfish burrows is also desirable. Encroachment by trees and shrubs reduces habitat suitability, so potential sites may need to be burned every three to four years.

Information Gaps

One of the most pressing questions concerning wetland amphibians and reptiles in the SRAA is whether the massasauga still exists in this area. There are three historic records for the massasauga in the SRAA; near DeLong, at Massasauga Prairie Nature Preserve, and "Stark County". The first two were investigated by Beltz in her 1992 report. She considered both to be valid and "active massasauga locations" (Beltz 1992). Brian Bielema studied the population of massasaugas at Massasauga Prairie Nature Preserve in the early 70s (Bielema 1973) and estimated the population to be between 50 and 75 individuals. The population has not been studied since Bielema's investigation. An effort should be made to determine if this species still exists at Massasauga Prairie Nature Preserve or in the vicinity of De Long so that appropriate management action can be taken (see above).

Prairie

Typical Species

Of the amphibian species listed in Table 14, the tiger salamander and striped chorus frog are typical of prairie habitats in the SRAA. The tiger salamander requires fishless ponds and wetlands for breeding. Because of the destruction and degradation of these habitats, the tiger salamander has declined in the SRAA. The striped chorus frog has a shorter ' larval period and therefore Can breed in'more temporary aquatic habitats such as flooded fields and ditches. Reptile species in the SRAA that are typical of prairie habitats include the fox snake and plains garter snake. Both of these snakes can tolerate disturbed habitats such as mowed right-of-way, pasture, oldfield, and agricultural edge. As noted above, the massasauga was once cornman in the wet prairie of the SRAA, but this habitat has been almost completely eliminated...

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Restoring native prairie, especially wet prairie, in the SRAA would benefit a variety of amphibians and reptiles, especially the tiger salamander and the massasauga (if present in the SRAA). Wet prairie habitats also provide homes for insects and small mammals, both of which are important food items of amphibians and reptiles.

96 Lakes, Ponds, and Impoundments

Typical Species

Of the amphibian species listed in Table 14, the bullfrog and cricket frog are typical of lakes, ponds, and impoundments in the SRAA. Both of these species have developed strategies for co-existing with fish and are usually more widely distributed than other amphibians. Among the reptiles of the SRAA, the snapping turtle, painted turtle, common garter snake, and northern water snake are typical of lakes, ponds, and impoundments.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Restoration of fishless, forested ponds in upland areas would benefit the tiger salamander and gray treefrog. Leaving at least part of the shore around ponds, lakes and impoundments unmowed is vital for most amphibians because it provides cover and refugia from predators. Developing forest or grassland connections among ponds, lakes, -and impoundments in the SRAA would benefit a variety' of amphibians and reptiles. By connecting the various ponds and lakes with each other and with larger blocks of natural vegetation, the effects of fragmentation and small population size can be lessened. If individuals can move among ponds, this makes the whole complex of ponds effectively one large habitat.

Creeks and Rivers

Typical Species

The cricket frog and green frog are typical of creeks and small rivers in the SRAA, while the mudpuppy is a typical inhabitant of the Spoon River. Among the reptiles of the SRAA, the northern water snake is typical of creeks and small rivers while the snapping turtle and the spiny softshell turtle are t"jpical of the Spoon River.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

Restoring the riparian zone and associated floodplain forests and wetlands along the Spoon River and its tributaries would benefit a variety of amphibians and reptiles. Water quality must also be improved if any significant progress is expected.

97 Cultural Habitats

Typical Species

Of the amphibian species listed in Table 14, the American toad, striped chorus frog, and bullfrog are typical of cultural habitats in the SRAA. These species can be found in cropland, pasture, successional field, developed land, and tree plantations providing that adequate breeding sites (ditches, flooded fields, stock tanks, remnant marshes) are present. Among the reptiles of the SRAA, the plains garter snake, common garter snake, brown snake, and northern water snake are typical of cultural habitats in the SRAA.

Enhancement and Restoration Potential

The American toad, striped chorus frog, and bullfrog do well in patches of cattail marsh under one acre, even when the marsh is surrounded by developed land. These species have excellent dispersal abilities and can move from wetland to wetland across inhospitable terrain such as agricultural fields and vacant lots. It is always best to strive for larger size and connectivity of habitat, but the utility of these smaller areas should not be underestimated. It is also important to leave a moderate buffer of unmowed grass around these habitats to provide cover and refugia from predators.

Overall Habitat Quality and Management Concerns

Overall, opportunities for amphibians and reptiles in the SRAA are fair. Compared to pre-settlement times, the present landscape of the SRAA lacks a significant amount of wet prairie and the riparian zone along the Spoon River has been reduced and degraded. Nonetheless, the Spoon River still provides dispersal opportunities for many species. This keeps the effects of fragmentation to a minimum, especially by providing a means of . recolonization of habitats that have experienced local extinction. For this reason, the Spoon River is the thread that ties the whole SRAA together.

The most critical management concern for the SRAA Partnership is restoration of wet prairie, especially at the Massasauga Prairie Nature Preserve. As discussed above, this area also requires active management to reduce woody encroachment so it remains suitable for the massasauga. Another concern this maintainence of riparian zones along streams to act as dispersal corridors for amphibians and reptiles, thus reducing the effects of habitat fragmentation.

98 Aquatic Biota

Introduction

The Spoon River, located in west central Illinois, drains approximately 1,855 square miles in nine counties-Bureau, Fulton, Henry, Knox, Marshall, McDonough, Peoria, Stark, and Warren. Three natural divisions are encompassed-Grand Prairie, Upper Mississippi and Illinois River Bottornlands, and Western Forest-Prairie (Schwegman 1973). Although the Wisconsinan glacier did not advance as far west as the Spoon River Basin, its meltwaters contributed to formation of the river and surrounding landscape. The course of the main stream and several of its tributaries appear to have been determined by preglacial drainage lines (Forbes and Richardson 1908). The country drained by the Spoon River is generally flat prairie, except near streams, where the topography varies from rolling to hilly and is forested. Deep silt loam covers most of the basin with small areas of sandy loam deposited by stream overflow (Iverson, 1987). Major land use is row-crop agriculture. Fishing, boating, canoeing, and tourism are the major water-based activities.

The East Fork of the Spoon River rises to the north of Neposet in Bureau County and the West Fork rises to the east of Kewanee in Henry County. The forks join just north of the center of Stark County to form the main channel. The river generally flows in a southerly direction and empties into the lllinois River at Havana. The Spoon River is 161 miles in length, averages 47 feet in width, and nearly parallels the lllinois River for almost 100 miles. Throughout its course, river banks are quite steep; the river has cut into alluvial flood plains to a depth of over 20 feet. The substrate is gravel and sand with little silt, even though the river carries a high silt load. The silt is suspended, which causes the river to remain turbid for most of the spring. In summer and fall, turbidity is high as a result of algal blooms caused by an increase in runoff of inorganic fertilizers. The river is subject to wide variations in water level, with the bottomlands flooding almost annually. Silt, agricultural chemicals, stripmine and industrial waste, and domestic and animal waste are the major sources of pollution in the river.

Statewide Comparison ofAquatic Biota

The Spoon River Assessment Area (SRAA) historically has supported a large diversity of aquatic species, including 60 species of fishes, 41 species of mussels, and 10 species of malacostracans (large crustaceans). Some species qave disappeared from the drainage in recent decades; however, with improvements in water quality and habitat protection, populations of endangered or threatened species could increase, and natural communities could become reestablished in areas where they have been eliminated or altered.

99 The SRAA likely supports a moderate diversity of aquatic macroinvertebrates. However, existing distributional data and information on natural community associations is inadequate to summarize typical, unique, or rare species, or to identify exotic species. Surveys of aquatic macroinvertebrate populations have been limited to a few drainages outside of the SRAA specifically, but within counties in which Spoon River drainage occurs (Wetzel 1986; Wetzel et al. 1997).

Common Species

Sixty species of fishes are known from the region (Tables 15 and 16). Common fishes in the Spoon River Basin are bigmouth shiners, red shiners, sand shiners, central stonerollers, bluntnose minnows, quillbacks, white suckers, green sunfish, bluegills, largemouth bass, slenderhead darters and johnny darters. Headwaters contain creek chubs and orangethroat darters. None of the 60 species of fishes known from the region is considered threatened or endangered.

The Spoon River drainage historically supported 41 species of mussels (Tables 17 and 18). Historical data on the mussel fauna of the Spoon River are available in Strode (1891, 1892, 1895) and from an unpublished survey of the river by W.e. Starrett in 1971-73 (specimens in the Illinois Natural History Survey Mollusk Collection). Of the 41 species known from the drainage only 18 have been documented as still occurring in the basin post 1969 (Cummings and Mayer 1997). Common species in the basin include the threeridge, plain pocketbook, white heelsplitter, fragile papershell, pink papershell, pimpleback, and squawfoot, all of which are relatively common statewide.

Fourteen species of crayfishes, isopods, and amphipods are found in the Spoon River drainage (Tables 19 and 20). The most common crayfish is the virile crayfish, which usually is found over rocky substrates or around woody debris or vegetation. The calico crayfish, which is found in vegetation or debris in quiet pools of streams, also is fairly common. The most common isopod is Caecidotea intermedia, which lives in rocky areas and on woody debris. The most common amphipods are Hyalella azteca, which is found on vegetation, usually filamentous algae growing on rocks or logs, and Gammarus pseudolimnaeus, which lives in spring-fed headwaters. None of the 10 species of crustaceans known from the region is considered threatened or endangered.

Table 21 lists aquatic macroinvertebrate taxa known or thought likely to occur in the SRAA based upon records from counties in which the Spoon River drainage occurs. Most of these species are considered relatively common in the state of Illinois. Records for species included in Table 21 have been obtained from the following sources: Malloch (1915a, b), Frison (1935), Ross (1944), Burks (1953), Wooldridge (1967), Lauck (1959), Pechuman et al. (1983), Wetzel (1986,1992), Taylor (1996), Wetzel et al. (1997), and the Illinois Natural History Survey Insect and Annelida Collections.

Although many of the species listed in Table 21 are known to occur in both standing and running water, the paucity of accessible historical records and the limited recent

100 information for taxa known to occur within the SRAA make it difficult to associate most taxa with specific habitat types, such as headwaters, larger streams, small or medium reaches of rivers, or with standing water habitats such as ponds, lakes, and reservoirs.

Current literature discussing federal and state listed threatened and endangered species, species under consideration for such listing, or other species considered rare or of special concern (Herkert 1992, 1994; Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board 1994; U.S. Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service 1996) does not include any aquatic macroinvertebrate species other than unionid mussels known or thought likely to occur in the SRAA.

Table 15. Freshwater fishes recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area'.

FAMrr..y Small Medium Standing Scientific Name'" Headwaters Creeks Rivers Rivers Water

LEPISOSTEIDAE Lepisosteus osseus longnose gar X Lepisosteus platostomus shortnose gar X AMIIDAE Amia calva bowfin X X mODONTIDAE Hiodon alosoides goldeye X CLUPEIDAE Dorosoma cepedianum gizzard shad X X X CYPRINIDAE Campostoma anomalum central stoneroller X X X Cyprinella lutrensis red shiner X X X Cyprinella spiloptera spotfin shiner X X X Cyprinella whipplei steelcolor shiner X X X Cyprinus carpio * common carp X X X Hybognathus nuchalis Mississippi silvery minnow X X X Luxilus chrysocephalus striped shinet X X X X Lythrurus umbratilis redfin shiner X X X Macrhybopsis storeriana silver chub X Nocomis biguttatus homyhead chub X X Notemigonus crysoleucas golden shiner X X X Notropis atherinoides emerald shiner X Notropis dorsalis bigmouth shiner X X X Notropis ludibundus sand shiner X X X Phenacobius mirabilis suckerrnouth minnow X X X Phoxinus erythrogaster southern redbelly dace X Pimephales notatus bluntnose minnow X X X X Pimephales promelas fathead minnow X X Pimephales vigilax bullhead minnow X X Rhinichthys atratulus blacknose dace X X Semotilus atromaculatus creek chub X X CATOSTOMIDAE Carpiodes carpio river carpsucker X X

101 Table 15. Continued

FAMILY Small Medium Standing Scientific Name'" Headwaters Creeks Rivers Rivers Water

Carpiodes cyprinus quillback X X X Carpiodes velifer highfin carpsucker X X Catostomus commersoni white sucker X X X Hypentelium nigricans northern hog sucker X X X Ictiobus bubalus smallmouth buffalo X Minytremn melanops spotted sucker X X Moxostoma anisurum silver redhorse X X Moxostomn erythrurum golden redhorse X X X Moxostomn mncrolepidotum shorthead redhorse X X ICTALURIDAE Ameiurus melas black bullhead X X X X Ameiurus natalis yellow bullhead X X X X Ameiurus nebulosus brown bullhead X Ictalurus punctatus channel catfish X X X Noturus jlavus stonecat X X Noturus nocturnus freckled madtom X X Pylodictis olivaris flathead catfish X X X MORONIDAE Morone chrysops white bass X X CENTRARCHIDAE Lepomis cyanellus green sunfish X X X X Lepomis humilis orangespotted sunfish X X X Lepomis mncrochirus bluegill X X X X Lepomis microlophus redear sunfish X X X X Micropterus dolomieu smallmouth bass X X X X Micropterus salmoides largemouth bass X X X X Pomoxis annularis white crappie X X X X Pomoxis nigromnculatus black crappie X X X X PERCIDAE Etheostomn jlabellare fantail darter X X X Etheostomn nigrum johnny darter X X X X Etheostomn spectabile orangethroat darter X X X Percina maculata blackside darter X X X X Percina phoxocephala slenderhead darter X X X Stizostedion canadense sauger X X Stizostedion vitreum walleye X X SClAENIDAE Aplodinotus grunniens freshwater drum X X

I Data from the Illinois Natural History Survey Fish Collection. 2 * = non-native species; # == common species. 'Total number of species = 60 (59 native, I introduced).

102 Table 16. Freshwater fishes recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area, by habitat'.

FAMILY Streams Standing Water Scientific Name',3 Riffles Runs Pools LIttoral Open Water

LEPISOSTEIDAE Lepisosteus osseus longnose gar X Lepisosteus platostomus shortnose gar X X X AMIIDAE Amia calva bowfin X X HIODONTIDAE Hiodon alosoides goldeye X X CLUPEIDAE Dorosoma cepedianum gizzard shad X X CYPRINIDAE Campostoma anomalum central stoneroller X X Cyprinelia lutrensis red shiner X X Cyprinelia spiloptera spotfin shiner X X Cyprinelia whipplei steelcolor shiner X X Cyprinus carpio * common carp X X Hybognathus nuchalis Mississippi silvery minnow X X Lwcilus chrysocephalus striped shiner X X Lythrurus umbratilis redfin shiner X X Macrhybopsis storeriana silver chub X Nocomis biguttatus hornyhead chub X X Notemigonus crysoleucas golden shiner X X X Notropis atherinoides emerald shiner X Notropis dorsalis bigmouth shiner X X Notropis ludibundus sand shiner X X Phenacobius mirabilis suckermouth minnow X X Phoxinus erythrogaster southern redbelly dace X X Pimephales notatus blimtnose minnow X X Pimephales promelas fathead minnow X Pimephales vigilax bullhead minnow X X Rhinichthys atratulus blacknose dace X X Semotilus atromaculatus creek chub X CATOSTOMIDAE Carpiodes carp.io river carpsucker X X Carpiodes cyprinus quillback X X Carpiodes velifer highfin carpsucker X X Catostomus commersoni white sucker X X Hypentelium nigricans northern hog sucker X X Ictiobus bubalus srnallrnouth buffalo X Minytrema melanops spotted sucker X Moxostoma anisurum silver redhorse X X Moxostoma erythrurum golden redhorse X X Moxostoma macrolepidotum shorthead redhorse X X

103 Table 16. Continued

FAMILY Streams Standing Water Scientific Name2.3,4 Riffles Runs Pools Littoral Open Water

ICTALURIDAE Ameiurus melas black bullhead X X Ameiurus natalis yellow bullhead X X Ameiurus nebulosus brown bullhead X Ietalurns punctatus channel catfish X X X Noturus flavus stonecat X Noturus nocturnus freckled madtom X X Pylodictis olivaris flathead catfish X X MORONIDAE Morone chrysops white bass X CENTRARCHIDAE Lepomis cyanellus green sunfish X X Lepomis humilis orangespotted sunfish X Lepomis macrochirus bluegill X X Lepomis microlophus redear sunfish X X Micropterus dolomieu smallmouth bass X X X Micropterus salmoides largemouth bass X X X Pomoxis annularis white crappie X X X Pomoxis nigromaculatus black crappie X X X PERCIDAE Etheostoma flabellare fantail darter X Etheostoma nigrum johnny darter X X Etheostoma spectabile orangethroat darter X X Percina maculata blackside darter X Percina phoxocephala slenderhead darter X X Stizostedion canadense sanger X Stizostedion vitreum walleye X SCIAENIDAE Aplodinotus grunniens freshwater drum X

1 Data from the lllinois Natural History Survey Fish Collection. 2 * = non-native species; # = common species. 3 Total number of species = 60 (59 native, 1 introduced).

Table 17. Freshwater mussels recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area'.

