Journal of Arts Science and Technology VOLUME 11, N UMBER 2 N OVEMBER 2018
Editorial / vii
Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’? / 1
A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People / 14
Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38
Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52
Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details / 65
Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the University of Technology, Jamaica / 80
Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94
Continues on inside front cover
A PUBLICATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA Notes on Contributors / 125
The Journal of Arts Science and Technology: Submission Guidelines / 128 Journal of Arts Science and Technology Vol. 11, No. 2 November 2018
A PUBLICATION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, JAMAICA Published by The University of Technology, Jamaica 237 Old Hope Road Kingston 6, Jamaica, West Indies Tel: 876-927-1680-8 Website: http://www.utech.edu.jm e-mail: [email protected]
© 2018 University of Technology, Jamaica
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means electronic, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher.
ISSN: 0799-1681
Set in Adobe Garamond 11.5/15 x 30 Cover and journal design by Robert Harris Printed in Jamaica
ii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor-in-Chief Martin Henry Managing Editors Cynthia Onyefulu and Heather ompson Technical Support Tashoya Streete
MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
Martin Henry School of Graduate Studies, Research and Entrepreneurship Dr. Cynthia Onyefulu Faculty of Education and Liberal Studies Heather ompson Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja. Janet James Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja. Camille Jackson College of Business and Management Tashoya Streete School of Graduate Studies, Research and Entrepreneurship Shaneka Campbell School of Graduate Studies, Research and Entrepreneurship
INTERNATIONAL ADVISORY BOARD
Dr. Moji Christianah Adeyeye University of Pittsburgh, USA Dr. Srikanth Beldona University of Delaware, USA Professor M. Brian Blake University of Miami, USA Professor omas Calderon e University of Akron, USA Dr. Omar Christian North Carolina Central University, USA Professor Dr. Ir. Arch Tom Coppens University of Antwerpen, Belgium Professor Roberto Escarre University of Alicante, Spain Dr. Jeff Garis Florida State University, USA Professor Timothy Lewis University of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 iii J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Professor Henry Lowe Bio-Tech Research and Development Institute, Jamaica Dr. Motlalepula Matsabisa University of the Free State, South Africa Dr. Mohammed Mohammed Federal University of Technology, Nigeria Ndamitso Professor Dan Ramdath Agriculture and Agri-Food, Canada Dr. Jianwei Ren HySA Infrastructure Competence Center, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa Dr. Cliff Riley Scientific Research Council, Jamaica Dr. Christopher Ross Concordia University, USA Dr. Michael G. Spencer Cornell University, USA Dr. Craig Watters Oklahoma State University, USA Dr. Keith Waugh Southern Illinois University, USA Dr. W. Alan Wright University of Windsor, Canada ProfessorPeter York University of Bradford, United Kingdom
iv Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Contents
Editorial / vii
Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’? / 1 Shanice N. Trowers
A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People / 14 Andrew P. Smith
Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean / 38 Fitzroy Henry, Deonne Caines and Sheerin Eyre
Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective / 52 Anetheo Jackson
Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details / 65 Ellen Campbell Grizzle and Rasheed Perry
Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the University of Technology, Jamaica / 80 Heather Thompson, Kerry-Ann Rodney Wellington and Janet James
Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity / 94 Dahoma South and Sonia Richards-Malcolm
Notes on Contributors / 125
The Journal of Arts Science and Technology : Submission Guidelines / 128
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 v
T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Editorial
Beginning this year (2018), the Journal of Arts Science and Technology (JAST) publishes two issues per year. e first issue was published in March. is issue, Volume 11 Number 2, carries seven papers ranging over a number of disciplines. JAST is an international, multi-disciplinary, peer-reviewed journal published by the University of Technology, Jamaica in both hard copy and online on EBSCOHost at http://bit.ly/2cc9STt and on the University’s own website at http://www. utechjamaica.edu.jm/academics/sgsre/publications-1. e journal carries papers across the diverse fields covered by the University. “Sentence Reduction Day-Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’?” a Law paper, opens this issue. In it the author examines the novel concept of Sentence Reduction Day as it has developed recently in Jamaican law and critically explores whether the initiative in its present form contributes to judicial efficiency, and also provides recommendations for its improvement. e next paper is a “Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool”. Findings show that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is highly successful in using photography to educate students across the globe. e methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and location, and its interactive and participatory nature results in it effectively tackling a multiplicity of issues face by young people around the globe. e third paper on food policy and chronic disease identifies priority food commodities that should be promoted to impact health. It further shows particular foods that confer additional health benefits. While this link between food policy and health is highlighted, the study also points to the challenge of exploiting this link given that the overall costs of healthier foods are outside the purchasing range of the poorest in society. e paper which follows offers a philosophical perspective on the agenda of the right to adequate housing for all. e conclusion is drawn that the market driven approach to housing lacks the relevant mechanism to deliver a ‘right’ to adequate housing for all. In this regard, it is concluded that an appropriate synthesis of the state and market driven approaches to housing is a more plausible apparatus to
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 vii Editorial address the ideal of a right to adequate housing for all in any context. erefore, a deliberate application of dialectical thinking in designing and developing housing policies, practices and procedures is proposed in order to achieve housing justice. e next paper investigates the prospects of “ Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica” following the legal establishment of the Medical Cannabis industry. Based on chemical analyses carried out, the paper presents “promising results from the first fledgling fruits of effort through international and national alliances despite barriers and challenges.” e sixth paper in this issue is an assessment of “ Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources)” in a university which has been promoting staff use of its growing body of e-resources. e researchers found that a large percentage of faculty indicated that using e-resources was too time consuming and they lacked competency on their usage. It was also revealed that the most effective method of creating awareness was through interaction with a Librarian. Finally, in this issue there is a paper which explores the “Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity” among academic, non-academic and technical employees at two local universities. Finding significant levels of conflict and a negative impact on staff performance, the investigators have recommended that “all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts, the organizational culture and structure should allow employees to resolve their differences, and all employees should be held accountable to use conflict-resolution competencies. Once conflict resolution is made a core competency in organizations costs will be lowered, be more productive and increase profitability.”
viii Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Sentence Reduction Day Judicial Efficiency or a ‘slap on the wrist’?
SHANICE N. TROWERS University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
e crime rate in Jamaica has spiralled out of control. e increase in crime has resulted in an increase in criminal cases being tried in the courts. Due to infrastructural deficiencies, the judicial system in its present state is currently unable to efficiently manage the high volume of criminal cases being brought before the courts, which results in there being a significant backlog of cases. It has, in fact, been reported that many accused persons have been waiting for, in some instances, more than a decade for a criminal trial to start. As such, in an effort to ease the pressure on the judiciary and to assist with the clearing of backlogged cases, the Sentence Reduction Day programme was implemented by the Criminal Case Management Steering Committee and was supported by the Ministry of Justice in May 2017. Under this initiative, there is the possibility that an accused person may receive up to a whopping 50% reduction in their sentence upon entering a guilty plea. Several persons in the legal arena have embraced the initiative and are of the opinion that it can yield great benefits to our justice system. However, on the other hand, Sentence reduction Day has also been the victim of harsh criticism and significant public dissent, with many arguing that it will do more harm than good to our society. is article critically examines the novel concept of Sentence Reduction Day as it has developed in the Jamaican society and critically explores whether the initiative in its present form contributes to judicial efficiency, and provides recommendations for its improvement.
Keywords: Sentencing, sentence reduction day, judicial efficiency, law, judges’ discretion, plea bargaining
Corresponding author: Shanice N. Trowers:
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Introduction
Sentencing is an intricate and delicate exercise that judges undertake on a daily basis. It has often times been said that the process of arriving at a just and appropriate sentence is an art and not an exact science. 1 Law is an abstract concept and as such, arriving at an appropriate sentence should never be viewed as one that has a mathematical formula. 2 In handing down a sentence, it is pertinent that judges take into consideration the general principles of sentencing as were established in the case of R v Beckford and Lewis. 3 In that case, it was illustrated that the four “classical principles of sentencing” were retribution, deterrence, prevention and rehabilitation. 4 It has been noted that in other jurisdictions such as Bermuda and New Zealand, they have maintained these core principles but have added other core objectives and principles such as having offenders acknowledge the wrong done to society, which helps to promote a sense of responsibility in these said offenders. 5 In addition to these four classical principles, the sentencing judge also has to ensure that the sentence given is proportionate to the crime that the defendant committed. e judge has to take care when balancing the fragile scale of justice when sentencing, as he has to consider the competing interests of both the offender and the victim. 6 e judge must therefore ensure that when considering what sentence he should hand down, he takes into account the antecedents of the defendant, the offender’s degree of blameworthiness, and the gravity of the crime amongst other things. 7 In order to properly analyze the whole concept of Sentence Reduction Day, it is critical to discuss the general legal principles surrounding reductions in sentences generally. At common law, it is a known fact that generally when an accused person pleads guilty to the commission of a crime, he will receive a reduction in his sentence. 8 Additionally, the scale of the reduction in sentence at common law is usually greater, the earlier that the accused pleads guilty. 9 In the case of R v Cain
1. Sentencing guidelines for use by judges of the Supreme Court of Jamaica and the Parish Courts Retrieved from< http://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/Jamaica%20Sentenc - ing%20Guidelines.pdf> 2. Ibid. 3. (1980) 17 JLR 202. 4. R v Beckford and Lewis (1980) 17 JLR 202. 5. Ibid. (n.1). 6. Ibid. 7. R v Everald Dunkle y, RMCA No 55/2001, judgment delivered 5 July 2002; See also Delroy Barron v R [2016] JMCA Crim 32. 8. John Sprack A Practical Approach to Criminal Procedure (1st edn, OUP Oxford, 2011).
2 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'? and Schollick 10 , it was stated that defendants should be made known of the fact that guilty pleas attract lesser sentences. 11 Lord Widgery had in fact stated in that said case that ‘Any accused person who does not know about it should know about it.’ 12 e rationale behind this is that it provides some incentive to defendants who plead guilty, as they would have not wasted the courts’ time and financial resources and would prevent witnesses who sometimes are victims themselves, from having to go through the grueling experience of a trial. 13 is arguably also contributes significantly to judicial efficiency as the courts’ resources can be redirected into addressing other substantial matters. In Jamaica, the Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act 2015 has codified the position at common law whereby an accused person could benefit from a reduction in their sentence, upon entering a guilty plea. e Act creates provisions for a reduction in the sentence upon entering a guilty plea of between 15 –50% depending on the stage that the accused enters the said guilty plea. 14
Overview of Sentence Reduction Day
e first Sentence Reduction Day that took place in Jamaica, occurred in or around May 22, 2017. 15 is programme was implemented by the Criminal Case Management Steering Committee upon receiving the approval for same from the Ministry of Justice of Jamaica. 16 Under section 42A of the Criminal Justice (Administration) (Amendment) Act 2015 (hereinafter referred to as the CJAA Act), there is reference made to a “first relevant date.” 17 e said CJAA Act indicates that the first relevant date means the first date on which the defendant, regardless of whether he is represented by an attorney-at-law or elects not to be represented by an attorney-at-law, is brought before the Court after the Judge or Resident
9. Andrew Ashworth, Sentencing and Criminal Justice (6th edn, Cambridge University Press, 2015). 10. [1976] QB 496. 11. Ibid. 12. Ibid. 13. http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN05974
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Magistrate is satisfied that the prosecution has made adequate disclosure to the defendant of the case against him in respect of the charge before the Court. Section 42D of the CJAA Act illustrates that where the defendant indicates to the court on the first relevant date that he wishes to plead guilty, the sentence may be reduced by up to 50 percent. Sentence reduction day, for the purposes of the CJAA Act operates as the first relevant date 18 which means that if an accused takes advantage of sentence reduction day, regardless of whether he was brought before the court on days prior to sentence reduction day and did not plead guilty, but decides to plead guilty on sentence reduction day, he or she may receive up to 50 percent reduction on their sentence. Since its introduction, there are several notable cases of individuals who have successfully pleaded guilty and have benefited from sentence reduction day. ere is the Omar Graham case. In that case, Mr. Graham violently chopped to death his employer, Barbara Moncrieffe and injured her husband Vassell Moncrieffe and two other employees on March 24, 2017 at Moncrieffe’s Patio Shop in Kingston Jamaica. 19 On October 19, 2017, Mr. Graham pleaded guilty to murder and three counts of wounding with intent on that particular Sentence Reduction Day. 20 On February 22, 2018, he was sentenced to only 20 years for murder and 10 years for the wounding with intent. He was also made eligible for parole in 15 years. 21 Another highly controversial sentence that was handed down at a sentence reduction day relates to the case of Phillip Brown. In that case, Mr. Phillip Brown hammered his pregnant girlfriend, Ms. Kerry-Ann Wilson to death and wrapped her body in a tarpaulin. 22 Mr. Brown attempted to throw the body of Ms. Wilson through a railing leading to a gully at the Crystal Towers in Kingston Jamaica, where Ms. Wilson then resided. 23 On October 19, 2017, he also pleaded guilty to murder on Sentence Reduction day. 24 He was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment
18. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-sentence_122058?pro - file=1373&template=MobileArticle
4 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'? for her murder and will have to serve 10 years of hard labour before he can be eligible for parole. Needless to say, in both cases, the courts of public opinion enunciated that they would have sentenced both defendants to much harsher and longer periods of imprisonment. 25
The Distinction between Sentence Reduction Days and Plea Bargaining Agreements
e reader may ponder how is Sentence Reduction Day different from that of a plea bargaining agreement and as such, this author will now seek to distinguish between the two concepts. Plea bargain agreements can occur informally, as they do occur at common law, and they can also occur formally as they occur at statute. 26 At common law, informal plea agreements usually occur under these two circumstances: 1. Where an accused offers to plead guilty to a lesser offence other than the one for which he is charged. This only occurs in particular circumstances where the facts may disclose a lesser offence, such as murder to manslaughter; 27 and 2. Where multiple persons are charged with an offence, one or more may plead guilty to the offence and the prosecution can then choose to offer no evidence against the other accused OR one or more accused who participated in the offence may offer to plead guilty and testify against his co-accused. 28 Formal Plea Bargain agreements however were codified by the Jamaican Parliament through the introduction of the Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017. 29 is Act requires that before a formal plea agreement is concluded, there must be a written agreement between the prosecution and the defence. 30 . It also most importantly, states that the victim or where the victim is deceased, the victim’s family, may be contacted by the prosecutor to obtain their views, prior to the conclusion of negotiations. 31 From the above, the reader should be able to appreciate the fact that there are
25. Ibid. 26. Richard L. Lippke ‘e Ethics of Plea Bargaining’ (1st edn, Oxford University Press, 2011) 27. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/dpp-explains-concept-of-sentence_122058?pro - file=1373&template=MobileArticle
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some similarities between the concepts of sentence reduction day and plea bargaining agreements but should be able to understand that there are differences. e main differences between the two concepts is therefore that sentence reduction day does not provide for any consultation with the victim prior to the conclusion of negotiations and with sentence reduction day, there is no formal written agreement between the prosecution and the defence which takes place after a series of discourse and consultation with the defence, prosecution and victims.
Arguments in support of and against Sentence Reduction Day
With this background clearly outlined and explained, it is now imperative at this interval to discuss whether sentence reduction day can be considered as a concept that contributes to judicial efficiency. It is this author’s opinion that there are several arguments that could be advanced in support of the view that Sentence Reduction Day leads to judicial efficiency. Firstly, it is this author’s view that sentence reduction day will help to dispose of cases quickly through the judicial system. Secondly, sentence reduction day will help to reduce and/or clear the backlog of cases that currently exists in the Jamaican courts island wide. irdly, it will place less burden or pressure on the prosecution as when a case is disposed of by a guilty plea that is one less case for the prosecution, who has the burden of proof, to prove. However, while one is able understand and appreciate the benefits that sentence reduction day may yield, it is also easy to understand that many commentators share the view that Sentence Reduction Day is simply a “slap on the wrist for the accused.” It is this author’s view that there are several arguments that could be advanced to support the view that Sentence Reduction Day is a” slap on the wrist”. Firstly, a person can commit an extremely gruesome act and simply attend Sentence Reduction Day, plead guilty and receive a significant reduction in their sentence, sometimes of up to 50%. Secondly, having regard to the fact that some accused may be remanded or be in custody for a while prior to sentence reduction day, it is possible that on sentence reduction day, they may plead guilty and with the addition of time already spent, he may walk out a free man. irdly, it may not act as a deterrent as persons may be of the opinion that they can simply commit a crime, plead guilty on sentence reduction day and receive a light sentence. In an article published by the Jamaica Observer on December 25, 2017, titled ‘Justice System for Sale’, retired Judge of the Court of Appeal e Hon. Mr. Clarence Walker who is an ardent advocate against Sentence Reduction Day, stated that sentence reduction day is “a diabolical, misguided concept which smacks of the
6 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'? distasteful commercialisation of our hallowed, sacrosanct justice system”. 32 is article received tremendous comments online from many persons who generally support the view of the Hon Mr. Clarence Walker. ey perceived sentence reduction day in a negative light and many expressed that they do not have confidence in the programme. 33 However, notwithstanding this, several legal luminaries have openly supported the concept. Attorney-at-law, C.J Mitchell, has stated in an article published in the Jamaica Observer on April 22, 2018, that Sentence Reduction Day is nothing but a formalization of what already exists in our judicial system, as even without Sentence Reduction Day, defendants were entitled to a reduction in their sentence upon entering a guilty plea at the judge’s discretion and have expressed his support for the Sentence Reduction Day initiative. Similarly, it has been reported that the Director of Public Prosecution, Ms. Paula Llewellyn and the Minister of Justice, Delroy Chuck, “firmly believe that the programme will result in a dramatic reduction in the backlog of cases blamed for the painfully slow pace at which cases meander through the overburdened court system.” 34
Important Considerations for Sentence Reduction Day
It is this authors’ view that Sentence Reduction Day is a workable concept but one that is far from perfect. As such, the author will now critically examine some important considerations relating to sentence reduction day as well as give suggestions for its improvement.
Sentence Reduction Day and Victim Involvement
It has been said that sentence reduction day is not victim inclusive. is is due to the fact that with sentence reduction day, there is no requirement that there be any consultation with the victim or the victim’s family prior to sentencing. As such, it is this author’s view that sentence reduction day could borrow from the Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017 the requirement that the prosecutor may
32. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/article/20171225/ARTICLE/171229829/1373
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consult with the victim or if the victim is deceased, the victim’s family, prior to sentencing. 35 Consultation with the victim or victim’s family would enable the court to have an understanding of the kind of sentence the victim or his family would deem as satisfactory. After consultation with the victim or victim’s family the court would take this into account when sentencing the accused. Upon close examination of this particular section of the Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act, one will observe that it uses the word “may” 36 and as such, it is in the prosecutor’s discretion whether they wish to consult with the victim or the victim’s family as it relates to plea negotiations. e author however would state that in the case of sentence reduction day that these victim consultations should be mandatory and should not be a discretionary feature.
The scale of reduction
As illustrated earlier in this academic paper, once someone pleads guilty on sentence reduction day, they may get up to as high as 50% reduction in their sentence. Although the degree of reduction in sentence is solely in the judges’ discretion, it is still this author’s opinion that perhaps 50% reduction in any sentence is too high a threshold for the reduction. Perhaps between 10% –30% reduction would be more appropriate so as to operate as a deterrent to other potential wrongdoers. e author find’s support in her argument from another Attorney-at-law, Kerry-Ann Duhaney who in an article in the Jamaica Observer published on April 22, 2018 stated that
The fact that a criminal enters a guilty plea for the sole purpose of a reduction of his sentence will always be appreciated by criminals, but will serve as a dagger to the hearts of the victims. To combat this, I strongly believe that only a third or a quarter of the sentence should be shaved off . . . 37
Additionally, it is also this author’s suggestion that sentence reduction day should also for some crimes have a restitution element, where persons who receive a reduction in their sentence should be mandated to pay some money to the victim or the victim’s family as compensation for the harm done where possible.
35. Ibid (n 31). 36. Ibid (n 31). 37. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/news/despite-justice-walker-8217-s-appeal-lawyers-firm- on-sentence-reduction-day_131220?profile=1373
8 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'?
Withdrawal of a guilty plea made on Sentence Reduction Day
It is a known fact in criminal law that an accused can withdraw his guilty plea before he is sentenced. In the case of S (An Infant) by Parsons (His Next Friend) v Recorder of Manchester and Others (H.L.E) 38 , it was illustrated that in a court of summary jurisdiction a plea of guilty may be changed at any time before the case is finally disposed of by passing sentence. It was also stated in R v Plummer 39 , that an unequivocal plea of guilty may be withdrawn, with the leave of the court, before sentence. It was noted however, in the case of Shadrach Momah v R 40 , that to allow a change of plea was a matter for the absolute discretion of the magistrate and once an unequivocal plea had been entered the discretionary power should be exercised judicially, very sparingly and only in clear cases 41 . e author of this paper ponders on whether a defendant who pleads guilty on sentence reduction day will be afforded the opportunity to withdraw his plea of guilty at a later date before the court delivers its sentence. It is the author’s opinion that a judge should be very reluctant in exercising its discretionary power to allow a defendant to change his guilty plea after he pleaded guilty at sentence reduction day. e author states this because one of the objectives of Sentence Reduction Day is that it should assist tremendously with getting cases disposed of quickly. erefore, if a defendant can easily withdraw his or her plea after pleading guilty on sentence reduction day and before sentencing is handed down, and many defendants are taking this course of action, it will only result in additional time wasted and waste of the courts resources. erefore, the author suggests that acceptance of a withdrawal of a guilty plea made on Sentence Reduction Day should not be forbidden but should only be used in extremely rare cases.
The exercise of the judge’s discretion on Sentence Reduction Day
As discussed earlier in this academic paper, retired judge of the Court of Appeal e Hon. Mr. Clarence M. Walker has chided the concept of Sentence Reduction Day. 42 He has stated in a letter to the editor in the Jamaica Observer dated April 16, 2018 that with the introduction of Sentence Reduction Day, judges are basically
38. [1971] A.C. 481. 39. [1902] 2 K.B. 337. 40. [2011] JMCA Crim 54. 41. Ibid. 42. http://www.jamaicaobserver.com/letters/sentence-reduction-days-make-judges-8216-one- handed-8217-_130678?profile=1326&template=MobileArticle.
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obliged to reduce a defendant’s sentence, even where the circumstances of the case does not justify or warrant the need for a discounted or reduced sentence. 43 He has stated further that judges no longer have the discretion whether or not to discount or reduce a sentence on Sentence Reduction Day as it has been substantially abridged by recent legislation in Jamaica. 44 Respectfully, the author does not agree with the view of the learned judge as on close examination of the Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015, it states that a judge may reduce a sentence where the defendant pleads guilty to an offence with which he has been charged. 45 It is this author’s opinion therefore that a judge still has a discretion as to whether he should or should not discount a sentence on sentence reduction day and is of the view that there may be in the future situations in which based on the circumstances of the particular crime, the judge does not believe he should exercise his discretion and grant a reduction in sentence any at all upon the defendant entering a guilty plea.
Refusal of a guilty plea on Sentence Reduction Day
e Hon. Mr. Clarence M. Walker also stated in his letter to the editor on April 16, 2018 in the Jamaica Observer that it is still the law that a judge is not bound to accept a guilty plea and may decline to do so where, in the opinion of the judge, the circumstances of a particular case does not justify the court’s acceptance of such a plea. 46 e learned judge opined that our limited salvation from this whole concept of Sentence Reduction Day may lie within this law. is prompted the author to investigate under what circumstances will a court generally refuse to accept a guilty plea. Generally, the most common reason in which a judge refuses to accept an unequivocal guilty plea is if the judge is of the opinion that the defendant does not understand the plea. 47 Outside of these fitness to plea issues, the author cannot fathom under what other circumstances a judge would arbitrarily refuse to accept a defendants plea on Sentence Reduction Day. e author therefore does not agree that the judge still having this discretion to reject a guilty plea would really be the savior of our justice system from sentence reduction day. e author is of the view that arbitrary refusal to accept a guilty plea on sentence reduction day would run contrary to the objectives of the whole scheme and would
43. Ibid. 44. Ibid (n 42). 45. See section 42D of the Criminal Justice Administration (Amendment) Act 2015. 46. Ibid (n 42). 47. See the case of Glenroy Mitchell v R [2016] JMCA Crim 27.
10 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'? simply place undue pressure on the court’s resources if it happened on a wide-scale basis. e author also posits that a judge arbitrarily refusing to accept a guilty plea in the absence of a good reason would most certainly face backlash from the legal fraternity.
Introducing Alford Pleas on Sentence Reduction Days
In any society, it is a known fact that many accused persons who are actually innocent plead guilty so that they may receive a lesser sentence. 48 In Jamaica and other Commonwealth territories, a defendant/accused is only entitled to plead guilty or not guilty with no qualifications or explanations. With the advent of Sentence Reduction Day with reductions of up to 50% on any given sentence being possible, it is quite possible that there will be individuals who will plead guilty to a crime because they are of the view that the prosecution has a wealth of evidence against them to convict them and they would want to just easily get the case disposed of than going through a trial. In the United States of America, defendants who find themselves in this position are often afforded the opportunity to make an Alford Plea. 49 An Alford plea is in essence, a defendant pleading guilty while protesting his or her innocence. 50 To offer some amount of balance to the system, the author is of the opinion that the Ministry of Justice could consider whether Alford Pleas should be introduced in Jamaica, particularly on sentence reduction days, as there will often times be a few persons who are innocent but chooses to plead guilty because they believe that their chance of proving their innocence at a trial is unlikely.
