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Geography Publications Geography Department

2006

The Study of Urban Form in

Jason Gilliland University of Western Ontario

Pierre Gauthier

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Citation of this paper: Gilliland, Jason and Gauthier, Pierre, "The Study of Urban Form in Canada" (2006). Geography Publications. 86. https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/geographypub/86 The study of urban form in Canada

Jason Gilliland Department of Geography, University of Western Ontario, Social Science Centre, London, Ontario N6A 5C2, Canada E-mail: [email protected] and Pierre Gauthier Department of Geography, Planning and Environment, Concordia University, 1455 de Maisonneuve Ouest, Montréal, Québec H3G 1M8, Canada E-mail: [email protected]

Revised version received 5 December 2005

Abstract. This paper examines contributions to the study of urban form in Canada by French and English researchers working in a variety of disciplines, especially architecture, planning, geography, and history. Instead of discussing contributions purely along traditional linguistic or disciplinary lines, the authors use a novel classification scheme to identify and categorize significant works according to their particular epistemological perspective, before describing noteworthy contributions of various academic disciplines by key authors and research themes. The most significant contributions to the study of urban form in Canada have come from two largely isolated camps: first, architects/planners, mostly from Québec, who examine form as a relatively independent system and work in the tradition of the so-called ‘Italian school’ of process typology; and secondly, predominantly anglophone urban and historical geographers who deal with built forms and urban morphogenesis as a product of external forces. Recent work suggests that the ‘two solitudes’ may be coming together.

Key Words: urban morphology, geography, architecture, planning, Canada

Significant studies of urban form in Canada proposed by Gauthier and Gilliland (2006) have been produced by researchers from a (see this issue, pp. 41-50) we are able to variety of disciplines, particularly architecture, categorize effectively and discuss many of the planning, geography and history. While the most significant morphological contributions majority of urban morphological research has according to their common epistemological been published in English, many noteworthy perspectives, rather than being constrained by works have been produced in French only. In any disciplinary or linguistic straightjacket. this paper we attempt to elucidate the key This exercise not only allows us to identify the Canadian contributions to urban morphology underlying similarities among the seemingly from all sources. Given the incredible disparate Canadian contributions, but it also diversity of existing works, we have taken on offers readers the opportunity to view these a seemingly impossible challenge, particularly contributions in the context of work from other in the scope of such a short article. countries and to reflect on potential trans- Nevertheless, using the classification scheme national legacies in urban morphology (cf.

Urban Morphology (2006) 10(1), 51-66 © International Seminar on Urban Form, 2006 ISSN 1027-4278 52 The study of urban form in Canada