ORDER Subfamily Headwaters! Small Medium Standing Scientific Name2JA Creeks Ri vers Rivers Water

UNIONIDAE Anodontinae Alasmidonta marginata elktoe X X Alasmidonta viridis SE slippershell mussel X X Anodonta suborbiculata flat floater X

104 Table 17. Continued

ORDER Subfamily Headwaters/ Small Medium Standing Scientific Name''],4 Creeks Rivers Rivers Water

Anodontoidesferussacianus cylindrical papershell X X X Arcidens confragosus rock-pocketbook X Lasmigona complanata # white heelsplitter XX X X Lasmigona compressa creek heelsplitter X X Lasmigona costata flutedshell X X Pyganodon grandis giant floater X X X X Strophitus undulatus squawfoot X X X Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell X X X Ambleminae Amblema plicata # threeridge X X Cyclonaias tuberculata purple wartyback X Elliptio crassidens ST elephantear X Elliptio dilatata ST spike X X Fusconaiaflava Wabash pigtoe X X Megalonaias nervosa washboard X Plethobasus cyphyus SE sheepnose X Pleurobema sintoxia round pigtoe X X Quadrulafragosa SE FE winged mapleleaf X Quadrula metanevra monkeyface X Quadrula nodulata wartyback X Quadrula pustulosa # pimpleback X X Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf X X Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip X X Lampsilinae Actinonaias ligamentina mucket X X Lampsilis cardium # plain pocketbook X X Lampsilis higgins;; SE FE Higgins eye X X Lampsilis siliquoidea fatmucket X X X Lampsilis teres yellow sandshell X X Leptodea fragilis # fragile papershell X X Ligumia recta black sandshell X Obliquaria reflexa threehom wartyback X Obovaria olivaria round hickorynut X Potamilus alatus pink heelsplitter X X Potamilus capax SE FE fat pocketbook X Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell X X Toxolasma parvus lilliput X X X X Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot X Truncilla truncata deertoe X Venustaconcha ellipsiformis ellipse X X

I Data from the minois Natural History Survey Mollusk Collection. 'Bold type indicates a state endangered species (SE); state threatened species (ST); federally endangered species (FE). 3 * = non-native species; # = common species. 'Total number of species = 41 (41 native, 0 introduced).

105 Table 18. Freshwater mussels recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area, by habitat'.

FAMILY Subfamily Streams Standing Water Scientific Name"'.' Riffles Runs Pools Littoral Zone

UNIONIDAE Anodontinae Alasmidonta marginata elktoe X X Alasmidonta viridis SE slippershell mussel X X Anodonta suborbiculata flat floater X X Anodontoides ferussacianus cylindrical papershell X X X Arcidens confragosus rock-pocketbook X X Lasmigona complanata # white heelsplitter X X X Lasmigona compressa creek heelsplitter X X Lasmigona costata flutedshell X X Pyganodon grandis giant floater X X X Strophitus undulatus squawfoot X X X Utterbackia imbecillis paper pondshell X X X Ambleminae Amblema pUcata # threeridge X X X Cyclonaias tuberculata purple wartyback X X Elliptio crassidens ST elephantear X X Elliptio dilatata ST spike X X Fusconaiaflava Wabash pigtoe X X Megalonaias nervosa washboard X X X PkthobasuscyphyusSE sheepnose X X Pleurobema sintoxia round pigtoe X X Quadrula fragosa SE FE winged mapleleaf X X Quadrula metanevra monkeyface X X Quadrula nodulata wartyback X X Quadrula pustulosa # pimpleback X X Quadrula quadrula mapleleaf X X X Tritogonia verrucosa pistolgrip X X Lampsilinae Actinonaias Ugamentina mucket X X Lampsilis cardium # plain pocketbook X X X Lampsilis higginsii SE FE Higgins eye X X LampsiUs siliquoidea fatmucket X X X X Lampsi/is teres yellow sandshell X X Leptodeatragilis # fragile papershell X X X Ligumia recta black sandshell X X Obliquaria reflexa threehom wartyback X X X Obovaria oUvaria round hickorynut X X Potami/us alatus pink heelsplilter X X X Potamilus capax SE FE fat pocketbook X X Potamilus ohiensis pink papershell X X X

106 Table 18. Continued

FAMILY Subfamily Streams Standing Water Scientific Name2,3.' Riffles Runs Pools Littoral Zone

Toxolasma parvus lilliput x X X X Truncilla donaciformis fawnsfoot X X Truncilla truncata deertoe X X Venustaconcha ellipsiformis ellipse X X

I Data from the Illinois Natural History Survey Mollusk Collection. 2 Bold type indicates a state endangered species (SE); state threatened species (ST); federally endangered species (FE). 3 * :::: non-native species; # = common species. 'Total number of species = 41 (41 native, 0 introduced).

Table 19. Freshwater crustaceans recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area'.

ORDER Family Small Medium Standing Scientific Name" 3 Common Name Headwaters Creeks Rivers Rivers Water

ISOPODA (Isopods) Asellidae Caecidotea forbesi X Caecidotea intermedia X X X X Caecidotea kendeighi Springs

AMPHIPODA (Amphipods) Crangonyctidae Bactrurus mucronatus Springs Gammaridae Gammarus pseudolimnaeus X Hyalellidae Hyalella azteca X X X X X

DECAPODA (Crayfishes & shrimps) Cambaridae Procambarus gracilis prairie crayfish burrower Orconectes immunis calico crayfish X X X X X Orconectes virilis virile crayfish X X X X Cambarus diogenes devil crawfish burrower

I Data from the minois Natural History Survey Crustacean Collection. 2 * = non-native species; # = common species. 3 Total number of species = 10 (10 native, 0 introduced).

107 Table 20. Freshwater crustaceans recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area, by habitat'.

ORDER Family Streams Standing Water Scientific Name" 3 Riffles Runs Pools Littoral Open Water

ISOPODA (Isopods) Asellidae Caecidotea forbesi X Caecidotea intermedia X X Caecidotea kendeighi Springs

AMPHIPODA (Amphipods) Crangonyctidae Bactrurus mucronatus Springs Gammaridae Gammarus pseudolimnaeus X Hyalellidae Hyalella azteca X X X X

DECAPODA (Crayfishes & shrimps) Cambaridae Procambarus gracilis prairie crayfish burrower Orconectes immunis calico crayfish X X Orconectes virilis virile crayfish X X X Cambarus diogenes devil crawfish burrower

I Data from the Illinois Natural History Survey Crustacean Collection. 2 * = non-native species; # = common species. 'Total number of species = 0 (10 native, 0 introduced).

Table 21. Aquatic macroinvertebrates, exclusive of the Crustacea and Unionacean Mollusca, recorded from the Spoon River Assessment Area.'

Phylum NEMATODA· Nematode Worms Aeolosomatidae

Phylum NEMATOMORPHA - Horsehair Class BRANCHIOBDELLAE • Crayfish Worms Worms Branchiobdellida Gordiidae Cambarincolidae

Phylum TURBELLARIA • Flatworms Class OLIGOCHAETA • OIigochaete Worms Tricladida Lumbriculida Planariidae Lumbriculidae Dugesia tigrina Thbificida Enchytraeidae Phylum ANNELIDA· Segmented Worms Naididae Class APHANONEURA - Suction-Feeding Worms Chaetogaster diaphanus Aeolosomatida Dero digitata

108 Table 21. Continued

Dero jurcatus Potamanthus sp. Nais elinguis Tricorhythidae Nais pardalis Tricorhythodes sp. Nais variabilis Ophidonais serpentina Odonata - Damselflies and Dragonflies Paranais frici Zygoptera - Damselflies Pristina aequiseta Calopterygidae Pristina leidyi Calopteryx maculata Slavina appendiculata Hetaerina americana Stylaria lacustris Coenagrionidae Amphiagrion mesonum Thbificidae Argia apicalis Aulodrilus pigueti Argia tibialis Branchiura sowerbyi Argia jumipennis violacea /lyodrilus templetoni Enallagma antennatum Limnodrilus cervix Enallagma carunculatum Limnodrilus claparedianus Enallagma signatum Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri Ischnura verticalis Potamothrix moldaviensis Ischnura posita Tubifex tubifex Lestidae Lumbricidae Archilestes grandis Lestes rectangularis Class HIRUDINEA - Leeches Rhynchobdellida Anisoptera - Dragonflies Glossiphoniidae Aeshnidae Placobdella multilineata Boyeria vinosa Pharyngobdellida Gomphidae Erpobdellidae Gomphus submedianus Erpobdella punctata Hagenius brevistylus Corduliidae Phylum ARTHROPODA • A~thropods Neurocordulia obsoleta Somatochlora sp. Class INSECTA - Insects Macromiidae Ephemeroptera • Mayflies Macromia pacifica Baetidae Libellulidae Baetis sp. Libellula luctuosa Callibaetis sp. Libellula pulchella Labiobaetis dardanus Pachydiplax longipennis Caenidae Perithemis tenera Caenis sp. Plathemis lydia Ephemeridae Pantala jlavescens Hexagenia limbata Perithemis tenera Heptageniidae Sympetrum corruptum Stenacron interpunctatum Sympetrum obtusum Stenonema sp. Sympetrum vincinum Potamanthidae Tramea lacerata Arithopotamus myops

109 Table 21. Continued

Plecoptera • Stonetlies Rhagovelia oriander Capniidae Belostomatidae - True Water Bugs Allocapnia vivipara Belostoma j/umineum Perlidae Benacus griseus Acroneuria abnormis Attaneura ruralis Coleoptera· Beetles Perlinella drymo Dytiscidae Taeniopterygidae Coptotomus longulus Taeniopteryx burksi Coptotomus loticus Hydroporus sp. Heteroptera • True Bugs Laccophilus fasciatus rufus Pleidae Laccophilus maculosus maculosus Neoplea striola Neoporus clypealis Plea stridida Elmidae Nepidae - Water Scorpions Dubiraphia parva Nepa apiculata Macronychus glabratus Ranatra fusca Stenelmis grossa Ranatra nigra Gyrinidae Corixidae - Water Boatmen Dineutus assimilus Corisella edulis Gyrinus sp. Palmocorixa buenoi Haliplidae Palmacorixa gillettei Peltodytes edentulus Ramphocorixa acuminata Peltodytes sexmaculatus Sigara altemata HaUplus triopsis Sigara hubbelli Hydrophilidae Trichocorixa calva Berosus aculeatus Trichocorixa kanza Derallus sp. Trichocorixa naias Helophorus sp. Naucoridae Hydrochara obtusata Pelocoris femoratus Hydrophilus triangularis Notonectidae - Backswimmers Paracymus subcupreus Buenoa selmitra Tropistemus lateralis nimbatus Notonecta raleighi Tropistemus natator Notonecta undulata Scirtidae Hebridae - Velvet Water Bugs Selrtes sp. Merragata hebroides Mesoveliidae - Water Treaders Megaloptera - hellgrammites, Aldertlies, Mesovelia mulsanti Dobsonflies, Fishflies Gerridae - Pond Skaters Sialidae Aquarius remigis Sialis sp. Gerris argenticollis Gerris marginatus Trichoptera - Caddistlies Metrobates hesperius Brachycentridae Trepobates subnitidus Brachycentrus numerosus Trepobates knighti Hydropsychidae Veliidae - Little Water Striders Cheumatopsyche sp. Microvelia sp.

110 Table 21. Continued

Hydropsyche orris Dicrotendipes neomodestus Hydroptilidae Nanoe/adius sp. Hydroptila sp. Natarsia sp. Leptoceridae Phaenopsectra obediens group Leptocerus americanus Phaenopsectra punctipes group Oecetis inconspicua Paratanytarsus sp. Polycentropodidae Polypedilum convictum group Neureclipsis crepuscularis Polypedilum halterale group Polypedilum illinoense group Diptera - Flies Polypedilum scalaeum group Tipulidae Procladius sp. Pilaria sp. Rheocricotopus sp. Culicidae Rheotanytarsus sp. Anopheles sp. Tanytarsus sp. Empididae Thienemanniella sp. Hemerodromia sp. Thienemannimyia group Ephydridae Tabanidae Psychodidae Chrysops callidus Stratiomyidae Chrysops niger Ceratopogonidae Chrysops pikei Beuia complex Chrysops vittatus Simuliidae Tabanus atratus Simulium spp. Chironomidae Phylum MOLLUSCA· Mollusks Ablabesmyia illinoensis Gastropoda. Snails Ablabesmyia mallochi Limnaeidae Brillia flavifrons Fossaria sp. Chironomus sp. Pseudosuccinea columella Cladotanytarsus sp. Physidae Clinotanypus sp. Physella sp. Cricotopus / Orthoe/adius complex Cricotopus bicinctus Pelecypoda - Bivalve Mollusks Cricotopus trifasciatus Sphaeriidae Cryptochironomus falvus group Musculium sp. Cryptotendipes sp. Sphaerium sp. Dicrotendipes modestus

I Data are from the Illinois Natural History Survey Insect and Annelida collections, and literature cited in this document. List compiled by MJ. Wetzel and D.W. Webb. Illinois Natural History Survey Center for Biodiversity.

III Threatened and Endangered Mussels

Forty-one species of mussels have been reported from the Spoon River drainage and historical records are available for 7 state threatened or endangered mussels, 3 of which are also federally endangered (Higgins eye, fat pocketbook, winged mapleleaf). All of the listed species appear to be extirpated from the drainage (Cummings and Mayer 1997)

Federally Endangered

Higgins eye - A specimen of the Higgins eye labeled "Canton, lilinois" but without additional data is in the collection of the Field Museum of Natural History (#16222). A single shell collected in 1912 from the Spoon River at Duncans Mills is in the lilinois Natural History Survey collection (#1051). Four weathered dead shells were collected by Starrett in the Spoon River near Havana in 1971. This mussel is most likely extirpated from the drainage.

Fat pocketbook - A specimen of the fat pocketbook collected in 1898 by W.S. Strode from the Spoon River at Duncans Mills is in the University of lllinois Museum of Natural History (#15330). No other individuals of this species have ever been reported from the basin. This mussel is most likely extirpated from the drainage.

Winged mapleleaf - A specimen of the winged mapleleaf labeled "Spoon River, Ill." is in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (#41713). The specimen was collected in the mid-1800s and does not have specific locality data associated with it. No other records are known and this species is considered to be extirpated from the Spoon River.

State Endangered

Slippershell - A specimen of the slippershelliabeled "Canton, lilinois" but without additional data is in the collection of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia (#125892). The first verified record was two sub-fossil shells collected in the Spoon River above Modena, in Stark County, Illinois, by W.e. Starrett in 1971. Efforts to locate living slippershells at all locations where they were collected in 1971 were unsuccessful in 1990, this species is possibly extirpated from the drainage.

State Threatened

Elephantear - Six weathered dead elephantear shells were collected by Starrett in the Spoon River near Havana in 1971, this species is probably extirpated from the drainage.

Spike - The spike was historically founel at various locations in Fulton, Knox, Peoria, and Stark counties. Nearly all of the records are of weathered-dead shells collected in the

112 past decade and no live records are available, which suggests that the spike is probably extirpated from the drainage.

Sheepnose - Collections of the sheepnose are known from the Spoon River at Babylon Forde in the 1890's (UIMNH Z-14723) and Ellisville in 1929 (MCZ #85447) both in Fulton County. This species was not found by Starrett in 1971 and it is likely extirpated from the drainage.

Non-native Species

The common carp has been introduced to the Spoon River drainage. It can be found in almost any type of habitat but prefers warm sluggish waters of streams and lakes and is very tolerant of high turbidity and low oxygen levels. Native to Eurasia, the common carp has been present in lllinois since the earliest surveys, making its effect on native species difficult to determine. The species tends to destroy vegetation and increase water turbidity by dislodging plants and rooting around in the substrate, causing a deterioration of habitat for species requiring vegetation and clear water. The species attains a large size and has become an important commercial food species in Illinois; however, it may have done so at the expense of ecologically similar native species such as carpsuckers and buffalos. It was distributed throughout Illinois by the time of Forbes and Richardson's (1908) survey of Illinois fishes and was described as abundant in all parts of the state by Smith (1979). It remains common in most areas of lllinois.

No records of the Asian clam (Corbicula) or zebra mussels are known, however both are known from .the lllinois River and may inhabit the lower end of the mainstem Spoon River.

Of the aquatic macroinvertebrate taxa known or thought likely to occur in the SRAA, none, other than one aquatic worm species, is thought to have been introduced. Branchiura sowerbyi (Annelida: Oligochaeta: Tubificidae) was first reported in the USA from a lake in Ohio in 1932. It was most likely introduced to the continent with imported aquatic and semiaquatic plants or other aquatic organisms. Originally thought to be restricted to thermally influenced habitats, B. sowerbyi is now commonly collected from a variety of stream and lake systems. This species is widespread throughout North America and Europe, and has been recorded from all continents except Antarctica. Branchiura sowerbyi does not appear to pose any threat to native populations of aquatic macroinvertebrates:

Information Gaps

The SRAA has been fairly well studied with respect to fishes, crayfishes and mussels. However, additional survey work in the smaller tributaries would better define the limits of some of the species, especially mussels, and possibly uncover additional populations of the state endangered species.

113 Long-term population monitoring of selected species and communities is needed throughout the state to provide information on trends in biological resources and on the success of various management strategies. Mark-recapture studies also are badly needed to understand normal movements of fishes and other aquatic organisms and, hence, to provide baseline data for interpreting the impacts of environmental alterations and management strategies.

Most other groups of aquatic macroinvertebrates known to occur in the SRAA have not been as well studied as fishes, mussels, and crustaceans. Although historical and recent collections of aquatic macroinvertebrates from the SRAA are deposited' in the permanent Illinois Natural History Survey Collections, much of this information is not easily retrievable because either specimens have not yet been identified, or the identified material has not yet been incorporated into a searchable database.

Once specimens have been identified and incorporated into a database, comparisons of historical material with that obtained during more recent collections could be made to determine changes in distribution and abundance. Moreover, long-term monitoring of selected groups of aquatic macroinvertebrates in habitats throughout the state particularly in headwater streams and, to a lesser extent, in small ponds, lakes, and wetland areas - would provide needed information on population trends and habitat associations.

Water Quality

In the Illinois Water Quality Report (Illinois Environmental Protection Agency 1996), The Spoon River was rated as "Partial SupportlMinor Impairment" (water quality has been impaired, but only to a minor degree). The West Fork of Spoon Riverwas also rated as "Partial SupportIModerate Impairment." The low ratings were due to turbidity and municipal pollution.

The Biological Stream Characterization (Bertrandet al. 1995) rated the Spoon River as a "c" Stream (Moderate Aquatic Resource). Tributaries to the Spoon River rated as "B" Streams (Highly Valued Aquatic Resource) were Court Creek, North Court Creek, Littlers Creek, Aylesworth Branch, Snakeden Hollow, Cadwell Creek, an unnamed tributary to Silver Creek, Silver Creek from the tributary to Spoon River, and Brandywine Creek from Cadwell Creek to its mouth.