Conclusion
e author’s final thoughts on the concept of Sentence Reduction Day is that it is a workable initiative but is one that at present is too centered around the accused. e fact that sentence reduction day focuses so much on the accused has led many persons to lack confidence in its integrity and the integrity of the justice system. e author believes that in any aspect of the law, the aim should be to strike a proper balance between competing interests and that sentence reduction day should
48. Brandon Garrett Convicting the innocent (1st edn, Harvard University Press, 2011). 49. omas J Gardner et al. Criminal Evidence: Principles and Cases (2nd edn, Cengage Learning, 2016). 50. Ibid.
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 11 J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY be no different. As such, the author is of the opinion that considering and possibly implementing some of the suggestions made in this analytical paper should certainly assist with balancing the scales of justice between the accused and the victims on sentence reduction day. is would ultimately assist with sentence reduction day being viewed more strongly as a judicially efficient programme than a mere “slap on the wrist” for the accused.
References
Cases
Delroy Barron v R [2016] JMCA Crim 32 Glenroy Mitchell v R [2016] JMCA Crim 27 R v Beckford and Lewis (1980) 17 JLR 202 R v Cain and Schollick [1976] QB 496 R v Everald Dunkley , RMCA No 55/2001, judgment delivered 5 July 2002 R v Plummer S (An Infant) by Parsons (His Next Friend) v Recorder of Manchester and Others (H.L.E) Shadrach Momah v R
Legislation
Criminal Justice (Amendment) Act 2015. Plea Negotiations and Agreements Act 2017.
Books
Ashworth A, Sentencing and Criminal Justice (6th edn, Cambridge University Press, 2015). Gardner T et al, Criminal Evidence: Principles and Cases (2nd edn, Cengage Learning, 2016). Garrett B, Convicting the innocent (1st edn, Harvard University Press, 2011). Lippke A, The Ethics of Plea Bargaining (1st edn, Oxford University Press, 2011). Sprack J, A Practical Approach to Criminal Procedure (1st edn, OUP Oxford, 2011).
Websites
Sentencing guidelines for use by judges of the Supreme Court of Jamaica and the Parish Courts. http://supremecourt.gov.jm/sites/default/files/Jamaica%20Sentencing%20Guidelines.pdf
12 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Sentence Reduction Day: Judicial Efficiency or a 'slap on the wrist'? http://researchbriefings.parliament.uk/ResearchBriefing/Summary/SN05974
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 13 T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
ANDREW P. SMITH University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
is systematic review was undertaken to identify and assess an interactive pedagogical tool which uses photography to educate young people, with the participatory action research methodology, Photovoice being so identified. Photovoice involves participants photographically documenting a specific issue, then using the images to drive discussions with relevant policy and decision makers. is review analyses literature that examines the use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people aged from 13 to 19 years old in a variety of educational conditions around the globe. Research studies published between 2012 and 2017 that meet inclusion criteria were analysed in order to answer the research question: how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings? Literature was searched in two academic databases, based on search terms derived from the research question. e Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guided the selection of the articles, which resulted in 14 studies meeting the criteria. Findings show that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is highly successful in using photography to educate students from across the globe. e methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and location, and its interactive and participatory nature results in it effectively tackling a multiplicity of issues face by young people around the globe.
Keywords: Photovoice, pedagogy, participatory action research, education, youth
Corresponding author: Andrew P. Smith: [email protected]
14 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
Introduction
is systematic review was undertaken to identify and assess a participatory pedagogical tool which uses photography to educate young people. is arose from the researcher’s personal desire as a photographer and educator to find a method of using photography as a tool to develop young peoples’ critical thinking and investigative abilities in both formal and informal education settings. is is fuelled by the researcher’s personal belief that photography, as a visual medium, is an effective means of teaching. is is supported by Ewald and Lightfoot, (2001) who state that “participatory photography has potential as a means of engaging with different stakeholder groups and sharing perspectives cross culturally… as it is not entirely dependent on traditional literacy skills” (as cited in Kaplan, Miles, & Howes, 2011, p. 195). Kaplan et al., adds that participatory photography “is a process which is intrinsically educational and is therefore well-suited to overtly educational practice” (2011, p. 195). e researcher also believes that this study can result in the effective use of young people’s mobile cameras as a learning tool. is is supported by the research of Hartnell-Young and Vetere (2008), who state “mobile camera phones would be particularly useful in capturing the stories and other experiences that students bring to their learning” (p. 285). erefore this research seeks to identify and assess a photography-based educational methodology that can be used as a pedagogical tool. e participatory action research methodology Photovoice has been so identified and so this systematic review has been undertaken to examine and analyse its use as a pedagogical tool by other educators, to determine its effectiveness. e Photovoice methodology was conceptualised by health researchers Caroline Wang and May Ann Burris in 1994 as “a process by which people can identify, represent and enhance their community through a specific photographic technique” (Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 369). It originated as a participatory needs assessment methodology to gain information about women’s public health issues in the Chinese village of Yunnan (Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 378) and the methodology involves community members photographically documenting particular issues in their communities in order to make a change. e goals of Photovoice are “(1) to enable people to record and reflect their community’s strengths and concerns, (2) to promote critical dialogue and knowledge about important community issues through large and small group discussions of photographs, and (3) to reach policymakers” (Wang & Burris, 1997, p. 370). Since its inception, Photovoice has been adapted as a participatory action research (PAR) methodology. is adaptation is in line with Wang and Burris
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(1997) who recognised that “Photovoice is highly flexible and can be adapted to specific participatory goals, different groups and communities and distinct public health issues” (p. 370), adding that “people can use Photovoice as a tool for participatory research” (Wang & Burris, 1997, p.370). is flexibility led the researcher to investigate if Photovoice is a suitable PAR methodology that can be used as a pedagogical tool. e research question that guided this systematic literature review is, how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings? e corresponding research objectives are to: 1) analyse literature that examines the use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people aged from 13 to 19 years old, and 2) determine the effectiveness of the use of Photovoice under a variety of educational conditions around the globe.
Methods
is systematic literature review was conducted according to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines. e criteria for the articles selected were that they had to: 1) utilise Photovoice as a teaching tool. is could either be in the formal educational school system or in informal educational setting at the community level, 2) include young people of secondary school age of between 13 to 19 years old. If a study was composed of students within this age range along with students either above or below, the study was included, 3) be published between January 2012 to November 2017, 4) be published in English, and 5) be research studies, and not essays, reviews, discussions or similar writings. A systematic search took place on two databases. ese were Ebsco’s Academic Search Complete database and a Basic search on the Academia.edu website, as shown in Figure 1. Studies that were considered were peer-reviewed articles, book chapters, and unpublished postgraduate theses and dissertations. e search terms that were used were: Photovoice, education, and pedagogy and were selected in order to attain studies that would answer the research question which focuses on multicultural settings. ese terms were combined to search the databases as follows: Photovoice and pedagogy, Photovoice and education; Photovoice and education and pedagogy. e screening process was based on the titles and abstracts of the studies where it was clear that Photovoice was not being used with a pedagogical aim, even if they took place in an educational setting. Also excluded were studies that took place in higher education settings, due to the students’ age.
16 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
Figure 1: e process of selection of articles, including reasons for exclusion as per PRISMA guidelines
Pedagogical use of Photovoice
Although all researchers in the selected studies used the Photovoice participatory action research methodology to teach young people, the ways that it was used as a pedagogical tool varied (Table 1). Bellino (2015) used Photovoice in a formal classroom setting to “re-imagine an environmental science class” (p. 378), adding that she worked with her students to create “an environmental science class that does not use a textbook or follow a structured curriculum” (p. 379). Chonody et al. used Photovoice in a high school that focused on project-based learning, in order to “improve critical thinking and writing skills through the medium of photography” (2012, p. 35). In addition to this, they also “sought to create a critical
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dialogue about community concerns and provide a way for participants to present their perspectives” (Chonody et al., 2012, p. 36). Graham et al. (2013) used Photovoice in a community-based project in inner-city Detroit that “sought to address violence and its possible solutions in Detroit youth communities” (p. 42) by allowing “youth to contribute to the production of knowledge about ways to address sexual, domestic, gang, and other acts of violence” (p. 50). Haglund et al. (2016) used Photovoice with young Latin American females in a midwestern American town “to provide ground work for the development of interventions that support healthy dating relationships among Latina adolescents” (p. 131). Harkness & Stallworth (2013) used Photovoice in order to improve their ability to teach mathematics to young creative females. e girls were asked to use the cameras to answer the following questions: “1) What is mathematics? 2) What is your ideal learning environment? 3) What things impede your learning of mathematics?” (p. 331). Ingram (2014) worked with adolescent girls in Toronto, and used Photovoice to “explore girls’ ideas about their roles as females and citizens within their families, schools and society at large” (p. 308). Khanare (2012) used the Photovoice methodology with HIV-infected school children in rural KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. e participants were told to “‘Take photos to represent your experiences of coping with the adversities of HIV and AIDS in your school’” (p. 253). Markus used Photovoice to address health and relationship issues among young people in a community based project with American Indians in Wyoming. e participants used Photovoice “to learn about the role of healthy relationships in the prevention of HIV, STIs and unintended pregnancy” (2012, p. 103). Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) used Photovoice with school children in rural Lebanon in order to achieve an understanding of how the participants perceived “harmony with nature” (p. 2), with the aim being to address the participants’ “own understandings of nature and provides an opportunity to present children as key agents of change for nature conservation” (p. 2). Shah (2015) used Photovoice to empower school girls in rural India, using the methodology to “enable the girls to articulate their thoughts on the role their educational experiences may play in better understanding, confronting, and eventually challenging their marginalization” (p. 55). Suffla et al. (2012) utilised the Photovoice methodology in two rural communities in the Western Cape of South Africa to address issues of community safety. Participants were told to photograph “things, places and people that make me feel safe in my community” (p. 519) and the aim of the project was to “include young people’s perspectives and knowledges in the development of safety and peace
18 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People promotion programmes” (p. 518). Tomita (2015) worked with youth delinquents in Romania, with the participants using Photovoice to “to make those photos that they consider representative to suggest the harmfulness of drugs and the fight against them” (p. 228). e researcher’s aim is to identify “new types of interventions compatible with the age and education of delinquent child through activities that lead to decreased aggressiveness specific custodial environment where they are located” (Tomita, 2015, p. 225). Warne et al. (2012) used Photovoice among high school students in Sweden to “help students actively participate in shaping healthy school environments” (p. 300). e researchers believe that “it is important for students to be actively involved in shaping their context, and that each school setting is unique, requiring an orientation to genuine participation if health-promoting learning environments are to be achieved” (Warne et al., 2012, p. 300). Zenkov and his team were driven to find a “non-language-based” method for literacy instruction in various schools across in Ohio and Virginia in United States, resulting in the use of “photographs as text and a photovoice method, which has proven effective for engaging diverse youth and providing them with authentic means to share their perspectives” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 153). Student participants in their rough Students’ Eyes (TSE) Photovoice project took photographs “to illustrate and describe what they perceive as the purposes of school and writing and reading, the supports for their school and literacy achievement and engagement, and the obstacles to their literacy and school success” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 154).
Results
Ninety-two studies were selected for in-depth examination to determine if they met the criteria for inclusion in the systematic literature review. Seventy-eight of these studies did not meet the inclusion criteria, as shown in Figure 1. erefore, 14 studies published from January 2012 to November 2017 were selected for this review. As shown in Table 1, data extracted from the studies is categorised according to the: 1) location and setting of the study, 2) participant details, 3) length of the project, 4) facilitators’ research focus, 5) issue addressed, 6)pedagogical use of Photovoice (detailed previously), and 7) indicators of successful use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool.
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Background of Photovoice Projects
Eight of the studies are based in North America, one in the Greater Toronto area of Canada (Ingram, 2014) and seven in the United States of America. A detailed breakdown of the location of these studies is given in Table 1. Two studies are set in Europe, one in Romania (Tomita, 2015) and the other in Sweden (Warne, Snyder, & Gillander Gadin, 2012). Two are set in South Africa, one in KwaZulu- Natal (Khanare, 2012) and one in Western Cape (Suffla, Kaminer, & Bawa, 2012). One study each was undertaken in Lebanon (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017) and in India (Shah, 2015). Regarding the setting of the studies, seven of the studies took place in formal school settings (Warne et al., 2012; Chonody, Martin, & Welsh, 2012; Bellino, 2015; Shah, 2015; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Khanare, 2012; Harkness & Stallworth, 2013) and five were community-based projects (Graham, Matiz Reyes, Lopez, Gracey, Snow, & Padilla, 2013; Markus, 2012; Suffla et al., 2012; Ingram, 2014; Haglund, Belknap, Garcia, Woda, & O’Hara, 2016). One study occurred in a re-educational centre for at-risk juveniles (Tomita, 2015), and Zenkov, Taylor and Harmon (2017) incorporated both high schools and community projects. Eight of the studies were in urban settings (Bellino, 2015; Chonody et al., 2012; Graham et al., 2013; Haglund et al., 2016; Ingram, 2014; Harkness & Stallworth, 2013; Warne et al., 2012; Zenkov et al., (2017). Five studies took place in rural settings (Khanare, 2012; Markus, 2012; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Shah, 2015; Suffla et al.,2012) and one in a re-educational centre (Tomita, 2015). Five of the studies used more than one location in their research. (Suffla et al., 2012; Zenkov, 2017; Warne et al., 2012; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Harkness & Stallworth, 2013). e lengths of the projects varied from a minimum of three days (Markus, 2012) to two years (Bellino, 2015). Generally, the longer studies were based in formal educational settings and the shorter ones were community-based projects as seen in Table 1. Out of the 12 studies that disclosed the group size, five conducted their research with less than 10 students (Haglund, et al., 2016; Harkness, & Stallworth, 2013; Ingram, 2014; Markus, 2012; Warne, et al., 2012) and five with between 10 and 20 students (Khanare, 2012; Shah, 2015; Tomita, 2015; Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017; Suffla, et al., 2012). Two of the studies had an average group size of over 20 participants (Bellino, 2015; Zenkov et al., 2017). e focus of the researchers varied, with five having an educational focus, (Bellino, 2015; Haglund et al., 2016; Harkness & Stallworth, 2013; Ingram, 2014; Zenkov et al., 2017), four a health focus (Khanare, 2012; Warne et al., 2012;
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26 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People -
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Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 27 J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Markus, 2012; Suffla, 2012), three in social work (Chonody et al., 2012; Graham et al., 2013; Tomita, 2015) and one each in gender inequality (Shah, 2015) and natural heritage conservation (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017).
Issues Addressed
e issues that are addressed using the Photovoice methodology fall into the categories of: education, personal development, community violence, ecology, and empowering at-risk youth. Five studies examine educational issues. Bellino (2015) used Photovoice to document the development of a critical approach to environmental education over a two year period. Chonody et al. (2012) examined the viewpoints of inner-city urban youth in a school that specialises in project- based learning, while Harkness and Stallworth (2013) used Photovoice to find how creative females in three different schools tackled the learning of mathematics. Warne et al. (2012) used Photovoice to address the lack of student participation in decisions related to their well-being in two Swedish high schools, and Zenkov et al. (2017) addressed gaps in literacy education. Two studies used Photovoice to examine personal development issues of young people. Haglund et al. (2016) researched the developing of healthy relationships among young Latinas, and Ingram (2014) examined the personal viewpoints of young females towards gender, school and citizenship, within the context of wider societal viewpoints. Both Graham et al. (2013) and Suffla et al. (2012) used Photovoice to address the effects of community violence on youth. e former in Detroit, United States and the latter in Western Cape, South Africa. Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) appraised the perceptions of high school students in five rural Lebanese villages towards nature. e Photovoice studies that focused on at-risk youth are varied. Tomita (2015) incorporated Photovoice in the rehabilitation of adolescent drug users in a re-education centre in Romania. Shah (2015), used Photovoice to empower young females in rural India to embrace their education. Both Khanare (2012) and Markus (2012) used Photovoice with HIV infected schoolchildren, in South Africa and on a Native American reservation in the United States respectively. Khanare (2012) use Photovoice to enable young people to cope with having the virus, while Markus (2012) used Photovoice to help develop healthy relationships among young people with HIV.
28 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
Indicators of successful use of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool
With regards to the degree of success of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool for the participants, Bellino believed that Photovoice “allowed students to develop research skills including developing research questions, collecting data, analyzing data, and sharing new knowledge” (2015, p. 379). In addition, the participants were able to “critically investigate their local environments as places that embody many global and local environmental issues, issues that imprint on their personal and social identities” (2015, p. 379) after using the Photovoice methodology. For example, the students “highlighted the impacts of globalization on local communities and discussed the tension experienced from the benefits of globalization and the reality that these forces are changing communities” (Bellino, 2015, p. 372) after taking photograph that illustrated this issue. Chonody et al. (2012) found that during the Photovoice experience, some of the participants were able to view the activities as “schoolwork – brainstorming, writing, and thinking about the interrelationship of issues at the social level” (p. 38). For example, while documenting abandoned buildings in Philadelphia, “the youth still expressed a desire for change in the community even though these empty shells were the norm. To them, the buildings represented opportunities to create jobs, community centers, and outlets for recreation“(Chonody et al., 2012, p. 37). In their work to address violence in Detroit, the young people that worked with Graham’s team photographed images representing education, recreation and development. e participants stated that “they feel empowered when they learn about their history and are able to exercise their creativity through art” (Graham et al., 2013, p. 47). ey added that “if more youth had such opportunities, those youth would be less inclined toward violence, and would learn nonviolent forms of resistance to oppression” (Graham et al., 2013, p. 47). Haglund et al. found that while illustrating healthy relationships, the Latina girls used photographs to describe “elements that made relationships healthy whether they existed between romantic partners, siblings, friends, people and pets, children and parents, or people and God” (2016, p. 133). At the end of the project they stated that the knowledge gained during the project “would help them establish healthy romantic relationships devoid of violence” (Haglund et al., 2916, p. 133). Harkness and Stallworth found that the participants photographed a variety of subjects in order to answer the questions posed to them about mathematics. For example, to answer the question: What is mathematics, one participant
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 29 J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
photographed a house and commented that “it just has symmetry with everything. And it has a bunch of shapes, like triangles and the Pythagorean eorem and all of that good stuff” (Harkness & Stallworth, 2013, p. 339). Another participant’s answer to the question: What is your ideal learning environment, photographed a car, stating “that you are never too old to go on field trips” (Harkness & Stallworth, 2013, p. 337). e themes that arose from the girls involved in Ingram’s Photovoice project centred on self, gender, citizenship and school. An example of a photograph that illustrated gender issues was an image of telephones shaped as headless women that were sold in the local mall. e photographer said It made me think about the objectification of women and in society how we are always surrounded by pictures of females looking a certain way. There is no respect towards them and no one sees these images as people, they see them as objects (Ingram, 2014, p. 312). Ingram believes that “with the girls directing the camera’s lens, and having the space to share their experiences, perspectives and opinions, the collaborative, visually informed research process served to validate the participants and their roles as citizens, participants, researchers and activists” (2014, p. 322). Khanare’s use of Photovoice with HIV-infected children in KwaZulu-Natal revealed some enlightening findings. Participants took photographs that represented situations that, 1) enabled them to cope with HIV in school, and 2) situations that discouraged them at school. An example of the latter is a photograph of a participant with her head down on a chair, with the following narrative “is is me . . . I was so sad to what has been said to my friend whom I know they have problems at home. Sometimes teachers ask funny questions in the class and other learners laugh at you” (Khanare, 2012, p. 256). Khanare believes that the Photovoice activity was important because participants were able to create and recreate their coping strategies within the school context. This tool provided a social setting where the participants individually and collec - tively discussed what worked for them and what could work for them in terms of coping with HIV-related issues (Khanare, 2012, p. 257). e narratives that arose from the participants’ photographs in Markus’ research in the Wind River Indian Reservation were also informative. One narrative attempted to rubbish claims of warring tribes within the reservation, stating “there is a belief that the Northern Arapaho and Eastern Shoshone tribes . . . are ‘warring tribes’ and that we can’t get along. But . . . we all support each other and we are
30 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People like brothers and sisters, all one family. We are peaceful” (Markus, 2012, p. 113). Markus (2012) states that participants “engaged in storytelling through photography and written narratives and, in turn, are sharing their stories for disease prevention and health promotion with their peers and community members” (p. 103). Mattouk and Talhouk used Photovoice to determine participants’ perceptions of nature and its use in Lebanon. 36% of the participants associated nature with positive family experiences, as reflected in the following narrative: “I am grateful for my dad who made me love and care for nature. is love was developed because I used to go with my dad to the bush to mulch and care for trees and cherries” (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017, p. 9). 14% of the participants referred to nature through biological facts, such as “I would like my generation to care for as many trees as possible so that we can increase them instead of decrease them for the generation to come” (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017, p. 9). Shah’s Photovoice activity in Gujarat, India, involved the participants taking photographs guided by two prompts. e first was “take pictures of anything at the school or in the village, in any way you want, that will help me understand something about your life” (Shah, 2015, p.59), and the second prompt was “take photographs that help me understand what women and girls do” (Shah, 2015, p.59). An example of a narrative that arose from a photograph taken to illustrate the second prompt was entitled “Boy with swing”. An excerpt of the discussion follows: In the hammock is a baby girl, and next to her is her older brother. See how he is swinging her and taking care of her while his mother is cooking? Usually, boys are out playing with the other boys in the evening. They do not stay at home and help the mother, and they usually do not help take care of younger sisters. I really like that this older brother is helping out (Shah, 2015, p. 62). Shah believes that this Photovoice project “has the potential to support the development of some of the dimensions of empowerment and act as an insightful analytical heuristic to investigate the potential for a schooling-empowerment link” (2015, p. 70). Suffla et al. directed their students to photograph subjects that made them feel safe in their Southern African communities. e resulting images included photographs of home, church, school, road traffic signals, police officers, and neighbourhood watch (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 521). e participants were then asked a number of questions to describe the outcomes of the Photovoice project. When asked what was the best thing about the project, answers included “learning how
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to face my problems and fears” and “seeing that people care about us, we are not alone” (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 523). When asked, what they learned, one of the answers was “how to make my community a safer/better place and how to help others in the community” (Suffla et al., 2012. p. 523). e participants in Tomita’s Photovoice study in a Romanian re-education centre for juvenile delinquents were not given specific subjects to photograph, but instead “were left the freedom to make those photos that they consider representative to suggest the harmfulness of drugs and the fight against them” (Tomita, 2015, p. 229). In addition, the photographic activity was implemented “as a healthy alternative of spending leisure time” (Tomita, 2015, p. 229). Tomita believes that the most important aspect of this research is how the participants responded to the Photovoice project, in terms of “their involvement and great availability, appreciation and desire to continue such activities, knowing that, these children have often faced inadequate punitive responses… as a response to their own aggression or violent behavior, responses that include physical aggression, suspension, incarceration” (Tomita, 2015, p. 232). e participants in the study undertaken by Warne et al. in Sweden were asked to take photographs to answer the question “What are important to you in making you feel well and work well in school?” (2012, p. 302). Suggestions that arose from answering this question included: 1) implement more group work to improve in- classroom relationships, 2) increase teacher training, 3) increase the amount of working computers, 4) make sports facilities available for everyone, not just elite athletes, and 5) increase the quality of food available at school. (Warne et al, 2012, p. 304). e researchers found that the use of the Photovoice methodology helped to “stimulate students’ critical thinking and knowledge about society”, adding that “participating students wanted to have influence and make a difference” (Warne et al, 2012, p. 308). Zenkov and his team have used Photovoice for over a decade in their rough Students’ Eyes project in Ohio and Virginia in order to address issues related to literacy of students that “had been born into families and communities in which formal education too often seemed as foreign an institution as English was a language” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 149). Participants are to take photographs to answer the following questions: “1) What is the purpose of school/ reading /writing? 2) What helps you to be successful in school or with reading/writing? and 3). What gets in the way of your school/reading/writing success?” (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 154). An example of the answer to the first question is an image of furniture in the back of a pick-up truck entitled “Mobile Home”. e participant’s reason for taking the photograph is:
32 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 A Systematic Review of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Young People
I don’t want to grow up to be a homeless person. I want to set a strong and stable foundation for my family and live in a nice wonderful home that’s safe for me and my family, and the way I’m going to start building that foundation is to finish school and go to college (Zenkov et al., 2017, p. 158).