Gauthier and Gilliland 2006, Fig. 1). influential group of architecture professors in In this review, we first sort significant Québec developed a keen interest in contributions according to the epistemic status architectural and urban morphology. Most of conferred to urban form: by distinguishing these professors were graduate students of between internalist studies that consider the Alfred Neumann (1900-1968), a respected urban form as a relatively independent system, modern architect from Vienna who studied and externalist studies in which urban form with Peter Behrens. Neumann was a professor stands as a passive product of various external of architecture at Université Laval in Québec determinants. Within each of these two funda- city in 1963 and 1966-68, where he established mental categories we also consider the key the Master’s program. In 1963, Neumann works according to heuristic purpose: wrote two highly influential articles, cognitive studies are those primarily aimed at ‘Architecture de la morphologie’ (1963a) and providing explanations and/or developing ‘Morphologic architecture’ (1963b), which explanatory frameworks for understanding capture the essence of his late-life intellectual urban form, whereas normative studies serve project and approach to teaching. Neumann to prescribe the modalities according to which advocated a science of architecture that would the city should be planned or built in the future conceive the ‘whole human-made environment (Figure 1). For a full description of the from a unifying point of view by applying classification scheme, see Gauthier and morphological criteria’ (Neumann, 1963b, p. Gilliland (2006). 41). He posits that all artifacts can be roughly divided into two groups, tools and containers, the latter comprising architectural objects. Internalist approaches Interested in the morphological properties of objects as well as in their genesis, Neumann It may be surprising to most readers of Urban outlined an original theory of the evolution of Morphology to learn that the ‘Italian process architectural space that characterizes it as typology’ approach to understanding the built developing from a topological stage, tending environment has been part of the curriculum in towards space enclosure by minimal areas and architecture schools in Québec since the producing round figures, to a projective 1980s. Furthermore, internalist morphological geometric stage, and finally to a Euclidian approaches more generally have been taught organization of space based on straight-lined for over four decades. The following section rectangular shapes (Neumann, 1963b). discusses the particular contributions of the From 1968 until the turn of the century, earliest proponents of internalist approaches; several of Neumann’s students taught at although they have not published widely, these Université Laval using his morphological scholars have been very influential through approach. One of them, Pierre Larochelle, their teaching of successive generations of developed a course for the school of visual arts morphologists. A third generation of morph- (1972-1978), which dealt with the morphology ologists is now publishing novel studies from of both natural objects and artifacts. After both internalist-cognitive and internalist- spending time in Rome familiarizing himself normative perspectives, and is contributing to with the work of Muratori and his followers, the reform of planning, urban design and Larochelle developed and taught (1987- heritage preservation practices across the onward) a graduate architecture seminar with country. Naomi Neumann (Alfred’s widow) which was largely based on the Italian tradition of process typology; he introduced a similar under- Internalist-cognitive studies: architects and the graduate course in 1991. Larochelle and his Université Laval connection colleagues conducted the first scientific research based on a typomorphological Beginning in the mid-1960s, a small but approach in Canada, including studies of the The study of urban form in Canada 53

Figure 1. Mapping contributions to the study of urban form in Canada.