Smith (1971) rated the Spoon River as "Fair," and noted that water quality problems in the basin were related to excessive siltation and other forms of agricultural pollution.

Environmental Problems

Stream ecosystems are fragmented by landscape changes that render stream habitats unsuitable for aquatic organisms and by instream modifications that eliminate stream

114 habitats. Smith (1971) ranked the causes of extirpation or declines in fish species in Illinois as follows: siltation (as the primary factor responsible for the loss of 2, and decimation of 14, species), drainage of bottomland lakes, swamps, and prairie marshes (0, 13), desiccation during drought (0, 12), species introductions (2, 7), pollution (2, 5), impoundments (0,4), and increased water temperatures (0, I). All of these factors render habitats unsuitable for many aquatic species throughout Illinois and lead to extirpations.

Streams in Illinois naturally have wooded floodplains that are extremely important in maintaining a healthy aquatic environment. The vegetation on a floodplain shades the stream and keeps it from becoming excessively hot during the summer; stabilizes the streambank and reduces erosion; and acts as a filter that removes topsoil and pesticides which would otherwise reach the stream as water drains from croplands. During periods of high water, vegetated floodplains provide feeding and spawning areas for many species of aquatic organisms and nurseries for developing larvae. When floodplains are converted to crop production as they have been throughout much of Illinois, they no longer provide these benefits to aquatic organisms.

Another major landscape change that has negatively impacted streams has been the tiling of land for agriculture. Land that once drained slowly drains quickly once it is tiled. Rapid drainage of land increases the pulse of a flood and increases the intensity and duration of low-flow once the water has moved downstream. These artificially extreme fluctuations in water levels subject stream organisms to environmental conditions to which they are not adapted and can lead to the extirpation of populations.

Siltation, increased water temperatures, and desiccation all follow the removal of riparian vegetation and the tiling of fields as land is prepared for agriculture. The excessive siltation associated with the removal of floodplain vegetation is among the most damaging forms of stream pollution. The clean rock and gravel substrates that are normally characteristic of riffles and other stream habitats with fast-flowing water provide living space for many species of aquatic insects and other invertebrates and important spawning habitat for many species of fishes. The deposition of silt covers the rocks, leaving no place for small organisms to hide or for fishes to hide their eggs. Silt can also cover the leaves of aquatic plants and, if sufficient to prevent gas exchange or photosynthesis, will cause the plants to die. The reduction of plant life in a stream has a cascading negative impact on the stream ecosystem. Many animals, in particular insect larvae and fishes, use the plants as places to hide and forage. Some fishes use plants to hide from predators, others use plants as sites from which to ambush prey. As plants are eliminated, populations of insects and fishes are reduced or eliminated because they have fewer places to live.

The impact of increased water temperatures resulting from the loss of riparian vegetation and reduced water flow during warm seasons is difficult to separate from the effects of siltation and other factors that occur concomitantly. However, throughout Illinois,

115 increased water temperatures per se are probably especially harmful to cool-water species such as northern pike and species dependent on springs and spring-fed streams, such as the southern redbelly dace and many species of amphipods, isopods, and crayfishes.

Stream desiccation is thought to be primarily an effect of the artificially extreme fluctuations in water levels that follow tiling of fields for agriculture. The rapid drainage of surrounding land increases the intensity and prolongs the duration of low-flow once the water has moved downstream. A drought that historically would have had the impact of decreasing the flow in a stream can now lead to a dry stream bed.

Floodplains of large rivers normally have low areas that fill with water during floods and survive year-round as shallow lakes. These lakes provide primary habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals, and because they naturally have luxuriant plant growth, they are important feeding areas for waterfowl, and they provide spawning areas, nurseries for larvae, and overwintering refugia for fishes. Unfortunately, most of the bottomland lakes in IJIinois have been drained to create cropland, and those that remain have become shallow and barren because of the tremendous silt loads deposited in them each year during periods of high water. The shallow muddy lakes no longer support the plant life that was fundamental to successful completion of the life cycles of many aquatic species.

The impacts of introduced fishes include competition, predation, inhibition of reproduction, environmental modification, transfer of parasites and diseases, and hybridization. Freshwater mussels and crayfishes have been seriously impacted in Illinois in recent decades by non-native invaders, most notably the zebra mussel and the rusty crayfish. Nalepa (1994) documented the severe decline in native mussels due to the invasion of zebra mussels in Lake St. Clair over a six-year period. He found that mussel densities declined from 2.4/m' in 1986 to Olm' in 1992 in areas heavily infested with zebra mussels. The rusty crayfish, introduced through its use as fishing bait, is rapidly spreading through Illinois and displacing native crayfishes (Taylor and Redmer 1996).

Point sources of pollution include industrial wastes and domestic sewage. In IJIinois, considerable progress has been made in identifying and eliminating point sources of pollution, and water quality has improved as a result. Nonpoint sources are now a larger problem than are point sources and include siltation and agricultural pesticides that reach streams following the removal of floodplain vegetation.

Impounding a stream converts it into a standing body of water that lacks the riffles, runs, pools, and other habitats that stream-inhabiting organisms require. When a stream is dammed, most nati ve species are eliminated from the inundated area, and upstream and downstream populations become isolated from one another. Dams block migrations of fishes that in many species are necessary for reproduction. The loss of migratory fishes from a stream ecosystem can lead to the loss of mussels using the migratory fishes as glochidial hosts. Between 1920-1940 forty-one drainage and levee districts were developed and six dams were built on the Illinois River. These slowed the flow of water,

116 increased !looding, and destroyed many of the backwaters in the Lower River. By 1938 the large scale changes of the Illinois River and the valley were complete (Havera and Bellrose 1985).

Channelization is the straightening of a stream to enhance drainage of the surrounding land. The straightening converts the diversity of habitats in a stream to one continuous straight channel that supports few species. Because of their sedentary nature mussels are particularly susceptible to the effects of channelization.

Potential Management Strategies for Aquatic Species

Management strategies for aquatic ecosystems must consider each watershed on an individual basis. Attempting to correct problems locally without consideration of upstream activities and downstream implications will result in partial, and probably temporary, improvement.

Correction of some factors that have led to stream habitat fragmentation in past decades is relatively easy. Important initiatives include building sewage treatment plants and avoiding the construction of mainstream impoundments when possible. Other initiatives, such as stopping the removal of riparian vegetation, cessation of stream channelization and the drainage of bottomland lakes, require more public education and governmental action including, perhaps providing better incentives to landowners. Assuming that pollution will be held at current levels or reduced, nothing will be more beneficial to the biota of Illinois streams than to have natural riparian vegetation restored. Siltation, desiccation, and higher than normal temperatures would all be reduced to acceptable levels if streams were lined with native plants that shaded the stream, stabilized the banks, and filtered sediment and chemicals from runoff before they reached the stream.

Most introductions of non-native fishes have been done in an effort to improve sport or commercial fishing, and usually governmental agencies have been responsible for the introductions. We now know that non-native species alter ecosystems, and the long-term effect of any introduction is lik~I'y to be negative rather than an improvement.

Given the opportunity, streams will restore themselves and; often, the best approach to restoration may be to encourage restoration of the nati ve vegetation of the drainage basin, in particular the riparian zone, correct any additional existing pollution problems, and let the stream return to natural conditions. In some instances additional measures, such as reintroducing extirpated species, may be advisable.

117

References

Introduction

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120 Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist 1991. Manual of Vascular Plants of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. Second Editon. The New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, NY. Havera, S.P., L.B. Suloway, J.B. Taft, P.M. Malmborg, J. Hofmann, A. Nugteran, and M. Morris. 1994. Wetlands. Pages 87-152 in Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources. The Changing llIinois environment: critical trends. Volume 3 Technical Report. Illinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources. Springfield, IL, ILENRJRE-94/05. Heidorn, R 1991. Vegetation management guideline: exotic buckthorns common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica L.) glossy buckthorn (R.frangula L.) and dahurian buckthorn (R. davurica Pall.) Natural Areas Journal 11(4):216-217. Herkert, J.R., ed. 1991. Endangered and threatened species of llIinois: status and distribution, Volume 1 - Plants. llIinois Endangered Species Protection Board, Springfield, llIinois. Herkert, J.R, ed. 1994. Endangered and threatened species of llIinois: status and distribution, Volume 3 - 1994 Changes to the llIinois list of endangered and threatened species. Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board, Springfield 33 pp. Houdek, P. K. 1923. An ecological survey and flora of Lake Knox. llIinois State Academy of Science Transactions 16: 163-170. lllinois Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Biological and Conservation Database System (BCD), Division of Natural Heritage, Office of Resource Conservation, llIinois Department of Natural Resources. Illinois Geographic Information System. Digital data at the Illinois Natural History Survey. Illinois Natural History Survey (ILLS) Herbarium Database. L.R Phillippe. Iverson, L.R, RL. Oliver, D.P. Tucker, P.G. Risser, C.D. Burnett, and RG. Rayburn. 1989. The forest resources of lllinois: an atlas and analysis of spatial and temporal trends. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 11. Lorimer, e.G. 1985. The role of fire in the perpetuation of oak forest. Pages 8-25 in Johnson, J.E. ed. Challenges in oak management and utilization, Cooperative Extension Service, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin. Lovejoy, T.E. 1975. Rehibilitation of degraded tropical forest lands. The Environmentalist 5: 13-20. McClain, W.E. 1983. Photodocumentation of the loss of hill prairie within Pere Marquette State Park. Jersey County, llIinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 76:343-346. McFall, D. and J. Karnes., eds. 1995. A directory of Illinois nature preserves, Volume 2. Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Springfield, 327 pp. Mohlenbrock, RH., and D.M. Ladd 1978. Distibution of Illinois Vascular Plants. Southern Illinois University press, Carbondale. Mohlenbrock, R.H. 1986. Guide to the vascular flora of Illinois. Revised and enlarged edition. Southern llIinois University Press, Carbondale. Nelson, P.W. 1985. The terrestrial natural communities of Missouri. Department of Natural Resources and Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City, Missouri.

121 Nuzzo, v.A. 1991. Experimental control of garlic mustard [A Iliaria petiolata (Bieb.) Cavara & Gande) in northern Illinois using fire, herbicide, and cutting. Natural Areas Journal 11:158-167. Robertson, KR., M.W. Schwartz, J.w. Olson, B.K Dunphy, and H.D. Clarke. 1995. A synopsis of hill prairies in lllinois: 50 years of change. Pages 9-20 in T.E. Rice, ed. Proceedings of the fourth Central Illinois Prairie Conference. Milliken University, Decatur, lllinois. Robertson, P.A. 1992. Factors affecting tree growth on three lowland sites in southern lllinois. American Midland Nautralist 128:218-236. Schwartz, M.W. and J. Heim. 1996. Effects of a prescribed fire on degraded forest vegetation. Natural Areas Journal 16:184-191. Schwegman, J.E. and R. Njiboer. 1985. The taxonomic and population status of Boltonia decurrens (Torr. & Gray) Wood. Castanea 50(2):112-115. Simon, S.D., D.M. Ketzner, and MJ. Morris. 1990. Biological Survey of n.. 93 (From n.. 91 to n.. 88) Stark County P94-147-89. Report submitted to the Illinois Department of Transportation Bureau of Design and Environment, Springfield. Solecki, M.K, and A. Frye. 1993. A proposal to dedicate Root Cemetery in Peoria County, Illinois as an lllinois Nature Preserve. Dedication proposal of the lllinois Nature Preserves Cornmision, Springfield. Solomon, J.e. 1979. An annotated list of vascular plants from Knox County, lllinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 72:9-29. Suloway, L., and M. Hubbell. 1994. Wetland resources of Illinois: an analysis and atlas. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication 15. 88 pp. Taft, J.B., M.W. Schwartz, and L.R. Phillippe. 1995. Vegetation ecology of flatwoods on the illinoian till plain. Journal of Vegetation Science 6:647-666. Taft, 1.B. 1996. Reading the signs: plants as indicators of site history, lllinois Steward, Spring 1996:20-24. Taft, J.B. 1997. Savannas and open woodlands. Pages 24-54 in M.W. Schwartz, ed. Conservation in highly fragmented landscapes, Chapman and Hall Press. Taft, J.B., M.W. Schwartz, and L.R. Phillippe. 1995. Vegetation ecology of flatwoods on the illinoian till plain. Journal of Vegetation Science 6:647-666. Taft, J.B., G.S. Wilhelm, D. Ladd, and L.A. Masters. 1997. Floristic Quality Assessment and Analysis for Vegetation in lllinois. Erigenia 15:3-95. United States Fish and Wildlife Service. 1988. Endangered & Threatened Wildlife and Plants. 50 CFR 17.11 & 17.12. United States Department of Interior. Washington, D.e. Weik, KL., and G. Baker 1975. A preliminary survey of vascular plants of the Horseshoe Lake Area, Knox County, Illinois. Illinois State Academy of Science Transactions 68:381-388. White, J. 1978. Illinois natural areas inventory technical report. Vol. 1. Survey methods and results. Illinois Natural Areas Inventory, Urbana. 426 pp. White, J., and M.H. Madany. 1978. Classification of natural communities in Illinois. Pages 310-405 (Appendix 30) in White, J. Illinois Natural Areas Technical Report, Volume 1. Survey Methods and Results. Urbana, illinois Natural Areas Inventory.

122 Wilcove, D.S., C.H. McLellan, and A.P. Dodson. 1986. Habitat fragmentation in the temperate zone. pages 237-256 in M.E. Soule, ed. Conservation biology. The science of scarcity and diversity. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MS. Zawacki, A.A. and G. Hausfater. 1969. Early vegetation of the lower Illinois valley. lllinois State Museum Reports of Investigation 17. Springfield. 67 pp.

Birds

Bohlen, H.D., and W. Zimmerman. 1989. The Birds of lllinois. Indiana University Press, Bloomington. 222 pp. Brawn, J.D., and S.K. Robinson. 1996. Source-sink population dynamics may complicate the interpretation of long-term census data. Ecology 77:3-12. Graber, J.W., and R.R. Graber. 1983. Feeding rates of warblers in spring. Condor 85:139-150. Herkert, J.R. 1991. Prairie birds of Illinois: population responses to two centuries of habitat change. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 34:393-399. Herkert, J.R. 1994. Breeding bird communities of midwestern prairie fragments: the effects of prescribed burning and habitat area. Natural Areas Journal 14:128-135. Herkert, J.R., R.E. Szafoni, V.M. Kleen, and J.E. Schwegman. 1993. Habitat establishment, enhancement, and management for forest and grassland birds in Illinois. Illinois Department of Conservation., Natural Heritage Technical Publication No.1. 20pp. lllinois Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Biological and conservation database system (BCD), Division of Natural Heritage, Office of Resource Conservation, Illinois Department of Natural Resources. Kleen, v., ed. In litt. Illinois Breeding Bird Atlas - Bird Distribution Maps. Illinois Department of Natural Resources and lllinois Natural History Survey. Springfield. Peterjohn, B.G., J.R. Sauer, and w.A. Link. 1994. The 1992 and 1993 summary of the North American Breeding Bird Survey. Bird Populations2:46-61. Robinson, S.K., and J.P. Hoover. 1996. Effects of landscape fragmentation on migrant songbirds in the Cache Wetlands: implications for floodplain restoration. Final Report to USFWS. 149 pp. Robinson, S.K., J.P. Hoover, and J.R. Herkert. in press. Cowbird parasitism in a fragmented landscape: effects of tract size, habitat, and abundance of cowbird hosts in Smith, J.N.M., S.K. Robinson, S.I. Rothstein, S.G. Sealy, and T.Cook, eds. Ecology and management of cowbirds. University Texas Press, Austin. Robinson, S.K., ER. Thompson, ill, T.M. Donovan, D.R. Whitehead, and J. Faaborg. 1995. Regional forest fragmentation and the nesting success of migratory birds. Science 267: 1987-1990. Rothstein, S.I., and S.K. Robinson. 1994. Conservation and evolutionary implications of brood parasitism by cowbirds. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 9:162-164. Vanderah, G.c. 1995. Habitat selection and spatial patterns of the declining Cerulean warbler. M.S. thesis, University of lllinois, Urbana-Champaign.

123 Warner, RE. 1994. Agricultural land use and grassland habitat in Illinois: future shock for midwestern birds? Conservation Biology 8:147-156.

Mammals

Anderson, E.A. 1982. Status and distribution of the river otter (Lutra canadensis) in Illinois. M.S. thesis, Southern lllinois University, Carbondale. 77 pp. Anderson, E.A. 1995. Status in the Midwest and Illinois. Pages 23-32 in lllinois river otter recovery plan. R. Bluett, ed. Illinois Department of Natural Resources, Springfield. Anderson, E.A., and A. Woolf. 1984. River otter (Lutra canadensis) habitat utilization in northwestern lllinois. Final report, Cooperative Wildlife Research Laboratory, Southern Illinois University. Submitted to Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield. vi+90 p. Bluett, B. 1997. River otter recovery update. Furbearer Program Management Note 97-1, Illinois Department of Natural Resources, 3 pp. Brack, V., Jr. 1983. The foraging ecology of bats in Indiana with emphasis on the endangered Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis. Ph.D. dissertation, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN. Callahan, III, E.D. 1993. Indiana bat summer habitat requirements. M.S. thesis, University of Missouri, Columbia. 74 pp. Clark, B.K., J.B. Bowles, and B.S. Clark. 1987. Summer habitat of the endangered Indiana bat in Iowa. American Midland Naturalist 118:32-39. Clark, B.K., and B.S. Clark. 1987. Distribution notes of bats for west-central Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois Academy of Science 80:207-212. Cope, J.B., AR Richter, and RS. Mills. 1974. A summer concentration of the Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis, in Wayne County, Indiana. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science 83:482-484. Coleman, J.S., and S.A Temple. 1996. On the prowl. Wisconsin Natural Resources 20:4-8. Erickson, D.W., C.R McCullough, and W.E. Porath. 1984. River otter investigations in Missouri. Final report, Pittman-Robertson Project W-13-R-38, Missouri Department of Conservation. 47 pp. Gardner, J.E., J.D Garner, and lE. Hofmann. 1991. Summer roost selection and roosting behavior o(Myotis sodalis (Indiana bat) in Illinois. Final report, submitted to Endangered Species Coordinator, Region 3, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Indiana/Gray Bat Recovery Team, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 56 + vii p. Gardner, J.E., J.E. Hofmann, and J.D. Garner. 1996. Summer distribution of the federally endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) in lllinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 89: 187-196. Hoffmeister, D.E 1989. Mammals of Illinois. University of Illinois Press, Urbana and Chicago. 348 pp. Humphrey, S.R, AR Richter, and J.B. Cope. 1977. Summer habitat and ecology of the endangered Indiana bat, Myotis sodalis. Journal of Mammalogy 58:334-346.