Success of Photovoice as a Pedagogical Tool for Facilitators and Policy-Makers
e Photovoice methodology incorporates not just the student participants, but also the project facilitators and the policy-makers relevant to the issue being queried. e findings from the Photovoice studies with regards to the facilitators, show that Photovoice has resulted in a change in the way that they instruct. Warne et al. (2012) speaks of moving from “being an expert to being a facilitator” (p. 308) so that the team can stimulate students’ critical thinking skills. Chonody et al. (2012) stated that the experience confirmed the importance of learning by doing, also known as “experiential learning” (p. 43). Regarding the use of Photovoice to teach mathematics to creative girls, Harkness and Stallworth (2013) stated “based on what we learned about each girl through the use of the photovoice methodology, we were able to think deeply about their ways of knowing…and implement tutoring strategies to meet their individual needs” (2013, p. 345). e research experience has influenced how Mattouk and Talhouk design further nature conservation activities, stating that “we have engaged in the development of informal learning activities that are a reflection of parents and grandparents normal involvement with youth” (2017, p. 12). Examples of how policy makers can incorporate the new knowledge gained include the work of Graham et al. (2013) who was able to make policy makers more aware of the violence the specific youth in Detroit are subject to. e information obtained by the research undertaken by Haglund et al., (2016) can be used to create interventions to promote healthy relationship lifestyles among female and male Latina/o youth. Markus (2012) discovered four lessons that policy makers can adhere to during his intervention with a Native American community in Wyoming. ese lessons are that: 1) let the youth be heard, 2) continue learning, 3) incorporate cultural heritage into work, and 4) allow for “non-verbal creative expression” (p. 117). Additionally, Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) found that education about nature should be a mix of formal and informal education, including at-home learning with the focus being on local biodiversity.
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Conclusion
is paper is guided by the research question: how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings? e details presented illustrate the participants’ responses to the various Photovoice projects that covered a wide range of issues and cultures. Multiple examples highlight the success of Photovoice as a pedagogical tool in that the participants were able to: 1) critically discuss the issues that they are faced with, 2) develop a sense of empowerment to address these issues, 3) make suggestions as to how the issues may be addressed. Facilitators and policy makers also benefited from the students’ participation in that the former amended and tailored their methods of instruction. Policy makers heard from the individuals directly affected by the various issues and thus put into place measures to address the areas of concern. Countries in North America, Europe, Africa, Asia and the Middle East are all represented in this review, which also includes a mix of rural and urban locations. is shows the universal applicability of the Photovoice methodology, with its ability to be used in a variety of countries, cultures and languages. Its ability to be used in both the formal classroom setting and in community-based projects further cements the global nature of the Photovoice methodology. e variety of the researchers’ focus and the issues covered also reflects the multifaceted nature of Photovoice. Educators, biologists, social workers, health practitioners and gender equality specialists all utilised Photovoice to help young people address the issues that they are faced with. Issues included inner-city violence in Detroit (Graham et al., 2013), coping with HIV in South Africa (Khanare, 2012), gender inequality in rural India (Shah, 2015), cultivating healthy relationships among Latinas (Haglund et al., 2016) and nature conservation issues in Lebanon (Mattouk & Talhouk, 2017). Although the focus of the research teams can be broadly grouped in the categories of education, health, social work, gender inequality and natural heritage conservation, within these groups there is both diversity and similarities. Of the five educators, Harkness and Stallworth focuses on mathematics education; Zenkov et al. (2017), are a group of English and Literacy educators; Haglund et al. (2016), educate nurses; Bellino (2015) is an environmental science educator and at the time of the article’s publication, Ingram taught Education at the University level. It should also be noted that although classified as a gender inequality researcher, Shah (2015) undertook her research while teaching in a high school in India. ere is diversity and similarity among the health researchers. Suffla et al. (2012)has a health and safety focus, while both Warne et al. (2012) and Markus
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(2012) have a background in public health. Children, rural communities and the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are the focus of Khanare’s (2012) work and research. Markus (2012) applied the Photovoice methodology to educate a Native American community on how to develop healthy relationships for community members with HIV. is research is similar to that done by Khanare (2012) in South Africa in terms of educating children with HIV on how to create a support system. e three research teams with a social work background are Chonody et al. (2012), Graham et al. (2013), and Tomita (2015). e latter used Photovoice to assist the rehabilitation of juveniles in a Romanian re-education centre for drug users. Graham et al. (2013), used Photovoice in a community-based intervention in inner-city Detroit while Chonody et al. (2012) used Photovoice with students that attend an alternative high school which utilises a preponderance of project- based assignments. e work of Mattouk and Talhouk (2017) in using Photovoice for natural heritage education in Lebanon adds another dimension to how Photovoice can be used, and serves to reinforce the adaptability, flexibility and universality of the methodology as a pedagogical tool. e variety of the backgrounds and interests of the researchers confirm that Photovoice is an effective pedagogical tool, which can be applied among young people in a variety of multicultural settings. In examining the results and conclusion of the reviewed literature in the context of the research question, we can see that Photovoice is effective as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings, as seen in participants’ feedback. e teenage girls that participated in the study by Ingram (2014) in Toronto underwent critical reflection, which resulted in a positive result on their “self-concepts, sense of agency and self-confidence” (p. 322). In India, Shah (2015) found that Photovoice allowed the participants to find out for themselves how they can be empowered by attending school. Suffla et al., (2012) discovered in South Africa that the marginalized youth that participated in the Photovoice resulted in their realization of the importance of local knowledge. Critical reflection, empowerment and the importance of local knowledge are characteristics that young people need to develop to be an educated 21 st century citizen. All can be obtained through the Photovoice methodology. e purpose of this systematic literature review was to answer the research question that asked, how effective is Photovoice as a pedagogical tool among young people in a variety of multicultural settings? e review shows that the Photovoice methodology as a pedagogical tool has been used in a variety of studies with youth aged 13 to 19 years old, of both genders. ere is a variety of geographical locations
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 35 J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY in terms of countries and rural/urban settings; as well as a mix of educational settings, both in the formal school setting and in informal workshop settings. is systematic review shows that as a pedagogical tool for young people, Photovoice is highly successful in using photography to educate students from across the globe. e methodology overrides barriers of language, culture, social settings, gender and location, and its interactive and participatory nature results in it effectively tackling a multiplicity of issues face by young people around the globe.
References
Bellino, M. (2015). Using Photovoice as a Critical Youth Participatory Method in Environmental Education Research. In K. Tobin & S. R. Steinberg (Eds.), Doing Educational Research (2nd ed.). (pp 365–380). Boston, MA: Sense Publishers. Chonody, J. M., Martin, T., & Amitrani Welsh, J. (2012). Looking through the Lens of Urban Teenagers: Reflections on Participatory Photography in an Alternative High School. Reflections: Narratives of Professional Helping, 18 (4), 35 –44. Graham, L., Matiz Reyes, A., Lopez, W., Gracey, A., Snow, R. C., & Padilla, M. B. (2013). Addressing Economic Devastation and Built Environment Degradation to Prevent Violence: A Photovoice Project of Detroit Youth Passages. Community Literacy Journal 8(1). 42 –52 Haglund, K., Belknap, R. A., Garcia, J. T., Woda, A., & O’Hara, J. (2016). Latina Adolescents’ Perspectives on Relationships. Journal of Cultural Diversity, 23 (4), 131 –138. Harkness, S., & Stallworth, J. (2013). Photovoice: understanding high school females’ conceptions of mathematics and learning mathematics. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 84 (3), 329-347. doi:10.1007/s10649-013-9485-3. Hartnell-Young, E., & Vetere, F. (2008). A Means of Personalising Learning: Incorporating Old and New Literacies in the Curriculum with Mobile Phones. Curriculum Journal, 19 (4), 283-292. Ingram, L. (2014). Re-imagining roles: using collaborative and creative research methodologies to explore girls’ perspectives on gender, citizenship and schooling. Educational Action Research, 22 (3), 306 –324. doi:10.1080/09650792.2013.872574. Kaplan, I., Miles, S., & Howes, A. (2011). Images and the Ethics of Inclusion and Exclusion: Learning through Participatory Photography in Education . Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 11 (3), 195 –202. Khanare, F. (2012). Schoolchildren affected by HIV in rural South Africa: schools as environments that enable or limit coping. African Journal of AIDS Research: AJAR, 11 (3), 251-259. doi:10.2989/16085906.2012.734985. Markus, S. F. (2012). Photovoice for healthy relationships: community-based participatory
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HIV prevention in a rural American Indian community. American Indian And Alaska Native Mental Health Research (Online), 19 (1), 102 –123. doi:10.5820/aian.1901.2012 .102. Mattouk, M., & Talhouk, S. N. (2017). A content analysis of nature photographs taken by Lebanese rural youth. Plos One, 12 (5), e0177079. doi:10.1371/journal.pone .0177079. Shah, P. (2015). Spaces to Speak: Photovoice and the Reimagination of Girl’s Education in India. Comparative Education Review 59 (1), 50 –74. Suffla, S., Kaminer, D., & Bawa, U. (2012). Photovoice as community engaged research: The interplay between knowledge creation and agency in a South African study on safety promotion. Journal of Psychology in Africa 22 (4), 517–528. Tomita, M. (2015). What’s Working/What Needs Working On. Art and Culture against Drugs through Photovoice. Scientific Annals of the ‘Al. I. Cuza’ University, Iasi. Sociology & Social Work, 8 (1), 225 –233. Wang, C. C., & Burris, M. A. (1997). Photovoice: Concept, Methodology, and use for Participatory Needs Assessment. Health Education & Behaviour, 24 (3), 369 –387. Warne, M. Snyder, K, & Gillander Gadin, K. (2012). Photovoice: an opportunity and challenge for students’ genuine participation. Health Promotion International, 28 (3), 299 –310. Zenkov, K; Taylor, L; Harmon, J. (2017). Diverse Youth, New Teachers, and “Picturing” Literacy Using Photovoice to “Partner” Our Way to Adolescents’ Perspectives on Literacy. In K. Hinchman & D. A. Appleman (Eds.), Adolescent Literacies: A Handbook of Practice-Based Research. (pp 148 –168) New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 37 T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean
FITZROY HENRY, DEONNE CAINES, SHEERIN EYRE University of Technology, Jamaica
ABSTRACT
e spiraling increase in obesity and chronic diseases in the Caribbean coupled with the rapid food trade through unbridled globalization suggests that the implementation of food and nutrition security policies in the Region must proceed with much urgency. Focus must be on creating incentives which will allow more healthy foods to be grown in the Region. is paper identifies the priority foods which should be made more available and accessible so that nutrition-related chronic diseases can be controlled. Rather than merely comparing high and low energy dense foods, this paper also included type of fat, vitamin, mineral, phytochemical and fibre content of foods in classifying them as healthy and less healthy. e costs of 158 foods commodities in relation to their classical and superfood rank were analyzed. e study found that among the commonly consumed foods in Jamaica healthy options cost J$88 more than less healthy ones. e cheapest daily cost of a nutritionally balanced diet in Jamaica varied considerably by parish but was on average J$269. For a family of three this translated approximately to the total minimum wage per week J$5,600 – which is highly unsustainable. e paper concludes by highlighting the challenges of introducing incentives and disincentives in the food system to combat obesity and chronic diseases particularly among the poor.
Key words: Caribbean, chronic disease, food price policy, healthy eating, vulnerability.
Introduction
Decisions on food policy and chronic disease are often located in separate ministries of Caribbean governments even though they are inextricably linked. e impact of food policy on chronic diseases can be profound and predictable and therefore calls for a re-evaluation of the policy formulation process. e urgency for the
Corresponding author: [email protected]
38 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean repositioning of agriculture and food systems is exemplified by (i) e obesity tsunami and concomitant burgeoning of chronic nutrition-related diseases; (ii) e effects of the globalization process on food trade and on health; (iii) the structural economic reforms which require a more integrated analysis and spending with limited available capital. More specifically, two new necessities have emerged in Caribbean countries that also make it imperative for decision-makers to reassess the potential impact of food policy and its relationship to health in particular. (i) ere is a need to establish nutrition and health goals so that the agriculture and food systems can deliver adequate and nutritionally appropriate quantities of food, especially to low income and vulnerable groups; (ii) Chronic nutrition-related diseases cut across socio- economic, spatial and demographic lines, and healthy diets need to be linked to domestic and import food policies (Popkin, 2006; Henry, 2011). ese nutritional and epidemiological linkages provide strong arguments for a conceptualization of food policy that combines food availability, access and health considerations, and for forging broader links among agriculture, health and trade. ese multi-sectoral interactions remain to be fully appreciated and exploited by regional policy makers. is is an urgent task in light of the globalization process that is expected to take deeper root after the completion of the economic adjustment programs in several Caribbean countries. is means that food policies that are limited to the acquisition of cheap foods without regard to their contribution to public health will prove to be short sighted and will retard the fight against obesity and chronic diseases. To provide specific evidence of the link between food and health a study was proposed to the Research Development Fund of the University of Technology, Jamaica with the following questions: 1. What are the commonly consumed food items that can significantly promote health? 2. Are there additional health benefits that particular foods can confer? 3. Are these healthy food items affordable by the most economically vulnerable?
Methods
A pilot survey was carried out during May 2014 using prices collected from the Jamaica Consumer Affairs Commission. is pilot survey indicated that costs varied across parishes and there were no parishes with consistently highest or lowest prices for foods. Data were collected from six parishes across Jamaica. In order to increase the applicability of the results, food prices were obtained from densely populated
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areas and from vendors which were most popular among consumers in each parish. e prices of one hundred and fifty eight commodities were sought during the month of June 2014. ese prices were collected from popular supermarkets, wholesale and open markets in each of the six selected parishes. Trained data collectors obtained prices from the open market on popular market days, i.e. Friday and Saturday, because open market prices changed depending on the day of the week. Produce was less expensive on weekend days. To determine which foods can significantly contribute to health the study ranked the commodities according to a wide range of classical nutrition factors (CFNI, 2011). ese classical criteria were associated with major chronic diseases prevalent in the Caribbean. Unlike other studies that merely compared high and low energy dense foods (Lipsky, 2009), this study included type of fat, vitamin, mineral and fibre content in classifying foods as healthy and less healthy. is approach also avoided the methodological weakness of comparing energy density with energy cost (Lipsky, 2009). Food composition data were used to determine the quantities of the relevant nutrients contained therein. Scores were allocated for each nutrient and then totaled to develop a Cumulative Rank Score (CRS). is score was used to rank the foods, both within food groups and overall. e food commodities were arranged by food groups and then according to their CRS, with the highest score being first and the lowest score last. Using results of an island-wide focus group study conducted in Jamaica (Samuda et al, 1998), the most commonly consumed foods in each group were identified. e foods were then placed into highest ranked and lowest ranked foods, and were considered the more healthy and less healthy foods. In addition to the classical ranking criteria, selected foods were also assessed according to their phytochemical content. e aim was to identify the food crops, “superfoods” that can be further prioritized for production by the agriculture sector in the Caribbean. Fruits and vegetables are well known for their high phytochemical profiles (Hung, 2004). Hence, fruits and vegetables were not included in this analysis. For this paper, seventeen of the top ranked staples and other plant foods were analyzed. e foods studied included only those that have not been modified by food manufacturers – i.e the natural superfoods. e functional cost to the consumer is not based solely on individual foods or individual food groups, but on the overall cost incurred in meeting daily nutrient requirements. For this reason, this study compiled the cost of one day’s requirement, using Population Nutrient Goals for the Caribbean (CFNI, 2011) which determined the cost of the daily intake if the recommended proportion of foods from each food group was utilized. Data were analyzed after careful verification of all food items and prices in the data set. e sizes, as sold, of all foods surveyed, were recorded and converted into
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weight measures. Where foods were in liquid form, their densities were used to convert volume measurements into weights. e cost per 100g of each commodity was then calculated using the cost and sale size. e average was calculated using the costs of the commodity in each parish. Averages reflected only the parishes in which the commodity was found, and was therefore not an average of six parishes in all cases. To determine the cheapest way to obtain a balanced diet this study used the Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute developed Nutrient Cost Analysis program (CFNI, 2011) that calculates the cost of food energy and protein from different food sources.
Results
Of the one hundred and fifty-eight foods surveyed, prices were obtained for one hundred and twenty five foods found in all six parishes. Most of the remaining foods were found in many but not all six of the surveyed parishes.
Q 1: What are the commonly consumed food items that can significantly promote health? Using the cumulative ranked score in relation to chronic disease Table 1 presents the commonly consumed food items which were highly ranked.
Table 1 : High ranked commonly consumed commodities by food group Food from Fats & Staples Vegetables Legumes Fruits Animals Oils Beef, Liver Coconut, Macaroni Callaloo Lentil Guava & Kidney dry Plantain/ Spinach Sardine in oil Avocado Chick pea Papaya Banana Pigeon (gungo) Yam Pak choi Tuna in oil Olive oil Jackfruit pea Soya bean Rice Okra Codfish, raw Red kidney bean Pomegranate oil Mackerel, Oats Carrot Ackee Split pea (green) Mango raw Chicken, Breadfruit Tomato Orange drumsticks Pumpkin Fish, Tilapia Soursop Potato sweet & Irish
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Table 2: Cost of obtaining daily Population Nutrient Goals Using foods commonly consumed in Jamaica
Food Group Cost (JMD) Difference Highest ranked Lowest ranked (highest –lowest) Staples 122.98 122.57 0.42
Vegetables 111.34 89.59 21.75
Foods from Animals 157.83 106.18 51.65
Legumes & nuts 48.46 41.00 7.46
Fats and Oils 23.00 15.57 7.43
Fruits 26.42 27.43 -1.02
Total 490.03 402.34 87.69
When costs were tallied, it was noted that to achieve the Population Nutrient Goals using these foods would cost more for the highest ranked foods. Overall, purchasing the highest ranked commonly consumed commodities cost approximately J$88 more than if lowest ranked foods were purchased instead. e most significant food groups were the Vegetables and the Foods from Animals which showed the largest cost difference (Table 2). Only one food group – Fruits, showed a marginal increased cost if the lowest ranked commodities were purchased over the highest ranked commodities.
Q 2: Are there additional benefits that particular foods can confer?
e study also showed the potential added health benefits from some of these foods. e ranking of added health benefit was based on the strength of the scientific evidence and the range of therapeutic action. Strikingly, some expensive foods such as pigeon peas, kidney beans and rolled oats have excellent added potential. But the study showed that cheaper foods such as breadfruit and sweet potato can also provide very good options.
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Q 3: Can the poor afford these healthy foods?
Table 2 indicates that using commonly consumed foods it will cost $490 for a 2400 Kcal diet. For a family of 3 over seven days the cost will be J$10,290 – which is well above the weekly minimum wage of $5,600. But is it possible to obtain a cheaper balanced diet that the poor might be able to afford? Table 3 sets out the composition of the food basket generated by the Nutrient Cost Analysis program using prices collected from selected outlets in 6 parishes across Jamaica in June 2014. e basket contains the cheapest items that can be selected from each food group. e table also shows that the cheapest cost on average of a nutritionally balanced diet of 2400 Kcals is J$269. e variations by parish are: Portland – J$308: St. Elizabeth – J$307: St James – J$259; St Ann – J$253; Manchester J$253 and Kingston & St Andrew (KSA) – J$215. Examining the composition by food group and items, the cereal sub-group within Staples was the most consistent across parishes for items selected in the baskets, with cornmeal, rice and flour appearing in all areas. In the Starchy foods/tubers group – yam and green banana featured in all areas with plantain being the next most frequently appearing item, followed by dasheen and breadfruit. In the vegetable group, frozen mixed vegetables appeared in the baskets for all parishes except for KSA while callaloo was seen in all the parishes outside of KSA. Green pigeon peas were only seen in the KSA basket. In the Fruit group, there was a fair amount of variability across parishes with ripe bananas being the most consistently appearing item except for St. James. Oranges and grapefruit juice were the next most common items in the parishes surveyed. e greatest variability was seen in the Food from Animals group although a few items within this group appeared frequently: e.g. beef liver and salted codfish which appeared in all parishes and chicken neck and back which were seen in 5 of the parishes. Of note is the frequency with which different types of offals featured in the baskets – no doubt reflecting the relatively cheaper prices for these items which are for the most part imported. In the Fats and Oils group the items were fairly consistent across parishes, and included coconut oil in all areas.
Discussion & Conclusions
is study is unique in six distinct ways. 1. A wide range of health criteria, related to the major health problems in Jamaica, was used. It utilized a method of measurement and ranking that
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Table 3: Average composition of low-cost nutritionally balanced food basket
Average cost of basket for 6 parishes = J$ 269.43
STAPLES Cornmeal, enriched, dry Wheat flour, counter Rice, enriched (long grain) Banana, green (fig) Yam (yellow) Dasheen Tannia, fresh, raw Breadfruit, fresh, raw SUGAR Sugar, dark brown, crude LEGUMES Red peas, with seeds, dry, raw Broad bean, with seeds, dry Pigeon (gungo) pea, whole seed, dry VEGETABLES Avocado pear Mixed vegetables, frozen, raw Callaloo, raw Corn, immature, raw, sweet FRUITS Grapefruit, fresh Banana, ripe Raisins, golden, seedless Orange, all varieties FOOD FROM ANIMALS Liver, beef, raw Kidney, beef Chicken, neck, raw Mackerel, canned, solid & liquid Stew steak, lean & fat, raw Codfish, salted Pork feet, trotters, Herring, smoked FATS & OILS Shortening, vegetable Margarine, hard, animal & vegetable fat Oil, coconut
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went beyond the mere high versus low energy-dense foods and hence eliminated the methodological weakness of that approach (Lipsky, 2009; Carlson, 2002). 2. It compared foods, not merely by selecting high and low ranked commodities, but by the proportions of those foods, in food groups, that will be required to meet the Population Nutrient Goals of a standard diet of 2400 Kcals. 3. It presented a numerical health rank (average CRS) for the different food groups that were compared. 4. It calculated the cheapest way to obtain a nutritionally balanced diet across six parishes and hence objectively estimated the vulnerability of low income groups in those communities. 5. It showed the foods that can be selected to obtain a nutritionally balanced meal at low cost – a health promotion tool. 6. It examined the cost of foods commonly consumed by Jamaicans – showing practicality and cultural relevance.
e following discussion addresses the three questions in the study. Although a healthy diet is determined by the combination of foods rather than a single food item, the identification of healthy foods shows those which can be used freely and frequently. e essence of dietary guidelines is to suggest the proportions of healthy and less healthy foods to be used in the diet (Mozaffarian, 2010; Henry, 2016). Table 1 presented a list of commonly consumed foods that can be used freely in food combinations. ese foods are low-cost and excel in terms of various health criteria. We contend that Caribbean agriculture and food security strategy must include cost and health as imperatives in advancing a food policy in the Region. Further, the variety of health gains that can be exploited from foods that are ranked high with both the classical and non-classical criteria cannot be ignored (Henry, 2015a). Decision-makers on food production in the Caribbean can therefore use these items as first priorities in making healthy foods available to the population. Obviously the overall agriculture policy will consider several other factors such as labor market, export potential, soil suitability, among others. e point, however, is that if we wish to reduce chronic diseases among the local population then key healthy food items must be made widely available and accessible. Table 2 also shows that the cost of foods commonly consumed in Jamaica supports the anecdotal claims made by consumers that a healthier diet is more expensive. Using this list to achieve the Population Nutrient Goals it shows the top ranked foods would require J$490, which is J$88 more than was required if
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the bottom ranked foods were used (J$402) (Henry, 2015b). is difference (approximately US$ 0.78) is less than the US$1.47 on average found in 27 studies in 10 countries (Rao, 2013). e widest cost variation was between the top and bottom ranked Vegetables and Foods from Animals. Consumers in the Caribbean frequently contend that Foods from Animals, (specifically meats, fish and poultry) and Vegetables were the food groups which tend to increase the dietary cost most when attempting to practice balanced nutrition. is concern is also observed elsewhere (Cassady et al, 2007). e results show that the cheapest cost of a nutritionally balanced diet (food basket) in Jamaica is on average – J$269. e latest available poverty prevalence (PIOJ, 2014) shows an overall rate for Jamaica of 19.9%. By parish, the comparable figures are: Portland – food basket [J$308] vs poverty [21.5%]; St. Elizabeth food basket [J$307] vs poverty [23.8%]; St James – food basket [J$259] vs poverty [11.2%]; St Ann – food basket [J$253] vs poverty [18.4%]; Manchester – food basket [J$253] vs poverty [22.5%]; and Kingston & St Andrew (KSA) – food basket [J$215] vs poverty [28.6%]. is comparison shows that KSA with the highest poverty rate had the cheapest basket. However, Portland and St. Elizabeth with relatively high poverty rates had the most expensive baskets. e KSA food basket figures reflect relatively lower prices in the Food from Animals, Vegetables and Fruit groups – which are the food groups of greatest concern to consumers and the groups that drive the overall food prices. ese results warrant further investigation especially as it relates to St. Elizabeth which is traditionally considered the “bread basket of Jamaica”. It is unclear how much the number of food outlets, and the resulting competition among them, affects the difference in prices among the parishes. is may well have some influence on the relatively lower prices in KSA compared to Portland and St. Elizabeth. It is striking that high food basket costs exist even in areas where poverty rates are also high. is points to the vulnerability of many families whether or not they get support from social safety net programs or from relatives. e method of analysis used in this study is clearly a powerful objective biological benchmark (unlike economic indicators) which can be used to quantitatively assess vulnerability of families particularly those in the lower income group. e study revealed that the cost of healthy meals chosen by Jamaicans is J$490. But it is still possible to obtain a healthy meal within the range of J$215 to J$307 across parishes, indicating that there is scope for vulnerable families to choose healthy options at a lower cost. e challenge is to inform consumers about the combinations of foods which could comprise a tasty, culturally appropriate nutritious diet at low cost. It is critical to point out that this food basket cost does
46 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean not include the cost of cooking (fuel, time and other ingredients). But just considering the raw foods, if the overall average cost of J$269 is used it can be estimated that a family of 3 will require approximately J$5,650 to secure balanced meals for one week. e minimum wage in Jamaica is J$5,600 which means that a single-income earning family will need to spend their entire income on food (raw) alone. is is clearly unsustainable and implies that such a family will opt to use less balanced options to fit their purchasing power. In reality, many families are larger and have more than one income earner and often family income is supplemented by remittances in cash or kind from home and abroad. e results nevertheless show the vulnerability of many families particularly those who have little support from the state or relatives. ese findings suggest that increasing the minimum wage will allow poor families to make better and healthier food choices if they use the additional cash for that purpose. It is recognized that a minimum wage increase will have ramifications for other sectors of the economy. ese findings nevertheless present a compelling case for a minimum wage increase.