vernacular architecture of Québec city and Larochelle are now teaching architecture and Montréal (Després and Larochelle, 1996; planning in universities in Québec, and this Larochelle et al., 1986), the settlement of Île third generation of typomorphologists is d’Orléans (Larochelle and Dubé, 1993), and building a significant corpus of work on the the historical morphology of Wendake, a built environment of Québec. Their work native village near Québec city (Larochelle, explores such themes as: urban vernacular 1999, 2002b). architecture (Bourque, 1991; Dufaux, 2000; The Italy-Québec connection became more Vachon and Luka, 2002; Vallières, 1999); explicit in the 1980s, after Larochelle development practices, morphogenesis and the produced French translations of several typological process (Gauthier, 1997, 2003); influential texts by Caniggia and his the morphogenesis of early suburbs (Vachon, colleagues, including Composizione architet- 1994; Verret, 1996); early speculative housing tonica e tipologia edilizia (Caniggia and forms (Neji, 1996); urban tissue repletive Maffei, 1979). Several former students of transformations (Racine, 1998); the genesis of 54 The study of urban form in Canada countryside settlements (Morency, 1994); and by French structuralism and post-structuralism, shopping centre morphogenesis (Moretti, Charney suggests that the models used to 1998). An interdisciplinary group of conceptualize city forms based on ‘mechanical researchers from Université Laval (GIRBa – biologic analogy’ might be superseded by Groupe interdisciplinaire de recherche sur les models based on ‘semiotic analogy,’ hence banlieues) has also recently developed a suggesting ‘a structural displacement in the significant research programme focusing on understanding of architecture as a societal the form of the automobile suburbs of Québec practice’, a displacement which implies that city created since the Second World War ‘there exists shared referential links to which (Fortin et al., 2002; Vachon et al., 2004). human artifacts convey meaning’ (Charney, Another former student of Neumann, Pierre 1980, p. 299). These theoretical assumptions Morisset, introduced the morphological would later inform a highly original and approach to his architecture studios at the influential internalist-normative academic Université de Montréal; however, as will be experiment carried on by Charney and discussed, the typomorphological normative colleagues at the Université de Montréal. approach of the Italian and French traditions has had a more lasting influence on researchers at this school. While Laval’s school of Internalist-normative studies: a morphological architecture may be the only Canadian school approach to urban design and heritage where there is a sizeable group of researchers preservation committed to internalist-cognitive studies of the built environment, there are a few Since the late-1970s, Italian and French individuals working elsewhere from this theories and approaches to urban form have perspective. The art historian Lucie K. been taught at the Université de Montréal. In Morrisset (2001), for example, produced an 1978-9, Melvin Charney, Denys Marchand impressive study of the morphogenesis of the and Alan Knight introduced an architecture old Québec suburb of Saint-Roch. On studio called the Unité d’architecture urbaine Montréal, noteworthy studies have been (UAU) which has exerted a lasting influence published on the evolution of a downtown loft on the practice of planning and urban design in district (Zacharias, 1991), the system of Montréal (Latek et al., 1992). The UAU residential architecture (Knight and Legault, represents a unique academic project which 1984), and the ‘triplex’, one of the city’s novel has arguably developed a school of thought in and most predominant residential forms its own right, a critical discourse on (Legault, 1989). In addition, researchers at contemporary architecture, and an original McGill University School of Urban Planning urban design methodology (Latek, 1989; Latek produced a Topographic atlas of Montréal, et al., 1992). Adamczyk describes the Unit’s which includes several chapters (internalist methodology as ‘the architectural reading of and externalist in approach) on the physical the urban forms and their meaning in a culture evolution of the city (Wolfe and Dufaux, [as] a crossing towards the appropriation of a 1992). know-how deposited in the city itself ’ (1992, In 1980, Melvin Charney, both an architect p. 11). The act of reading is carried out by a and celebrated contemporary artist, wrote what figurative drawing technique developed by would become a highly influential article on