124 lilinois Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Biological and conservation database system (BCD), Division of Natural Heritage, Office of Resource Conservation, Illinois Department of Natural Resources. lilinois Endangered Species Protection Board. 1994. Checklist of endangered and threatened animals and plants of Ulinois. Illinois Department of Conservation, Springfield. ii+20 p. Jackson, H.H.T. 1961. Mammals of Wisconsin. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison. 504 pp. Kurta, A., J. Kath, E.L. Smith, R. Foster, M.W. Orick, and R Ross. 1993a. A maternity roost of the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) in an unshaded, hollow sycamore tree (Platanus occidentalis). American Midland Naturalist 130:405-407. Kurta, A., D. King, J.A. Terarnino, J.M. Stribley, and K.J. Williams. 1993b. Summer roosts of the endangered Indiana bat (Myotis sodalis) on the northern edge of its range. American Midland Naturalist. 129: 132-138. LaVal, RK., RL. Clawson, M.L. LaVal. and W. Caire. 1977. Foraging behavior and nocturnal activity patterns of Missouri bats, with emphasis on the endangered species Myotis grisescens and Myotis sodalis. Journal of Mammalogy 58:592-599. McCord, C.M., and J.E. Cardoza. 1982. Bobcat and lynx. pages. 728-766 in Wild mammals of North America. J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Melquist, W.E., and M.G. Hornocker. 1983. Ecology of river otters in west central Idaho. Wildlife Monographs 83: 1-60. Nixon, C.M., S.P. Havera, and R.E. Greenberg. 1978. Distribution and abundance of the gray squirrel in Illinois. Illinois Natural History Survey Biological Notes 105. 55 pp. Rhea, T. 1982. The bobcat in Illinois: records and habitat. M.S. report, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale. 40 pp. Rollings, C.T. 1945. Habits, food, and parasites of the bobcat in Minnesota. Journal of Wildlife Management 9:131-145. Schwartz, C.W., and E.R Schwartz. 1981. The wild mammals of Missouri. Second ed. University of Missouri Press and Missouri Department of Conservation, Columbia. 356 pp. Toweill, D.E., and J.E. Tabor. 1982. River otter. Pages 688-703 in Wild mammals of North America. J.A. Chapman and G.A. Feldhamer, eds. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. Warner, RE. 1985. Demography and movements offree-ranging domestic cats in rural Illinois. Journal of Wildlife Management 49:340-346. Warner, R.E. and B. ver Steeg. 1995. Illinois badger studies. Final report, Federal Aid to Wildlife Project No. W-103-R, 1-6, lllinois Natural History Survey. 161 pp. Wilson, D.E., and D.M. Reeder, eds. 1993. Mammal species ofthe world, a taxonomic and geographic reference, second edition. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. 1206 p.

125 Amphibians and Reptiles

Collins, J.T., ed. 1990. Standard common and current scientific names for North American amphibians and reptiles. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles. Herpetological Circular No. 19. 41 pp. Illinois Department of Natural Resources. 1997. Biological and conservation database system (BCD), Division of Natural Heritage, Office of Resource Conservation, Illinois Department of Natural Resources. Beltz, E. 1992. Final report on the status and distribution of the eastern massasauga, Sistrurus catenatus, in lllinois. Unpublished report to the lllinois Department of Conservation, Division of Natural Heritage. 36 pp. Bielema, BJ. 1973. The eastern massasauga (Sistrurus catenatus catenatus) in west central Illinois. Unpublished Master's thesis. Western lllinois University, Macomb. 80pp. Smith, P. W. 1961. The Amphibians and Reptiles ofIllinois. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 28(1):1-298.

Aquatic Biota

Bertrand, W.A., R.L. Hite, and D.M. Day. 1995. Biological stream characterization (BSC): biological assessment of lllinois stream quality through 1993. illinois Environmental Protection Agency Report No. IEPAlBOW.96-058. December 1996. 40 pages + map. Burks, B.D. 1953. The mayflies, or Ephemeroptera, of Illinois. Bulletin of the Illinois Natural History Survey 26(1):1-216. Cummings, K.S., and c.A. Mayer. 1997. Distributional checklist and status of lilinois freshwater mussels (Mollusca: Unionacea). pages 129-145 in K.S. Cummings, A.C. Buchanan, C.A. Mayer, and TJ. Naimo, eds. Conservation and management of freshwater mussels II: initiatives for the future. Proceedings of a UMRCC Symposium, 16-18 October 1995, St. Louis Missouri. Upper Mississippi River Conservation Committee, Rock Island, Illinois. 293 pp. Forbes, S.A., and R.E. Richardson. 1908. The fishes of Illinois. Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Danville. cxxxvi + 357 pp. Frison, T.H. 1935. The stoneflies, or Plecoptera, of Illinois. Bulletin of the lilinois Natural History Survey. 20(4):281-471. Havera, S.P., and F.C. Bellrose. 1985. The lilinois River: a lesson to be leamed. Wetlands. 4:29-41. Herkert, J.R. 1992. Endangered and threatened species in lilinois: status and distribution, Volume 2 - animals. Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board, Springfield. iv + 142 pp. Herkert, J.R. 1994. Endangered and threatened species in lilinois: status and distribution, Volume 3 - 1994 changes to the Illinois list of endangered and threatened species. illinois Endangered Species Protection Board, Springfield. iv + 33 pp.

126 Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board. 1994. Checklist of endangered and threatened animals and plants of Illinois. Illinois Endangered Species Protection Board, Springfield. ii + 20 pp. Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. Illinois Water Quality Report (1994 95). State of Illinois, Environmental Protection Agency, Division of Water Pollution Control, Planning Section, Springfield. 241 pp. Iverson, L.R. 1987. Soils. in R.D. Neely and e.G. Heister (compilers). The natural resources of Illinois: introduction and guide. Illinois Natural History Survey Special Publication No.6. 224 pp. Lauck, D.R. 1959. The taxonomy and bionomics of the aquatic Hemiptera of Illinois. unpublished M.S. thesis, University of llIinois, Urbana-Champaign. xxii + 353 pp. Malloch, J.R. 1915a. The Chironomidae, or midges, of Illinois, with particular reference to the species occurring in the llIinois River. Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History 10(6):275-543. Malloch, J. R. 1915b. Some additional records of Chironomidae for Illinois and notes on other Illinois Diptera. Bulletin of the llIinois State Laboratory of Natural History 11(4): 305-363. Nalepa, T.P. 1994. Decline of native unionid bivalves in Lake St. Clair after infestation by the zebra mussel, Dreissena polymorpha. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 51(10):2227-2233. Pechuman, L.L., D.W. Webb, and H.J. Teskey. 1983. The Diptera, or true flies, of llIinois. I. Tabanidae. Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin 33(1):1-122. Ross, H. H. 1944. The caddisflies, or Trichoptera, of llIinois. Bulletin of the llIinois Natural History Survey. 23(1):1-326. Schwegman, J.E. 1973. Comprehensive plan for the Illinois nature preserves system. Part 2. The natural divisions of Illinois. llIipois Nature Preserves Commission, Springfield, llIinois. 32 pp. Smith, P.W. 1971. Illinois streams: a classification based on their fishes and analysis of factors responsible for disappearance of native species. Illinois Natural History Survey Biological Notes No. 76. 14 pp. Smith, P.W. 1979. The fishes oflllinois. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. xxix + 314 pp. Strode, W.S. 1891. Mollusks of Spoon River, Illinois. Nautilus. 5(6):61-63. Strode, W.S. 1892. The Unionidae of Spoon River, Fulton County, Illinois. American Naturalist. 26:495-501. Strode, W.S. 1895. A day on the Spoon River in llIinois. Nautilus. 9(2): 19-21. Taylor, e. A., and M. Redmer. 1996. Dispersal of the crayfish Orconectes rusticus in llIinois, with notes on species displacement and habitat preference. Journal of Crustacean Biology 16:547-551. Taylor, S.J. 1996. Habitat preferences, species assemblages, and resource partitioning by Gerromorpha (Insecta: Heteroptera) in southern Illinois, with a faunal list and keys to species of the state. Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Zoology Department, Southern Illinois University at Carbondale. xviii + 345 pp.

127 U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; review of plant and animal taxa that are candidates for listing as endangered or threatened. Proposed Rule. 28 February 1996. Federal Register 61(40): 7596-7613. FR Doc. 96-4412. Wetzel, MJ. 1986. Biological and soil survey ofFAP 412 from Oglesby, LaSalle County to Bloomington, McLean County, Illinois. Component 3.3 - Phytoplankton, zooplankton, and aquatic macroinvcrtebrates, exclusive of unionid mussels. Final report. 18 November. Illinois Natural History Survey Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification Technical Report 1986(5): viii + 96 pp. [Prepared for the Bureau of Location and Environment, Illinois Department of Transportation, 2300 South Dirksen Parkway, Springfield, 62764]. Wetzel, M.J. 1992. Aquatic Annelida of lllinois: Introduction and checklist of species. Transactions ofthe Illinois State Academy of Science 85(1 and 2):87-101. Wetzel, MJ., R.E. DeWalt, c.A. Taylor, and K.S. Cummings. 1997. An assessment of the aquatic resources in the IDOT FAP 310 (U.S. Route 67) project area, Cass, McDonough, Morgan, and Schuyler counties, lllinois: surveys for fishes, freshwater mussels, and other aquatic macroinvertebrates. Illinois Natural History Survey Center for Biodiversity Technical Report 1997(10). [Prepared for Illinois Department of Transportation, Bureau of Design and Environment, 2300 Dirksen Parkway, Springfield,62764]. 20 November. iv + 20 pp. + 8 appendices. Wooldridge, D.P. 1967. The aquatic Hydrophilidae of Illinois. Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 60(4):422-431.

128 Appendix 1

Incomplete list of vascular plants known from the Spoon River Assessment Area, with notes on their habitat associations.

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & l 2 2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural Common Name • Scientific Name'· Adder's-tongue fern Ophioglossum vulgatum x alfalfa' Medicago sativa* x alsike clover* Trifolium hybridum* x alternate-leaved dogwood Comus alternijolia x x x alumroot Heuchera richardsonii x x American bellflower Campanula americana x x x American bindweed Calystegia sepium x x American bur-reed Sparganium x americanum American elm Ulmus americana x x x American germander Teucrium canadense x x x x x American gromwelI Lithospermum x latifolium American linden Tilia americana x x American pennyroyal Hedeoma pulegioides x American plum Prunus americana x American pondweed Potamogeton nodosus x American spikenard Aralia racemosa x American vetch Vida americana x Arnur honeysuckle* Lonicera maackii* x x angelica Angelica atropurpurea x x anise root Osmorhiza longistylis x annual bedstraw Galium aparine x x x annual blue grass* Poa annua* x annual fleabane Erigeron annuus x x x annual ground cherry Physalis pubescens x annual wonnwood* Artemisia annua* x arrow-leaved violet Viola sagittata x Asiatic dayflower* Commelina communis* x asparagus* Asparagus officinaLis* x Aunt Lucy Ellisia nyctelea x x Autumn sneezeweed Helenium autumnale x x awl-fruited sedge Carex tribuLoides x awned graceful sedge Carex davisii x balsam-apple Echinocystis Lobata x x

129 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l Common Name ,2 Scientific Name1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural barnyard grass Echinochloa muricata x barnyard grass* Echinochloa crusgalli* x bastard toad-flax Comandra umbellata x x x x beggar's lice* Lappula echinata* x beggar-ticks Bidens tripartita x x x hellwort Uvularia grandiflora x Belvedere summer Kochia scoparia* x cypress* Bicknell's sedge Carex bicknellii x x biennial gaura Gaura biennis x x x x biennial wonnwQod* Artemisia biennis* big bluestem Andropogon gerardii x x x x x big-Iooth aspen Populus graruJidentata x x birdfootMviblet Viola pedala x birds-foot trefoil * Lotus comiculatus * x Bishop's cap Milella diphylla x bitter cress Cardamine x x x x pennsylvanica bitternut hickory Carya cordifarmis x x bittersweet nightshade* Solanum dulcamara* x x x black birdweed* Polygonum x convolvulus * hlack haw Viburnum prunifolium x black locust* Robinia pseudoacacia* x hlack maple Acernigrum x black medic* Medicago lupulina* x black mustard* Brassica nigra* x black nightshade Solanum ptycanthum x x x black oak Quercus velutina x black raspherry Rubus occidentalis x x black swallow-wort* Cynanchum nigrum* x black walnut luglans nigra x x x black willow . Salix nigra x x x hlack-eyed Susan Rudbeckia hirta x x x blackjack oak Quercus marilandica hladdernut Slaphylea Irifolia x hlazing-star Liatris aspera x x x x bloodroot Sanguinaria canadensis x blue ash Fraxinus x x quadrangulata blue beech Carpinus caroliniana x x blue cohosh Caulophyllum x thalictroides blue lettuce Lactuca floridana x x blue phlox Phlox divaricata x blue sage* Salvia azurea var. x pitcheri*

130 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 Common Name • Scientific Narne1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural blue star Amsonia x x x tabernaemontana blue vervain Verbena hOSfota x x x blue-eyed grass Sisyrinchium campestre x x blue-eyed Mary Collinsia verna x blue-joint grass Calamagrostis x x x canadensis blunt spike rush Eleocharis ob/usa x x x blunt-leaf sandwort Moehringia lateriflora x blunt-scaled wood sedge Carex albursina x bottlebrush grass Elymus hystrix x x bottlebrush sedge Carex lurida x bouncing bct* Saponaria officinalis* x boxelder Acer negundo x x x x bracken fern . Pteridium aquilinum x bracted tick trefoil Desmodium cuspidatum x x x bristly cattail sedge Carex frankii x x x x bristly crowfoot Ranunculus x pensylvanicus bristly foxtail' Setaria verticillata* x bristly greenbrier Smilax hispida x brittle fern Cystopterisjragilis x broad-leaved cattail Typha lali/olia x x x broad-leaved goldenrod Solidago jlexicaulis x broad~leaved panic grass Panicum latifolium x broad-leaved purple Echinacea purpurea x x coneflower brook nut sedge Cyperus rivularis x brown fox sedge Carex vulpinoidea x x brown-eyed Susan Rudbeckia triloba .x brown-headed fox sedge Carex alopecoidea x x buckhom* Plantago lanceolata* x buffalo bur· Solanum rostratum* x Buffalo current Ribes aureum x x buffalo grass Buchloe dactyloides x x bugle weed Lycopus ~irginicus x x bulbous cress Cardamine bulbosa x x x bull thistle' Cirsium vulgare* x bulrush Scirpus acutus x x bulrush Scirpus cyperinus x x buncb-flower • ST MeUanthium x x viTginicum. ST bur-reed Sparganium x x x eurycarpum burr oak Quercus macrocarpa x x burweed* Iva xanthifolia* x butter-and-eggs* Linaria vulgaris* x butterfly-plant Asclepias tuberosa x

131 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland FJoodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 l 2 Common Name • Scientific Name . Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural buttonbush Cephalanthus x x x occidentlis buttonweed* Abuti/on theophrasti* x camassia Camassia sell/joides x x x x camphorweed Heterotheca Latifolia x Canada brome grass Bromus pubescens x x Canada clearweed Pilea pumila x x x x Canada plum Prunus nigra x Canada thistle* Cirsium arvense* x Canada wild ginger Asarum canadense x Canada wild rye Elymus canadensis x x x Canadian black snakeroot Sanicula canadensis x Canadian blue grass'" Poa compressa* x x x Canadian milk vetch Astragalus canadensis x x carpet weed Mollugo verticillata x caman flower Smilax herbacea x x cat's foot Antennaria neg/ecrQ x x x catalpa* Catalpa speciosa* x x catnip· Nepeta cataria* x chamomile* Matricaria x chamomilla* cheat grass* Bromus leetorum * x chess* Bromus secalinus* x chickory* Cichorium intybus'" x cinnamon willow herb Epilobium coloratum x x x x clammy ground cherry Physalis heterophylla x x clammy hedge hyssop Gratiola neglecta x clammyweed Polanisia dodecandra x climbing bittersweet Celastrus scandens x climbing false buckwheat Polygonum scandens x closed gentian Gentiana andrewsii x x closely covered sedge Carex artitecta x x cock-spur thorn Crataegus crus-galli cocklebur Xanthium strumanum x x columbine Aquilegia canadensis x x common arrowleaf Sagittaria latifolia x x x common beggar's ticks BMens frondosa x common blackberry Rubus allegheniensis x x x common blue violet Viola pranticola common blue-eyed grass Sisyrinchium albidum x x x common boneset Eupatorium per/oUatum x x x common burdock* Arctium minus'" common carrion flower Smilax lasioneuron x x common chickweed* Stellaria media'" x common choke cherry Prunus virginiuna x x common cinquefoil Potentilla simplex x x common comfrey'" Symphytum officinale* x