The Way Forward
is study identified priority food commodities that should be promoted to impact health. It further showed particular foods that confer additional health benefits. While this link between food policy and health is highlighted, the study also points to the challenge of exploiting this link given that the overall costs of healthier foods are outside the purchasing range of the poorest in society. If the food system is failing to address the health concerns of the most needy it should be strategic to apply incentives to increase the accessibility of healthy foods and disincentives to reduce the less healthy options such as fats and sugars (Wang, 2005). Price differences in foods have led many to theorize that strategic taxes or other forms of price control could help to motivate consumers to make healthier food purchases (Drewnowski, 2004), but this may not necessarily translate into substitution with the less expensive item. Purchases also depend, among other things, on the income available for spending (Epstein et al, 2006). Nevertheless, incentives and disincentives for healthy and less healthy food items should be encouraged even though major challenges need to be overcome. Food price policy therefore remains attractive in attempts to influence food purchases. Lowering the prices of the healthy options may result in increasing their sales, but developing such policies is subject to considerable political and economic pressure. at pressure is even more intense when the option of taxation is considered (Marshall, 2000).
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e issue of taxing unhealthy foods has received increasing attention especially in the wake of the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health, which was approved by the member countries of the WHO in 2004 and the published cost-effective strategies (Cecchine, 2010). Unhealthy foods are cheaper and more accessible than ever before. In recent decades, the real price of food has fallen, particularly for energy-dense foods that contain higher levels of fats and sugars. Pre-packaged foods, fast food restaurant meals, and soft-drinks, all of which tend to be high in fat, sugar and calories, are all more easily accessible and cheap. Several countries have recognized the devastating effects of sugary beverages on the health of their population (Milio, 1998; Francis, 2009) and some have imposed taxes to reduce their consumption (Jacobson, 2000). Among the countries are France, Mauritius, Samoa, Tonga, Finland and French Polynesia. Some states within the USA have also introduced sugar taxes. Mexico’s sugar tax in 2014 showed a decline in the purchase of sugary beverages with an increase in water purchases. Recently, in their 2016 budget, the UK has imposed a levy on drinks with total sugar content above 5g per 100ml and a higher rate for drinks with more than 8g (NetCen, 2016). As expected the giant soft drinks industry immediately signaled their intention to sue the government. Caribbean countries have some of the highest obesity rates in the world but there is no widespread introduction of sugar taxation policies. During the 2015 budget, however, Barbados announced a new 10% sugar tax on all carbonated drinks, sports drinks, sweetened fruit juices and juice drinks. e aim is not only to reduce the risk of chronic disease but also to reduce the US$113 million Barbados spends on diabetes and hypertension each year. (Barbados Today, 2015) It should be recognized, however, that just by imposing a food tax may not create a strong incentive for consumers to make changes, especially if manufacturers decide to absorb the entire tax, leaving retail prices and consumers behavior unchanged. e tax rates imposed are often too small to affect purchases. (Jacobson, 2000) Another problem would be what foods are taxed. No benefits accrue if the tax simply induces substituting one snack food for another. How consumers might substitute particular types of highly processed food is not yet clear and it is only hoped and assumed that consumers would for example substitute fruit and vegetables for snack foods. Governments may also choose to address food related health problems by taxing imports of high-fat or high-sugar foods; however, such efforts will have to comply with rules governing international trade (Evans, 2000). In 2000, Fiji banned the importation of mutton flaps, an extremely fatty food, but to comply with its WTO obligations it had to ban the sale of all mutton flaps, not just imports. It is further argued (Kennedy, 2000) that a fat tax is regressive and ineffective because poor
48 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Food Policy and Chronic Disease in the Caribbean people spend a higher proportion of their income on food and poorer people tend to suffer most from obesity. Despite these debates, this study presents some incontestable reasons to rethink our agriculture and food policy in the Region, building upon the production/ sustainability orientation that already exist but incorporating issues related to diets, nutrition and health. Health and nutrition issues cannot continue to be mere appendages to agricultural and food policies but must be an integral part of strategies of several sectors of the economy. In the past, the issues of health status, food security, diets, and agricultural trade, have been approached in the Region as originating from disparate, unrelated sectors of the economy. However, there are strong links between and among these sectors, and recognizing and acting upon them can contribute to the sustainability of human development in the Caribbean.
Acknowledgements
We thank the University of Technology, Jamaica for providing funding, through the Research Development Fund managed by the University’s Research Management Office, the School of Graduate Studies, Research & Entrepreneurship. We also thank the UTech. Ja students – atcherlee Cole, Cassandrea Doiah, Rochelle Hutchinson, Susan Parkinson, Keena Jones and Roshelle Williams – who performed admirably in the field with data collection and entry. In addition, we are grateful for the patience and support of the operators of the supermarkets, wholesales, and municipal markets, who were vital to the success of this project.
References
Barbados Today (2015) “Tax on Sweet Drinks” . June 15 2015. Caribbean Food and Nutrition Institute (CFNI, 2011)), The Contribution of CFNI to Caribbean Development 2001 – 2010 . CFNI/PAHO, 2011. Carlson A, Frazao E. (2012) Are healthy foods really more expensive? It depends on how you measure the price. EIB-96. U.S. Department of Agriculture. Economic Research Service. May 2012. Cassady D. Jetter KM, Culp J. (2007). “Is price a barrier to eating more fruits and vegetables for low-income families ?” J Am Diet Assoc , 2007; 107 1909-15. Cecchine M, Sassi F, Lauer JA, Lee YY, Guajardo-Barron V, Chisholm D. (2010) “Tackling of unhealthy diets, physical inactivity and obesity: health effects and cost – effectiveness”. Lancet 376 No.9754 Nov 20 2010 1775-1784.
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Drewnowski A, Daemon N, Briend A. Replacing Fats and Sweets with Vegetables and Fruits – A question of cost . American Journal of Public Health. 2004; 94(9): 1555-1559. Epstein LH, Handley EA, Dearing KK, Cho DD, Roemmich JN, Paluch RA, Raja S, Pak Y, Spring B (2006), ‘ Purchases of food in youth. Influence of price and income’, Psychological Science. Journal of the American Psychological Society, 2006 Vol. 17 no. 1 pp. 82 –89. Evans M, Sinclair R, Fusimalohi C, Liav V. Globalization, Diet and Health: an example from Tonga . Bulletin of the World health Organization. 2001; 79(9):856 –862. Francis DK, Van den Broeck J, Younger N, McFarlane S, Rudder K, Gordon-Strachan G, Grant A, Johnson A, Tulloch-Reid M, Wilks R 2009, Fast-food and sweetened beverage consumption: association with overweight and high waist circumference in adolescents, Public Health Nutrition,2009, Vol. 12 no. 8 pp. 1106 –14. Henry FJ. 2011, “Obesity prevention: The key to non-communicable disease control”. West Indian Medical Journal, 2011; 60 : (4) 446 –451. Henry FJ., Allen S, Caines D, Eyre S. (2015a) “Low-Cost Superfoods in the Caribbean”. Journal of Integrated Food, Nutrition and Metabolism . 2015 Vol 3. 239 –242 Henry FJ., Caines D, Eyre S. (2015b) Healthy Eating in Jamaica: The Cost Factor . West Indian Medical Journa l 2015 64 : (2) 181 –185. Henry FJ. Caines D, Eyre S.(2016) “Promoting Caribbean Agriculture to promote Health: Beyond Dietary Guidelines”. Journal of Nutrition and Food Technology . Feb 2016 Vol 2 (1) Hung HC, Joshipura KJ, Jiang R et al. “Fruit and vegetable intake and risk of major chronic disease” J Natl Cancer Inst . 2004 96 (21) 1577-1584 Jacobson M, Brownell K. “Small taxes on soft drinks and snack foods to promote health”. Am. J. Public health . 2000; 90:854-857. Kennedy E, Offutt E. (2000) “Commentary: Alternative Nutrition outcomes using a fiscal food policy”. British Medical Journal 320 304-305. Lipsky LM (2009). “Are energy dense foods really cheaper? Re-examining the relation between food price and energy density”. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 2009; Vol 90: 1397-1401. Marshall T. “Exploring a fiscal food policy: the case of diet and ischemic heart disease”. British Medical Journal . 2000; 320:301-305. Milio N. European food and nutrition policies in action. Norwegian nutrition policy: progress, problems and prospects . WHO Regional Publications. European Series, 1998; 73:45 –62. Mozaffarian D, Ludwig DS. “Dietary guidelines in the 21st century – a time for food”. J Am Med Ass 2010: 304 681-2 NatCen Social Research. Budget 2016. March 16, 2016 PIOJ 2014. Planning Institute of Jamaica. Survey of living conditions 2012 .PIOJ 2014. Popkin BM (2006), ‘Global nutrition dynamics: the world is shifting rapidly toward a diet linked with non-communicable diseases’, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition , 2006, Vol. 84 no. 2 pp. 289 –98.
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Rao M, Afshin A, Singh G, Mozaffarian D. (2013). “Do healthier foods and diet patterns cost more than less healthy options? A systematic Review and meta-analysis”. BMJ Open 2013, 3 e004277.doi10.1136/bmopen-2013-004277 Samuda PM, Cook RA, Cook CM, Henry FJ. (1998) “Identifying foods commonly consumed by the Jamaican population: the focus group approach”. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 1998; 49 : 79-86. Wang S, Brownell K. “Public policy and obesity: the need to marry science with advocacy”. Psychiatry. Clin. N. Am . 2005; 28: 235-252
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 51 T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Adequate Housing for All A Philosophical Perspective
ANETHEO JACKSON Faculty of the Built Environment, University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
is paper offers a philosophical perspective on the agenda of the right to adequate housing for all. is housing agenda is directly linked to the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) which inherently calls upon member states to organize their housing systems to deliver adequate housing for all. e fundamental view taken in this paper is that this agenda on housing is grounded in the philosophy of social justice. However, the approaches to housing since the UDHR may be described as distinct periods of state versus market driven housing systems, which are grounded in different philosophical positions and have both failed to deliver housing justice. is paper presents a historical overview and a critical discussion of the liberalist philosophy and its application to housing. e conclusion is drawn that the market driven approach to housing lacks the relevant mechanism to deliver a ‘right’ to adequate housing for all. In this regard, it is concluded that an appropriate synthesis of the state and market driven approaches to housing is a more plausible apparatus to address the ideal of a right to adequate housing for all in any context. erefore, a deliberate application of dialectical thinking in designing and developing housing policies, practices and procedures is being proposed in order to achieve housing justice.
Keywords: Adequate Housing, Social Justice, Housing Justice, Dialecticism, Neo-liberalism
Introduction
When one seeks to understand the fundamental principles guiding housing policies it is difficult to pin-point a specific political philosophy or theoretical framework
Corresponding author: Anetheo A. Jackson, [email protected]
52 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective that explains the various approaches to housing over the decades. However, emphasis on adequate housing as a human right lends itself to considerations of social justice in housing. e Universal Declaration on Human Rights asserted that “everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for health, and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing…” (Article 25 (1), Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 1948). As such, Heads of State or Governments across the world affirmed their commitments to the right to adequate housing in the 1996 Istanbul Declaration on Human Settlements which advanced the UN Habitat’s agenda of adequate housing for all. e underlying view is that adequate housing is fundamental to social and economic development as well as to healthy individuals and community functioning (Mitchell, 1974). However, when one considers the ideal of the right to housing held by these countries and the conflicting elements in their respective social, economic and political systems, deliberations about philosophical positions and guiding principles in matters of housing is not only relevant it is essential. In this paper, the right to adequate housing for all is explored through the theoretical lens of social justice. A definition of social justice is therefore adopted and housing justice is defined. e fundamental objective of this paper is to explore and discuss critically, the efficacy of the liberalist based approach to housing and to relate this to the agenda of adequate housing for all through the notion of justice as freedom. In this vein, the ideologies of Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Mills are looked at briefly. is extends into a discussion and application of other philosophies to housing including Hegel’s dialectic. Following from this, a proposition of a plausible philosophical approach to devising housing policies is made in light of the contextual elements of societies and their shared goal of observing a right to adequate housing for all.
Social Justice
Social justice leads one to examine the work of early philosophers such as John Locke who posited that the rights of the individual, to which he often referred to as property, is the only absolute indefeasible right (Sabrine & orson, 1973). One also takes account of the work of Rawls (1971) who purported justice as fairness. In addition to justice as fairness, Rawls theorized about a social contract whereby he sought to define the relations among free and equal people and the state and procedures of justice as being an agreement/contract which frames a social order. Based on Rawls’ work freedoms, incomes, opportunities and outputs of society are to be distributed equally except in a case where to do otherwise would result in the
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greater good for all. He sought to devise a fair principle for distributing the benefits and burdens of a society. erefore, if the right to adequate housing is agreed by free and equal agents to be just, then a minimum requirement for justice in housing is adequate housing for all. To this end housing justice may be defined as “the socially and environmentally fair and just distribution of housing benefits in a society (Gurstein & Young, 2013, p. 77). As such, based on Rawls’ approach it is essential to agree on what constitutes a fair principle of distributing a country’s housing benefits and burdens if housing justice is to be observed. Social justice provides a plausible theoretical lens through which to explore the topic of housing justice as it steer away from myopic and hegemonic claims in interpretation. In other words, it presents a myriad of solutions through which countries can interpret the human rights based approach to housing. To see this, Jost & Kay’s (2010) synthesis of the literature on social justice is quite instructive. ey posited a definition for social justice that emphasized distributive, procedural and interactional justice. ey defined social justice as: a state of affairs (either actual or ideal) in which (a) benefits and burdens in society are dispersed in accordance with some allocation principle (or set of principles); (b) procedures, norms and rules that govern political and other forms of decision making preserve the basic rights, liberties, and entitlements of individuals and groups; and (c) human beings (and perhaps other species) are treated with dignity and respect not only by authorities but also by other relevant social actors, including fellow citizens (Jost & Kay, 2010, p. 1122). is comprehensive definition of social justice put forth by Jost & Kay (2010) sought to classify notions of social justice by tracing history, theories and philosophies. Note however, that they did not suggest a choice between distributive, procedural and interactional justice or propose any philosophical approach to allocating benefits and burdens in society. In fact, what is evident from their synthesis is that elements of social justice are quite discernible in some of the prevailing philosophies and theories which have been informing modern societies’ approaches to housing over the decades. In this regard, Jost & Kay’s (2010) definition of social justice bears strong significance to the human rights based approach to housing. It emphasizes the need for an appropriate allocation principle for housing and the types of procedures, norms and rules that govern decision making in housing that respects the rights, liberties, and entitlements of individuals, including the right to adequate housing for all. Of note, whereas some modern philosophers such as Rawls focussed on distributive justice, in more recent decades Iris Marion Young, a justice philosopher, proposed a new set of lens through which to view justice. According to Young
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(2011) justice is participatory in that it is self empowering. erefore in a society, structural or systemic arrangements or processes that diminish the individual’s ability to develop one’s capacities are considered to be injustice. Young’s work emphasized procedural and interactional justice. She theorized that oppressions and domination resulting from cultural norms, procedures, practices and rules that govern decision making are the foundation of injustice. e intuition from Young (2006) is that matters of injustice cannot be resolved by any direct redistributive system, individual or institution but instead by collective responsibility that produces the kind of structures, institutions and processes that will promote self expression and self determination. To this end, Young rejected the paradigm of distributive justice and the statist approach to justice. She purported principles of liberties that arguably present a broader scope for justice than fair distribution. Interestingly, Young’s (2006) ideology on the responsibility for justice highlights the notion that there can be no hegemonic claim on matters of social justice. To her, liability does not rest with any individual person or group, it is collective and connective and injustice is considered to be structural. Her rejection of the paradigm of distributive justice resembles the views of the sceptics about hegemonic claims on the meaning and methods to achieve social justice (omas, 1993). According to omas (1993), the sceptics are those who are opposed to hegemonic theorists of social justice. To them the meaning of justice is illusionary and tends more towards relativism. is means than there exists infinite conceptions and measures of social justice. Further, omas (1993) highlighted Aristotle’s concessions that distributive, procedural and interactional justice cannot be settled in one idea as that which favours the wealthy, oligarchic conceptions, will not favour the common people (omas, 1993). is also implies that neither state production and provision nor market driven housing systems can ensure justice as adequate housing for all. ese pronouncements are not debatable. erefore, in order to resolve the dilemma in social justice, sceptics propose a process oriented approach wherein compromises are sought through participatory processes (omas, 1993). Further, Lind (2014) argued that as societies develop overtime, changing socio-economic, environmental and political realities will change the welfare of the household. As such a human rights based approach to housing requires processes for adjustments where housing justice in concerned.
Justice as Freedom and the Right to Housing
In the last few decades, liberalist philosophies are quite discernible in matters of
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housing. Under a purely liberalist housing agenda, housing justice is largely based on the liberties of the individual to choose ones housing just as the owner of resources is free to choose to produce housing or any other good or service. e liberalist system requires that housing markets are well functioning with clearly defined property rights and a myriad of housing options and solutions for all groups. It implies that, with the exception of the fixities of land and real property, there are little or no barriers to entry to housing markets. at is, for example, transaction costs are low and government regulations can be readily adjusted to smooth out market imperfections where there exists inadequate housing for all. e fundamental principles of liberalism is generally attributed to the work of early liberalists, such as Adam Smith and David Ricardo who theorized that economic and social order is achieved by virtue of common, albeit individual interests (Heilbroner, 1986). Essentially, the invisible hand is the source of both social and economic order, with its major logical component being rational choice of the individual. is was a rigidly logical proposition. e belief is that the individual, once free to pursue individual interests, will make self maximizing choice which will necessarily result in optimality in the production of output and by extension wealth creation. To hold true to this logic, housing, like any other commodity would be allocated solely by the rigid logic of the market mechanism. Another ideal under the liberalist school of thought is property rights. is was borne out of the value attributed to land ownership as a source of wealth. is is an essential point to consider where adequate housing is concerned. Under the UN-Habitat framework for adequate housing the state is bound to protect the privacy and property rights of the individual though he or she is not entitled to land or property. On this point, liberalist, David Ricardo belaboured the point that inelasticities in the supply of land will necessarily result in excess earnings or economic rent to those who ‘own’ land (Heilbroner, 1986). He pre-empted issues with the distribution or allocation of a country’s housing output by virtue of a market mechanism. Ricardo, in his theory of rents, feared that the pendulum of wealth would necessarily be on the side of the propertied class. As such, his theory alluded to social injustice in land access. Given that land is arguably the most important input in housing these issues of wealth distribution and injustice are equally relevant to housing and therefore makes Ricardo’s theory a worthy consideration in modern housing policies. Further, on this point, John Stuart Mills (1848) brought focus to the fact that production does not necessarily dictate distribution. is brings focus to the question of the appropriate principle of allocating housing outputs. Although, perhaps unintended, Mills (1848) alluded to distributive injustice when he
56 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective purported that output, once produced, may be distributed however one sees fit. is implied that social ills or disadvantaged groups in society may not be able to access much needed goods and services such as shelter and housing regardless of the quantity and quality of the housing stock. is line of thinking deviates from the idealistic view of liberalism wherein the market is the sole producer and allocator of inputs and outputs. It implies that if left solely to the market mechanism, the right to housing would not be observed as the right to adequate housing is arguably based on ethical principles of collective good whereas the market is driven by a logical principle of efficiency and individualism. is view is perhaps best supported by Knight’s (2011) comments in his paper on the theory of economic value. He purported that the “theory of economic liberty was really an illogical inference from implicit ethical judgments of the confused and shifting character to be expected in premises not made carefully explicit”(Knight, 2011, p. 30). According to him the theory is based on factual errors as one fundamental shortcoming is that though equal freedom affords one to do whatever one desires with his own property, it will allow those with property to utilize said property to acquire more thereby perpetuating inequities and injustices. Almost a century after Mills came the rise of Keynesianism which promoted state involvement in all aspects of economy in response to the great depression. Liberalism resurfaced with a modified method, neo-liberalism. Under the neo liberalist agenda, the concerns of some of the early classicalists were to be addressed by the state as a facilitator, mainly of the right kind of macroeconomic conditions and policy frameworks needed to promote competition and wealth creation. To this end, where housing is concerned, deregulation of financial markets, cutting back or removal of housing subsidies and elimination or avoidance of price control mechanisms such as rent control were outputs of this modified approach (Sandhu, 2004). ese kinds of strategies have been dubbed as the enabling approach to housing which has grown in dominance since the 1980s. It is predicated on the ideas of self-help and market driven housing. e fundamental idea under the enabling approach was to strengthen the private sector and equip private players to produce housing and ultimately remove that function from the state. ese policy measures were based on the ideology of allocating housing through the market mechanism based on the forces of demand and supply rather than on housing need. Note that the right to adequate housing for all demands that housing systems address both housing demand and housing need.
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Liberalism and Housing Injustice
It is notable that the current housing situations in many countries may be taken as evidence that the enabling approach has not adequately delivered a human rights based approach to housing. Under the right to adequate housing for all, housing injustice exists where people are: (1) homeless and (2) inadequately housed. Inadequate housing is manifested as unaffordable, insecure tenure and uninhabitable dwellings. Further, housing that fails to meet the standard of accessibility and that are for example, located in areas that are unsafe or cut-off from employment are inadequate and therefore unjust. Essentially, these are indicators that the housing benefits and burdens of a society are not distributed fairly across the society and that welfare is not being maximized. Inequities such as homelessness, proliferation of slums and squatter settlements, informal and inadequate housing conditions and tenure insecurities are some of the ills that are arguably inextricably linked to the failure of the market mechanism in delivering justice in housing. Notably, in this era, there are vast numbers of underserved groups which live in conditions of poor or inadequate housing. Typically, the underserved include vulnerable groups such as the elderly, persons with disabilities, the unemployed, single-parent households and lower income households that are not able to participate in the housing market. As such, the principle of justice of freedom falls short of the standard of a right to adequate housing. In order to address the shortcomings of the market driven approach, countries have been adopting programmatic or project type interventions in housing that targets select groups. ese responses range from government regulations such as rent control and housing subsidies, regularization of tenure status and upgrading of slums and squatter settlements, variable interest rate mortgages, mortgage insurance schemes, tax incentives to developers and homebuyers, among others. ese initiatives are generally aimed at the neediest households and underserved members of the population but in many cases they do not reach the intended beneficiaries. e corollary of the foregoing is that the focus on individual interest in liberalism and neo-liberalism hints at a dilemma in achieving housing justice. However, the literature on social justice indicates that humans value justice and that the pursuit of individual interest is not mutually exclusive with the pursuit of social justice (Brosnan, 2006; Brosnan & DeWaal, 2003). For the libertarians, freedom entitles everyone to his or her own idea of justice. erefore, whereas the emphasis on housing demand versus need may be seen as injustice to some, to others the equal
58 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective freedom and opportunity for inclusion and to participate in ones housing decisions may be seen as justice for all. Additionally, it must be noted that the feature of participatory decision making in housing fits well within the UN-Habitat’s framework for adequate housing (UN-Habitat, Fact Sheet No. 21, n.d.). On the other hand, freedom to participate does not overshadow the stark housing conditions and poor living standards in many countries.