Charney which consists of superimposing architectural urban morphology. It explores various figures meant to capture ‘specific the roots of Montréal’s vernacular architecture formal traits; the consistencies, traces, signs, and other aspects of its urban form. Charney discontinuities, recurrent orders, etc. whose notes a ‘return to a preoccupation with the meanings can be related to their context and form of the city’ (Charney, 1980, p. 299). the collective memory’ (Adamczyk, 1992, p. Influenced by authors such as Aldo Rossi and 2). Ville métaphore projet by Latek and Giorgio Grassi (Adamczyk, 1992) as well as colleagues (1992) is a retrospective of the The study of urban form in Canada 55 early work of the UAU (1980-90) which approach outside the province. In 1977, for includes an account of the archaeology of instance, a group of students led by the Montréal’s architectural and urban forms. The architect George Baird conducted a series of analytical method developed by the UAU is typomorphological studies in to heavily based on graphic representations; this inform their final year projects. Baird and characteristic curtailed the diffusion of the colleague Barton Myers had been influenced work in print, beyond the one book. A recent by the work of Aldo Rossi and other European report by the City of Montréal documents the architects, such as O.M. Ungers, R. Moneo influence of the UAU ideas and methods on and R. Koolhaas (Baird, 1978). More the practice and history of urban design in the recently, the City of Toronto commissioned a city (Bodson, 2001). Professors of the UAU typomorphological study in relation to the and the Groupe de recherche en architecture production of its General Plan of 1994 urbaine at the Université de Montréal have (Millward, 1992). In addition, Bev Sandalack received numerous commissions by the Ville of the Faculty of Environmental Design at the de Montréal to conduct urban design studies University of Calgary has conducted a number for the revitalization of critical urban areas of significant studies from an internalist (Knight, 1991a, b, 1992-3, 1995). perspective in the City of Halifax, The internalist approaches to urban and the prairie towns of Alberta (Sandalack morphology taught at Laval and the Université and Nicolai, 1998; Sandalack, 2002). de Montréal have clearly made their way into urban planning practice in the province of Québec, as various government agencies are Externalist approaches routinely commissioning typomorphological studies. The Ville de Montréal, for example, The vast majority of studies dealing with recently commissioned typomorphological urban form in Canada have adopted a common studies to help in the preparation of its 2005 externalist perspective, even though they have Master Plan (see Affleck and de la Riva, 2003; come from a variety of disciplines. Further- Consortium Atelier Braq/Atelier in Situ, 2003; more, most studies have been cognitive, rather Dufresne, 2003a, b; Racine and Baird, 2003). than normative in nature. The major Furthermore, several boroughs in Montréal contributions from an externalist-cognitive have considered typological zoning and have approach, primarily from the fields of urban commissioned studies to explore potential geography and urban history, are considered outcomes (Dubois and Marmen, 2003; Racine first, beginning with a general discussion of and Baird, 2001, 2003). Larochelle has been the roots of urban form research in Canadian working on developing applied planning tools geography and history, and then focusing on a based on the knowledge of historical few significant contributions. Then secondly, transformation processes (Larochelle, 1997, although they are much fewer in number, we 2001, 2002a; Larochelle and Iamandi, 1999). devote some attention to a few noteworthy The Ville de Québec now envisages reforming works that are externalist-normative in nature, its heritage preservation policies based on such primarily from environmental scientists and a typomorphological approach (Larochelle, planners. 2005). The provincial Ministère des Trans- ports of Québec also recently commissioned a typomorphological study for the revitalization Externalist-cognitive studies: urban of the urban highways and expressways in the geography and urban history Québec city region (Larochelle and Gauthier, 2003). The Canadian Association of Geographers While the internalist-normative approach to (CAG) was established in 1950. Before this urban form has been most visible in Québec, time, very little work done by geographers in there are also a number of proponents of the or on Canada was especially urban. In 1949, 56 The study of urban form in Canada