132 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & 1 2 Common Name • Scientific NarneU Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural common dandelion* Taraxacum officinale* x common evening Oenothera biennis x x x primrose common fox sedge Carex stipata x x x x common foxtail Alopecurus x x carolinianus common gaura Gaura longiflora x x x x common goat's-beard* Tragapogon pratensis* x common hop sedge Carex [upulina x x x common hops Humulus lupulus x common horsetai1 Equisetum arvense x x x x common hound's tongue* Cynoglossum x officinale* common ironweed Vernoniafasciculata x x common knotweed* Polygonum aviculare* x common mallow* Malva neglecta* x common rnilfoil Achillea mille/alium x c x common milkweed Asclepias syriaca x x common morning glory Ipomoea purpurea* x common mountain mint Pycnanthemum x x x virginianum common mouse-ear Cerastium vulgatum* x chickweed* common naiad Najas flexilis x x common oak sedge Carex pensylvanica x x x common peppergrass Lepidium virginicum x x x common privet* Ligustrum vulgare* x x common ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia x common reed Phragmites australis x x common satin grass Muhlenbergiafrondosa x x common snakeroot Sanicula odorata x x x common sow thistle* Sonchus oleraceus* x common spiderwort Tradescantia ohiensis x x x x commo.n St. John's-wort* Hypericum perforatum' x common sunflower Helianthus annuus x common sunflower* Helianthus annus* x common tansy* Tanacetum vulgare* x common teasel* Dipsacus sylvestris* x common wood sedge Carex blanda x x x x compass plant Silphium laciniatum x x x coontail Ceratophyllum x x demersum coralberry Symphoricarpos x orbiculatus comcockle* Agrostemma githago* x com poppy* Papaver rhoeas* x com speedwell* Veronica arvensis* x com* Zea mays* x

133 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland F1oodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & l 2 Common Name . Scientific Namel.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural cow parsnip HeracLeum lanatum x x x cowbane Oxypolis rigidar x x x crack willow SaLixfragilis x x cream wild indigo Baptisia bracteata x x x creeping vervain Verbena bracteata x crested oval sedge Carex cristatella x crowfoot grass* Eleusine indica* x crown vetch * Coranilla varia * x cultivated raspberry Rubus idaeus x culver's root Veronicasrrum x x x x x virginicum cup plant Silphium perfoliatum x x x x x x curly dock' Rumex crispus* x x x curly pondweed* Potamogeton crispus* x curly-styled wood sedge Carex rosea x cursed crowfoot Ranunculus sceleratus x x curttop lady's thumh Polygonum x x lapathifolium cypress spurge* Euphorbia cyparissias* x daisy fleabane Erigeron strigosus x x x dark green rush Scirpus atrovirens x x x x deptford pink' Dianthus armeria * x diarrhena Diarrhenia americana x ditch stonec;rop Penthorum sedoides x x dodder Cuscuta gronovii x x x dog fennel* Anthemis cotula* x dog mustard* Erucastrum gallicum* x dogbane Apocynum cannabinum x x doll's eyes Actaea pachypoda x dotted hawthorn Crataegus punctata x downy gentian Gentiana puberulenta x downy hawthorn Crataegus mollis x x downy phlox Phlox pi/osa x x x downy sunflower Helianthus mollis x downy yellow violet Viola pubescens x Drummond's aster Aster drummondii x x duckweed Lemna gibba x x duckweed Lemna trisulcata x x Dudley's rush Juncus dudleyi x Dutchman's breeches Dicentra cucullaria x dwarf bindweed Calystegia spithamaea x x dwarf bracted sedge Carex leavenworthU x dwarf larkspur Delphinium tricome x dwarf plantain Plantago virginica x x dwarf snapdragon'" Chaenorrhinum minus* x early huttercup Ranunculus fascicularis x early goldenrod Solidago juncea x x

134 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

2 Common Name1. Scientific Name1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural earJy horse gentian Triosteum ouran/jocum x early wild rose Rosa blanda x eastern cottonwood Populus deltoides x eastern redbud Cercis canadensis x x eastern redcedar Juniperus virginiana x elderberry Sambucus canadensis x x x x elm-leaved goldenrod Solidago u/mifo/ia x Elodea Elodea nuttallii x enchanter's nightshade Circaea Lutetiana x erect knotweed Polygonum erectum x x European high bush Viburnum opulus* cranberry* evening campion* Silene Jatifolia* x fall panicum Panicum x dichotomiflorum false aster Boltonia asteroides x x x false boneset Brickellia eupatorioides x x false dandelion Krigia biflora x x x x false dragonhead Physostegia speciosa x x false dragonhead Physostegia virginiana x x false indigo Amorphafrutieosa x x false loosestrife Ludwigia polycarpa x x x x false mermaid Floerkea x x proserpinaeoides false nettle Boehmeria cylindrica x x x x false pimpernel Lindernia dubia x x false rue anemone lsopyrum biternatum x x false sunflower Heliopsis helianthoides x x x fat-hen saltbush* Atriplex patula* x feathery false Solomon Smilacina racemosa x x seal fen betony Pedicularis laneeolata x x fennel-leaved pondweed Potamogeton peetiootus x fescue oval sedge Carexfestucacea x field bindweed* Convolvulus arvensis* x field chamomile* Anthemis arvensis* x field cress· Lepidium eampestre* x field garlic' Allium vineale* x field milkwort Polygala sanguinea x x x field mint Mentha arvensis x field nul sedge Cyperus eseulentus x x x field oval sedge Carex molesta x x field penny cress* Thlaspi arvense* x field sow thistle* Sonehus arvensis* x fireweed Ereehtites hieraeifolia x x x x flat-stemmed spike rush Eleoeharis eompressa x flower-of-an-hour* Hibiscus trionum* x

135 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & Common Name J.2 Scientific NameL2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural flowering spurge Euphorbia corollata x x x x fog fruit Phyla lanceolala x fool's parsley* Aethusa cynapium* fowl manna grass Glyceria striata x x x x foxglove beardstongue Penstemon digitalis x fragrant sumac Rhus aromatka x x fragrant water lily Nymphaea odorata x French grass Psoralea onobrychis x x x fringed. loosestrife Lysimachia ciliata x frost grape Vitis vulpina x frostweed Helianthemum x x x bicknellii garden phlox PhLox paniculata x x garlic mustard* Alliaria petiolata* x giant foxtail* Setariafaberii* x giant ragweed Ambrosia trifida x x giant 51. John's-wort Hypericum x pyramidatum gilia* Gilia rubra* x ginseng Panax quinque/olia x glade mallow Napaea dioica x x Glaucous campion * Silene scerei* x glaucous white lettuce Prenanthes racemosa x glossy buckthom* Frangula alnus* x x x goat's-beard Aruncus dioicus x golden Alexander Zizia aurea x golden ragwort Senecio aureus x goldenseal Hydrastiscanadensu x grape fern Botrychium dissectum x x grape honeysuckle Lonicera prolifera x grass sedge Carex jamesii x grass-leaved aITowleaf Sagittaria graminea x grass-leaved goldenrod Euthamia graminifolia x grass-of-Parnassus Parnassia glauca x gray dogwood Comus racemosa x x x Gray's sedge Carex grayii x great blue lobelia Lobelia siphilitica x x x great bulrush Scirpus. x x x tabernaemontanii great burdock* Arctium lappa* x great duckweed Spirodela polyrhiza x x Great Plains ladies' tresses Spiranthes x magnicamporum great waterleaf Hydrophyl/um x appendiculatum green amaranth· Amaranthus hybridus* x green dragon Arisaema dracontium x green foxtail* Setaria viridis* x

136 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & Common Name\.2 Scientific Name1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural green-headed fox sedge Carex conjuncta x ground cherry Physalis virginiana x x ground ivy* Glechoma hederacea* x groundnut Apios americana x x x x hackberry Celtis occidentalis x x x x hairy aster Aster pilosus x x x hairy hrorne Bromus commutatus x x hairy crab grass* Digitaria sanguinalis* x hairy hawkweed Hieracium longipilum x x hairy hawkweed Hieracium scabrum x hairy hedge nettle Stachys hispida x x x x hairy meadow parsnip Thaspium barbinode x x hairy mountain mint Pycnanthemum x x verticillatum hairy rock cress Arabis hirsuta x hairy ruellia Ruellia humilis x x x x hairy sweet cicely Osmorhiza claytonii x , hairy wood sedge Carex hirtifolia x hairy-fruited lake sedge Carex trichocarpa x x x x hashish* Cannabis sativa* x hawthorn Crataegus x calpodendron hawthorn Crataegus succlenta x hazelnut Corylus americana x x x heart-leaved aster Aster cordifolius x heart-leaved skullcap Scutellaria ovata x heart-leaved willow Salix eriocephala x x x heart-leaved willow Salix rigida x hedge apple' Maclura pomifera* x x x hedge mustard* Sisymbrium officinale* x henbit Lamium amplexicaule* x hepatica Hepatica nobilis x high mallow' Malva sylvestris* x highbush blackberry Rubus argutus x hoary cress* Cardaria draba * x hoary puccoon Lithospermum x x x x canescens hoary vervain Verbena stricta x x x x hoary willow Salix candida x x hog peanut Amphicarpa bracteata x x x x x x hollyhock Aleea rosea* x honewort CryplOtaenia x x x x x canadensis honey locust Gleditsia triacanthos x x honeysuckle* Lonicera reticulata* x honeysuckle* Lonicera X bella* x hop hornbeam Ostrya virginiana x

137 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

2 Cultural Common Name1.2 Scientific Namel. Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond homed pondweed Zannichellia palustris horse-nettle Solanum carolinense x horsetail milkweed Asclepias verticillata x x horseweed* Conyza canadensis* x Hungarian brome* Bromus inermis* x hybrid alfalfa' Medicago X varia * x hybrid fragile fern Cystopteris protrusa x Illinois carrion flower Smilax illinoensis x lllinois horse gentian Triosteum illinoense x Illinois tick trefoil Desmodium illinoense x x Indian grass Sorghastrum nutans x x x Indian hemp Apocynum sibiricum x Indian mustard* Brassicajuncea* x Indian paintbrush Castilleja coccinea x Indian pipe Monotropa uniflora x Indian tobacco LobeLia inflata x inland rush Juncus interior x x interrupted fern Osmunda claytaniana x Iowa crab Malus ioensis x x x ironweed Vernonia arkansana x x ironweed Vernonia gigantea x x Jack-in-the-pulpit Arisaema triphyllum x x Jacob's ladder Polemonium reptans x x x Japanese barberry* Berberis thunbergii* x x Japanese chess* Bromus japonicus* x Japanese hops* Humulus japonicus* x Japanese knotweed* Polygonum x cuspidatum* Jerusalem artichoke Helianthus tuberosus x Jerusalem oak* Chenopodium botrys* Jimsonweed* Datura stramonium* x Joliet horsetail Equisetum X ferrissii x June grass Koeleria macrantha x x ' . Kentucky blue grass * Poa pratensis* x x x x Kentucky coffee-tree Gymnocladus dioicus x x kingnut hickory Carya laciniosa x ladies' tresses Spiranthes ovalis x lady's thumb' PoLygonum persicaria* x lamb's quarters* Chenopodium album* x x lance-fruited oval sedge Carex scoparia x x x lance-leaved buckthorn Rhamnus LanceoLara x x lance-leaved loosestrife Lysimachia lanceoLata x x large white trillium Trillium grandiflorum x large yellow fox sedge Carex annectens x x x x late boneset Eupatorium serotinum x x x x late figwon Scrophularia x x marilandica

138 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & l 1 Pond Cultural Common Name • Scientific NameJ.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring late goldenrod Solidago giganlea x x x x x late horse gentian Triosteum peifoliatum x lead plant Amorpha canescens x x x x leafy 'pondweed Potamogeton fa/iosus x x leafy spurge* Euphorbia esula* x leather flower Clematis pitcheri x leatherwood Dirca palustris x limber honeysuckle Lonicera dialea x little barley Hordeum pusillum x little bluestern Schizachyrium x x x scoparium little-leaf buttercup Ranunculus abortivus x x x x x long-awned bracted sedge Carex gravida x x x long-scaled nut sedge Cyperus strigosus x x x loose-headed bracted Carex sparganioides x sedge loosestrife Lysimachia hybrida x x x x lopseed Phryma leptostachya x lousewort Pedicularis canadensis x x x low hop c1over* Trifolium campestre* x mad-dog skullcap Scutellaria lateriflora x x x x maidenhair fern Adiantum pedatum x manna grass G/yceria septentrionaIis x x x maple-leaved goosefoot Chenopodium x gigantospermum '" marsh bellflower Campanu/a aparinoides x x marsh blue grass Poa palustris x x marsh fleabane Erigeron philadelphicus x x x marsh marigold Caltha palustris x x marsh spike rush E/eocharis small;; x x x x marsh yellow cress Rorippa islandica x x x x marsh yellow cress Rorippa palustn"s x x x Maryland senna Senna marilandica x x Mayapple Podophyllum peltatum x, Mead's stiff sedge Carex mead;; x x meadow anemone Anemone canadensis x x meadow fescue* Festuca elatior* x meadowsweet Spirea alba x Michigan lily Lilium michiganense x mild water pepper Polygonum x x x x hydropiperoides milk spurge Chamaesyce maculala x Missouri goldenrod Solidago missouriensis x x Missouri gooseberry Ribes missouriense x x Missouri ironweed Vernonia missurica x x mockernut hickory Carya tomentosa x moneywort* Lysimachia x nummularia* 139 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 Common Name . Scientific Name1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural monkey flower Mimulus ringens x x x x moonseed Menispermum x x canadense moth mullein* Verbascum blattaria* x motherwort* Leonuruscardiaca* x muhly Muhlenbergia mexicana x x muhly grass Muhlenbergia x sobolifera mullein foxglove Dasistoma macrophyLJa x multiflora rose* Rosa multiflora* x x musk bristle thistle* Carduus nutans* x mustard* Sisymbrium loeselii* x naiad Najas guadalupensis x x nannyberry Viburnum lentago x narrow-leaved cattail* Typha angustifo1ia* x x x x narrow-leaved loosestrife Lysimachia quadriflora x New England aster Aster novae-angliae x x x New Jersey tea Ceanothus americanus x x x nimble will Muhlenbergia schreberi x ninebark Physocarpus opulifolius x x nodding bur marigold Bidens cernua x x nodding chickweed Cerostium nUlons x x nodding fescue Festuca obtusa x nodding ladies' tresses Spiranthes cernua x x nodding spurge Chamaesyce nulans x x Northeastern lady rem Athyriumfilix·femina x northern ragwort Senecio pauperculus x x northern red oak Quercus rubra x northern rush grass Sporobolus vaginiflorus x oats* Avena sativa* x Ohio buckeye. Aesculus glabra x x Ohio goldenrod Solidago ohioensis x old fiel~ goldenrod Solidago nemoralis x x x x old witch grass Panicum copUlaTe x x one-flowered broomrape Orobanche uniflora x Ontario aster Aster ontarionis x x orange day lily· Hemerocallis fulva* x orange touch-me-not Impatiens biflora x x x x orchard grass* Dactylis gIomerata* x ostrich fern Matteuccia x struthiopteris ox-eye daisy* Leucanthemum x vulgare* pale beardstongue Penstemon pallidus x x x x pale dock Rumex altissimus x pale dogwood Comus obliqua x x pale gentian Gentiana alba x x x

140 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & Common Namel,2 Scientific Narne1.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural pale Indian plantain Cacalfa atriplicijolia x x pale leafellp Polymnia canadensis x pale purple coneflower Echinacea pallida x x pale sedge Carex granularis x pale spiked lobelia Lobelia spicata x x x pale touch-me-not Impatiens pallida x x x x pale-leaved sunflower Helianthus strumosus x x panic grass Panicum Ianuginosum x x x panic grass Panicum oligosanlhes x panic grass Panicum praecocius x x panicled aster Aster lanceolatus x x x x partridge pea Chamaecrista x x x x lrascicu[ata pasture rose Rosa carolina x x x x x pasture thistle Cirsium discoLor x path rush Ju1UUS tenuis x peach-leaved willow Salix amygdaloides x x x pear* Pyrus communis* x Pennsylvania pellitory Parietaria pensylvanica x persimmon Diaspyros virginiana x x Peruvian daisy* Galinsoga x quadriradiata* petioled sunflower* Helianthus petiolaris* x x pigeon gras.s* Setaria glauca* x pin oak Quercus palustris x pineapple weed* Matricaria x matricarioides* pinkweed Polygonum x x x x pensylvanicum plains oval sedge Carex brevior x x x x plains three awn grass Aristida oligantha x plume grass* Miscanthus x sacchariflorus* pointed tick trefoil Desmodium giutinosum x poison hemlock* Conium maculatum* x x x poison ivy Toxicodendron x x x radicans pokeweed Phylo/acca americana x x pond quillwort Isoetes melanopoda x x pondweed Potamogeton x iIlinoiensis pondweed Potamogeton pusiIlus x x poor Joe Plantago aristata x x x poppy mallow CaIlirhoe triangulata x porcupine grass Slipa spartea x porcupine sedge Carex hystericina x poverty oat grass Danthonia spicata x x prairie blazing-star Liatris pycnoslachya x

141 Appendix 1. Continned

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & l 2 Cultural Common Name • Scientific Name l.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond prairie cinquefoil Potemilla argwa x x x prairie cord grass Spar/ina peetinata x x x prairie coreopsis Coreopsis palmata x x x x prairie dock Silphium x x terebinthinaceul1l prairie dropseed Sporobolus helerolepis x prairie groundsel Senecio plattensis x x x x prairie Indian plantain Cacalia plamaginea x prairie milkweed Asclepias sullivanti; x prairie panic grass Panicum ieibergi; x x prairie rose Rosa setigera x prairie rose Rosa setigera var. x tomentosa prairie sundrops Oenathera pilosella x prairie sunflower Helianthus pauciflorus x prairie sunflower Helianthus rigidus x prairie switch grass Panicum virgatum x x x prairie violet Viola pedatifida x x prairie white fringed Platanthera leucophaea x orchid prairie willow Salix humilis x x prairie wedge grass Sphenopholis obtusata x prickly ash zanthoxylum x americanum prickly lettuce* Lactuca serriola* x prickly sida Siela spinosa x prickly sow thistle* Sonchus asper* x purple giant hyssop Agastache x . scrophulariaejolia purple Joe Pye weed Eupatorium purpureum x x purple love grass Eragrostis speclabilis x x x purple meadow rue Thalictrum dasycarpum x x

purple milkweed Asclepias purpurascens x x purple oxalis Oxa/is violacea x x purple prairie clover Dalea purpurea x x purple rocket lodanthus pinnatifidus x purple-headed Heleniumflexuosum x x sneezeweed purple-top Tridens flavus x x purslane* Portulaca oleracea* x pussytoes Antennaria x plantaginijolia quack grass* Agropyron repens* x quaking aspen Populus tremuloides x x Queen Anne's lace* Daucus carota* x rattlesnake fern Botrychium x virginianum rattlesnake-master Eryngium yuccifolium x x x

