Significant species in the woodlands of the Brigalow and Nandewar State Conservation areas and suggestions for their management. Many species of woodland have declined in NSW and elsewhere in in recent decades (see e. g. Watson 2011, Ford 2011). A number of these are regarded as threatened in NSW (see http://www.environment.nsw.gov.au/threatenedSpeciesApp/SpeciesByType.aspx) or even in Australia as a whole (Garnett et al. 2011). The Brigalow and Nandewar regions have a very rich bird fauna (e. g. 220 species in the Pilliga Scrub - Date et al. 2002), because they span the inland (Eyrean), south coastal (Bassian) and northern (Torresian) zoological regions. Threatened and declining bird species that currently occur in the Pilliga Scrub are listed in Table 1. Several bird species appear to have gone extinct in the Pilliga (Table 2), including Malleefowl, which still occurs in the Goonoo Forest. The Paradise is globally extinct and the Thick-billed Grasswren, Black-throated and Star Finches are probably extinct in NSW. Locally extinct species mostly occurred in mallee, open, grassy habitat or drier regions in the state. The Shy Heathwren and Red-lored Whistler are probably misidentifications of Chestnut-rumped Heathwrens and Gilbert’s Whistlers. There are records from the BirdLife Australia Atlas of Red- tailed Black-Cockatoos and Blue-winged from the Brigalow region. The critically endangered Regent Honeyeater has been recorded in the Pilliga, as well as in the Warrumbungles National Park. (Dean Ingwersen at BirdLife Australia - [email protected] could provide you with the details.) It is highly mobile, visiting flowering eucalypts (such as ironbarks and boxes). The Pilliga Scrub contains the most significant population in the state of the Barking Owl (Vulnerable in NSW). Dr Rod Kavanagh and Matthew Stanton of State Forests NSW have carried out detailed research on the species. Unfortunately, they were both made redundant a few years ago in a cost-saving exercise. Kavanagh and Stanton also carried out extensive surveys of all woodland and forest birds in the Pilliga, which I imagine have never been analysed and reported. Elizabeth Date was a postdoctoral research fellow working with Harry Recher and me in the 1990s. Our paper summarised the status of birds in the Pilliga and the numbers detected in surveys based on 568 transects, and I attach a copy. Of particular note is that several bird species are associated with forest away from creeks, which tends to be scrubby, with few large trees, due to frequent logging and fires. Allocasuarina, Eucalyptus crebra and Callitris were the dominants, mostly as small trees. Speckled Warblers (Vulnerable in NSW) and Chestnut-rumped Thornbills (declining) mostly occurred in this habitat. About one quarter of the transects were in or near creeks, which are characterised by larger trees, especially E. blakelyi and Angophora floribunda, with a more open understorey. A larger group of bird species (Table 1), including many that are Vulnerable or declining, occur in creek sites. Probably other species are associated with creeks, but the sample size for them is too small for significance. Some species depend on both types of habitat, for instance Glossy Black-Cockatoos feed on Allocasuarina seeds, but nest in large trees along creeks.

1 Table 1. Bird species that are threatened in NSW (V = vulnerable, E = endangered, CE = critically endangered) or regarded as declining (D) (Watson 2011), which occur in the Pilliga Scrub (Date et al. 2002). * indicates Pilliga holds significant populations. # indicates species associated with creek habitat. Species status comments Regent Honeyeater CE Nomadic nectar-feeder Bush Stone-Curlew E Open woodland Swift Parrot E Nomadic nectar-feeder Little Eagle V Woodland Square-tailed Kite V Woodland Black Falcon V Open habitats *Glossy Black-Cockatoo V Needs big trees and Allocasuarina *Little Lorikeet V #Nomadic nectar-feeder Superb Parrot V Open woodland, farmland * V #Woodland/Open forest *Barking Owl V Areas with many arboreal mammals Brown Treecreeper V #Grassy woodland *Speckled Warbler V Open forest, scrubby and grassy Painted Honeyeater V Migratory nectar/fruit-feeder Black-chinned Honeyeater V Woodland – large home range Hooded Robin V #Open woodland *Varied Sittella V Open forest *Grey-crowned Babbler V #Open woodland Diamond Firetail V #Grassy woodland Emu D Open habitat Painted Button-quail D Woodland/Open forest Chestnut-rumped Thornbill D Drier woodland White-browed Babbler D #Open, scrubby forest Crested Shrike-tit D #Large trees with peeling bark Rufous Whistler D Woodland/Open forest Crested Bellbird D Drier woodland White-browed Woodswallow D #Nomadic Dusky Woodswallow D #Open woodland Restless Flycatcher D #Grassy woodland *Jacky Winter D Woodland edges *Red-capped Robin D Drier woodland

2 *Eastern Yellow Robin D Woodland/open forest (Note: DNA evidence suggests Eastern Yellow Robins are very different genetically east and west of the Great Dividing Range)