Griffith Taylor, then chair of geography at the geographical work on a Canadian city to University of Toronto, wrote one of the very devote considerable attention to morphology. first English textbooks in urban geography. Kerr and Spelt offer a comprehensive account This pioneering text includes a description of of the various natural, economic, political, and the evolution of Toronto. However, it includes technological forces behind the historical very little on urban form and takes an outdated evolution of Toronto. (even for its time) environmental deterministic Perhaps the most influential scholar in approach. Subsequent Canadian textbooks in Canadian urban geography is Larry Bourne urban geography devoted much more effort to (University of Toronto).2 His dissertation considering the processes and constraints research – supervised by Brian Berry at the involved in ‘shaping the form of a city’ University of Chicago – on the redevelopment (Simmons and Simmons, 1969, pp. 83-102). process in Toronto was extremely innovative For its time, J.N. Jackson’s The Canadian city: in its exploration of changing land uses and space, form, quality (1973) is perhaps the most densities in relation to prevailing theories of comprehensive treatment of the various urban structure (Bourne, 1967). Over the past elements of urban form and the processes four decades Bourne has produced an underlying their evolution. Jackson utilizes enormous body of scholarly work on a variety ideas of American planners (e.g. Kevin Lynch) of subjects – urban systems, urban social to explore the quality and perception of the structure, housing markets, neighbourhood townscape, as well as the prevailing functional revitalization, urban governance, metropolitan theories of urban structure to teach students development – which has contributed to our ‘how to approach the physical characteristics overall understanding of various processes and how to understand the spatial relationships driving urban morphogenesis (e.g. Bourne, of existing urban environments’ (1973, pp. vii- 1971, 1982, 1989, 1996, 2001; Bourne et al., viii). 1973; Bourne et al., 2003). Nevertheless, very From the mid-1950s until the mid-1970s, little of his work (if any of it) has dealt most urban geographers were caught up in the explicitly with the physical elements of the quantitative revolution that swept through the urban environment – buildings, plots/lots, social sciences. The kind of painstaking streets – that are considered the ‘common studies of urban morphogenesis that were ground’ of all urban morphologists (Moudon, being conducted by researchers in Europe – as 1997). Bourne is not alone in this regard, as exemplified by the work of M.R.G. Conzen neglect of the morphological dimensions of the (1960) – were relatively ignored by Canadian built environment has long been common urban geographers, in favour of studies of among leading North American urban contemporary urban issues (largely economic) geographers who, despite widespread use of involving numerical data that could more the phrase urban form(s), are typically more easily exploit the computerized techniques and concerned with employment patterns, quantitative models dominating geography and population densities, and urban structure at regional science. Nevertheless, several works metropolitan and regional scales (e.g. Bunting that could be considered externalist-cognitive and Filion, 1999; Shearmur and Coffey, 2002). studies of the built environment did manage to Urban historical geographer Peter Goheen see the light of day during this early period: claimed that ‘the neglect of morphology in the Crerar (1957) conducted a detailed analysis of practice of urban geography in North America lot sizes for his study of development in is of long standing’ (1990, p. 376). During the Vancouver; Camu (1957) performed a classic mid-twentieth century, Canadian urban geographical analysis of housing types in geographers and historical geographers mostly Montréal;¹ and Watson (1959) looked at worked in isolation from each other, the latter ‘relict’ built form features in Halifax (1959). camp largely rejecting the lure of quantifi- Kerr and Spelt’s (1965) The changing face of cation (perhaps due to a lack of relevant data, Toronto is probably the first major as much as any epistemological conviction). The study of urban form in Canada 57