142 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 1 2 Common Name • Scientific Name • Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural recurved buttercup Ranunculus recurvatus x x red ash Fraxinus penns.vlvanica x x red bulrush Scirpus pendulus x x x red clover* Trifolium pratense* x red current* Ribes rubrw'l * x red mulberry MaTus rubra x x red top Agrostis gigamea x x x x red trillium Trillium reCUrvatum x x red·rooted spike rush Eleocharis erythropoda x red-stalked plantain Plantago rugelii x reed canary grass* Phaluris arundinacea* x x x x rice cut grass Leersia oryzoides x x Riddell goldenrod Solidago riddellii x x rigid goldenrod Solidago riglda x x x riverbank grape Vilis riparia x x x riverbank: sedge Carex emoryi Robin's plantain Erigeron pulchellus x x x - rock cress Arabis shortli x rope dodder Cuscuta glomerata x x x rose Rosa arkiJnsana x rosin plant Silphium integrifolium x rough avens Geum laciniatum x x rough buttercup Ranunculus hispidus x rough cinquefoil Potentilia norvegica x rough dropseed Sporobolus asper x rough false foxglove Agalinis aspera x rough pennyroyal Hedeoma hispida x x x x rough pigweed* Amaranthus x retroflexus* rough white lettuce Prenanthes aspera x rough-leaved dogwood Comus drummondii x x x rough-stemmed false Agalinis gattingeri x foxglove round-fruited $1. John's Hypericum x wort sphaerocarpu11l round-headed bush clover Lespedeza capitata x x x rusty nut sedge Cyperusjerruginescens rye" Secale cereale* x sand bur Cenchrus longispinus x sand croton Croton glandulosus x x sand goat's-beard* Tragapogon dubius* x sand milkweed Asclepias amplexicaulis x x sand St. John's-wort Hypericum majus x x sandbar love grass Eragrostisfrankii x sandbar willow Salix exiguQ x x x x sassafras Sassafras albidum x

143 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland FJoodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

Common Namel .2 Scientific Nalllcu Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural saw-toothed sagebrush Artemisia serrola x x sawtooth sunflower Helialllhus x x grosseserratus scarlet loosestrife Ammania cDecinea x x Schreber's Aster· ST Aster schreberi - ST x Scots pine* Pinus sylvestris* x scouring rush Equisetum hyemale x sedge Cyperus odoratus x seedbox Ludwigia alternifolia x x x x self-heal* Prunella vulgaris'" x x x Seneca snakeroot Polygala senega x sensitive fern Onoclea sensibilis x x x sessile-flowered cress Rorippa sessiliflora x x shadbush Amelanchier abrobea x shagbark hickory Carya ovala x x shepherd's purse* Capsella bursa· x pastoris* shingle oak Quercus imbricaria x x shining bedstraw Galium conci/1llum x x shooting star Dodecatheon meadia x x x x - Shaft's aster As/er shortii x short-beaked arrowleaf Sagitlaria brevirostra x x x x shon-headed bracled Carex cephalophora x sedge short-pointed flat sedge Cyperus acumina/us x showy goldenrod Solidago speciosa x x x showy lady's-slipper Cypripedium reginae x x x orchid showy orchis Galearis specfabilis x showy tick trefoil Desmodium canadense x x x x Siberian elm* Ulmus pumila* x sicklepod Arabis canadensis x side-flowering aster Aster la/eriflorus x silky wild rye Elymus villosus x silver maple Acer saccharil1urn x x silvery spleenwort Deparia acrostichoides x skunk cabbage Symplocarpu!i foetidus x x sky-blue aster Aster oolentallgiensis x x x x sleepy calchfly Silene an/irrhilla x slender bush clover Lespedeza virginica x x slender corydalis Corydalis micron/ha x slender false foxglove Agalinis /enuifolia x x x slender ladies' tresses Spiranches laccra x slender mountain mint Pycnan/hemu11l x x x tenuifolium slender spike rush Eleocharis verrUCosa x slippery elm Ulmus rubra x x small bedstraw Galium trifidulII x

144 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

Common Name1.2 Scientific Namel.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural small duckweed Lemna minor x x small false Solomon seal Smilacina stellata x x small love grass Eragrostis pectinacea x small peppergrass Lepidium densiflorum x x small prairie thistle Cirsium pumilwl1 x small rush grass Sporobolus neg/eetus x small skullcap Scure/laria pan1ula x x x x small Solomon seal Polygonatum bij10rum x small wormseed mustard Erysimum x inconspicuum* small-flowered gaura* Gaura parviflora* x small-flowered water Alisma triviale x x plantain small-headed aster Aster parviceps x x smartweed Polygonum punctatum x x smooth aster Aster laevis x x x smooth crab grass* Digitaria ischaemum* x smooth false foxglove Aureolariaflava x smooth phlox Phlox glaberrima x x x smooth rock cress Arabis laevigata x smooth ruellia Ruellia strepells x smooth scouring rush Equisetum Laevigatum x x smooth sumac Rhus glabra x x x smooth tick trefoil Desmodium glabelLum x snow trillium Trillium nivale x snowy campion Silene niveo x soft agrimony Agrimonia pubescens x x soft rush Juncus effusus x x x sorghum Sorghum bicolor x sour dock* Rumex acetoselLa* x x soybean* Glycine max* x spear grass Poa chapmanil//la x spearmint* Mentha spicata* spiked water milfoil* Myriophyllum .. x spicatum* spinulose wood fern Dryopter.is carthusiana x spotted horsemint Monarda punclata x spotted Joe Pye weed Eupatorium maculatum spotted knapweed* Centaurea maculosa* x spotted St. John's-wort Hypericum punctatum X x x x spreading dogbane Apocynum x androsaemifolium spreading oval sedge Carex normalis x spring beauty Claytonia virginica x squirrel-com Dicentra canadensis x squirrel-tail grass Hordeumjubarum* x stalked water horehound Lycopus rubellus x x x

145 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 2 Common Narne • Scientific Name l. Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural star of Bethlehem· OrnitllOgalu/Il x umbel/alum * starry campion Silene stellato x stickseed Hack.elia virginiana x x stiff bedstraw Galium tinctorium x x stink grass* Eragrostis cilianensis* x stout wood reed Cinna arundinacea x strawberry· Fragaria vesco* x sugar maple Acer saccharum x x x sulfur cinquefoil* Patentilla recta* x x swamp agrimony Agrimonia parviflora x x swamp butercup Ranunculus x x septentrionalis swamp dock Rumex vertiei/latus x x x x swamp goldenrod Solidago uliginosus x x swamp marigold Bidens aristosa x x x swamp milkweed Asclepias incarnata x x x x swamp privet Forestiera acuminata x x swamp saxifrage Saxigraga pensylvanica x x sweet black-eyed Susan Rudbeckia x subtomentosa sweet everlasting Gnaphalium x x x x obtusifolium sweet flag* Acorus calamus* x x x sweet Indian plantain CacaIis suaveolens .. sweet-scented bedstraw GaIium triflorum x x x sycamore Platanus occidentalis x x tall agrimony Agrimonia gryposepala x tall anemone Anemone virginiana x x tall beggar's ticks Bidens vulgata x x x tall boneset Eupatorium altissimum x x x tall coreopsis Coreopsis tripteris x x x tall goldenrod Solidago canadensis x x x tall green milkweed Asclepias hirtella x x tall ground cherry Physalis longifolia x x tall melic grass Melica nitens x tall nettle Urtica dioica x x tall oat grass* Arrhenatherum elatius* x tall swamp marigold Bidens coronata x x tall thistle Cirsium aitissimum x tall wood sorrel Oxalis stricta x x tansy mustard Descurainia pinnata x x x tansy mustard* Descurainia sophia* x Tatarian honeysuckle* Lonicera tatarica '" x tear thumb Polygonum sagittatum x Tennessee fragile fern Cystopteris x tennesseensis thicket parsley Perideridia americana x

146 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & l 2 Common Name • Scientific Name J.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural thimbleweed Anemone cylilldrica x x x three-seeded mercury Acalypha rhOlllboidea x x tick trefoil Desmodium cuspidatum x vaT. longifo/ium tickle grass Agrostis hyemalis x x x timothy'" Phleum pratense* x tiny bluets Houstonia crassifolia x toadflax* linaria dalmatica* x toothwort Cardamine concatenata x Torrey's rush funGus torrey; x tower mustard Arabis glabra x x tree-of-heaven* Ailanthus altissima* x trumpet creeper Campsis radicans x x x Tuberous vetchling* Lathyrus tuberosus* x tufted lalce sedge Carex vesicaria x x x tumble mustard* Sisymbrium x allissimum* tumbleweed Amaranthus a/bus x twayblade orchid Liparis liliifolia x upright carrion flower Smilax ecirrhata x velvet grass* Ho/cus Janatus* x Venus' looking-glass Triodanis petfoliata x x violet bush clover Lespedeza vioLacea x virgin's bower Clematis virginiana x Virginia bluebells Mertensia virginica x x Virginia creeper Parthenocissus x x x quinquefolia Virginia creeper Parthenocissus vitacea x Virginia knotweed Polygonum virginianum x x Virginia snakeroot Aristolochia x serpentaria Virginia three-seeded Acalypha virginica x mercury Virginia waterleaf Hydrophyllum x x virginianum Virginia wild rye Elymus virginicus x x viscid grass-leaved Euthamia x x goldenrod gymnospermoides wafer ash Ptelea trifoliata x x x wahoo Euonymus x atropurpurea water hemlock Cicuta maculata x x x x water hemp Amaranthus x tuberculatus water horehound Lycopus americanus x x x x water knotweed Polygonum amphibium x x water meal Wolffia columbiana x x water parsnip Sium suave x x x water pepper* Polygonum hydropiper* x

147 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep &

l 2 Common Name . Scientific Name!.:! Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond Cultural water plantain Alisma subcordatum x x water purslane Didiplis diandra x x water willow Justicia americana x water-cress* Rorippa nasturtium x x aquaticum* wax-goldenweed* Haplopappus ciliatus* x waxy meadow rue Tha/fetrum revolutum x weat St. John's-wort Hypericum mutilum x x western false-gromwell Onosmodium moUe x x western sunflower Helianthus occidentaUs x x western wheat grass* Agropyron smithii* x western wild lettuce UJctuca ludoviciana x wheat* Triticum aestil'um* x wheelwort Rotala ramosior x white ash Fraxinus americana x white avens Geum canadense x x x x white clover* Trifolium repens* x white grass Leersia virginica x x white lady's slipper orchid Cypripedium candidum x white lettuce Prenanthes alba x white mulberry'" Morus alba * x whiteoak Quercus alba x x x white prairie aster Aster ericoides x white prairie clover Dalea candida x x white sage Artemisia ludoviciana x x white snakeroot Eupatorium rugosum x white speedwell Veronica peregrina x white spruce'" Picea glauca* x white sweet clover* Melilotus alba * x x white trillium Trillium flexipes x white trout lily Erythronium albidum x x white turtlehead Chelone glabra x x white vervain Verbena urtid/olia x x white walnut Juglans cinerea x white water-crowfoot Ranunculus x trichophyllus white wild indigo Baptisia alba x x x whorlded milkwort Polygala verticillata x x whorled milkweed Asclepias quadrifolia x x wild bean Strophostyles helvula x wild bergamot Monardafistulosa x x x wild black cherry Prunus sera/ina X wild blue iris Iris shrevei x x x wild hlue larkspur Delphinium x carolinianum wild chervil Chaerophyllum x x procumbens

148 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & Cultural Common Namel.~ Scientific Namel.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring Pond wild cranesbill Geranium caroLinianum x x x wild four o'clock* Mirabilis nyctaginea* x wild geranium Geranium mucu/alum x x wild golden glow Rudbeckia laciniata x x wild hydrangea Hydrangea arborescens x wild leek Allium tricoccum x wild lettuce Lactuca canadensis x x x x wild licorice Galium circaezans x wild Jicorice* Glycyrrhiza lepidora* x wild madder Galium obtusum x x wild onion Allium canadense x wild parsnip* Pastinaea sativa * x wild poinsettia Euphorbia dentola x x x wild quinine Parthenium x x Integrifolium wild sarsaparilla Aralia nudicaulis x wild strawberry Fragaria virginiana x x wild sweet potato Ipomoea pandurata x x wild yam Dioscorea villosa x willow Salix X glatfelteri x willow lettuce* Lactuca saligna* x willow-leaved aster Aster praealtus x x winged loosestrife Lythrum alalum x x winter vetch* Vicia villosa* x wolfberry Symphoricarpos x occidentalis wood gray sedge Carex grisea x x x x wood mint Blephilia hirsuta x wood nettle Laportea canadensis x woodland agrimony Agrimonia rostellata x woodland blue grass Poa sylvestris x woodland goosefoot Chenopodium x standleyanum woolly blue violet Viola sororia x x woolly mullein* Verbascum thapsus* x wormseed mustard* Erysimum x cheiranthoides* woundwort Stachys palustris x x x yellow chestnut oak Quercus muehlenbergii yellow coneflower Ratibida pinnata x x yellow corydalis Corydalis flavula x yellow false foxglove Aureolaria grandiflora x yellow giant hyssop Agastache nepetoides x x yellow iris Iris pseudacorus x x yellow ironweed Verbesina alternifolia x yellow lady's-slipper Cypripedium pubescens x orchid yellow pimpernel Taenidia integerrima x x

149 Appendix 1. Continued

Upland Floodpl'n Hill Sedge Seep & Pond Cultural Common Name1,2 Scientific Name l.2 Forest Forest Prairie Prairie Savanna Marsh Swamp Meadow Spring yellow pond lily Nuphar lurea x x yellow puccoon LithospermulIl incisum x x yellow rocket* Barbarea vulgaris* x yellow star grass Hypoxis hirsuta x . x x yellow sweet clover* Melilotus officinalis* x x yellow water-crowfoot Ranunculus jlabel/aris x x yellow wood sorrel Oxalis dillenii x

I Threatened and endangered species are in bold: ST = state threatened; SE = state endangered; FT = federally threatened.

2 * = Non-native species.

150 Appendix 2

Incomplete list of vascular plants known from the Spoon River Assessment Area (from Appendix 1), sorted by scientific name.

J 2 1 2 Scientific Name • Common Name1,z Scientific Name'.2 Common Name •

Abutilon theophrasti* buttonweed* Amphicarpa bracteata hog peanut Acalypha rhomboidea three·seeded mercury Amsonia tabemaemontana blue star Acalypha virginica Virginia three-seeded mercury Andropogon gerardii big bluestem Acer negundo boxelder Anemone canadensis meadow anemone Acernigrom black maple Anemone cylindrica thimbleweed Acer saccharinum silver maple Anemone virginiana tall anemone Acer saccharum sugar maple Angelica atropurpurea angelica Achillea millefolium common milfoH Antennaria neglecta eat's foot Acarus calamus· sweet flag* Antennaria p/antaginijolia pussytoes Actaea pachypoda doll's eyes Anthemis arvensis* field chamomile* Adiantum pedatum maidenhair fern Anthemis cotula* dog fennel* Aesculus g/abra Ohio buckeye Apios americana groundnut Aethusa cynapium* fool's parsley* Apocynum androsaemifolium spreading dogbane AgaUnis aspera rough false foxglove Apocynum camuzbinum dogbane Agalinis gallingeri rough-stemmed false foxglove Apocynum sibiricum Indian hemp Agalinis tenuifolia slender false foxglove Aquilegia canadensis columbine Agastache nepetoides yellow giant hyssop Arabis canadensis sicklepod Agastache scrophulariaejolia purple giant byssop Arabis glabra tower mustard Agrimonia gryposepala tall agrimony Arabis hirsuta hairy rock cress Agrimonia parviflora swamp agrimony Arabis laevigala smooth rock cress Agrimonia pubescens soft agrimony Arabis shortii rock cress Agrimonia rostellata woodland agrimony Aralia nudicaulis wild sarsaparilla Agropyron repens* quack grass* Aralia racemosa American spikenard Agropyron smithii* western wheat grass* Arctium lnppa* great burdock' Agros/emma githago* comcockle* Arctium minus* common burdock* Agrostis gigan/ea red top Arisaema dracontium green dragon Agrostis hyemalis tickle grass Arisaema triphyllum Jack-in-the-pulpit Ailanthus altissima* tree-of-heaven'" Aristida oligantha plains three awn Aleea rosea '" hollyhock grass Alisma subcordatwn water plantain Arist%chia serpentaria Virginia snakeroot Alisma triviale small-flowered water plantain Arrhenatherum elatius* tall oat grass* AWana pe/ialala* garlic mustard* Artemisia annua* annual wonnwood* Allium canadense wild onion Artemisia biennis* biennial wonnwood* Allium tricDecum wild leek Artemisia ludoviciana white sage Allium vineale* field garlic* Artemisia serrata saw-toothed Alopecurus carolinian-us common foxtail sagebrush Amaranthus albus tumbleweed Aruncus dioicus goafs-beard Amaranthus hybridus* green amaranth'" Asarwn canadense Canada wild ginger Amaranthu.s retroflexus* rough pigweed* Asclepias amplexicaulis sand milkweed Amaranthus tuberculatus water hemp Asclepias hirtella tall green milkweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia common ragweed Asclepias incarnata swamp milkweed Ambrosia trifida giant ragweed Asclepias purpurascens purple milkweed Amelanchier abrobea shadbush Asclepias quadrifolia whorled milkweed Ammonia coccinea scarlet loosestrife Asclepias sullivantii prairie milkweed Amorpha cQnescens lead plant Asclepias syriaca common milkweed Amorpha jruricosa false indigo Asclepias tuberosa butterfly-plant