Table 2. Species regarded as extinct in the Pilliga Scrub by Date et al. (2002). Species NSW Status Habitat Malleefowl V Mallee, Open woodland Australian Brush Turkey V (population) Wet forest Australian Bustard V Open grassland Plains-Wanderer E Sparse grassland Flock Bronzewing E Arid grassland Squatter Pigeon E #Not recorded NSW since 1970s Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo V (subspecies) Woodland Major Mitchell’s Cockatoo V Dry woodland Paradise Parrot Extinct Woodland Blue-winged Parrot V Open grassland (winter) Thick-billed Grasswren Extinct in NSW* Chenopod shrubland Striated Grassland E Hummock grassland Shy Heathwren? V Mallee Chestnut Quail-thrush V Mallee Red-lored Whistler? E Mallee Star Finch Extinct in NSW Grassland Black-throated Finch Extinct in NSW? Grassy woodland * A very small population of Thick-billed Grasswren of a different subspecies was recently rediscovered in western NSW (Garnett et al. 2011). # Date et al. did not include Squatter Pigeon as Extinct in the Pilliga in 2002, but it probably was.

Some suggestions for adaptive management 1. Protect and enhance sites with important nectar sources, such as E. sideroxylon, E. fibrosa and E. albens. Regent Honeyeaters and Swift Parrots might use such sites periodically, along with other threatened nectarivores in Table1. 2. Protect creek sites, especially around known nests of Barking Owl and Glossy Black-Cockatoo. It may be necessary to protect these sites from invasion by dense regrowth of Callitris or clear such regrowth. A wide range of threatened or declining birds are likely to be assisted by protecting these sites. 3. Thin dense Callitris regrowth in sites with large eucalypts or Angophora. This might encourage the bird species in Table 1 that are normally associated with creeks.

3 Ideally birds should be surveyed before and after the thinning to see how they respond. Although the ideal habitat for many declining woodland birds is large, well- spaced trees with a grassy understorey and few shrubs, this is unfortunately what Noisy Miners prefer. There is a risk that burning to thin pines may encourage Noisy Miners (Maron and Kennedy 2007). (I realise that there has been an ongoing program to thin pines in NSW forests. So far I have not seen any results from this.) 4. If there are sites with large, well-spaced Callitris, these may also contain good numbers of declining woodland birds, without having the problem of Noisy Miners. 5. I have not visited the western parts of the Pilliga, which is where I assume that more arid woodland, dominated by various Acacia spp. and Belah (Casuarina cristata), occurs. These habitats are probably under-surveyed, and may contain good numbers of declining woodland birds, possibly even species that have not been recorded in the Pilliga for some time. Woodland dominated by trees other than eucalypts tend not to have Noisy Miners, and hence can be valuable for conservation. Also, the Painted Honeyeater, vulnerable throughout Australia, favours these woodlands, if mistletoes are common (Garnett et al. 2011). 6. There is evidence that coarse woody debris is an important resource for woodland birds (and also mammals and reptiles). Where possible this should be retained or increased – if this is possible without increasing the fire risk. I have kept this submission brief but I am happy to expand on any of my comments or indeed review the appropriate literature on a topic. References Date, E. M., Ford, H. A. and Recher, H. F. 2002. Impacts of logging, fire and grazing regimes on bird species assemblages of the Pilliga woodlands of New South Wales. Pacific Conservation Biology 8: 177-195. Ford, H. A. 2011. The causes of decline of birds of eucalypt woodlands: advances in our knowledge over the last 10 years. Emu 111: 1-9. Garnett, S. T., Szabo, J. K. and Dutson, G. 2011. The Action Plan for Australian Birds. Birds Australia and CSIRO, Melbourne. Maron, M. and Fitzsimmons, J. A. 2007. Roads, fire and aggressive competitors: determinants of bird distribution in subtropical production forests. Forest Ecology and Management 240: 24-31. Watson, D. 2011. A productivity-based explanation for woodland bird declines: poorer soils yield less food. Emu 111: 10-18.

Hugh A Ford, Emeritus Professor, Zoology, University of New England, Armidale, NSW 2351