This divergence could account for the general most comprehensive, study of the paucity of research explicitly on urban morphogenesis of a Canadian city is Montréal morphology, a pursuit that is altogether urban, en Evolution (1974) by the University of historical, and geographical. Eventually, as Edinburgh-trained architectural historian Jean- public interest in the ‘urban question’ peaked Claude Marsan. This impressive volume in the 1960s, historians and historical examines the history of Montréal’s urban and geographers became increasingly interested in architectural development over three centuries urban issues. In North America, the ‘new from the first fort to the modern skyscrapers of urban history’ was born in the late-1960s, with today. Although the Université de Montréal an emphasis on interdisciplinary studies and architecture professor clearly uses an ‘everyday’ city dwellers and urban landscapes. externalist-cognitive approach, his lucid In Canada, the Urban History Review was treatment of the complex physical evolution of inaugurated in 1972 and has remained the most the city has been influential for teaching urban important homegrown venue for exchanging morphology from all perspectives, and it has ideas about the historical evolution of cities even served as source material for an (for reviews of Canadian urban history, see educational programme hosted by the author Artibise and Stelter, 1981; Poitras, 2003; Sies, on Québec television! 2003; Stave, 1980). Despite Goheen’s claim about ‘the neglect Canadian urban historians have devoted of morphology,’ there have been a consider- relatively more attention to urban form than able number of important morphological their counterparts in the . A studies that have been conducted by his fellow possible reason for this rests in their urban/historical geographers in Canada. The disciplinary influences: as prominent urban influence of the so-called ‘British tradition’ of historian Gilbert Stelter suggests, ‘American urban morphology on Canadian urban form urban history is often closely associated with research is perhaps best seen in the social history and the related social sciences, collaborative works on Toronto by urban while in Canada, as in Britain, the influence of historical geographers Gunter Gad and Deryck the more physically oriented disciplines – Holdsworth while they were colleagues at the especially geography, architecture and University of Toronto. Holdsworth studied planning – are more apparent’ (1982, p. 2). with M.R.G. Conzen at the University of Stelter, and other leading Canadian urban Newcastle upon Tyne, and Gad attended historians such as Frederick H. Armstrong lectures by the urban geographer Arthur (1986), Alan Artibise (1977), Paul-André Smailes while a student in London. The Linteau (1985) and John C. Weaver (1982), influence of Conzen’s ideas is clear in their were clearly influenced by British urban impressive set of papers on emergence and historian H.J. Dyos, in the way that they form of the high-rise office building and the explore connections between a society’s morphogenesis of King Street in Toronto (Gad culture and the form of its cities. Stelter, and Holdsworth, 1984, 1985, 1987a, b, 1988). together with Artibise, co-edited four Over the last two decades or so increasing influential early volumes (Artibise and Stelter, public interest in urban issues such as afford- 1979; Stelter and Artibise, 1982, 1984, 1986) able housing, suburban sprawl and transport- that include chapters on various factors ation systems – problems fundamentally tied influencing the evolution of urban forms, such to urban morphology – has corresponded with as town planning proposals (Bloomfield, 1982; a noticeable rise in Canadian research on urban Linteau, 1982); zoning and planning form. For example, the popular undergraduate legislation (Moore, 1979; Smith, 1979); land text Canadian cities in transition (2000), speculation (Doucet, 1982); patterns of land edited by geographer Trudi Bunting and development (Foran, 1979) and subdivision planner/ political scientist Pierre Filion of the practices (Ganton, 1982). University of Waterloo, contains chapters on One of the earliest, and perhaps still the the evolving patterns of urban growth and 58 The study of urban form in Canada form of the last century (Filion et al., 2000), a Sendbuehler and Gilliland, 1998). Harris has consideration of built form in relation to flows also written extensively about the influence of of investment and energy (Olson, 2000), and the owner-builder in the making of residential the possibilities for an ecological restructuring landscapes, particularly on the urban-suburban of urban form (Tyler, 2000). The text is soon fringe (Harris 1996, 1997, 2000b), and others to be released in its third edition since 1991. have contributed ‘micro-morphological’ case The 1990s was ‘the golden age of Canadian studies of how people adapt and expand their housing research’ claims urban historical dwelling spaces to meet changing needs and geographer Richard Harris (2000a, p. 458); aspirations (Adams and Sijpkes, 1995; much of this research contains a morph- Evenden, 1983; Gilliland, 2000). ological dimension. In Homeplace, Ennals In Creeping conformity, Harris (2004) and Holdsworth (1998) illustrate the incredible examines the historical evolution of Canada’s variety of housing forms and types appearing suburbs as driven by the housing market and across Canada and they explore the social, associated forces of migration, employment cultural and economic forces behind their shifts, transportation innovations, changing production, evolution and consumption. aspirations and the role of the government. Holdsworth argued elsewhere that the ‘house- The urban geographers Jason Gilliland (1996, as-key-to-diffusion tradition within American 2000), Larry McCann (1996, 1999) and Chris cultural geography [places] undue emphasis on Sharpe (2005) have also explored the planning form and type at the expense of other factors ideas and cultural values behind the creation that tease out social and economic meanings’ and evolution of early garden suburbs in (1993, p. 95). On the other hand, ‘new Canadian cities. Scholars of contemporary cultural geographers’ (including several suburbs have devoted considerable attention to affiliated to the University of British new features in the retail landscape, such as Columbia) have explored the various social, ‘mega-malls’ and ‘big box’ retail (Hopkins, political and cultural values involved in the 1990; Johnson, 1991; Jones and Doucet, 2001; production of urban landscapes by interpreting Smith, 1991). In their study of ‘Asian theme the built environment as a landscape text malls’, Preston and Lo (2000) consider how linked to multiple systems of meaning (e.g. immigration has had an impact on the Ley, 1987; Holdsworth, 1986, 1990). Urban changing form of commercial developments in historical geographers have produced a the suburbs. Emerging forms of new number of significant case studies of the ‘suburban downtowns’ have also received origins, evolution, habitation, meanings and consideration, particularly in discussions about symbolic values of specific dwelling forms, the future prospects of old city-centre such as apartment buildings (Dennis, 1994, downtowns (Fischler, 2001; Relph, 1991). 1998), government-provided wartime housing The dynamic relationship between trans- (Evenden, 1997), alley housing (Carey, 2002), portation and urban form has been explored in and the unique ‘plex’ housing of Montréal numerous articles and a recent PhD disser- (Gilliland and Olson, 1998; Hanna, 1986). In tation (Serdouk, 2005). Works dealing their impressive history of North American explicitly with transportation and the built housing, Doucet and Weaver (1991) examine environment include studies of changes to the house designs in relation to the evolution of street network (Gilliland, 1999, 2002) and land development and construction practices. waterfront redevelopment (Gilliland, 2004; The impact of government housing policies Gordon, 2000); whereas most other studies and municipal regulations (or the lack thereof) examine relationships between transportation on residential forms has also been considered and changing urban structure, or the in a number of studies by Harris (1991, 1996) emergence of a ‘dispersed city form’ (e.g. and his students (Harris and Shulist, 2001; Bunting and Filion, 1999). The study of urban form in Canada 59