Dialectical Thinking and Housing Justice
Fundamentally, housing as a human right brings greater focus to the role of the state in housing than the liberalists and neo-liberalist agendas accommodate. According to Korzeniewski & Sandhu (2004, p. 3) under the market driven housing approach “the role of the government was to emphasise on the provision of housing finance mainly and to rationalise the subsidies by reduction and improved targeting. In terms of the policy and lending instruments, it was again to concentrate on housing finance projects”. To this end, the state would intervene mainly to address the housing needs of low income households. is can be linked directly to the states’ obligation to fulfil under the right to adequate housing. Accordingly, a passive role of government as enabler or facilitator as put forth by the neo-liberalist approach to housing which has been popularized since the 1980s is likely to be less than adequate to deliver on its obligation to fulfil. Dialectical thinking provides a logical approach to examine the dichotomy between the market and the state in matters of housing. Specifically, market driven housing systems are based on ideals of freedom and individualism not moral or ethical principles of welfare maximization. With regards to the right to adequate housing, this hints at the need for a higher moral authority to address the housing needs of some groups. In this regard, the state’s obligation to protect, respect and fulfil the right to adequate housing must be carefully interpreted and properly articulated particularly in housing systems that emphasizes individualism but lacks the kind of housing markets that can addresses the ideal of adequate housing for all. From a philosophical perspective, in exploring the role of the state in relation to housing, Hegel’s dialectic proved to be a very instructive starting point. Hegel opposed, or rather attacked individualism as a theory of society (Sabine & orson, 1973). He saw the state as the only source of moral guidance. To him “the state is not means but end. It represents the rational ideal in development and the truly spiritual element in civilization, and as such it uses, or perhaps in a metaphysical sense, creates civil society for the achievement of its own ends” (Sabine & orson,
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1973, p. 598). His dialectic implies that the pursuit of individual interests as the source of social order is fallible. Accordingly, Hegel’s state is bound by a duty to administer a system that protects the individual’s right and his right to property. In other words, the state has higher order moral, political and socio-economic functions. erefore, whereas the pure liberalists saw the freedom for rational pursuits of individual interests as the source of justice, to Hegel the State is the only true source. His line of argument supports the notion of the states’ obligation to fulfil, respect and protect the individuals’ freedoms and entitlements under a human rights based approach to housing as put forth by the UN Habitat. Hegel’s dialectic, presents a logical apparatus or in other words, a valid methodology, for interpreting and understanding rights such as the rights to housing and the means by which to achieve this right. Specifically, Hegel’s dialectic presents a valid approach to understanding the seemingly antithetical arrangements and functions of modern housing systems by taking account of the historical context and the legal and political arrangements of a country. To this end, the antithesis of housing markets in modern housing systems comprised of new housing institutions and, for example, antiquated or outdated legal and regulatory land use and building regulations and large populations of underserved groups can be appropriately dissected and adjusted in order to address issues of housing injustice. It must be noted that to a large extent, the focus of Hegel’s philosophy was religion and metaphysics and that Hegel’s state bears some stark differences from the state of today. Of note, structural and institutional differences of modern societies are mere manifestation of the roles of the state. erefore, the underlying difference between Hegel’s state and that of modern societies, rest in the metaphysical; the underlying belief that the state reflects a common thread of morals. In comparing Hegel’s state then with modern state in many societies that are comprised of varied degrees of polycentrism the idea of a common thread of morals upon which Hegel’s ethical state and philosophy of rights is predicated can be problematic. Another distinguishing feature of Hegel state is that it assumes sovereignty of nations. erefore, whereas by itself globalism, for example, does not depart from Hegel’s views, any arrangement that diminishes the sovereignty of a nation departs from Hegel’s philosophy of the state. Notwithstanding issues of sovereignty of nations in today’s context, his dialectic presented an intellectual method whereby he elaborated on contradictions in trying to provide understanding and reason in how societies work. It is essential to reiterate that despite Hegel’s fundamental view that the state is the only true source of moral guidance, he conceded that there are interdependencies among institutions in society and that the state needs other states
60 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective in order to function. erefore, Hegel’s conception allows for interdependencies among states. It also allows for various forms of institutional arrangements that recognize the moral leadership and active involvement of the state in unison with the market mechanism as put forth by neo-liberalism. However, there is no prescription on the appropriate ratio of state versus private sector involvement in housing as has been the case in modern approaches which advocates for minimizing state intervention in housing production and allocation. Additionally, there is no prescribed system or institutional arrangements to achieve housing justice. erefore, under Hegel’s concession, how countries interpret the goal of adequate housing for all and the role of the state as enabler or facilitator of housing should ultimately be contextual and not one-sized-fits-all. It must be noted however that Hegel’s philosophy posits that there is greater and ultimate responsibility on the state. Based on the fundamental ideas of dialecticism, the coexistence of housing systems which emphasize moral ideals and liberalist means of achieving same presents a sort of convenient conflict that is a motivating factor for change, even in a metaphysical sense – thesis, anti-thesis, synthesis. Dialectical thinking demands consideration of the interdependencies of the various parts of a society and its housing system. Invariably, it demands the kind of reflective view of housing justice that considers the thesis of the market driven housing system alongside the apparent antithesis of implicit welfare-based human rights approach to housing. In addition to this, even in an era of globalization and anti-statism, dialectical thinking allows for countries to define for themselves their absolute rights or continuum of housing rights, their indicators of such rights and for these to motivate the synthesis of their respective housing systems in order to achieve housing justice. Further, it is a more plausible approach when one considers the idea that the right to adequate housing for all implies a spatialization of human rights which cannot be treated as homogenous across societies.
Conclusion
In modern, pluralistic societies housing systems that are guided by purely liberalist ideals has fallen short in delivering on the right to adequate housing for all. Differing societies with varied historical backgrounds and socio-economic and political contexts are likely to require more than a modified liberalism. at is, neo- liberalism, which emphasises state intervention for marco-economic stability in hope that spill-over benefits will occur or that standardized housing interventions will take care of the un-propertied classes in society is not infallible.
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In light of these realities, it is understandable, that given the characteristic feature of pluralism in matters of housing, no universal principle or general consensus on the philosophical conception of social justice in housing policy and practices is advocated to deliver housing justice or to execute a human rights approach to housing policies. According to Young (2011) there is no system of distribution that will ensure justice therefore emphasis on distributive justice is fallible. e intuition from this is that at least in some contexts it is the cultural norms, procedures, processes and practices that must be addressed in order to avoid reproducing and perpetuating housing injustice. In other settings, it can be argued that justice in housing requires a modified distributive mechanism. erefore, a dialectical approach which proposes an appropriate synthesis of the strengths and weaknesses of the market and the state in delivering adequate housing for all is necessary. In such a context, dialectical thinking on housing allows for countries to develop its systems of property rights whilst acknowledging the different bargaining positions of the propertied and non- propertied classes in society in addressing their individual housing needs. It allows for housing policy developers and practitioners to take account of their country’s history, economic, social, cultural, environmental and political contexts in devising a fair principle for allocating the housing benefits and burdens in society. To this end, the work of earlier philosophers such as Hegel should prove relevant and instructive in that it proposes to understand and perpetuate the underlying values and morals of each society in devising a synthesis that works. is is a necessary condition in determining a fair principle for distribution as was contemplated by John Rawls, and the required processes, systems, structures, procedures, norms, practices and rules of decision making that will promote housing justice as proposed by the work of Iris Marion Young.
References
Arrow, K. (1963). Social Choice and Individual Values. Wiley: New York Bolen, F. & Terzi, F. (n.d.). An Analysis of the Relationship between Housing and Economic Development. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/417596/ Brosnan, S. F. (2006). Nonhuman species’ reactions to inequity and their implications for fairness. Social Justice Research , No. 19 Brown, C. (2002). State and Nation in 19th Century International Political Theory. London. LSE Research Online. http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/archive/00000745. Burgess, R. et al (1997). Cities, the State and the Market in Rod Burgess, Marisa Carmona and Theo Kolstee (eds). The Challenge of Sustainable Cities . Zed Books. London.
62 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Adequate Housing for All: A Philosophical Perspective
Chin, L. (2004). Public Housing Governance in Singapore: Current Issues and Challenges. Retrieved from: https://www.housingauthority.gov.hk/hdw/ihc/pdf/phgslc.pdf. Chiu, R. (2004). Socio-Cultural Sustainability of Housing: A Conceptual Exploration. Housing, Theory and Society Vol. 21 p. 65 –76 Forrest, R. and Lee, J. (2013). Housing and Social Change: East-West Perspectives . London and New York: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group Gurstein, P. & Young, M. (n.d.) Housing Justice: A Human Rights Approach. World Academy of Science and Technolog y Vol. 76 p. 74–80. Venice, Italy. Heilbroner, Robert. (1986). The Worldly Philosophers . 5th Edition. Published by Simon and Schuster. New York. Harvey, J. (2000) Urban Land Economics . 5th Edition. Macmillan, Basingstoke; Hants. HM Treasury (2005, July) Housing Policy: an overview . Retrieved from https:www.hm- treasury.gov.uk Jacobs, K. (2012). Housing and Demographic Change. Housing, Theory and Society. Vol. 29 (2) pp. 141–144. Jost, A. & J. Kay (2010) Social Justice: History, Theory and Research. Retrieved from www.onlinelibrary.wiley.com Last accessed November 26, 2015 Knight, F. (2011). The Problem of Value in Economic Theory. Research in the History of Economic Thought and Methodology , Vol. 29-B, pages 15–37. Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Lane, T. & Mulroy, E. (2015) "Housing Affordability, Stress and Single Mothers: Pathway to Homelessness". The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare . Vol. 19 No. 3 Lind, H. (2014). A Human Rights Based Approach to Housing Policy: A critical and normative analysis . Working Paper No. 4, Department of Real Estate and Construction Management. https://ideas.repec.org/p/hhs/kthrec/2014_004.html Last Accessed October 8, 2017. Loton, S. (2004). Low-Income Communities: Facing the problems of adequate housing in Bangladesh Agenda: Emerging Issues. International Conference on Adequate & Affordable Housing for All – Toronto. Malpezzi, S. (1999). "Economic Analysis of Housing Markets in Developing and Transitioning Countries" in Handbook of Regional and Urban Economics . Eds. E. Mills & P. Chesire. Elsevier Science. Manoochehri, J. (2009). Social Policy and Housing: Reflection on Social Values. Retrieved from www.discovery.ucl.ac.uk/ Last accessed November 26, 2015. Mayo, S. (1991). "Housing Policy and Housing Research: The View from the World Bank". Housing Finance International. Merton, R. (1996). On Social Structure and Science /Robert K. Merton. Ed. Piotr Sztompka. University of Chicago Press: Chicago and London Mills, J. (1848). Principles of Political Economy . The Standard Library Company, London. Mitchell, R. (1974). “Sociological Research on the Economic Myths of Housing”. Journal: Social Problems : Vol. 22 No. 2
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Moyo, D. (2004). “The Low Income Housing Dilemma in Developing Countries. Tracing the socially constructed nature of key themes”. International Conference, Toronto. Retrieved from www.urbancentre.toronto.ca last accessed November 27, 2015. National Pro Bono Resource Centre (2011). Occasional Paper #1 – What is Social Justice? Retrieved from www.nationalprobono.org.au/ Last accessed November 26, 2015 Rawls, J. (1971). Justice as Fairness: A Restatement (Harvard University Press, 2001); abbreviated JF Ricketts, M. (1981). “Housing Policy: Towards a Public Choice Perspective”. Journal of Public Policy . Vol. 1 No. 4 pp. 501 -522 Sabrine, G. & Thorson, T. (1973). A History of Political Theory . 4th Edition. Harcourt Brace College Publishers: Orlando, Fl. Sandhu, K. & Korzeniewski. S. (2004). “The Impact of Neo-liberal Ideology on Housing Policy and Practice.” ITPI Journal . Retrieved from www.itpindia.org last accessed November 25, 2015 Simons, L. (1988). “Overview: Housing Options for the 1990s Toward a New National Housing Policy”. Yale Law & Policy Review . Vol. 6. No. 2 Smit, W. (2006) International Trends and Good Practices in Housing: Some Lessons For South African Housing Policy. Development Action Group. Retrieved from www.DAG.Website\Pubs2006\Internationaltrendsandgood practicesinhousing.doc. Last Accessed April 24, 2016 Spicker, P. (2014). An Introduction to Social Policy: Housing and Urban Policy . Titmuss, R. (1978). “Welfare and Society”. Journal of Social Policy : Vol. 7 (3) Thomas, A. (1993). “The Antinomies of Social Justice”. The Review of Politics , Vol. 55, No. 2. Retrieved from www.jstor.org/stable/1407878. Last accessed November 26, 2015. U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (2014). Continuity and Change: Demographic, Socioeconomic and Housing Conditions of American Indians and Alaska Natives. www.huduser.org. editing United Nations (n.d.) Universal Declaration of Human Rights. http://www.ohchr.org/ EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf. Last Accessed October 8, 2017 Walzer, M. (1983). Spheres of Justice. Basic Books: New York. Wakely, P. (2014). Urban Public Housing Strategies in Developing Countries: Whence and Wither Paradigms, Policies, Programmes and Projects. Development Planning Unit, Bartlett University College of London. Retrieved from www.bartlett.ucl .ac.uk/dpu/latest/publications/dpu-reflections last accessed April 26, 2016 Wirth, L. (1947). “Housing as a Field of Sociological Research”. American Sociological Review. Vol. 12, No. 2 Young, I. (2006). “Responsibility and Global Justice: A Social Connection Model”. Social Philosophy and Policy Foundations: University of Chicago, USA. https://www.biu .ac.il/law/cjdl/doc/Young_2006.pdf. Last accessed September 10, 2018.
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Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica The Devil and the Details
ELLEN CAMPBELL GRIZZLE College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica RASHEED PERRY, MPHN STUDENT College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
In April 2015, the Government of Jamaica amended the Dangerous Drugs Act that ushered in the Medical Cannabis industry. is Act established a decrimalization regime that places fines on possession of small amounts of Cannabis (ganja) and allows each household to have five plants. Sacramental use is permitted. In May 2015, the Minister of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining issued two orders to both the to the University of Technology, Jamaica and the University of the West Indies. Mona. e University of Technology, Jamaica used the order for the purpose of spurring research into the medical use of ganja so that the University , its stakeholders and the country could chart ways to benefit from the growing global Cannabis industry. is exploratory paper describes the process of adoption of this new opportunity by the University of Technology, Jamaica. Analysis of the chemo- typical findings of the first 189 cultivars grown by the University and its affiliates are presented. ese samples were tested using the Steep Hill Quantacann 2 designed to generate results within 5 minutes. Results reveal 87% of the chemovars were classified as chemotype I. e highest THCA content was recorded at 24% with less than 2% CBDA while the highest CBDA content recorded was 10.3% with less than 2% THC Chemotype 1 samples indicate high medicinal potential for neuropathic pain management, opioid addiction treatment and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Prospects of this new business to bring investment, wealth and technical expertise to the University are shared. e paper presents promising results from the first fledgling fruits of effort through international and national alliances despite barriers and challenges.
Corresponding author: Ellen Grizzle, [email protected]
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Keywords : Marijuana, Cannabis, Ganja, Cannabinoids, Psycho-activity, Medical Cannabis, Jamaica, Chemovars, Chemotypes, Amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act,
Introduction
In April 2015, the Government of Jamaica amended the Dangerous Drugs Act (DDA) to decriminalize the use of Cannabis and to permit the sacramental use of the drug. is incremental move in Jamaican legislation represented, at that time, the most permissive reform on Cannabis (Ganja) legislation passed by a Jamaican government, short of legalizing the use of ganja in Jamaica. As a signatory to the United Nation’s Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, 1961, Jamaica is bound to the terms of that Convention. According to the Single Convention, Cannabis is placed in Schedule 1 as a substance with no medicinal use. In 2015, Jamaica joined countries like Canada, Uruguay, Israel, and several states in the United States that have passed legislation to allow the use of Cannabis for medicinal purposes thus testing the UN stance on the issue and nudging the global entity to reconsider its position. In keeping with the DDA (2015) amendment, Universities and other research entities were granted special orders by the Ministry of Science, Technology, Energy and Mining to engage in Cannabis cultivation, research and development for the advancement of science and for medicinal purposes. is order permitted a narrow scope of operations that provided an opportunity for the University of Technology, Jamaica to engage in further research into the ganja plant and to work with interested parties to identify new cultivars and chemovars, test, formulate products, conduct clinical trials, and engage in other innovations. Such activities will push the assertion that Cannabis has medical purposes. However, this decision to foster research and development of Cannabis-based medicines was not universally accepted. e United States of America held to its position expressed in the Single Convention on Narcotics, 1961, that Cannabis was Schedule 1, having no medicinal purpose. e opinions of Jamaicans toward the new legislation is ambivalent. ere are those who are unhappy that Ganja was not legalized while there are others who, for various reasons, believe that the potential for medical use of Ganja is real. Others are concerned about academic and behavioural problems that arise from the use of Ganja. (DeLaHaye. Jamaica Gleaner, October 9, 2016). According to Anderson (2013), findings of a national Knowledge, Attitude, Behavior and Practice (KABP) that he conducted revealed
66 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details that 56 per cent of those interviewed saw good prospects for the use of ganja for medicinal purposes, while 15 per cent were more interested in the economic gains from expanded use. ere are still professionals who are skeptical about the long- term impact of Cannabis use on the brains of young people and worry that decriminalization signals societal approval for general use. Enforcing the restrictions posed by decriminalization and diffusing existing skepticism are critical to reaping the benefits that can be attained from a Medical Cannabis Industry in Jamaica. However, there is a plethora of scientific papers attesting to the medicinal potential of Cannabis e work of Raphael Mechoulam in the 1970’s identified the endogenous Endocannabinoid System (ECS) and identified associated neurotransmitters and mechanisms of action. is pioneering work established the scientific basis on which Cannabis works in the body. More recently there are randomized control studies that have investigated Cannabis for the treatment of neuropathic pain (Andreae, 2015), headache disorders (Lochte, 2016) and diabetic neuropathy (Wallace, 2015), among others. Work needs to be done on pain associated with Sickle Cell Disease from which people of African descent suffer . According to the Sickle Cell Foundation of Jamaica, 10% of the Jamaican population carry the trait. In the Jamaican context, Cannabis has been described as endemic (Rubin & Comitas,1975). Its use is traced back to the arrival of the Indians in 1845. e first clinical investigations in Jamaica began with the work of Professor Manley West in the 1960s. Professor West along with Dr. Lockart developed and manufactured Canasol drops (for glaucoma in the 1980s’) and Asmasol ( for Asthma in the 1990s). Dr. West used plants seized from police raids of illegal farms with special permission from the Ministry of National Security to do his research and product development. Criticism is made of this source for the raw material used in his products and the challenges posed to standardization. However, these products have been sold on the Jamaican market for over two decades. Jamaica can boast a rich legacy of use, invention, innovation and cultural familiarity that has earned the island’s Cannabis chemovars unparallel global mystique. However, to enter the international Medical Cannabis industry, the basic foundational science and technology have to be employed to deepen the understanding of those factors that contribute to the unique Jamaican chemovars. On this information, scientists will then layer the chemical, pharmacological and pharmaceutical knowledge needed to generate new medicines with national and global applicability and acceptability. However, moving from basic research to Medical Cannabis will require major investment in the University so that local scientists can be prepared through
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training and credentialing to be involved in the clinical studies needed to provide proof of safety and efficacy of new products. ere is also the need for external investment to refurbish and build a new state of the art full service health research facility for research and treatment. erefore, the University has to create a strategy to get to the final goal through incremental advances. Persons with the training and orientation to function in this globally competitive sector need to be identified to attract such investments and partnerships. With the current situation, much can be accomplished to build the reputation of the University as a resourceful performer in the Medical Cannabis space. is paper represents the start of a process of discovery with a grander scheme in mind.
Purpose
e purpose of this study is to characterize cannabis chemotypes in the Jamaican landscape, identifying the major cannabinoids found and postulating prospects for future development in the Medical Cannabis space.
Literature Review
Current research and technological advancement have allowed deeper investigation into the Cannabis plant and greater understanding of its many and varied chemovars. An important question that remains to be answered is which of the many varieties of Cannabis should be made available for medicinal use. Unravelling the many chemovars will go a far way in providing fundamental solutions to standardization of Cannabis varieties for medicinal purposes e Cannabis Plant is divided into three separate species: Cannabis sativa, Cannabis indica and Cannabis ruderalis. Cannabis sativa however represents the largest and most diverse of the species and is often referred to as marijuana by American farmers and as sativa by medical cannabis users (Hazekamp A, 2007). In Jamaica, Cannabis of all varieties is referred to as ganja. Of the many constituents of the cannabis plant, the trichomes (head cells of glandular hairs) secretions have generated a lot of interest. ese trichomes are located all over both the male and female plants but are concentrated particularly in the female inflorescence (Clarke R.C and Watson D. P, 2007). e tips of the trichome stalks consists of solitary resin glands which secrete an aromatic terpenoid resin that has a high cannabinoid content that collects under the membrane of the secretory cells. e male plants are of no significance to medicinal extract production as they develop very few
68 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details trichomes which lead to a low production of terpenes or cannabinoids (Clarke R.C and Watson D. P, 2007). erefore, the buds of the female plants are ideal for the obtaining of medical grade pure extracts that can now be ascertained and used in the development of new drugs. e cannabis plant contains components that are termed phytocannabinoids. ese cannabinoids are known to have varying medicinal benefits including analgesic, anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive properties (Brenneisen R, 2011 and Weiss et al, 2005). ese biosynthesized cannabinoids exist has prenylated aromatic carboxylic acids and as such in the fresh plant, no neutral cannabinoids can be found. ese cannabinoids can however be converted to their neutral homologues through the process of decarboxylation in the presence of heat or light (Aizpurua-Olaizola et al, 2016). e most studied cannabinoids include Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), Cannabidiol (CBD), Cannabigerol (CBG), Tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), Cannabichromene (CBC), Cannabidivarin (CBDV) and Cannabinol (CBN) (Russo E, 2011). As the basis of its medicinal applications, the plant has been categorized based on its chemical components namely THC and CBD which are the most studied of all the cannabinoids. According to Aizpurua-Olaizola et al (2015), cannabis spp that are classified as drug-type are classified based on the ratio of cannabinoids present; THCA: CBDA. ose classified as chemotype I had a THCA: CBDA ratio >>1.0, chemotype II 0.5 – 2.0 and chemotype III <<1.0, chemotype IV are those plants which main constituent is Cannabigerolic Acid (CBGA) and chemotype V which contains almost no cannabinoids. e chemotyping of the plant was determined by the presence of the two most dominant co-alleles, BD and BT, which are responsible for the formation of the non-neutral forms of THC and CBD; Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid (THCA) and Cannabidiolic Acid (CBDA). erefore, plants which are classified as chemotype I consist of BT/BT alleles, chemotype II has two different alleles, BD/BT and chemotype 3 consist of BD/BD alleles. Chemotype IV on the other hand, consists of alleles referred to as B0 within their loci and are thus not able to convert CBGA, which has led to its predominance within this chemotype (Meijer et al, 2003) e most abundant in the cannabis drug chemotypes and studied cannabinoid, Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol is one of 60 phytocannabinoids within the cannabis plant. It is produced in the plant by the co-dominant allele with CBD. However due to effect in inducing psycho-activity, dependence and tolerance, its usefulness has been limited (Zhornitsky S and Potvin S, 2012 and Ryan et al, 2009). It is known that the phytocannabinoid bind to receptor sites which are activated by the body’s own endogenous cannabinoids such as anadamide and 2-arachdonylglycerol.