151 Appendix 2. Continued

1 2 Scientific Narne 1.2 Common Name ,2 Scientific Namel. Common Namel,2

Asclepias verticilIata horsetail milkweed Camassia scil/ioides camassia Asparagus officinalis* asparagus* Campanula americana American bellflower Astercordifolius heart-leaved aster Campanula aparinoides marsh bellflower Asterdrummondii Drummond's aster Campsis ramcans trumpet creeper Aster ericoides white prairie aster Cannabis sativa* hashish* Aster laevis smooth aster Capsella bursa-pastoris* shepherd's purse* Aster lanceolatus panicled aster Cardamine bulbosa bulbous cress Aster lateriflorus side-flowering aster Cardamine concatenata toothwort Aster novae-angliae New England aster Cardamine pennsylvanica bitter cress Aster ontarionis Ontario aster Cardaria draba * hoary cress* Aster oolentangiensis sky-blue aster Carduus nutans* musk bristle,thistle* Aster parviceps small-headed aster Carex albursina blunt-scaled wood sedge Aster pilosus hairy aster Carex alopecoidea brown-headed fox sedge Aster praealtus willow-leaved aster Carex annectens large yellow fox sedge

Aster st;hreberi a ST Schreber's Aster - ST Carex artitecta closely covered sedge Aster shortii Short's aster Carex bicknellii Bicknell's sedge Astragalus canadensis Canadian milk vetch Carex blando common wood sedge Athyriumfilu-femina Northeastern lady fern Carex hrevior plains oval sedge Atrip/ex patu/a" fat-hen saltbush' Carex cepha/ophora short-headed bracted sedge Aurea/aria flova smooth false foxglove Carex conjuncta green-headed.fox sedge Aureolaria grandiflora yellow false foxglove . Carex cristatella crested oval sedge Avena sativa· oats* Carex davisii awned graceful sedge Baprisia alba white wild indigo Carex emoryi riverbank sedge Bap/isia bracreata cream wild indigo Carexfestucacea fescue oval sedge Barbarea vulgaris* yellow rocket* Carexfrankii bristly cattail sedge Berberis thunbergii* Japanese barbeny* Carex granularis pale sedge Bidens aristosa swamp marigold Carex gravida long-awned bracted sedge Bidens cemua nodding bur marigold Cara grayii Gray's sedge Bidens Coronata tall swamp m~gold Carex grisea wood gray sedge Bidensfrondosa common beggar's ticks Carex hirtifolia hairy wood sedge Bidens tripartita beggar-ticks Carex hystericina porcupine sedge BMens vu/gata tall beggar's ticks Carexjamesii grass sedge Blephilia hirsuta wood mint Carex leavenworthii dwarf bracted sedge BoeJuneria cylindrica false nettle Carex lupulina common hop sedge Bo/tonia asteroides false aster Carex lurida bottlebrush sedge Botrychium dissectum grape fern Carex meadii Mead's stiff sedge Botrychium virginianum rattlesnake fern Carex molesta field oval sedge Brassica juncea* Indian mustard* Carex nonnalis spreading oval sedge Brassica nigra* black mustard*. Carex pensylvanica common oak sedge Brickellia eupatorioides false boneset Carex rosea curly-styled wood sedge Bromus commutatus hairy brorne Carex scoparia lance-fruited oval sedge Bromus inermis* Hungarian brome* Carex sparganioides loose-headed bracted sedge Bromus japonicus* Japanese chess* Carex stipata common fox sedge Bromus pubescens Canada brome grass Carex trihuloides awl-fruited sedge Bromus secalinus* chess* Carex trichocarpa hairy-fruited lake sedge Bromus lectorum* cheat grass* Carex vesicaria tufted Jake sedge Bueh/oe dactyloides buffalo grass Carex vulpinoidea brown fox sedge Cacalia atriplicifolia pale Indian plantain Carpinus caroliniana blue beech CacaUa plantaginea prairie Indian plantain Carya cordiformis bitternut hickory Cacalis suaveolens sweet Indian plantain Carya laciniosa kingnut hickory Calamagrostis canadensis blue-joint grass Carya ovata shagbark hickory Callirhoe triangulata poppy mallow Carya tomentosa mockernut hickory Caltha palustris marsh marigold Castilleja coccinea Indian paintbrush CaJystegia sepium American bindweed Catalpa speciosa* catalpa* Ca/yslegia spithamaea dwarf bindweed Caulophyllum thalictroides blue cohosh

152 Appendix 2. Continued

2 Scientific Name J.2 Common Namel. Scientific Namel.2 Common Namel•2

Ceanothus americanus New Jersey tea Cuscuta glomerata rope dodder 'Celastrus scandens climbing bittersweet Cuscuta gronovii dodder Celtis occidentalis hackberry Cynanchwn nigrum* black swallow-wort* Cenchrus longispinus sand bur CynogLossum officinaLe* common hound's tongue* Centaurea mucu/osa* spotted knapweed* Cyperus acuminatus short-pointed flat sedge Cephalanthus occidentlis buttonbush Cyperus escuLentus field nut sedge Cerastium nutans ,nodding chickweed Cyperus ferruginescens rusty nut sedge Cerastium vulgatum* common mouse-ear chickweed* Cyperus odoratus sedge Ceratophyllum demersum coontail Cyperus rivularis brook nut sedge Cads canadensis eastern redbud Cyperus strigosus long-scaled nut sedge Chaenorrhinum minus· dwarf snapdragon* Cypripedium candidwn white lady's slipper orchid Chaerophyllum procumbens wild chervil Cypripedium pubescens yellow lady's-slipper orchid Chamaecrista fasciculara partridge pea Cypripedium reginae showy lady's-slipper orchid Chamaesyce maculata milk spurge Cystopterisfragilis brittle fern Chamaesyce nutans nodding spurge Cystopteris protrusa hybrid fragile fern Chelone glabra white turtlehead Cystopteris tennesseensis Tennessee fragile fern Chenopodium album'" lamb's quarters* Dacrylis glomerata* orchard grass* Chenopodium botrys* Jerusalem oak* Daleo candida white prairie clover Chenopodium gigantospennum* maple-leaved goosefoot Dalea purpurea purple prairie clover Chenopodium standleyanum woodland goosefoot DantJwnia spicata poverty oat grass Cichorium intybus* chickory* Dasistoma macrophyLla mullein foxglove Cicuta maculata water hemlock Datura stramonium* Jimsonweed* Cinna arundinacea stout wood reed Daueus carota* Queen Anne's lace* Circaea luretiana enchanter's nightshade Delphinium carolinianwn wild blue larkspur Cirsium a/tissimum tall thistle Delphinium tricorne dwarf larkspur Cirsium arvense* Canada thistle* Deparia acrostichoides silvery spleenwort Cirsium disc%r pasture thistle Descurainia pinnota tansy mustard Cirsium pumilum small prairie thistle Descurainia sophia* tansy mustard* Cirsium vulgare* bull thistle* Desmodium canadense showy tick trefoil Claytonia virginica spring beauty Desmodiwn cuspidatum bracted tick trefoil Clematis pircheri leather flower Desmodium cuspidatum Clematis virginJana virgin's bower var. Longifoliwn tick trefoil Collinsia vema blue-eyed Mary Desmodium glabelJum smooth tick trefoil Comandra umbellara bastard toad-flax Desmodium gLutinosum pointed tick trefoil Commelina communis· Asiatic dayflower* Desmodium illinoense Illinois tick trefoil Conium maculatwn '" poison hemlock* Dianthus anneria* deptford pink' Convolvulus arvensis* field bindweed' Diarrhenia americana diarrhena Conyza canadensis* horseweed* Dicentra canadensis squirrel-com Coreopsis palmata prairie coreopsis. Dicentra cucullaria Dutchman's breeches Coreopsis tripteris tall coreopsis Didiplis diandra water purslane Comus altemifolia altemate·leaved dogwood Digitan'a ischaemwn '" smooth crab grass* Comus drummondii rough-leaved dogwood Digitaria sanguinalis* hairy crab grass* Comus obliqua pale dogwood Dioscorea villosa wild yam Comus racemosa gray dogwood Diospyros virginiana persimmon Coronilla varia* crown vetch* Dipsacus sylvestris* common teasel'" Corydalis flavu/a yellow corydalis Dirca palustris leatherwood Corydalis micrantha slender corydalis Dodecatheon meadia shooting star Cory/us amen'cana hazelnut Dryopteris canhusiana spinulose wood fern Crataegus calpodendron hawthorn Echinacea pallida pale purple coneflower Crataegus crus-galli cock-spur thorn Echinacea purpurea broad-leaved purple coneflower Crataegus moWs downy hawthorn EchinochLoa crusgalli* barnyard grass' Crataegus punctata dotted hawthorn Echinochloa muricata barnyard grass Crataegus succJenta hawthorn Echinocystis Lobata balsam-apple Croton glandulosus sand croton ELeocharis compressa flat-stemmed spike rush Cryptotaenia canadensis honewort ELeocharis erythropoda red-rooted spike rush

153

------Appendix 2. Continued

l 2 2 Scientific Name ." Common Name!.:l Scientific Name l. Common Namc l.

Eleoclwris o!Jlllsa blunt spike rush Clalium circae:alls wild licorice Eleocharis smallii marsh spikc rush Galium eOllcillllll1ll shining b,:dslraw ElcocharLr FerrUCOJ"{/ slender spike rush Galhan obtusu!ll wild madder Elellsi/l(~ illdica '" crov.'foot grass* GafiulIl tillctorium stiff bedstraw E1lisia /lyctelea Aunt Lucy Golilllll rrifidulIl small bedstraw Elodea Ilwtallii Elodea Galium rriflorum sweet~scented bedstraw E/:....mus canadensis Canada wiJd rye GaUTa biennis biennial gaura EIYlllus hyslrix hottlebrush grass Gaura longiflora common gaura Efymus Vi//OSllS silky wild rye Gaura parvij1ora* small·flowered gaura* Elymus I'irginiclls Virginia wild rye Gelltiana alba pale gentian EpilobiufIJ coJoratLffIJ cinnamon willow herb Gelltiana andrewsii closed gentian Equiserulll arvense common horsetail Gelllialla puberulenta downy gentian Equisettll11 hyemale scouring rush Geranium carolinianwn wild cranesbiII Equisetllll1 laevigatu11l smooth scouring rush Geranium maeulatum wild geranium Equisetwll Xferrissii Joliet horsetail Geum eanadense white avens Eragrosti.\' cilianensis* stink grass* Geum laeiniatum rough avens Eragroslis Fankii sandbar love grass Gilia rubra* gilia* Emgroslis pectinucea small love grass Gleelwllw liederacea* ground ivy* Eragro.His speclabilis purple love grass Gledirsia triaeallthos honey locust Erechtites hierac((olia fireweed Glyeeria septentrionalis manna grass Erigeron allf1ULlS annual fleabane Glyeeria striara fowl manna grass Erigeron philadelphictls marsh fleabane Glycine max* soybean* Erigenm pu/chelius Robin's plantain G(veyrrhiza lepidota * wild licorice* Erigeron JHigosuj" daisy fleabane Gnaphalium obtusifolium sweet everlasting Erucastrul1l gallicum* dog mustard'" Gratiola negleeta clammy hedge hyssop Eryngium yuccifolium rattlesnake-master Gymnocladus dioieus Kentucky coffee-tree Erysimum cheirallthoides* wormseed mustard* Hackelia virginiana stickseed Erysimum incollspicuum* small wormseed mustard Haplopappus ciliatus* wax-goldenweed* ErythIVniwlI albidum white trout lily Hedeoma hispida rough pennyroyal EUOI1YIIlUS atropurpurea wahoo Hedeoma pulegioides American pennyroyal Eupa(()ritllli aftissimum tall boneset Helenium autumnale Autumn sneezeweed .EulJOtoriwll maculatUJ1l spotted Joe Pye weed He/enium flexuosum purple-headed sneezeweed EupaloriWI1 per:(oliatunJ common boneset Helianthemum bicknellii frostweed Eupatoriwn pUlpUreUI1l purple Joe Pye weed Helianthus afl/lUs* common sunflower* Eupatorium rugosum white snakeroot Helianthus annuus common sunflower Eupatoriuin serotinum late boneset He/ianthus grosseserratus sawtooth sunflower Euphorbia corollata flowering spurge Helianthus mollis downy sunflower EupllOrbia cyparissias* cypress spurge* Helianthus occidentalis western sunflower Euphorbia dentata wild poinsettia He/ianthus paucij10rus prairie sunflower Euphorbia esula* leafy spurge* Helianthus petiolaris* petioled sunflower* Euthaf1lia graminifolia grass-leaved goldenrod Helianthus rigidus prairie sunflower Eurliamia gynlllospermoides viscid grass-leaved goldenrod Helianrhus srrumosus pale-leaved sunflower Festuca elarior* meadow fescue* Helianthus ruberosus Jerusalem artichoke Festtlca ohrusa nodding fescue He/iopsis helianthoides false sunflower Floerkea pmserpinacoides false mermaid HemerocallisIlIlva* orange day hly* Foresriera aeulllillata swamp privet Hepariea /lobilis hepatica Fragaricl \'esea* strawberry'" Heraclewn lanatum cow parsnip Fmgaria I'irginialla wild strawberry Heterorheea latifolia camphorweed Frangula alnus'" glossy buckthorn'" Heuchera richardsonii alumroot Fraxintls americana white ash Hibiscus triollwn* tlower-of-an-hour* Fraxinus penllsylFal1iea red ash· Hieracium longipilum hairy hawkweed Fraxillus quadrangulata blue ash Hieracium seabrum hairy hawkweed Galearis spectabilis showy orchis Holeus Lanatlls* velvet grass* Galim;oga quadriradiara '" Peruvian daisy* Hordeum jubatum >I: squirrel-tail grass Galium aparil1e annual bedstraw Hordeum pusi/tum little barley

154 Appendix 2. Continued

Scicnti lie Namcl.~ Common Namel.~ Scientific Namel,~ Common Namel.~

fiol/.I'lOni{{ CI"{/ss({o/ia tiny bluets Lespedl'::.a l'iolncea violet bush clover HIII/IUIIIS jll/mlliClIs'~ Japanese hops* Lespede:a virginicci slender bush clover HlIlIllIllls III/mills common hops Leucal/thc/l1ll11l I'ulgare* ox-eye daisy::: Hydl'{/Ilgea {/rborescens wild hydrangea Liatris aspera blazing-star Hydras/is canadeNsis goldenseal Lialrjj' PyclloJ'/Ochya prnirie blazing-srar H.\·dJnplzyJIIIlII appendiclI/Cltlllll great waterleaf Ligustrum vlt/gare* common privet* H.,·dl"O!)hyfllllll l'il'Riniarwm Virginia waterleaf Lilium michigallelJSe Michigan lily Hypericum majllS sand 51. John's-wort Lill{lria dalmatica* toadtlax* Hypericum lIluri/l/lll weat 51. John's-wort Linarjal'll/gari... *" butter~and-eggs* Hypericum pe,:foratum * common S1. John's-wort* Lindemia dubia false pimpernel Hypericum pUllctatum spotted 5r. John's-wort Liparis /iliifolia twayblade orchid Hypericl//ll pyramidarwll giant S1. John's-wort Lit/w.lper/llwn callesce/IS hoary puccoon H.\periclIIl1 spJUlerocarpum round-fruited 51. John's-wort Lithospemulln incisum yellow puccoon Hypoxis !JirStllll yellow star grass LitllOspermwn latifoliu11l American gromwell /ml'miens b(j7ora orange lOuch-me-not Lobe/ia i/lflala Indian tobacco Impatiens pal/ida pale touch-me-not Lobelia siphililica great blue lobelia !odal1tllUs pin/lal~fidlls purple rocket Lobe/ia spicata pale spiked lobelia Ipomoea pandurata wild sweet potato Lonicem dioica limber honeysuckle 'lulI/wea purl'u,-ea * common morning glory LOllicera /Ill/l/ckii* Amur honeysuckle*" Iris pseudacorus yellow iris Lonicera pmhfera grape honeysuckle Iris shreve; wild blue iris Lonicera reticulata >l< honeysuckle* hoeres mefo/lofJoda pond quillwort Lonicera tararica* Tatarian honeysuckle* Isopyrum biternatum false rue anemone Lonicera X bella* honeysuckle* 11'(1 xmlth{folia* burweed* Lotus comiculatus* birds-foot trefoil* JlIglans cinerea white walnut Ludwigia altemifolia seedbox Juglcl/ls nigra hlack walnut Ludwigia polycarpa false loosestrife ./unCN.\" dudley; Dudley's rush Lycopus americallus water horehound lunCHs effl/sus soft rush Lycopl/s rubel/us stalked water horehound .Il/llellS illterior inland rush Lycopus virgillicus bugle weed lunctls tenuis path rush L.vsimaehia ciliata fringed loosestrife Jtmcl/s torreyi Torrey's rush Lysimachia hybrida loosestrife lUllipen/s virginiana eastern redcedar Lysimachia lemeeo/ala lance-leaved loosestrife Jusficiu americana water willow Lysimachja l1umrnularia * moneywort* Kochia scoparia* Belvedere summer eypress* Lysimachia quadriflora narrow-leaved loosestrife Koeleria macrantJUI June grass Lythrum alarum winged loosestrife Krigia bij10ra false dandelion Madura pomifera* hedge apple* ulctuca canadensis wild lettuce Malus ioensis Iowa crab LaclUcajlorit!£ma bJue lettuce Malva llegJecta* common mallow* LaC(uca ludovicLcl1la western wild lettuce Ma/va sylvestris* high mallow* Lacillca saligna* wi How lettuce* Matricaria ehamomilla* Chamornile* Lactuca serriola* prickly lettuce'" Matricaria rnatricarioides* pineapple weed'" UI11JiU//1 all1pfexicaufe* henbit Malleuccia struthiopteris ostrich fern Laportea canadensis wood nettle Medicago /upulina * black medic* Lappu/a echinata* beggar's lice* Medicago sativa* al1'alfa* Lalhyrus ruberosus* Tuberous vetchling* Medicago X varia'" hybrid alfalfa* Leersia oryzoides rice cut grass Melia"thium virginicum - ST bunch-nower - ST Leersia virginica white grass Melica nitens tall melic grass Lel1lfla gibba duckweed Melilotus alba* white sweet c1over* Lemlla minor small duckweed Me/ilolLtS officina/is'" yellow sweet c1over* LeflllZa trisulcata duckweed Menispernu/ln canadense moonseed LeOllllrUS cardiaca* motherwort* Mentha arwflsis field mint Lepidiu/1l campestre* field cress* MetUha spicata* spearmint* LepidjuIII de/lsiflorull1 small peppergrass Mertensia virginica Virginia bluebells Lepidillln virginicllln common peppergrass Mimulus rillgens monkey flower Lespedeza capitala round-headed bush clover Mirabilis nyctaginca* wild four o'clock*'