Externalist-normative studies: scientific looks for associations between urban form and prescriptions for healthier cities healthy and unhealthy behaviour in order to prescribe health-promoting changes in Externalist-normative morphological studies planning and development. As experts in are rare in Canada. Contributions of this sort defining and measuring the built environment, include works arising from researchers who urban morphologists have much to contribute develop externalist explanatory frameworks to this line of enquiry. and attempt to translate them into operational In another important application of urban design tools or planning prescriptions for the morphology, climatologists, engineers and ‘good city’. The influential German-Canadian urban design professionals speak a similar planner Hans Blumenfeld3 argued that (computer-based) language of modelling and ‘prescription can only work in the framework simulation to explore urban phenomena such of prediction’ (1957, p. 171). Accordingly, as ‘wind tunnels’ and ‘heat islands’ (Grim- many of Blumenfeld’s early essays focusing mond and Oke, 1999; Oke, 1988). A typical on urban form could be considered primarily application can be seen in the work by as externalist-cognitive (e.g. Blumenfeld, Bosselmann and colleagues (1995), who 1943, 1949, 1975). However, upon reading modelled downtown Toronto to simulate the the full corpus of his work, it becomes clear potential effect of future development on that these earlier writings laid the foundation street-level conditions of sun, wind and for his later normative works containing thermal comfort. This group of environmental creative ideas for ‘human scale’ in urban scientists studies the built environment to design (1953, 1957, 1962b), regional planning identify alterations for improving human (1960) and public transportation (1961, health and quality of life in cities (Oke, 1984; 1962a). Pressman, 2004, 1994). Several externalist-normative studies on urban form by planners and engineers have been tied to prescriptions for more Discussion and conclusion ‘sustainable’ modes of transport and develop- ment, ‘smart growth’, and an ‘ecological Despite our best efforts, we are not so naïve as restructuring’ of urban form (Curran and to believe we have managed to cover all of the Tomalty, 2003; Filion, 2003; Filion and most significant morphological works in such Hammond, 2003; Grant et al., 2004; Luka a short paper. Canadian contributions to the 2005; Luka and Lister 2000; Tyler, 2000). A study of urban form are numerous, greatly relatively small, but expanding group of varied in approach and widely dispersed in researchers is exploring the links among urban origin. Upon careful review of the literature, form and ‘walkability’ and human health. it was revealed that the most significant Among the most visible participants in this contributions to the study of urban form in area is University of British Columbia planner Canada have come from architects/planners in Larry Frank. Frank and colleagues examine Québec who have adopted a typomorph- how different built environments can make it ological approach, and urban geographers/ easier (or harder) to incorporate physical historians throughout the country, who activity – especially walking or cycling – into typically examine urban form in relation to the everyday activities (Frank et al., 2003; also forces underlying its evolution. Although these Doyle-Baker et al., 2004). They also suggest two camps have largely worked in isolation for that a link is emerging between urban forms, the past half century, oblivious of the contri- such as suburban sprawl, and a plethora of butions each other has made, ongoing health-related problems: for example, cardio- interdisciplinary collaborations among a new vascular disease, respiratory ailments, and generation of researchers in Canada such as mental health problems (Frumkin et al., 2004). François Dufaux, Pierre Gauthier, Jason This research is externalist-normative as it Gilliland, Paul Hess, Nik Luka, Bev Sandalack 60 The study of urban form in Canada