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Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabidiol acts in a similar manner as a partial agonist at the cannabinoid CB1 receptors which are found in the central nervous system and cannabinoid CB2 receptors which are primarily found on cells of the immune system. (Zhornitsky S and Potvin S, 2012). Tetrahydrocannabinol, is considered psychoactive but does provide pharmacological benefits such as analgesic, anti-emetic, appetite stimulant and antispasmodic (Colbert M, 2014). According to Madras and Hospital ( 2015), patients suffering from neuropathic pain caused by HIV-associated sensory neuropathy who smoked cannabis containing 3.5% THC had reductions in the intensity of pain felt when expressed on an experimental pain model. e data revealed that 52% of the patients had greater than 30% reduction in pain when compared to the placebo group which only saw a decrease of 24%. e effects observed with patients smoking cannabis was comparable to that of oral drugs used to treat chronic pain (Madras and Hospital, 2015). In another study led by Wallace et al, 2015, a randomized, double blinded placebo-controlled crossover study was conducted with 16 patients that suffered from painful diabetic peripheral neuropathy. ey were assessed based on the short-term efficacy and tolerability of inhaled cannabis. e results showed at concentrations of 1% and 4%, patients had modest reductions in spontaneous pain by 66.7% and 70.3% respectively in comparison to the placebo which only reduced pain by 61.2%. However, as the dosage increased to 7%, the efficacy of the treatment decreased and side effects such as impaired cognition and euphoria predominated within the patient population. e next most prevalent phytocannabinoid in some chemotypes, CBD, has been shown to exhibit versatility in its pharmacological effects in addition to modulating the effects of THC induced adverse effects such as tachycardia, anxiety, hunger and sedation in both rats and human subjects by antagonizing the CB 1 receptors at low nanometers. It also acts as an analgesic, has a more potent antioxidant effect than that of ascorbic acid or tocopherol without inhibiting COX. It also agonizes TRPV1 to capsaicin without noxious effects while reducing the uptake of anandamide and its subsequent hydrolysis (Klein T, 2005). According to Comelli et al, 2009, CBD shows promise in the treatment of diabetic induced neuropathy and oxidative stress. e administration of a CBD extract in a rat model showed great anti-hyperanalgesia, decreased allodynia, improved thermal perception, nerve growth factor levels and decreased damage due to oxidation (Comelli et al, 2009). e parent phytocannabinoid, CBG, has been shown to have a weak agonistic effect on the CB 1 and CB 2 receptor sites. It normally exists as low concentration intermediate in the fresh plant but through recent trends in plant breeding, species
70 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details have been expressed with primarily CBG in high concentrations. It has been shown however to inhibit the proliferation of keratocytes which adds to its usefulness in psoriasis treatment, it also strongly inhibits the uptake of anandamide (Russo et al, 2010) and a powerful agent against Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) infection (Appendino et al, 2008). In addition, research published by Cascio et al, 2010 has shown that CBG is a moderate 5-HT 1A antagonist which signifies antidepressant properties. For the purpose of Medicinal Cannabis, the decriminalization of the plant in the Jamaican context has now allowed for open research into the plant material and its cannabinoids. Research has been published in relation to the cannabinoids previously mentioned, but little data exist on the chemotypes that exist in Jamaica. e chemotype of Cannabis, shaped by its morphology and environmental factors, can assist with standardization of plants and identification of their zone of cultivation and differentiation in cultivation practices. In recent times, plants which have been enhanced to produce predominately alleles which produce more than 15% CBD and less than 1% THC, as CBD based on its many medicinal indications and non-psychotic contraindications makes it a suitable candidate for drug development (Aizpurua-Olaizola et al, 2016). A therapeutic window for cannabis however has not been established and most clinical trials use THC concentrations of 1 –23 % (Madras and Hospital, 2015). Currently, only one cannabis extract has been approved for use which contains THC and CBD in a ratio of 1:1. is extract was licensed in 2011 for the treatment of moderate to severe refractory spasticity in multiple sclerosis (Grotenhermen and Müller-Vahl, 2012). G W Pharmaceuticals has received approval for the drug Epidiolex, the first pure Cannabis plant derived product to the US FDA for approval to treat resistant epilepsy in children. e Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) scheduling action is needed to complete the rescheduling. If Epidiolex is rescheduled, the current position of the US regulators would change since such change would support the position that Cannabis does have medicinal use.
Method
e selection of the female flowering plant is of first interest due to the high concentrations of cannabinoids and terpenes. e dataset from samples of female flowering plant material tested in the University of Technology, Jamaica laboratory was used. ese samples were analyzed using the QuantaCann 2 analytical instrument from Steep Hill Labs. e QuantaCann2™ cannabis analyzer uses chemometric modeling of NIR spectroscopy and “training” data using wet
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chemistry (HPLC) to estimate the content of cured cannabis flowers in percent by weight content of four cannabinoids: THCA, D9-THC, CBDA, and CBD. e QuantaCann 2 provides analysis of plants providing data on both pre- decarboxylated and decarboxylated cannabinoid levels within the plant material; THCA: CBDA and ∆-9-THC: CBD respectively.
Plant Material Tested
189 dried cannabis samples containing buds and leaves were submitted to the University voluntarily for analysis. e samples were stored in a dark sealed container and stored within a freezer. Findings from the testing of these samples are used as a basis for this study. e dried plant samples were first ground within the grinding apparatus before being placed in the sample cup to being analyzed by the Quantacann 2. e standard Chemotype Classification comparing THC levels to CBD levels was used as follows: • Chemotype I: Ratio less than 0.99 • Chemotype II: Ratio between 1 to 1.99 • Chemotype III: Ratio greater than 2
Results
A total of 189 plants were assayed and characterized within chemotypic classifications. e data obtained from the pretesting of the dried plant samples revealed an average THCA content of 10.9 % and CBDA of 9.6% (see Table 2). Of the samples analyzed, one hundred and sixty-four (164) plants were found to be chemotype I, ten (10) plants were chemotype 2 and fifteen (15) plants were chemotype III (see Table 1). e highest THCA content was recorded at 24% with less than 2% CBDA while the highest CBDA content recorded was 10.3% with less than 2% THCA. In the post decarboxylated models it was observed as seen in table 2 that the average THC content obtained was 9.6% and that of CBD was 2.3%.
Table 1: Occurrence of drug chemotypes within the dried cannabinoid samples Chemotypes Amount I 164 II 10 III 15 Total 189
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Table 2: Highest, lowest and average cannabinoid percentages within the dried cannabinoid samples.
THCA+THC CBDA+CBD Decarb THC Decarb CBD Cannabinoids (%) (%) (%) (%)
Sample A Highest 24 10.3 21.2 9.2 phytocannabinoid levels Sample B Lowest <2 <2 <2 <2 phytocannabinoid levels
Average 10.9 2.3 9.6 2.3
Figure1 . Percentage Chemotypes in Samples Submitted.
Discussion
e majority of the samples submitted were identified as chemotype I indicating a higher ratio of THCA, the neutral cannabinoid precursor for THC. e decarboxylation process involves the use of light or elevated temperatures to cause the loss of the carboxyl group from the THCA chemical compound releasing carbon dioxide (Perrotin-Brune et al, 2011). In the post decarboxylated model, the levels were also observed as being high. THC has been well documented for its psycho-activity, however as seen in the literature, it has been used to treat neuropathic pain related to HIV-associated neuropathy and opioid addiction
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(Hurd, 2017). e side effects of high doses have also been observed when THC concentrations are increased above seven (7%) percent. e average THC concentration observed in this study was 9.6%. e three Chemotypes observed in this data set were Chemotype 1. Chemotype 11 and 111. ese three (3) chemotypes are identified as present in the majority of studies of this type. e Cannabis plant species either had pronounced levels of THCA or pronounced levels of CBDA. At no point were the cannabinoid levels similar in percentage concentration. With the preponderance of THC dominated samples, it can be stated that, genetically, plants in Jamaica at this time are wired to produce more THCA than CBDA. ese findings regarding the levels of THCA could feed into the lingering concern in Jamaica about the negative effect of ganja on the brains of young people . Further, there is concern about the ease of access reported by 40% the students in the 2013 National Secondary School Survey. With the capacity of the Cannabis industry to engineer species with higher levels of THC or CBD, in the case of the former variant, there is cause for concern e vexing question is whether this new Medical Cannabis regime will lead to increased Cannabis use by Jamaican youth in the future. However, an important response is close and frequent monitoring through testing of cultivation and processing. e evidence that links increased exposure to Cannabis and increased youth use is not dispositive. However, overall evidence from epidemiologic studies suggests that cannabis use can increase the risk of psychotic disorders.( Gage & Hickman, 2016). Further studies are required to determine the magnitude of this effect, to determine the effect of different chemotypes of cannabis on risk, ere is the need to identify and to identify high-risk groups particularly susceptible to the effects of cannabis on psychosis. Another study found that in youth or young adults with clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis, age at onset of cannabis use is significantly and positively correlated with IQ in CHR only. Results suggest that age at onset of cannabis may be a more important factor for IQ than use current use or use frequency in CHR (Buchy & Seidman,2015), Several studies show causation between cannabis use and psychotic effects in the youth population providing evidence of prevention of youth use as a sensible public health message. Conversely, Cannabis is now used to treat opioid abusers (Hurd, 2017). More research is needed into the differentiation of chemotypes, the other active ingredients contributing to the entourage effect that mitigate or heighten the medicinal effects. It is important to note that the current focus of the Medical Cannabis industry is higher levels of the non-THC cannabinols. ese cultivars are defined by Jamaican law as containing 1% or less THC. erefore, while there is emerging
74 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Mining Medicines from Cannabis in Jamaica: The Devil and the Details evidence that THC does contain medical properties to treat PTSD, in the main, a Medical Cannabis business should be built with a CBD focus while research continues on the safe use of THC dominant Cannabis as a medicine. In a Medical Cannabis enterprise, the devil is in the details. Innovations from Medical Cannabis has the potential to generate earnings for an inventive University. ese findings support the view that there is potential for a Medical Cannabis industry in Jamaica that will benefit the world. e size of a Jamaican market is not yet estimated. However, Forbes magazine of January 3,2017 estimated at US $6.7 billion global business increasing to US$20.20 billion in 2021` with a 25% annual rate of increase. According to Forbes, big pharmaceutical companies are not investing in the Medical Cannabis opportunities because of perceived “risk and uncertainty.” e new 2015 Amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act in Jamaica did bring interested national and international parties to the University of Technology, Jamaica with offers of partnership and affiliation. ese prospective investors are interested in cultivation, product development, testing partnerships and product registration . Four have formalized their affiliation with the University. Many are attracted by the reach of Brand Jamaica in the ganja sphere and the reputation of the University of Technology, Jamaica for working through the knotty issues relevant to the emerging Cannabis business. ere is tension between the broader remit of Universities to engage in research and innovation, legal caution and perceived negative perceptions. In many settings, Jamaica is also hamstrung by perceived “risk and uncertainty” that has negatively affected the global industry and many Nation states.
Limitations
• is study did not measure the level of terpenes contained in the samples. Ter - penes are known to contribute to the entourage effect that moderate the actions of cannabinoids. • Although the samples were collected island wide, not all locations were docu - mented • While the samples were stored appropriately, small quantities of THC and CBD may have been lost over time • e Quantacann11 does not measure CBG. Chemotype IV was not assessed.
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Recommendations
• Do frequent testing should be used to assist in identifying chemotypes and en - suring standardization and safety • More clinical trials into the use of Cannabis to treat addictive illnesses • Develop aggressive public education for all levels of the Jamaican population • Strengthen programmes to reduce recreational youth use in Jamaica. • Give full Government support though investment and legislation to fuel Uni - versity research into Medical Cannabis • Provide University funding for access to international training and credential - ing to ensure that clinical trials conducted in Jamaica will have global reciproc - ity and acceptability
Conclusion
In the Jamaican context, the cannabis samples analyzed contained predominantly the cannabinoids THC and CBD. Jamaican strains were classified as primarily chemotype 1 in this study. From a drug development standpoint, the health prospects and business opportunities from nutraceuticals, cosmeceuticals, galenicals and pharmaceuticals are promising. A few of the areas for medicinal application for products are pain management, increasing appetite especially for those whom may be facing aversion to food. or person suffering from HIV-related wasting, opioid addiction reduction and PTSD. Important work needs to be done in the area of treating the pain of Sickle Cell anaemia. ere is no substitute for frequent and effective testing of Cannabis plants from seed to sale. ese preliminary findings provide a window through which to project the potential for discovery and other opportunities for the Medical Cannabis industry in Jamaica. More research is needed. Broader legislative scope is warranted to widen the gains from University involvement supported by tax incentives for investors in Universities and research grants. Despite challenges, in the current situation, more can be done to move the fledgling industry forward through the engagement in basic medical research, training of health scientists and popularizing of the scientific evidence supporting the medical value of Cannabis to tertiary institutions and nations. is paper is one such incipient effort.
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References
Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Soydaner U, Ozturk E, Schibano D, Simsir Y, Navarro P, Etxebarria N and Usobiaga A.(2016). Evolution of the cannabinoid and terpene content during the Growth of Cannabis sativa Plants from Different Chemotypes . Retrieved from website: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/pdf/10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00949/ Andreae MH, Carter GM, Shaparin N, Suslov K, Ellis RJ, Ware MA, Abrams DI, Prasad H, Wilsey B, Indyk D, Johnson M, Sacks HS. (2015). Inhaled Cannabis for Chronic Neuropathic Pain: A Meta-analysis of Individual Patient Data. J Pain. 2015 Dec;16(12):1221-32. doi: 10.1016/j.jpain.2015.07.009. Epub 2015 Sep 9. Appendino G, Gibbons S, Giana A, Pagani A, Grassi G, Stavri M, Smith E, Rahman MM. (2008). Antibacterial cannabinoids from Cannabis sativa: a structure-activity study. Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/18681481 Brenneisen R. (2011 ). Chemistry and Analysis of Phytocannabinoids and Other Cannabis Constituents . Retrieved from website: http://www.medicinalgenomics.com/wp- content/uploads/2011/12/Chemical-constituents-of-cannabis.pdf. Buchy L, Seidman L, Cadenhead K, Cannon T, Cornblatt B, Walker E, Woods S, Bearden C, Mathalon D, Addington J, . Evaluating the relationship between cannabis use and IQ in youth Available from: https://academicworks.medicine.hofstra.edu/articles/791. Free full text article. Cascio M.G, Gauson, L.A, Stevenson L.A, Ross R.A, and Pertwee R.G.(2010). Evidence that the plant cannabinoid cannabigerol is a highly potent 2- adrenoceptor agonist and moderately potent 5HT1A receptor antagonis. Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2823359/ Clarke R.C and Watson D. P. (2007). Marijuana and The Cannabinoids . Retrieved from website: http://www.hampapartiet.se/09.pdf Colbert M. (2014). Cannabinoid Profile: Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid (THCa) . Retrieved from website: http://theleafonline.com/c/science/2014/07/cannabinoid-profile-crash- course-thca/ Comelli F, Bettoni I, Colleoni M, Giagnoni G, Costa B. (2009). Beneficial effects of a Cannabis sativa extract treatment on diabetes-induced neuropathy and oxidative stress. Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19441010 Colbert M. (2014). Cannabinoid Profile: Tetrahydrocannabinolic Acid (THCa) . Retrieved from website: http://theleafonline.com/c/science/2014/07/cannabinoid-profile-crash- course-thca/ Gage S.H., Hickman M., Zammit S.(2016) Association between cannabis and psychosis: Epidemiologic evidence Biological Psychiatry , 79 (7) , pp. 549-556. Government of Jamaica (2017). Jamaica Gazette, No 45., June 5, 2017. Author Grant I. (2015). Medical Use of Cannabinoids. JAMA. 2015 Oct 27;314(16):1750-1. doi: 10.1001/jama.2015.11429. Grant I.and B. Rael Cahn, Cannabis and endocannabinoid modulators: Therapeutic promises
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and challenges. Clin Neurosci Res. 2005;5(2-4):185-199. Grotenhermen F and Müller-Vahl K.(2012) . The Therapeutic Potential of Cannabis And Cannabinoids. Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles /PMC3442177/ Hazekamp A. (2007). Cannabis; extracting the medicine . Retrieved from website: file:///C:/Users/rasheed.perry/Downloads/Thesis.pdf Hurd, Yasmin (2017 ). Swinging the marijuana pendulum from “weed” to medication to treat the opioid epidemic in Trends in Neuroscience, Vol.40. pg.124-127. Retrieved from website April 23, 2018http;//org/10.1016/0trns.2016.12.0006. Klein T. W. (2005). Cannabinoid-Based Drugs As Anti-Inflammatory Therapeutics. Retrieved from website: Lochte BC, Beletsky A, Samuel NK, Grant I. (2017). The Use of Cannabis for Headache Disorders. Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research. April 2017, 2(1): 61-71. doi:10.1089/can.2016.0033 Madras B.K and Hospital M.(2015). Update of Cannabis and its medical use. Retrieved from website: http://www.who.int/medicines/access/controlled- substances/6_2_ cannabis_update.pdf Meijer E.P.M, Bagatta M, Carboni A, Crucitti P, Moliterni C.VM, Ranalli P and Mandolino G. (2003). The Inheritance of Chemical Phenotype in Cannabis sativa L . Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462421/pdf/12586720.pdf National Council on Drug Abuse (2013). National Secondary School Survey. Author. National Library of Jamaica . Manley Elisha West 1929-2012 Retrieved January 10, 2017 http://nlj.gov.jm/biographies/manley-elisha-west-1929-2012/ Perrotin-Brunel H, Buijis W, vaan Spronsen J and Witkamp G.J.(2011). Decarboxylation of 9- tetrahydrocannabinol: Kinetics and molecular modeling . Retrieved from website: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/251476768_Decarboxylation_of_D_9- tetrahydrocannabinol_Kinetics_and_molecular_modeling Rubin,V., % Comitas,I. (1875). Ganja in Jamaica: A medical anthropological study of chronic marijuana use. Paris, New Babylon. Russo E.B. (2011). Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and phytocannabinoid-terpenoid Entourage effects .Retrieved from website: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3165946/ Ryan D, Drysdale A.J, Lafourcade C, Pertwee R.G, and Platt B. (2009). Cannabidiol Targets Mitochondria to Regulate Intracellular Ca2 Levels. Retrieved from website: http://www.jneurosci.org/content/29/7/2053.full.pdf United Nations Office on Drug and Crime (2009 ). Recommended methods for the identification and analysis of cannabis and cannabis products. Author Wallace M.S, Marcotte T.D, Umlauf A, Gouaux B, Atkinson J,H.(2015). Efficacy of Inhaled Cannabis on Painful Diabetic Neuropathy . Retrieved from website:
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http://www.jpain.org/article/S1526-5900(15)00601-X/pdf Weiss L , Zeira M , Reich S , Har-Noy M , Mechoulam R , Slavin S And Gallily R.(2005). Cannabidiol lowers incidence of diabetes in non-obese diabetic mice . Retrieved from website: http://proxy.baremetal.com/cannabiscoalition.ca/info/WeissCBD_DiabetesMiceAutoimmunity 2006.pdf Zhornitsky S and Potvin S. (2012). Cannabidiol in Humans—The Quest for Therapeutic Targets . Retrieved from website: file:///C:/Users/rasheed.perry/Downloads/pharmaceuticals-05- 00529-v2.pdf
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Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the University of Technology, Jamaica
HEATHER THOMPSON KERRY-ANN RODNEY WELLINGTON JANET JAMES University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
Advancements in technology have resulted in academic libraries making a shift from heavy reliance on print content to e-resources. However, there is evidence to suggest that although these resources contribute positively to academics and research, their adoption and usage need improvement. e purpose of this paper is to explore faculty use of e-resources provided by the Calvin McKain Library, University of Technology, Jamaica (UTech, Ja). An online questionnaire was sent to faculty from specific colleges/faculties. e instrument was designed to gather data on their awareness, frequency of use, and the hindrances encountered when accessing e-resources. e results showed that faculty members where aware of the Library’s e-resources and some actually used them. However, a large percentage indicated that using e-resources was too time consuming and they lacked competency on their usage. It was also revealed that the most effective method of creating awareness was through interaction with a Librarian. is paper is the first attempt to assess faculty use of e-resources at the UTech, Ja. and is therefore significant for Library administrators to inform decisions regarding e-resources.
Keywords: Electronic resources, faculty, academic libraries, University of Technology
Corresponding author: Heather ompson, [email protected]
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Introduction
e explosion of e-resources has significantly changed the face of academia, research and publication. E-resources “refers to those materials that require computer access” (IFLA, 2012) whether locally or via the internet. As a result, libraries have made major investments in providing access to the wealth of authoritative content now available in electronic formats. is paper aims to assess faculty awareness and usage of the e-resources provide by the Calvin McKain Library. It also seeks to identify the causes of non-usage and make recommendations for improvement. As the UTech, Ja. embraces a research thrust, articulated by its President, Pro. Stephen Vasciannie (University of Technology, Jamaica: Annual report 2016– 2017), it is critical that faculty is cognizant of, as well as competent in the navigation of the current, and rich content provided by the Library. Technological innovations and advancement have had a tremendous impact on what is described as the library’s’ collection. Kumar (2012, p.90) opined that “the society is moving in different directions and fascinated by developments through accessing information from varied sources”. ese changes have consequently imposed greater demand on libraries. erefore this research paper focused on the following research question: An investigation into selected UTech, Ja. faculty use of the e-resources at the Calvin McKain Library. As a result the research aimed to achieve the following objectives: • To ascertain faculty awareness of Library electronic resources • To assess the purpose for which Library electronic resources are used by faculty • To determine the frequency of faculty use of Library electronic resources • To identify the problems encountered by faculty in using Library electronic resources.
Significance
e Calvin McKain Library like many other academic libraries has invested heavily in the acquisition of varied e-resources to support the university community. ey have meticulously ensured that each programme/faculty/ college is represented when procuring content for client access. However, the usage statistics for some of these costly resources show meagre figures; therefore making it difficult to justify the expenditure. Research has shown that if libraries partner with faculty in promoting the use of e-resources, the result will be increased usage among both
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faculty and students in addition to a positive effect on academic output standards (Harris, 2013; Sohail & Ahmad, 2017). is study is therefore significant as it seeks to determine faculty awareness and use, the frequency of use as well as the challenges or barriers to using e-resources at the Calvin McKain Library, UTech, Ja. Additionally, the information garnered from this study can be used in planning marketing initiatives as well improving the quality of the library’s e-resources services.
Theoretical Framework
e objective of this research is to examine the use and usefulness of the e-resources at the Calvin McKain Library to the academics it serves. e Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) theory (Davis, 1989) was selected because of its relevance to the research. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)
Source: Davis, et al. (1989)
TAM was designed by Davis to describe the reasons people use or refrain from using a technological innovation. is model consists of two variable perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use which will dictate ones attitude towards the use of the innovation. • Perceived usefulness (PU) – according to Davis (989) PU is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would enhance his or her job performance” (p.320) • Perceived ease of use (PEOU) – is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free from effort” (p. 320). e quotation contains an error. Davis’ TAM has been replicated by several researchers in an attempt to provide evidence on the correlation between usefulness, ease of use and system’s use (Adams, Nelson & Todd, 1992; Hendrickson, Massey & Cronan, 1993; Szajina, 1994).
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Limitations and Delimitations
e primary goal of this study was to investigate the e-resources used by faculty at the Calvin McKain Library, Utech, Ja., thus gaining more knowledge about usage patterns and usefulness of the resources. However, caution must be taken when making generalizations based on the findings of the research, as limitations and delimitations are applicable. e following limitations were noted: (a) participants responses were self reported thus it must be assumed that they gave honest answers; (b) the questionnaire did not provide the participants with the means to give short answers to qualify answers given; (c) years of services, faculty and research agenda may lead to different responses from each faculty. e researchers imposed the following delimitations: (a) the data collected using one survey instrument, thus progression of e-resource use was not included; (b) the only variables studied were the awareness, the frequency, hindrances and usefulness of the e-resources to the faculty (c) only four of the eight colleges/ faculties of the University were surveyed – College of Business and Management (COBAM), College of Health Sciences (COHS), Faculty of Engineering and Computing (FENC) and Faculty of Sports and Science (FOSS). is is because they are among the colleges/faculties with the highest academic staff complements and research outputs.
Literature Review
e procurement of e-resources for faculty and students use requires a large financial investment for the UTech, Ja. through the Library and can greatly assist users in their research efforts. Sohail and Ahmad (2017) stated that the provision of e-resources is a fundamental and critical aspect of the contemporary library in order to meet the diverse information needs of users. It is perceived that if faculty embrace the use of e-resources, they will place emphasis on students to utilize same, resulting in a higher standard of academic output.
Awareness and Use
e level of awareness in addition to the technical knowledge of how the resources are accessed is crucial to promoting the use of e-resources. Studies have indicated that faculty awareness and use vary by discipline, age and perceived value. Sohail
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and Ahmad (2017) from their research at Fiji National University, reported a high level of awareness and therefore use among faculty ranging from 76 to 94 % depending on the type of e-resources. Yebowaah and Plockey (2017) suggested based on their research at the University of Development Studies in Ghana; in cases were awareness was a 100%, usage was similarly high which is in agreement with Sohail and Ahmad (2017). Simisaye (2012) whose study was conducted at a Nigerian university, while in agreement with Sohail and Ahmad (2017) and Yeowaah and Plockey (2017) that awareness influences usage, also added the contrast, stating that this was not always the case, as some faculty are aware of e- resources but do not utilize them because of lack of expertise in navigating the library’s e-resources among other factors. Reddy (2014) and Adegbore (2011) also found that a large percentage of faculty were aware of library e-resources and used them. However, Adegbore (2011) reported the findings of a JSTOR survey which stated that faculty from the discipline of social sciences, humanities and economics were the most frequent users of e-resources. Korboli, Tilikidou and Delistavrou’s (2006) earlier research while stating that discipline is a factor in determining faculty use of e-resources, also posited that age also influenced usage and younger faculty members consulted e-resources more than their older colleagues. It was further stated that while e- resources was relatively high among faculty, a small percentage still preferred print regardless of age. e perceived value of the library’s e-resources also affects awareness and use. It was highlighted in Adegbore’s study that 60% of faculty at that institution perceived electronic databases to be vital to their research and a slightly larger percentage envisioned that their dependence on e-resources in general would continue to increase (Adegbore, 2011). It is however, important to note that library resources are constantly competing with Google, Facebook, Youtube among others, hence if faculty do not view e-resources as rich, relevant and invaluable to both instruction and research, there will be little or no usage. Consequently, they may find other sources and refrain from sharing these e-resources with colleagues and students (Yebowaah & Plockey, 2017).