155 Appendix 2. Continued

1 Scientific Name!.: Common NalllC1.~ Scientific Name l.2 Common Namc'·

/lrJ iSC{/lIlhllS sacc!la qjlol"lls~' plume grass'" Pent/IOr/lIIl sedoide.\" ditch stonecmp A1irclfa dil'hylla Bishop's cup Perideridi{/ {/lIIeric{/lw thicket parsley MOl>hril1gia leaaUlom blunt-leaf sandwon Plwlaris anllldillacea'''' recd canary grass':' M()IIII~() l'('rlicil/U/{I carpet weed Phleum pratellse* timothy'~ M()/J(lnhl.fisllIlosa wild bergamot Phlox divaricwa blue phlox Mo"arda I'llllCfato spotted horsemint Phlox glClbarilllo smooth phlox MOI/O/r0l'lI lfJl,[1ora Indian pipe Phlox palliclIlara garden phlox Moms alba*' white mulberry'" Phlo:,,; pilasa downy phlox Mortis ruhra red mulberry Phraglllites australis common reed Muhlellbergia frondosa common salin grn~s PhrYlJla leplOstochya lopseed Mllhlel1bngja //leXiell/lo !l1uhly Phyla lancco/uw fog fruit Mllhlt'/Ibergia schreberi nimble will Physalis IIeterophylla clammy ground chen")' Mllh/cll!Jl>"gia sobo/(fem muhly grass Physalis IOfl8!{olia tall ground cherry Myri()/)hyIII1l11 spicwlml* spiked water milfoil* Physalis pubesccl1S annual ground cherry N(!;as f1e.rilis common naiad Physalis l'irgillia17a ground cherry Naja.\' glladalupemis naiad Physocarpus opulifolius ninebark NaJ'aa/ dioic(I glade mallow Physostegia speciosa false dragonhead Nepera cmaria* catnip"" Physostegia virginialla false dragonhead Nt/piwr [mea yellow pond lily PII.vtolacca americana pokeweed Nympllaell adorata fragrant water lily Picea glauca* white spruce'" Oe/lorhera biellllis common evening primrose Pilea pumila Canada c1earweed Oel/othera pifosefla prairie sundrops Pinus syll'csttis* Scots pine* OlJoclea sellsibilis sensitive fern Plalltago oris/ala poor Joe OnoslIlodillllJ molll' western false-gromwell Plantago hmceo/aw * buckhorn* OpbiogJusSWJl l'uigalu11I Adder's-tongue fcrn Plantago rugelii red-stalked plantain Om;thogaltllll lII11hel/mtim *' .star of Bethlehem* Plantago I'irginica dwarf plantain Orohallche tllld}o/"([ one-flowered broomrape PlatOllthera leucophaea prairie white fringed orchid (JsJ)]orhi::.a claytonii hairy sweet cicely Platallus occidell1afis sycamore Osmorhi:o IOllgistylis anise roOt Poa al1luw* annual blue grass* OSlI1l11u/a daytoniww interrupted fern Poa cllapmanianll spear grass OS/I:\'O Firginianil hop hornbeam Poa compressa* Canadian blue grass"" Oxafis dillenii yellow wood sorrel Poa palwi/ris marsh blue grass Om/is st,.ieta tall wood sorrel Poa pratensis* Kentucky blue grass * OmJis vio/acea purple oxalis Paa sylvestris woodland blue grass Oxypolis rigidor cowbane Podophyllum pellatum Mayapple Pallax quinquefalill ginseng Polanisia dodec{mdra clammyweed Pallicum capiJJarL' old witch grass Polemoniu/1l replalls Jacob's ladder PCIIlicum dichOlOIIl~flortllll fall panicum Polygala sallguinea field milkwoft Panicl/III lalluginoslt/ll panic grass Polygala senega Seneca snakeroot Paniclim lar~foJium broad-leaved panic grass Polygala verticillatQ whorlded milkwort PalliclIlll leibergii prairie panic grass Polygonatum bij70rum small Solomon seal Pa/licul1l oligosafuhes panic grass PolygO/wln lImphibium water knotweed Panicum praecociuJ" panic grass Po~vgonwn avieulare'" common knotweed* Panicu/II virgatum prairie switch grass POLygOllUln convolvulus* black birdweed* Papaver rllOeas* corn poppy* Polygol1um cuspidatum * Japanese knotweed* Parietaria {JensyhJanica Pennsylvania pelJitory PolygOlwJJl erectum erect knotweed Pomassia glauco grass-of~ Parnassus PolygollulIl hydropiper* water pepper* PlIrlhelliwll itllegr~{olium wild quinine PolygOllU11l hydropiperoides mild water pepper Partl/enocissus quillquefo/ia Virginia creeper PoJygol1UJJJ j(JpatlJifoliulIJ curttop lady's thur:nb PClrthellocissus vitaceo Virginia creeper Polygoill/m pells.v{vcl1licII111 pinkweed Pasti!wclI sativa * wild parsnip" Polygo/lum persicaria '" lady's thumb'" Pedicularis canadensis lousewort Polygol1uJJl punctatum smartweed Pedicularis lallceo/ata fen betony Polygonu1I1 sagittatum tear thumb Pens/elllon digitalis foxglove beardstongue Po/ygollum sccmdens climbing false buckwheat Penstemon pallidus pale beardsrongue PoLygonum l'irginianum Virginia knotweed

156 Appendix 2. Continued

l 2 2 2 2 Scientific Name . Common Name l. Scicnlific Name1. Common Name l.

PO/YIJI/lia c{//uufensis pale leafcup Roripl'a islandica marsh yellow cress Populus del/oides eastern cottonwood Rorippa llasturtiwlI-aquaticuIIJ" water-cress*" Popullls grcmdidell/{/{(l big-tooth aspen Rorippa !laillstris marsh yellow cress Popullls fremufoides quaking aspen Rorippa sessilij70ra sessile-flowered cress Portulaca oleracf!o * purslane* Rosa arkanmlJa rose Po!mllogeuJ/l crispus* curly pondweed* Rosa blanda early wild rose Po/amogetoll fa/iosl/s leafy pondweed Rosa carolina pas.ture rose p%/Jlogetoll i/fiJloiensis pondweed Rosa multij1oro* multiflora rose* P(}(amogefOll 1l0dOSIlS American pondweed Rosa sctigero pmirie rose Powl/lOge/on pecrilwllls fennel-leaved pondweed Rosa setigera val'. tomemosa prairie rose Po/amogetOlI pusiflus pondweed Rotala ramosior wheel wort POlcfltilJa arguta prairie cinquefoil Rubus alleghcl1iensis common blackberry Potellfilla /lorl'egica rough cinquefoil Rubus argutus highbush blackberry Polell/illa recla* sulfur cinquefoil* Rubm idaeus cultivated raspberry PotellfifJo simplex common cinquefoil Rubus occidclltalis black raspberry Prello1l11ws alba white lenuce Rudbeckia hirta black-eyed Susan Prellanthes aspera rough white lettuce Rudbeckia lacilliata wild golden glow Prellanthes racemos(I glaucous white lenuce Rudbeckia subtome1lto.m sweet black-eyed Susan Prunella vulgaris* self·heal* Rudbeckia triloba brown-eyed Susan PrwlH.'i america/la American plum RuelJia Iwmilis hairy ruelJia PrwlUs nigra Canada plum Ruellia strepens smooth rueIlia Primus sem/illa wild black cherry Rumex acetosella * sour dock* Primus virginiwUl common choke cherry Rumex altissimus pale dock Psoralea ollobrychis French grass Rumex crispus* curly dock* Pte/eo fr~foliata wafer ash Rumex verticillatus swamp dock Pteridium aquilinum bracken fern Sagittaria brel'irostra short-beaked arrowleaf PyclllllJthelllUln renuifoliul1l slender mountain mint Sagittaria graminea grass-leaved arrowleaf PycllClllthemum vertieillalwlt hairy mountain mint Sagittaria laufolia common arrowleaf PYClwllthemum virginianum common mountain mint Salix amygdaloides peach-leaved willow Pyrus cOllllllll/zis* pear* Salix candida hoary willow Quercus alba white oak Sakr eriocephala heart-leaved willow Querct/S imbricarill shingle oak Salix exigua sandbar willow Quercus lIlacrocarpa burr oak Salixfrog ilis crack willow Quercus marifandicll blackjack oak Salix hwnilis prairie willow Quercus l1luehleflbergii yellow chestnut oak Salix nigra black willow Quercus palustris pin oak Salix rigida heart-leaved willow Quert·us rubra northern red oak Salix X glatfelleri willow Quen~us l'elUlina black oak Salvia azurea val'. pitcheri* blue sage* Ralll//1eLllus abortil'llS little-leaf buttercup Sambucus canadensis elderberry RalluneuIus faseieularis early buttercup Sanguinaria canadensis bloodroot Ranuneulus j1abellllris yellow water-crowfoot Sanicula canadensis Canadian black snakeroot Ralltmculus hispidus rough bunercup Sanicula odorata common snakeroor Ralluflculus pensyll'alliells bristly crowfoot Saponaria officinalis* bouncing bet* R(lIll1llculus reCtI/Tatus recurved buttercup Sassafras albidwn sassafras RanwJCulus sceleratus cursed crowfoot Saxigraga pensylvanica swamp saxifrage Ra/llJllculus septelltrionalis swamp butercup Schi:.achyrium scoparium little bluestem R(lTlW1Cu/lfS trichophyllus white water-crowfoot Scirpus acutus bulrush Ratibida pilllWfa yellow conetlower Scirpus atrovirens dark green rush RJUIJJJlllIS lanct!olata lance-leaved buckthorn Scirpus cyperinus bulrush Rhus aromatic(1 fragrant sumac Scirpus pendulus red bulrush Rhus glabra smooth sumac Scirpus tabemaemontanii great bulrush Ribes aureum Buffalo current Scrophularia marilandica late fig wort Ribes missouriense Missouri gooseberry ScuteUaria Jateriflora mad-dog skullcap Ribes rubrum '" red current* Scutellaria Ol'ata heart-leaved skullcap Robillia pseudoacacia* black locust* Scutellaria pan1ula small skullcap

157 Appendix 2. Continued

2 2 Scientific Namel.~ Common N amc l. Scientific Name J.2 Common Name l.

Secalc ('ere{(/e~: rye* Spartilla peetiflaw prairie cord grass Senecio (I/fH!US golden ragwon Sphellopholis obtllsata prairir wedge grass Senecio p{lupe/,ct/fus nonhern ragwort Spirwlthes eemu£/ nodding ladies' tresses .)·enecio p/a/flmsis prairie groundsel Spirallthes lacera slender ladies' tresses Sell//a II/arilwulica Maryland senna Spiralllhes lI1agnicamporUII1 Great Plains ladies' lrcsses Setarill faberi; * giant foxtail~' Spiralllhes oV(llis ladies' tresses Sewria glclllca'i' pigeon grass* S/Jirea alba meadowsweet Setaria I'enicillata* bristly foxrail* Spirodela pOlyrllb:l great duckweed Sewria viridis* green foxtail* Sporoholus asper rough dropseed Sic/a spinosa prickly sida Sporoholus heterolepis prairie dropsecd Silene muirrhinG sleepy calchfly Sporohoills neglectus small rush grass Sifelle !atffaJia" evening campion* S/mroboilis \'agiIJ({7ortlS northern rush grass Silenc 11ivea snowy campion Stachys hispida hairy hedge nettle Sf/ene,secrei'" Glaucous campion':' Stachys palustris woundwort Silene .tiel/afa starry campion Swphylea trifolia bladdernut Silphiwll illiegrifolium rosin plant Stella ria media * common chickwced~' Sf/phiulII laciliialum compass plant Stipa sparlea porcupine grass Silphillll1 perfolimwn cup plant Straphostyles he/vula wild bean Silphiwll terebinthillaceul1l prairie dock Symphoricarpos occidelltalis wolfberry Sisymbrium altissimwn* tumble mustard* SympllOricarpos orhieulatus coralberry SisYlllbriul1l foesefii* mustard* Symphytlll1J o.fJicinale* common comfrey* SisYlIlbrium officinale* hedge mustard* Symplocarpusfoelidus skunk cabbage Sis.winchiIll1J albidwn common blue-eyed grass Taenidia integerrima yellow pimpernel SisyrilichiulIl campestre blue-eyed grass Tallaeetul1l vulgare* common tansy* Shull suave water parsnip Taraxacum officil1ale* common dandelion* Smilacil1{/ mcemosa feathery false Solomon seal Teucrium cQnadellse American germander Smilacino stellata small false Solomon seal Thalictrum dasycarpum purple meadow rue Slllilax'ecirrlwUl upright carrion flower Thalictrum revolutum waxy meadow rue Smilax herhaceQ carrion flower Thaspiulfl barbillode hairy meadow parsnip Slllilax hispida bristly greenbrier Thlaspi arvellse* field penny cress* Smilax il/i/WCIISis Illinois carrion flower Tilia americ(ma American linden Smilax huionellrGfl common carrion tlower Toxicodel1droll radiealls poison ivy SO/cIllUIIl carolillense horse-nettle TradescClmia ohiensis common spiderwort Solwwm dulcmnara* bittersweet nightshade* TragapogoIJ duhius* sand goat's-beard* Solclllum ptycanthum black nightshade Tragapogoll pmtellsis*' common goat's-beard* Soklllum rostratum* buffalo bur* Tridells jlaFus purple-lOp Solidago canadensis tall goldenrod Trifolium campestre* low hop c1over* Solidago flexicaulis broad·leaved goldenrod Trifolium hybridum *' alsike c1over* Solidago gig(lJItea late goldenrod Tr(folium pratellse* red c1over* Solidcl!~o jUllcea early goldenrod Trifolium repens* white c1over* StJ/idago Illinouriensis Missouri goldenrod Trillium .flexipes white trillium Solidago lIemoralis old field goldenrod Trillium grcl/Idi.f1orum large white trillium Solidago ohioellsis Ohio goldenrod Tlil/ium Ilil'ale snow trillium Solidago riddellii Riddell goldenrod Trillium reeurvatum red trillium Solidago rigida rigid goldenrod Triodallis peifoliata Venus' looking-glass Solidago speciosa showy goldenrod Triosteum Clurantiacum early horse gential) Solidago uliginosus swamp goldenrod Triosteum i11inoense Illinois horse gentian Solidago ulmifolia elm-leaved goldenrod Triosteum perfoliatum late horse gentian SOlie/IllS arl'ellsis* field sow thistle*' Triticum aestivwn * wheat* SOIlC!lUS asper* prickly sow thistJe* T.\pha angustifolia* narrow-leaved cattail* SOlie/illS oleraeeus* common sow thistle* Typha latifolia broad-leaved cattail Sorgllaslnll1l "utalls Indian grass Ulmus americana American elm SorghulIl hicolor sorghum Ulmus pumila* Siberian elm* Sp(lrganiul1T america/lUln bur-reed Ulmus rubra slippery elm S')(lrganilllll eU/)JCarpUIIl bur-reed Urrica dioiCCl (all nettle

158 Appendix 2. Continued

Scientific NaJllel.~ Common Namc"~ Scienlific Namel.~ Common NJl11e"~

VI "If/aria gmlld(flor{/ hellworl Vibs/mlml pnl1l((olillm hlack haw' Ver!Jclscwn h1arfaria':' moth mullcin~: Vicia ollll'ricClllo American vetch Vt-rbascllllllhapsw;* woolly mullein'" Vicia vil/osa'" winter vetch"'" Ver!JeI/(f bracteara creeping vervain Viola pedaw hirdfoOl-violet Verbnw has/ala blue vervain Viola I)(!dat~fida prairie viole! VerbclUI stric/a hoary vervain Viola prcllllicola common blue violet VNbell{/ lIrtic~rolia white vervain Viola puhescells downy yellow violet Verhesillo alrenll!o!ia yellow ironweed Viola sagiltaw arrow-leaved violet Vernonia arka/lsalUl ironweed Viola sororia woolly blue violet Verno/lia fasciculaw common ironweed Vilis riparia ri verbank grape Vernollia [?igant('a ironweed Vitis vullliila frost grape VenlOilia missurica Missouri ironweed Wo[tfia CoiWllbiallQ water meal Veronica arvellsis* corn specdwell* XalithiulIl strtflllariw1J cocklebur Veronica peregrilla while speedwell Za/J/lichellia pulustris horned pondweed VerOllicastrum virgil/iet/Ill culver's root Zalilhoxylll/11 ameriCClllttfll prickly ash Vibu/1/ltf;l lenwgo nannybcrry Zeamays* com* Viburnum opulus* European high bush cranberry* Zizia aI/rea golden Alexander

I Threatened or endangered species arc in bold highlight: ST - state lhreatened ! ~, = introduced species

159

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