and Geneviève Vachon – exemplified by their of great American cities (Jacobs, 1961) – that contributions to the International Seminar on makes the most important contribution to our Urban Form – suggests that the ‘two knowledge of city form, and has guided the solitudes’4 are coming together. activities of city planners the world over. By reviewing significant contributions to 4. Two solitudes is the title of a classic Canadian novel by Hugh MacLennan (1945) and a urban form research according to their phrase often used to embody the differences particular epistemological perspective one is between French and English Canada. We not constrained by traditional disciplinary also use it here to represent the now boundaries and one can better recognize the weakening disciplinary divide in morphology similarities among works produced by research between the design professionals researchers from different backgrounds (as (architects and planners) and social scientists well as the differences in research conducted (urban historians and geographers). within a single discipline). Furthermore, by reading this paper alongside Gauthier and Gilliland (2006), one can see how specific References Canadian contributions, and the historiography of Canadian urban morphology more Adamczyk, G. (1992) ‘The city as a school’, in generally, are similar to or different from Latek, I., Charney, M., Adamczyk, G. and research in other countries, and how particular Knight, A. (eds) Ville métaphore projet: architecture urbaine à Montréal, 1980 – 1990 intellectual traditions of Italy, France, Britain, (Éditions du Méridien, Montréal) 9-16. and the United States have migrated to Adams, A. and Sijpkes, P. (1995) ‘Wartime Canada. housing and architectural change, 1942-1992’, Canadian Folklore 17, 13-30. Affleck, G. and de la Riva, R. (eds) (2003) Étude Notes de caractérisation de la forme urbaine montréalaise. Secteur Est. (Affleck de la Riva 1. According to the geographer Jim Simmons architectes et Ville de Montréal Service du (1967), the origins of urban geography as a développement économique et du separate field of study in Canada can be développement urbain, Division des politiques traced to a session at the Sixth Meeting of the et du Plan d’urbanisme, Montréal). Canadian Association of Geographers (1956) Armstrong, F. (1986) The forest city: an illustrated chaired by Ed Pleva (inaugural chair of history of London, Canada (Windsor geography at the University of Western Publications, Northridge, CA). Ontario, 1948-68). The papers by Crerar and Artibise, A. (1977) Winnipeg: an illustrated history Camu were among the six in this (Lorimer, Toronto). groundbreaking session. Artibise, A. and Stelter, G. (eds) (1979) The usable 2. In 2005, a festschrift for Bourne was held at urban past: planning and politics in the modern the Fifty-fourth Meeting of the Canadian city (Macmillan, Toronto). Association of Geographers at the University Artibise, A. and Stelter, G. (eds) (1981) Canada’s of Western Ontario (where he began his urban past: a bibliography to 1980 and guide to career) involving nearly 40 presentations to Canadian urban studies (University of British honour his academic legacy. Columbia Press, Vancouver). 3. German-born Blumenfeld migrated to Canada Baird, G. (1978) ‘Theory/vacant lots in Toronto’, via the United States in 1955. He was a Design Quarterly 108, 16-21. practising planner and taught at the University Bloomfield, E. (1982) ‘Reshaping the urban of Toronto (see Spreiregen (1967, 1978) for landscape? Town planning efforts in selected essays and a bibliography of Kitchener/Waterloo, 1912-1926’, in Stelter, G. Blumenfeld’s work). We might also consider and Artibise, A. (eds) Shaping the urban the contributions of another urban luminary – landscape: aspects of the Canadian city- Jane Jacobs – here, as she has written all but building process (Carleton University Press, one of her books since moving to Toronto in ) 256-303. 1968; however, it was that one book she Blumenfeld, H. (1943) ‘Form and function in urban wrote in New York City – The death and life communities’, Journal of the Society of The study of urban form in Canada 61

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