Frequency and Purpose of Use
As e-resources are very expensive to acquire, the frequency with which they are consulted is of utmost importance to academic libraries and may vary from one institution to another. Simisaye’s (2012) study revealed the following regarding frequency of faculty e-resource use for both e-journals and online databases: 31.5%
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– always, 13% – weekly, 10.2% fortnightly, 28.7% – once per month, 6.5% occasionally and 10.2% – not at all. Sohail and Ahmad (2017) results differed somewhat as their daily usage was 22%, monthly was 26% and there were no figures indicating non-usage. However, similarities existed in the weekly frequency of use. Reddy (2014) and Sohail and Ahma (2017) both reported similar frequency relating to usage a “couple of times per week” with 18 and 21% respectively. e major difference between Reddy (2014) and the other two (2) studies was a much lower daily frequency usage and a much higher monthly usage of 60%. ere are diverse reasons for faculty use of electronic resources; these include research instruction, personal development, etc. A study conducted by Harris (2013) on e-resources usage at the University of the West Indies, Mona found that these resources were largely used for professional research. e reason provided for this is that the scholarly nature of the content and its pertinence to research goals were major factors for use. Similar to Harris (2013), Yebowaah and Plockey (2017) also asserted that the primary reason for faculty use of e-resources was research. Adegbore (2011) concurred with Yebowaah and Plockey (2017) and Harris (2013) but added teaching as another main reason for consulting e-resources. Sohail and Ahmad (2017) provided a more detailed exploration of usage reasons including, keeping abreast re particular subjects -52%, study purposes – 88%, book and article publishing – 86% and getting current information – 66%. However, the largest percentages where for research – 92% and sourcing content in specialist areas – 94%. It is therefore evident that faculty’s primary reason for using e-resources is research followed by teaching and instruction.
Problems Encountered by Faculty in Using Library Electronic Resources
While the literature underscores the increasing important role of e-resources in academic libraries, Sohail and Ahmad (2017) opined that the benefits of e-resources can only be reaped when a supporting and enabling environment is created for users. is is the availability of up to date equipment and appropriate information technology infrastructure that will allow users to access the resources in a timely manner with little frustration and so efficiently exploit e-resources. Ahmed and Amjad (2014) in their survey of 140 faculty and students in Pakistan, highlighted issues such as; discomfort with online reading, slow downloading, information overload and lack of proper search techniques as hindrances in accessing e-resources. In spite of these issues Ahmed and Amjad (2014) reported that the use of electronic resources among researchers surveyed
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was very common and that they were largely reliant on e-resources for their research work. Harris (2013) highlighted that the factors that discourage or hindered use can be listed under three headings namely – library, patron and information source related. e most significant of which is patron related where they sited that the content can be found elsewhere, they are unfamiliar with the resource and the lack the necessary ability to navigate the e-resources. Zuberi (2010) in their survey of seventy (70) Faculty of Arts professors and lecturers posited that that majority of faculty surveyed, were equipped with adequate computer skills which should facilitate the use of e-resources. However, their findings revealed that a lack of adequate information technology infrastructure, coupled with a lack of knowledge of available e-resources were issues experienced by academics in using e-resources.
Research Methodology
is study explores faculty use of electronic resources provided through the Calvin McKain Library. e research used a quantitative approach, using a survey design. is was accomplished using a descriptive rating Likert-type questionnaire designed by the researchers which was used to collect the data from each faculty member. is design allowed for the statistical analysis of data. e population for the study was 345 faculty members. e random sampling (Babbie, 2013) technique was used to select the 182 participants for the survey. Purposive (Teddlie & Yu, 2007) sampling was used to select the faculties to be examined as only four (4) of the eight (8) faculties/colleges of the University of Technology, Jamaica – College of Business and Management (COBAM), College of Health Sciences (COHS), Faculty of Engineering and Computing (FENC) and Faculty of Sports and Science (FOSS) – were selected. e questionnaire was distributed based on each faculty/college’s representative size. erefore, 33% of the questionnaires were sent to COBAM, 20% to COHS, 25% to FENC, and 22% to FOSS. All participants were anonymous and were informed of the purpose of the research and were given the option not to participate in the study.
Analysis
is section presents the statistical analysis of the data obtained from the questionnaire. e data is presented in graphs and charts that can easily be
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Table 1: Method of awareness of the Library’s e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage Librarian 44% Colleague 26% Lecturer 10% Library Brochures 10% Library Catalogue 8% Other 2% Note. Participants could choice more than one response understood. is section will present findings that pertain to the method of awareness of e-resources; types of e-resource used; purpose for usage; frequency of use; access points and hindrances to use. Table 1 shows how the members of faculty were made aware of the e-resources in the library. It indicates that a 62% of the participants seemed to have been informed as a result of the library’s efforts (44% librarian, 10% library brochures, and 8% library catalogue). is is so as there is a librarian on each faculty board of the University as well as the curriculum and quality assurance committee. e library actively participates in faculty orientation programmes as well as faculty workshops. During these events the e-resources are always highlighted. In addition, the library ensures that brochures for each e-resource are readily available to the faculty. e library enjoys the use of an online public access catalogue (OPAC) which is accessible anywhere and anytime. e demonstrations at the orientations and the workshops have provided lectures with the necessary information and skills to perceive that the e-resources are easy to use as well as useful (Davis, 1989). irty-six percent (36%) of the participants indicated that they were made aware by other faculty members. is can lead back to the work of the library. In addition, this result supports the findings of Yebowaah & Plockey’s research (2017) where faculty share information about e-resources to their colleagues. is awareness of the e-resources by the faculty is a positive indicator that they will use them (Sohail & Ahmad, 2017; Simisaye, 2012). Table 2 shows the type of e-resources that are used. Of note is the use of online videos only 5% indicated that they used them. is is because the online videos that the library has as part of its collection have to do with medical images. ese are used only by the College of Health Science which constitute only 20% of the participants selected for the research, and not everyone in this group of participant
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Table 2: Types of e-resources being used by academics
Faculty Response Percentage E-journals 67.5% Ebooks 45% Newspapers 12.5% Online Videos 5% Other 15%
Note. Participants could choice more than one response
is expected to use these resources. e most popular e-resource seemed to be e- journals (67%) as everyone from all faculties would be expected to use the e-journals when gathering information for various reasons. e perceived usefulness of the e- resources will also contribute to the use of the different types of resources (Davis, 1989) Table 3 shows the major purpose for using the e-resources as indicated by the participants is for research (67.5%). is seemed to support the findings of the study done by Adegbore (2011), Harris (2013) and Sohail & Ahma (2017) that stated that faculty at higher educational institutions perceived e-resources as being vital to their research. As part of the mandate for faculty they must do research and publish, thus the responses reflect the university’s mantra. What is the university’s mantra? e use of the e-resources for instruction and improving subject knowledge follows at 60% and 47.5% respectively. From these indications it appeared that the participants valued their ability to teach with a deep understanding of their content area.
Table 3: Purpose for using Library e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage
Research 67.5%
Subject Knowledge 47.5%
Instructional 60%
Other 2.5%
Note. Participants could choice more than one response
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Table 4: Frequency of use of the Library e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage
Often 55%
Seldom 32.5%
Never 5%
Other 2.5%
Table 4 highlights the frequency of the use of e-resources by the participants of the research. Only 55% indicated that they use the e-resources often. is seemed to be as a result of the ability of the participants to access them anywhere and at any time. Davis’ (1989) TAM perceived ease of use and usefulness of the e-resources can be used to substantiate these claims. If it is perceived that the e-resources are easy to use and useful to the work that persons are doing it is highly likely that they will have a good attitude towards the technology and by extension will use the resources. e results presented seem to be substantiated by Simisaye’s (2012) study regarding frequency of use by faculty. e participants seemed to use the e-resources mostly off-campus (home – 55%). (Table 5). is is as a result of the e-resources being accessible from anywhere and at any time to anyone with the necessary authentication and authorization. While on-campus however, it appeared that the participants chose to use the e-resources while in the library, this maybe as a result of ready access to library staff that has knowledge of the different e-resources. is availability of assistance may factor in the participants perception of ease of use (Davis 1989), as the presence and assistance of the librarians and library staff usually helps with that perception.
Table 5: Access points when using Library e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage
Library 30%
Home 55%
Faculty Lab 17.5%
Other 35%
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Table 6: Hindrances to the use of the e-resources
Faculty Response Percentage
Irrelevant Results 7.5%
Computer Access 12.5%
Detracts from regular duties 5%
Lack of Competence 37.5%
Time consuming 55%
Information overload 5%
Table 6 indicates the participants’ responses to the question regarding the hindrances to their use of the e-resources. A majority cited that it was time consuming (55%) to use. is appears that the participants believed that the degree of ease of use was not high (Davis, 1989), as the information they seek is not a simple click away. Of note is that many of the participants felt that they did not have the necessary competences to use the e-resources (37.5%). is seemed to support the findings of Harris (2013); and Yeowaah and Plockey (2017) who also found that competence in the use of e-resources proved to be a hindrance to the use of said resources. e competency factor can be linked to that fact that some persons never used the e-resources and some persons found out about them through colleagues who may not have taken the time to demonstrate how to access the e- resources. In addition, many indicated that they used the e-resources off-campus without the benefit of library support. If users PU and PEOU are in conflict with the innovation then their attitudes towards the same will be negative and by extension they will not use the resources (Davis, 1989).
Conclusion
In an environment where new knowledge is being published daily, the Calvin McKain Library and by extension the University of Technology, Jamaica makes a tremendous effort yearly to make this information available to its faculties. e research findings indicates that the faculties surveyed (COBAM, FENC, COHS, and FOSS) were well aware of the e-resources available at the library. is awareness came largely in part from the work of the library through librarian interactions
90 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Faculty Use of Electronic Resources (E-resources) at the UTech, Jamaica with staff, brochures and its OPAC. e findings indicated that these resources are also being used by the faculty members in particular the e-journals and e-books. ese resources are frequently used for research, instruction and to enhance their subject knowledge. While the usefulness of the e-resources is evident to the participants, they also indicated that there are some hindrances to its use. e major hindrance indicated was that it was time consuming to use and that they lacked the necessary competencies to use the e-resources effectively and efficiently. Nonetheless they still used the e-resources in order to fulfill the purposes of research, instruction and content development within the institution.
Recommendations
Collaboration
In order to reduce the issue of e-resource usage being too time consuming, the Library should partner with electronic content providers, the local Information Systems (IS) department and the supplier of its Integrated Library System (Sirsi). is collaboration will identify solutions that can simplify the search process for faculty, which should result in increased usage.
Intensifying training for faculty While training initiatives are currently in effect. It is evident from the research that much more needs to be done if faculty usage is to increase. is could be achieved through continuously inviting faculty to both group and individual sessions and identifying particular resources that apply to their specialized area of interest as opposed to just generally.
Establishing Linkages with Deans and Programme Directors Research has proven that library/faculty partnership yield results. erefore, if librarians establish linkages with deans and other senior faculty members, they could make presentations at various research seminars, workshops and other such events that would grant an audience with faculty.
Further Research is paper did not address user satisfaction; hence further studies could be carried out to determine faculty satisfaction levels and could also include students’ perceptions and usage of the Library’s e-resources.
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References
Adams, D., Nelson, R., & Todd, P. (1992). Perceived usefulness, ease of use, and usage of information technology: A Replication. MIS Quarterly, 16 (2), 227 –247. doi:10.2307/249577 Adegbore, A. M. (2011). University faculty use of electronic resources: A review of the recent literature. PNLA Quarterly . 75(4), 1–12. Retrieved from: https://www .researchgate.net/publication/263504327_University_Faculty_Use_of_Electronic_Resources_A _Review_of_the_Recent_Literature Ahmed, S. & Amjad, A. (2014). Evaluation of researchers’ satisfaction with electronic resources in two universities in Pakistan. Library Hi Tech News , 31(7), 20-25. Ansari, M. N, & Zuberi, B.A. (2010). Use of electronic resources among academics at the University of Karachi. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 385. Retrieved from https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1398&context=libphilprac Babbie, E. (2013). The practice of social research . (13th ed.) Belmont, CA.: Wadsworth. Davis, F.D. (1989). Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology. MIS Quarterly , 13 (3), 319 –340. Harris, S. Y. (2013). Agricultural and food e-resources usage at the University of the West Indies (UWI) Mona campus. Information World Journal 14 (1), 14 –162. Hendrickson, A., Massey, P., & Cronan, T. (1993). On the test-retest reliability of perceived ease of use scales. MIS Quarterly , 17 (2). IFLA (2012). Key issues for e-resource collection development: A guide for libraries. Retrieved from https://www.ifla.org/files/assets/acquisition-collection-development/ publications/electronic-resource-guide-2012.pdf Koroboli, S., Tilikidou, I., & Delistavrou, A. (2006). Factors that influence the use of library resources by faculty members. Library Review , 55(2), 91 –105. Kumar, K.G. & Kumbar, M. (2012). Use and search pattern of electronic resources in five autonomous engineering colleges (Bengaluru). Trends in Information Management (TRIM) , 8(2), 90 –99. Reddy, P.R. (2014). Utilization of e-resources by the faculty members with special reference to Priyadarshini College of Engineering and Technology (PCET)), Nellore, India: A case study. International Journal of Library and Information Studies, 4(2), 110 –115. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.723 .663&rep=rep1&type=pdf Simisaye, A.O. (2012). Faculty use of university library resources: A study of Tai Solarin University of Education, Ijagun, Ogun State, Nigeria. Library Philosophy and Practice (e-journal). 820. Sohail, M., &Ahmad, S. (2017). Use of electronic resources and services by faculty members and students of Fiji National University. Journal of Library & Information Technology, 37(3), 165 –171.doi: 10.14429/djlit.37.3.10567
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Szajina, B. (1994) “Software evaluation and choice: Predictive validation of the technology acceptance instrument”, MIS Quarterly , 18(3): 319 –324 Teddlie, C. & Yu, F. (2007). Mixed methods sampling: A typology with examples. Journal of Mixed Methods , 1(1), 77–100. University of Technology, Jamaica; Annual report 2016 –2017. Kingston: Jamaica: University of Technology, Jamaica. Yebowaah, F. A., & Plockey, F.D.D. (2017). Awareness and use of electronic resources in university libraries: A case study of University for Development Studies Library. Library Philosophy & Practice, June 2017, 1 –32. Retrieved from search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lxh&AN=127910770&site=ehost-live.
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 93 T HE J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees’ Productivity
DAHOMA SOUTH SONIA RICHARDS-MALCOLM University of Technology, Jamaica
Abstract
e study investigated the impact of workplace conflict on employees’ productivity among academic, non-academic and technical employees at two local universities. Participants comprised of 42 females and 9 males through the use of quota and convenient sampling techniques. Data were generated through the use of validated structured self-administered questionnaire. Descriptive and Inferential statistics were employed to analyse data collected from the participants. Employing Spearman correlation, Pearson correlation and Crosstabulation Chi-square Test analyses, the result of empirical tests showed a significantly negative relationship between personality clashes, styles of leadership, different work ethics, poor communication skills and lack of communication skills. A significantly negative relationship between how often work place conflict occurs and the involvement of staff in the conflict, age group and category of workers, length of service, department and shift system was evident resulting in dislocation and divergence among staff members within the respective department leading to an increase of inefficiency and ineffectiveness with reduction in productivity and job performance. ere was no correlation between workplace conflict and training in conflict and or dispute resolution and/ or mediation. Majority of the participants indicated that all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts, understanding the organizational culture and structure thus allowing employees to resolve their differences and be held accountable for the use of conflict-resolution-competency based performance appraisal. e study concluded that conflict was an unavoidable occurrence in the workplace, and training to manage such conflict should form a part of the core competency skills making management duty bound to resolve conflict properly thereby contributing to increase organizational performance thus resulting in good communication and cooperation, time management and increase employees’ productivity.
Corresponding author: Sonia Richards-Malcolm: [email protected]
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Key words : conflict, employee, productivity, dispute resolution, organizational culture
Introduction
According to Meshane & Gilnow (2008), conflicts are an everyday phenomenon which occurs in each organization and is deemed inevitable. Workplace conflicts are common despite the best of management practices in organizations to avoid them and come in various forms as an unavoidable feature of employment relationships. Conflict is a state of disagreement over work related issues or emotional animosity and may arise due to anger, mistrust or personality clashes (Azamosa, 2004). Conflict is a struggle or contest between people with opposing needs, ideas, beliefs, values or goals (Diez et al, 2006). According to Kazimoto (2013), workplace conflict is described as the presence of discord that occurs when goals, interests or values of different individuals or groups are incompatible and frustrate each other’s attempt to achieve objectives in an organization. Conflicts will always occur as long as people compete for jobs, resources, power, recognition and security. An educational institution was defined as an entity that provides institutional services to individuals or education-related services to individuals and other educational institutions. Whether or not an entity qualifies as an educational institution is not contingent upon which public authority (if any) has responsibility for it. For example, tertiary institutions are classified as educational institutions regardless of which ministry or other authority may have ultimate responsibility for them (UNESCO, OECD, Eurostat, 2001). is study was an attempt to identify the situation of workplace conflict, by providing valuable insights to management in the education institution about the strategic importance of conflict management as a resource tool for optimizing employee productivity.
Statement of the Problem
is research sought to ascertain the impact that workplace conflicts have on productivity in educational institutions. e idea for conducting this research stemmed from the researcher’s observation of workplace conflicts effect on employees’ working relationship which eventually impacts productivity. A group of co-workers were seen having a conflicting argument about job functions, which
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led to some persons not speaking to each other for a period of time. is eventually led to a breakdown of cooperation and team work. is impacted project deadlines and overall performance in the organization. Based on the definition of workplace conflict, “workplace conflict is described as the presence of discord that occurs when goals, interests or values of different individuals or groups are incompatible and frustrate each other’s attempt to achieve objectives in an organization” (Kazimoto 2013), the thought of why conflict occurs within an educational institution sparked the researcher’s curiosity.
Purpose of the Study
e study sought to identify the impact that workplace conflicts have on productivity in an educational institution. erefore, recommendations suggested that the issue may be culminated with corrective redresses. is research included information about possible sources of conflicts and the conflict resolution techniques applied.
Research Objectives
e following objectives were used to guide the research to: 1. Examine the factors/causes responsible for workplace conflicts in an educa - tional institution. 2. Determine to what extent does workplace conflicts affect employees in an educational institution 3. Identify ways of resolving office conflicts in an educational institution 4. Ascertain what percentage of employees are affected by workplace conflicts
Research Questions
is research was based on the following questions: 1. What are the factors that are responsible for workplace conflicts in an educa - tional institution? 2. Do workplace conflicts have a significant impact on the productivity of an educational institution? 3. What are the ways of resolving workplace conflicts in an educational institu - tion?
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4. What are the effects of workplace conflicts in an educational institution?
Hypothesis
ere is a corresponding relationship between workplace conflict and the impact it as on productivity in the organization.
Theoretical Framework
Robbins and Judge (2015) made a strong case for the need for a more realistic approach to conflict by using an “Interactionist Approach”. e authors stated that there are three basic managerial attitudes towards conflict which identify traditional behavioural and interactionist. e traditionalist, following social teaching believes that all conflicts are destructive and management’s role is to get them out of the organization. e traditionalist, therefore, believes that conflict should be eliminated. e behaviouralist on the other hand, seeks to rationalize the existence of conflict and accurately perceives conflict as inevitable in complex organizations or relationships. us the behaviouralist “accepts” it. e interactionist views conflict as absolutely necessary, encourages opposition, defines management of conflict to include stimulations as well as resolution and considers the management of conflict as a major responsibility of all administrators. e interactionalist view is accepted and encourages conflict. Avoiding a disagreement does not mean that it will go away. Employees need to be made aware of conflict and decisions made about what is going to be done about it. Conflicts only become negative when it is not approached and resolved. Lack of communication amongst employees can lead to avoidance of conflict. When that happens, the organization can lose its effectiveness. Management needs to be able to resolve conflict successfully similar to other leadership skills, conflict management can be learnt.
Research Design
A cross sectional research design was used to conduct this study with the use of quantitative data to finalize the research. A cross sectional research design was used to examine one variable in different groups that are similar in all other characteristics, such as socioeconomic status, educational background and ethnicity (Roundy, 2014). A cross-sectional research is based on observations that take place
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in different groups at a time. is means there is no experimental procedure, so no variables are manipulated by the researcher. Instead of conducting an experiment, the information observed in the groups will be recorded. e quantitative data emphasized objective measurements and the statistical, mathematical, or numerical analysis of data collected through polls, questionnaires, and surveys, or by manipulating pre-existing statistical data using computational techniques. e quantitative research focused on gathering numerical data and generalizing it across groups of people or to explain a phenomenon (Babbie, 2010).
Data Collection Method
e methodological principles used in this research were based on the descriptive research method. Non-random sampling techniques were used because of practical considerations. As a result, quota sampling and convenient sampling was selected to carry out the sampling. Quota sampling was used to identify the fifty-one (51) participants to take part in the study. In addition, convenient sampling was used to locate the participants to complete the quota. Convenient sampling was considered because the participants were readily available and could be readily recruited for inclusion into the sample. e descriptive method was chosen as a result of its ability to provide quantitative data, which is in the form of questionnaires. e questionnaires were structured to capture core data needed to fulfill criteria for research. (See Appendix A). It was geared towards employees who were presently engaged in a conflict situation and employees who have been affected by conflict situations. e data gathered from these questions should be able to enlighten readers as to the impact that conflict as caused on employees’ productivity. e questionnaire was used to collect data from fifty-one (51) employees within the third and fourth week of June 2017. is method of data collection allowed the researcher to obtain the opinions and perceptions of a wide cross section in a short space of time. It also ensured anonymity of the respondents’ answers. e data was analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) with the use of mean, mode and p-value. e secondary source, was taken from the works and writing of previous authors, which constituted the greater portion of the data, providing the intellectual foundation of the research.
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Procedures
Data was collected through both primary and secondary sources. e primary source instrument was a structured questionnaire which was used to collect data via self-administration over a three (3) days period. e researcher explained the purpose of the study orally before the questionnaires were distributed. By doing this, the participants were in a better position to understand their role in the study, as well as the reason why it is important for them to take part in the study. e researcher believes that this increased the response rate of the questionnaires.
Data Analysis
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20 was used to analyze the data. SPSS is an integrated collection of quantitative analysis software package. Calculating and analyzing of the responses was done using bar graphs and pie charts for comparisons and contrasts to ascertain the relationship between the variables and the percentage value of each response. Two (2) additional days was used to number and organize the instruments to ensure that all fifty-one (51) questionnaires were returned. After which, the entry of the data begun which lasted for over a four-day period, subsequent to which the analysis of the data was commenced. e analysis and representation of the findings were done over a ten-day period.
Reliability
e Pearson Correlation was used to measure the consistency of the test, which reveals that workplace conflict does in fact have an impact on productivity in the organization. is information was proven when the results of the findings showed that majority of the participants, 43 (84.3%) indicated that workplace conflict affect employees in an educational institution negatively, while 5 (9.8%) indicated that workplace conflict affect them both negatively and positively.
Validity
To ensure the validity of this research, questionnaires were distributed to fifteen (15) employees at the University of Technology, Jamaica (Kingston campus) for pilot testing. e participants were asked to read and respond to the items in the
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questionnaire and based on their feedback; items in the questionnaire were revised before using it in the main study.
Ethical Consideration
Research ethical clearance was obtained from the University of Technology, Jamaica and the International University of the Caribbean after submission of a permission letter to these institutions (see Appendix C and D). A cover letter explaining the purpose of the research was sent to each participant, requesting their participation in the study. Participants were not forced to be a part of the study (see appendix E). ose who agreed to participate were asked to sign a consent form as well as an informed consent form (see Appendix F and G). All ethical principles stipulated by the Research Ethics Committee of the International University of the Caribbean and the University of Technology, Jamaica. e following ethical principles were adhered to: • Proper consideration was given to rights of individuals, and the risk involved of participating in the study • at informed consent were obtained from subjects prior to conducting the protocol • Anticipated benefits and the importance of knowledge were explained to the participants • All participants were clearly informed in writing about issues such as confiden - tiality, privacy and their freedom to withdraw from the study if they so desired • e confidentiality of information supplied by research participants and the anonymity of respondents was respected.
An application was made to the Research Ethics Committee of the International University of the Caribbean seeking clearance to proceed with the research to ensure that the dignity, self-concept, privacy and well-being of our respondents are not violated.
Results
e study population consisted of 51 participants, 42 (82.4%) were females while the remaining 9 (17.6%) were males from the University of Technology, Jamaica (UTech) and the International University of the Caribbean (IUC), as shown in Table 1 . e participants’ age ranged from 25–55 years. As such, majority of the
100 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’ participants, 29 (56.9%) were in the 25–35 age group, while 14 (27.5%) were in the 36–45 age group, as shown in Table 2 . Majority of the participants, 23 (45.1%) were single, while 19 (37.3%) were married, as shown in Table 3 . Among the five departments surveyed, College of Health Sciences (COHS), Admissions, Accounts, Dean’s Office and Library) COHS, Admissions and Accounts represented participants from UTech, Jamaica, while the Dean’s Office and the Library represented participants from IUC. Majority of the participants, 22 (43.1%) worked in the COHS, while 10 (19.6%) worked in the admissions department, followed by 9 (17.6%) in the Accounts department and approximately 7 (13.7%) ranked among the highest for participants at IUC, as shown in Table 4 . Among the participants, 33 (64.7%) were administrative staff, while 17 (33.3%) were academic staff as shown in Table 5 . Most of the participants, 27 (52.9%) were employed to their respective organization for 6–10 years, followed by 17 (33.3%) who were employed between 1–5 years, as shown in Table 6 . Most of the participants, 35 (68.6%) were permanently employed, while 11 (21.6%) were contractually employed, as shown in Table 7. Among the participants, 33 (64.7%) worked the 8 am–4pm shift, while 14 (27.5%) worked on flexi-time, as shown in Table 8 . ere is a negative correlation p = .038 (< 0.5) between gender and the departments in which the respondents worked. e data showed that in almost all departments except one, less than five males are employed compared to an average of 12 females as shown in Table 9 . In only two of the departments, only one male is assigned, as shown in table 9 on page 20. Among the 51 respondents, 33(64.7%) indicated that personally clashes(pc), styles of leadership(sl), different work ethics(dwe), poor communication skills(pcs) and lack of communication skills(lc) accounted for majority of the issues that applies to workplace conflicts, as shown in Table 10 . Most of the participants, 22 (43.1) indicated that conflict seldom occurs in the organization, while 14 (27.5%) indicated that conflict occurs on a weekly basis, followed by 7 (13.7%) who indicated that conflict occurred monthly in the organization, as shown in Table 11 . e majority of the participants indicated that the following ways were the most common ways to resolve conflicts in their respective workplace and was placed in priority, which accounted for 18(35.3%); talking about the conflicts with colleagues and utilizing mediation programmes (mp) followed by warnings to management personnel. Approximately 8(15.7%) of the participants substituted the third and fourth priority as warning to management(wm) personnel followed by utilizing a conflict management team(cm), as shown in Table 12 . Most of the participants, 31 (60.8%) indicated that they were not involved in
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workplace conflict, while 19 (37.3%) were involved in workplace conflict, as shown in Table 13. Majority of the participants, 43 (84.3%) indicated that workplace conflict affects employees in an educational institution negatively, while 5 (9.8%) indicated that workplace conflicts affect them both negatively and positively, as shown in Table 14. Of the 51 participants, 47 (92.2%) indicated that employees should be trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and/or mediation, while 4 (7.8%) indicated that they do not want to be trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and/or mediation, as shown in Table 15. Question 10 in the questionnaire asked the participants to define workplace conflict. e following response was the most stated: “is is the disagreement or misunderstanding of persons within an area of employment who are not agreeing on matters related to work.” e Statistical technique, cross tabulation was used to compare the relationship among gender, department and workplace conflicts. Approximately 18 (35.2%) participants indicated that workplace conflicts affect employees in an educational institution negatively. Majority 32 (62.7%) of the participants were from the COHS and Admissions department as shown in Table 16 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there a strong relationship between gender and the various departments, revealing a p value of .008 and .007 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 21.0 and 21.1 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between gender and the length of service in the institution, revealing a p-value of .021 and .016 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 22.0 and 22.1 . Regarding workplace conflicts and the significant impact on productivity of an educational institution, there is a correlation X 2 = .336; (p = .016 <0.05) between how often conflict occurs and the extent that workplace conflict affects employees. In addition there is a correlation between how often occurs and involvement in workplace conflict X 2 = -.341; (p = .014 <0.05) as shown in Table 27 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between workplace conflicts affecting employees and the shift system, revealing a p-value of .013 and .015 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 29.0 and 29.1 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between age group and the category of worker, revealing a p-value of .000 and .000 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 30.0 and 30.1 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between age group and the category of worker, revealing a p-value of .036 and .016 respectively (p < .05) as shown in Table 31.0 and 31.1 .
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Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between department and shift system, revealing a p-value of .002 and .003 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 33.0 and 33.1 . Both Pearson and Spearman’s correlation indicate that there is a strong relationship between department and shift system, revealing a p-value of .000 and .000 respectively (p < .01) as shown in Table 34.0 and 34.1 .
Discussion
e discussion will highlight the main findings from the data to provide a more detailed analysis. e demographic profile reflects a higher percentage of female participants from the University of Technology, Jamaica and the International University of the Caribbean compared to their male counterparts. is showed a similar trend among females in similar institutions to that of UTech and IUC. In contrast, in another finding done the PIOJ (2004) argues that the labour market is comprised of 663,500 males and 531,300 females. It can also be noted that females have more than twice the unemployment rate of males at 16.4% versus 7.9% males. e fact that majority of the participants are working in the department and a similar correlation was seen between gender and the department they work in. e management of the institution should make the necessary concerted efforts to balance the ratio of male versus females in all departments. is could reduce the level of conflicts over time. More than 50% of the participants indicated that conflict either occurs on a daily, weekly or monthly basis. Majority of the participants fell in the 25–35 and 36–45 age group and were permanently employed either between 8:00 am–4:00 pm and flexi time for almost a decade. ere was a correlation between the time of the day and conflict in the workplace. is time should be identified and the necessary mandatory coffee breaks given or other strategies being given. A recent survey conducted by Nespresso (2014) shows that coffee breaks reinforce the feeling of belonging. In fact, 79% of employees consider these breaks as the most efficient way to boost team spirit and ease conflicts; while for 91% of employees it is the ideal moment to build more human and personal exchanges with colleagues. e necessary intervention of workplace conflicts would be beneficial not only to the participants but also to the organization so as to improve productivity. It was interesting to note the almost 60% of participants who indicated that they were not involved in workplace conflict and more than 80% indicated that workplace conflict does affect employees’ productivity. e necessary education
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and intervention strategies should be put in place so that individuals could identify when they are a part of conflicts are the instigators of such. A similar study was conducted by Petkovic (2008), indicating that conflict management involves acquiring skills related to conflict resolution, establishing structures of conflict models, putting strategic measures as well as approaches in place. In addition, Adkins (2005) corroborated that in managing workplace conflict, all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts. us, the training in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation would be worthwhile among all levels of workers and form a part or person’s daily job function. In addition, it was clear that there was a negative correlation between category of workers and conflict. However, there was no correlation between age group and workplace conflict. But on the other hand, there was a correlation between marital status and conflict. Majority of the respondents were single. Researchers tend to argue that single parents may feel more work-family conflict than married parents because they must shoulder the dual demands of paid work and family responsibilities with fewer resources (Avison, Ali, & Walters, 2007). erefore, the study shows that married persons or persons in a relationship are less involved in workplace conflict and/or better able to manage similar conflicts. From the two open ended questions, the themes regarding the definition of workplace conflict was similar to other studies done by Schramm-Nielson (2002) which states that a conflict is a state of serious disagreement and argument about something perceived to be important by at least one of the parties and Shapiro (2006) which states that conflicts are a process social interaction. It involves a struggle over claims to resources, power, status, beliefs, preferences and desires. On the other hand while the participants indicated that they either remain silent or allow it to blow off, did not handle it, let it or ignored it were evident. is strongly indicated that the conflicts in the workplace were not adequately addressed and thereafter could affect the level of production both in the short term and long term. is is corroborated by a study done by Ongari (2009) which states that unsolved conflicts can generate into bigger contentions which has the potential of engendering more controversies. Personality clashes, styles of leadership, different work ethics, poor communication skills and lack of communication skills accounted for majority of the issues found to cause workplace conflicts. is finding was similar to a study conducted by Mullins (2005) that indicated that conflict can arise due to incompatible goals, differences in the interpretation of facts, negative feelings, differences of values and philosophies, or disputes over shared resources. is study concluded that workplace conflict does have a significant impact on
104 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’ productivity, coupled with the fact that workplace conflicts as a negative effect on employees in educational institutions. is finding was similar to a study done by Ibid (2013) that indicated that organizational conflict has a negative impact on the motivation and productivity of employees. In addition, Mullins (2015) corroborated that employees may assume that conflict tends to be associated with negative features and situations which give rise to inefficiency, ineffectiveness or dysfunctional consequences. Moreover, Ongari (2009) concurred with Mullins (2015) by stating that conflict can have a devastating effect on the performance of an organization, especially if it consumes the energies of employees rather than focusing on other productive activities. On the other hand, Awan, Qurratul and Shaukat (2015), argued that conflict may be beneficial to the organization where it brings about radical change in the organizational power structure, current interaction pattern and entrenched attitude and also can lead to an increase in productivity. Furthermore, this study concluded that workplace conflicts can be resolved in educational institutions and the following results were indicated for discussion. Mayer (2000) corroborated that organization-conflict can be resolved if the reasons thereof can be recognized and resolutions found that will be pleasing to all the parties involved. Similarly, almost half of the respondents believe that employees should be trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and/or mediation so that they will be better able to manage workplace conflicts. is finding was similar to the study conducted by Adkins (2005) that indicated managing workplace conflict, all employees should be trained in resolving conflicts, the organizational culture and structure should allow employees to resolve their differences, and all employees should be held accountable to use conflict-resolution competencies. Once conflict resolution is made a core competency in organizations costs will be lowered, be more productive and increase profitability.
Limitations of the Study
Some limitations of this research were: 1. The financial constraint of travelling to locations to conduct the research. 2. Possibility of persons lying on the questionnaire. 3. Questionnaires not being returned within the given timeframe. 4. The target population at the University of Technology, Jamaica is larger than that at the International University of the Caribbean.
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De-limitation of the Study
e study was restricted to employed individuals, and using a structured questionnaire, sampling was done at two major educational institutions in the Kingston Metropolitan Region. ese individuals represent every spectrum and strata of the working class within the study area. Even though the study was limited to university employees the results might cause the assumption to be made that the phenomenon exists only in the region mentioned. Random sampling cannot be done as a best method.
Conclusion
e study proved that conflict is an actual social issue and from the survey perception of participants training in managing conflict, conflict resolution and dispute resolution were the common factors to resolve conflict among employees in both organizations. From the qualitative component (definition and involvement of workplace conflict) of the study, it was determined that conflict is a state of serious disagreement or argument important to at least one of the parties involved. is type of social interaction shows that among females, which was ranked the highest in the population, struggled over claims to resources, power, status, beliefs, preferences and desires. During the period it was evident that workplace conflict hindered employees’ productivity because they either remain silent or allow it to blow off, did not handle it or ignored it. is concluded that conflicts, everyday phenomenon and deemed inevitable will occur as long as individuals compete for resources, power, recognition and security. e respondents in their opinion confirm that being trained in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation is important strategies to reduce the negative impact of workplace conflict and improve employees’ productivity.
Recommendations
From the study the following recommendations should be noted from the study. • Training in conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation should form a part of employees’ job description. • Conflict resolution, dispute resolution and mediation services should be avail - able to all levels of staff.
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• e study should be expanded to all staff members within both organizations. • Reduce the male to female ratio within both organizations. • A qualitative approach could have been taken in order to gain a deeper under - standing of the magnitude of the issue. • Well-known pre-strategies such as psychometric test or other cognitive tests could be conducted to identify these behaviours from the onset of employment.
Tables Table 1 . Showing Gender of Participants
Valid Cumulative Gender Frequency Percent Percent Percent Male 9 17.6 17.6 17.6 Valid Female 42 82.4 82.4 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 2 . Showing Age-group of Participants Valid Cumulative Age-group Frequency Percent Percent Percent 25 –35 29 56.9 56.9 56.9
Valid 36 –45 14 27.5 27.5 84.3
46 –55 8 15.7 15.7 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 3. Showing Marital Status of Participants
Marital Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Status Percent Percent Single 23 45.1 45.1 45.1
Married 19 37.3 37.3 82.4
Divorced 4 7.8 7.8 90.2 Valid Common law 4 7.8 7.8 98.0
Other 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
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Table 4. Participants Respective Department Valid Cumulative Department Frequency Percent Percent Percent COHS 22 43.1 43.1 43.1
Admissions 10 19.6 19.6 62.7
Accounts 9 17.6 17.6 80.4 Valid Dean’s office 7 13.7 13.7 94.1
Library 3 5.9 5.9 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 5. Showing Category of Worker
Category Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent of Worker Percent Percent
Academic 17 33.3 33.3 33.3
Administrative 33 64.7 64.7 98.0 Valid Technical 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 6. Showing Length of Service in the Institution
Years of Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Service Percent Percent
1–5 17 33.3 33.3 33.3
6–10 27 52.9 52.9 86.3
Valid 11 –15 6 11.8 11.8 98.0
16 years 1 2.0 2.0 100.0 and over
Total 51 100.0 100.0
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Table 7. Showing Type of Employment
Type of Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Employment Percent Percent
Temporary 5 9.8 9.8 9.8
Permanent 35 68.6 68.6 78.4 Valid Contract 11 21.6 21.6 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 8. Showing Shift System
Valid Cumulative Shift System Frequency Percent Percent Percent 8:00am- 33 64.7 64.7 64.7 4:00pm 9:00am- 4 7.8 7.8 72.5 5:00pm Valid Flexi-time 14 27.5 27.5 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 9. Showing Male vs. Females Working in the Departments
Correlations Mavsfe Department
Mavsfe Pearson Correlation 1 -.291(*)
Sig. (2-tailed) .038
N 51 51
department Pearson Correlation -.291(*) 1
Sig. (2-tailed) .038
N 51 51
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Table 10. Showing Issues that Apply to Workplace Conflict
Issues that Apply to Valid Cumulative Frequency Percent Workplace Conflict Percent Percent pc, sl, dwe, pcs 9 17.6 17.6 17.6 pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw, gs 4 7.8 7.8 25.5 pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls 18 35.3 35.3 60.8 pc, pcs 1 2.0 2.0 62.7 pc, dwe, pcs, ls 1 2.0 2.0 64.7 pc, sl, pcs 6 11.8 11.8 76.5 pc, sl, dwe, ls 2 3.9 3.9 80.4 Valid pc, pcs, ls 1 2.0 2.0 82.4 pc, sl, pcs, ls, gs 1 2.0 2.0 84.3 pc, dwe, ls 1 2.0 2.0 86.3 pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw 1 2.0 2.0 88.2 pc, sl, pcs, ls 4 7.8 7.8 96.1 pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, gs 1 2.0 2.0 98.0 pc, sl, dwe, pcs, ls, tw 1 2.0 2.0 100.0 Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 11. Showing Occurrence of Conflict in the Office Occurrence of Valid Cumulative Conflict in the Frequency Percent Percent Percent Office Daily 4 7.8 7.8 7.8
Weekly 14 27.5 27.5 35.3
Monthly 7 13.7 13.7 49.0 Valid Seldom 22 43.1 43.1 92.2
Never 4 7.8 7.8 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
110 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 12. Showing Ways to Resolve Conflict in the Workplace
Ways to Resolve Valid Cumulative Conflict in the Frequency Percent Workplace Percent Percent wm, cm, mp, c 1 2.0 2.0 2.0 wm, c, mp, cm 3 5.9 5.9 7.8 c, wm, mp, cm 3 5.9 5.9 13.7 c, wm, cm, mp 18 35.3 35.3 49.0 cm, c, mp, wm 1 2.0 2.0 51.0 c, cm, wm, mp 8 15.7 15.7 66.7 c, mp, wm, cm 1 2.0 2.0 68.6 c, cm, mp, wm 4 7.8 7.8 76.5 mp, cm, c, wm 2 3.9 3.9 80.4 Valid c, mp, cm, wm 3 5.9 5.9 86.3 cm, mp, wm, c 1 2.0 2.0 88.2 mp, c, wm, cm 1 2.0 2.0 90.2 mp, c, cm, wm 1 2.0 2.0 92.2 cm, wm, c, mp 1 2.0 2.0 94.1 wm, c, cm, mp 1 2.0 2.0 96.1 cm, mp, c, wm 1 2.0 2.0 98.0 Missing 1 2.0 2.0 100.0 Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 13. Showing Participants Involvement in Workplace Conflict
Involvement Valid Cumulative in Workplace Frequency Percent Percent Percent Conflict
Yes 19 37.3 37.3 37.3
No 31 60.8 60.8 98.0 Valid Missing 1 2.0 2.0 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
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Table 14. Showing Participants who Indicated that Workplace Conflict Affects Employees
Workplace Valid Cumulative Conflict affects Frequency Percent Percent Percent Employees
Negatively 43 84.3 84.3 84.3
Positively 2 3.9 3.9 88.2
Valid Not at all 1 2.0 2.0 90.2
Negatively and 5 9.8 9.8 100.0 Positively
Total 51 100.0 100.0
Table 15. Showing Trained in Conflict Resolution, Dispute Resolution and Mediation
Trained in Conflict Resolu - Valid Cumulative tion, Dispute Frequency Percent Percent Percent Resolution and Mediation
Yes 47 92.2 92.2 92.2
Valid No 4 7.8 7.8 100.0
Total 51 100.0 100.0
112 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 16. Cross tabulation between Gender* Department* Workplace conflict affecting Employees productivity
Department Total Wconaff Admis - Dean’s Cohs Accounts Library sions office
Negatively Male 103217 Gender Female 17 854236
Total 18 886343
Positively Gender Male 112
Total 112
Not at all Gender Female 11
Total 11
Negatively and Gender Female 311 5 positively
Total 311 5
Total Male 113319 Gender Female 21 964242
Total 1022 10 97351
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Table 21.0. Correlation of Gender and Department
Correlations
Gender Department
Pearson Correlation 1 -.370**
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) .008
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation -.370** 1
Department Sig. (2-tailed) .008
N 51 51
** . Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 21.1. Correlation of Gender and Department
Correlations
Gender Department
Correlation Spearman’s rho Gender 1.000 -.371** Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) . .007
N 51 51
Correlation Department -.371** 1.000 Coefficient
Sig. (2-tailed) .007 .
N 51 51
** . Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
114 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 22.0. Correlation of Gender and Length of Service in the Institution
Correlations
Gender Sinstit
Pearson Correlation 1 .321*
Gender Sig. (2-tailed) .021
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation .321* 1
Sinstit Sig. (2-tailed) .021
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 22.1. Correlation of Gender and Length of Service in the Institution
Correlations
Gender Sinstit Correlation 1.000 .337* Coefficient Gender Sig. (2-tailed) . .016
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation .337* 1.000 Coefficient Sinstit Sig. (2-tailed) .016 .
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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Table 27. Correlation of Conflict Occur in Office, Involvement in Workplace Conflict and Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees
Correlations Coccur inwcon wconaff Correlation Spearman’s rho 1.000 .336* -.076 Coefficient Coccur Sig. (2-tailed) . .016 .594 N 51 51 51 Correlation .336* 1.000 -.341* Coefficient inwcon Sig. (2-tailed) .016 . .014 N 51 51 51 Correlation -.076 -.341* 1.000 Coefficient wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) .594 .014 . N 51 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 28. Correlation of Involvement in Workplace Conflict and Training in Conflict Resolution
Correlations
Inwcon conresol
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.082
inwcon Sig. (2-tailed) . .570
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient -.082 1.000
conresol Sig. (2-tailed) .570 .
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
116 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 29. Correlation of Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees and Shift Systems
Correlations
wconaff System
Pearson Correlation 1 .345*
Wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) .013
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation .345* 1
System Sig. (2-tailed) .013
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 29.1. Correlation of Workplace Conflicts affecting Employees and Shift Systems
Correlations
Wconaff ssystem
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .339*
wconaff Sig. (2-tailed) . .015
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient .339* 1.000
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .015 .
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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Table 30.0. Correlation of Age group and Category of Worker
Correlations
Agegroup cworker
Pearson Correlation 1 -.552**
Agegroup Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation -.552** 1
Cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 30.1. Correlation of Age group and Category of Worker
Correlations
Age group Cworker
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.573**
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient -.573** 1.000
Cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
118 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 31.0. Correlation of Age Group and Shift System
Correlations
Age group ssystem
Pearson Correlation 1 .295*
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) .036
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation .295* 1
System Sig. (2-tailed) .036
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 31.1. Correlation of Age Group and Shift System
Correlations
Age group System
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 .335*
Age group Sig. (2-tailed) . .016
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient .335* 1.000
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .016 .
N 51 51
*. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
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Table 33.0. Correlation of Department and Shift System
Correlations
Department System
Pearson Correlation 1 -.433**
Department Sig. (2-tailed) .002
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation -.433** 1
System Sig. (2-tailed) .002
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 33.1. Correlation of Department and Shift System
Correlations
Department System
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.403**
Department Sig. (2-tailed) . .003
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient -.403** 1.000
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .003 .
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
120 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Impact of Workplace Conflicts on Employees Productivity ’
Table 34.0. Correlation of Shift System and Category of Worker
Correlations
ssystem cworker
Pearson Correlation 1 -.668**
ssystem Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
Pearson Correlation -.668** 1
cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Table 34.1. Correlation of Shift System and Category of Worker
Correlations
System cworker
Correlation Coefficient 1.000 -.651**
System Sig. (2-tailed) . .000
N 51 51 Spearman’s rho Correlation Coefficient -.651** 1.000
cworker Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .
N 51 51
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 121 J OURNAL OF A RTS S CIENCE AND T ECHNOLOGY
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124 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Notes on Contributors
Deonne M. Caines M.Sc. Nutrition, University of the West Indies, Mona. Nutritionist, Ministry of Health, Jamaica. Research interests: Food access, food utilization
Ellen Campbell Grizzle PhD Communication, University of the West Indies, Mona. Associate Professor, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica. Research interests: Social pharmacy including pharmacy workforce issues, Caribbean pharmacy history, non-communicable diseases, substance abuse prevention, poison prevention, spousal violence and medical cannabis
Sheerin Eyre MSc Nutrition, Kings College, United Kingdom (UK). Lecturer, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology Jamaica Research interests: nutrition, health management, integrative medicine & cassava
Fitzroy Henry PhD - Nutritional Epidemiology, University of London. Professor of Public Health Nutrition, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology Jamaica Research interests: Public health nutrition, chronic disease, health behavior.
Anetheo A. Jackson MPhil/PhD candidate, University of the West Indies, Mona. Lecturer, Faculty of the Built Environment, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests : Economic and social development, education, housing and public policy.
Janet James M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona. Head, Library Information Systems and Outreach Services, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests: Information literacy, and education
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 125 Notes on Contributors
Ashleigh McIntosh Student, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the West Indies, Mona. Research interests: Game-based learning, sustainable development and coastal eco-systems.
Rasheed O. Perry MSc Public Health Nutrition (pending), University of Technology, Jamaica. Assistant Lecturer, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests: Medicinal cannabis, nutraceutical sciences, critical care nutrition, food product development and analysis and dielectric and bio-impedance in estimating body composition.
Sonia Richards-Malcolm Doctor of Health Science, Nova Southeastern University, USA. Associate Professor of Immunohaematology, Coordinator for Graduate Studies, Research and Entrepreneurship, Head of Continuing Education & Professional Development, Phlebotomy Coordinator and Academic Advisement Officer, College of Heath Sciences. Research interests: Education, stem cells, diabetes, blood and the immune system.
Kerry-Ann Rodney Wellington M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona. Head, Instructional Media Services, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests : Information literacy, interprofessional collaboration, education and training
Andrew Paul Smith PhD candidate, Career & Technical Education, University of Technology, Jamaica. Lecturer, Faculty of Education, University of Technology, Jamaica. Research interests: Photography as a tool for heritage education, national photo- graphic cultures, influence of national photographic cultures on teaching photography.
Dahoma South B.A. Guidance and Counseling, International University of the Caribbean. Student Affairs Assistant, College of Health Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica. Research interests: Education and psychology, GSAT exam, conflict and motivation.
126 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 Notes on Contributors
Michelle Stewart-McKoy MPhil Foreign Language Education, University of the West Indies, Mona. Associate Professor, Lecturer, School of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Technology, Jamaica. eLearning Coordinator, Faculty of Education and Liberal Studies. Research interests: eLearning, technologies in education, virtual learning environ- ments, gamification and game-based learning.
Heather Thompson M.A. Library and Information Studies, University of the West Indies, Mona; Reference, Research and Caribbean Collection Librarian, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests: Academic libraries and education, reference services
Shanice N. Trowers Masters of Law in International Commercial Law from University of Exeter (UK), Bachelors of Law (Hons), University of the West Indies, Legal Education Certificate, Norman Manley Law School. Lecturer, Faculty of Law, University of Technology, Jamaica Research interests: Commercial law, criminal law, maritime law and family law
Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 127 Journal of Arts Science and Technology Submission Guidelines
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The Journal of Arts, Science, and Technology (JAST) is an international, multi- disciplinary, peer-reviewed journal aiming to promote and enhance research and technology in diverse fields of knowledge, including architecture, arts, business management, computing, education, engineering, finance, health, hospitality, law, liberal studies, marketing, pharmacy, sports, and urban planning. JAST is published by the University of Technology, Jamaica, and is intended for readers in the scholarly community and for professionals in industry. Besides research papers, the journal welcomes scholarly book reviews, conference papers, and commentaries. JAST is published annually. Each issue will include the following sections: editorial, research papers, book reviews, conference reports, and industry viewpoints. A range of papers is encouraged, including evidence-based research papers, reviews, and personal reflections. In addition to research-based papers, we welcome papers on industrial perspectives for the “Industrial Issues” section of the journal. Any academic referencing style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.) may be used based on Author(s) discipline. Author(s) should use Calibri, double spacing in MS Word document, and 12-point font, and left align.
128 Vol. 11, No. 2, November 2018 JAST Submission Guidelines
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