4 Impacts of logging, fire and grazing regimes on bird species assemblages of the Pilliga woodlands of New South Wales

E. M. DATE1, H. A. FORD2 and H. E RECHER3

We investigated the composition and distribution of bird assemblages in the continuous Pilliga woodlands of north- west New South Wales in relation to floristic assemblages and disturbance (logging, fire and grazing) patterns. Box- ironbark woodlands contained high densities of White Cypress Pine Callitris glaucophylla and Narrow-leaved Ironbark Eucalyptus crebra, had a sparse, depauperate understorey, and were associated with frequent, intense logging and infrequent fires (due to fire exclusion and the use of grazing for fuel reduction). Box-ironbark woodlands were characterized by high frequencies of 12 bird species that occurred throughout the Pilliga and low frequencies of many other species. Blakely’s Red Gum E. blakelyi woodlands typical of creeks and Broad-leaved Ironbark E. fibrosa woodlands typical of poor soils contained lower densities or smaller trees of C. glaucophylla and E. crebra, had a moderately dense, diverse understorey, ahd were associated with infrequent low-intensity logging and moderately frequent wildfire. Bird species assemblages of Broad-leaved Ironbark woodlands were similar to those of box-ironbark woodlands. Blakely’s Red Gum woodlands were characterized by 36 bird species that were virtually absent from box-ironbark and Broad- leaved Ironbark woodlands, including 10 threatened and declining species. The 10 are among 48 woodland species that are known or thought to be declining and that are dependent on woodlands with mature trees and grassy or patchy grass/shrub understorey. We conclude that these species have declined in the Pilliga and will continue to decline under existing disturbance regimes, particularly in box-ironbark woodlands. We suggest adaptive management strategies for maintaining and rehabilitating their habitats. Key words: Birds, Assemblages, Communities, Disturbance, Logging, Fire, Grazing, Pilliga, Woodlands, Adaptive management.

INTRODUCTION patterns of disturbance. In particular, there is IN a review of forest biodiversity conservation little information on disturbance effects at a in New South Wales, Norton and Kirkpau’ick regional or landscape scale, while insufficient (1995) identified strategies for managing the effort has been made to apply ecological data effects of logging disturbance of forest eco- to the requirements of management. systems. They argued that the many impacts of In this paper, we report on the effects of logging and related forestry practices are logging, fire and grazing on birds within the detrimental and may be irreversible. Existing continuous woodland of the Pilliga region on the forest reserves are not representative of forest north-west slopes of New South Wales and biodiversity and in addition to establishing a address the following ecological questions: comprehensive reserve network centred on forest old-growth, Norton and Kirkpatrick (1995) 1. Are there identifiable floristic assemblages contend that an ecologically conservative within the Pilliga that can be used to ide.ntify approach to management in reserved and non- bird habitats? reserved forests/~ is required. Similarly, 2. Are there identifiable assemblages of birds recommendations for flexible and adaptive strategies in relation to fire (Bradstock et al. with consistent patterns of distribution 1995; Woinarski and Recher 1997) and grazing among habitats? (Friedel and James 1995; Wilson et al. 1997) and 3. Are there consistent patterns of disturbance preventative strategies in relation to clearing among bird assemblages and bird habitats (Bennett and Ford 1997) attempt to modify and, if so, how do these interact? disturbance regimes to meet nature conservation and management objectives (see Johnson 1999). o Have particular bird assemblages declined Filet et al. (1997) and Reid (1999) develop and are they and their habitats under threat management strategies to mitigate impacts of of disturbance from logging, fire and multiple disturbance factors (e.g., fire plus grazing? grazing). However, a difficulty with developing The identification of bird assemblages new and innovative management strategies for (communities) and habitat types is an attempt to nature conservation which allow for on-going simplify discussion of the effects of disturbance disturbance (e.g., logging, fuel reduction on birds. We discuss the interactions between burning) is the limited information on bird assemblages and disturbance in semi-arid interactions between different disturbance woodlands and suggest how disturbance can be regimes and the response of biota to complex managed to conserve a wide diversity of birds.

’P.O. Box 30, Shordand Union Building, University of Newcasde, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia 2308. ~School oi: Environmental Sciences and Natural Resources Management, University or New England, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia 2351. ~School ot" Natural Sciences, Edith Cowan University, Joondalup Western Australia, Australia 6027. PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY Vol. 8: 177-95. Surrey Beatty & Sons, S),dney, 2002. 178 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

STUDY AREA Nature Reserve has experienced two summer Prior to European settlement in the 1830s, the wildfires (1951, 1982), though small sections also vegetation of the north-west slopes of New South experienced one extra summer wildfire (1977, Wales was mostly tall woodland with some dry 1978 or 1979) or one autumn fuel reduction sclerophyll forest and some grassland. Since burn (1988, 1990 or 1991). The Pilliga Nature then, approximately 50% of the natural Reserve and adjacent parts of State Forests of the vegetation of the western slopes (Reed 1991) eastern Pilliga experienced two to six summer and 85% of the adjacent plains, known as the wildfires and one to three fuel reduction burns between 1950 and 1991. Since this study, central wheatbelt (Sivertsen 1993), has been cleared. The largest woodland remnant on the north-west and eastern Pilliga experienced wildfire again in slopes is the Pilliga (30°30’-31°20’S, 148o40’- December 1997 and in January 2002. Intervals between wildfires ranged from 1 to 25 years. 149°50’E), located between the towns of Narrabri and Coonabarabran (Fig. 1). The Pilliga is over Fuel reduction burning has been attempted 500 000 ha of continuous woodland on State every four years since 1975, but is less frequent due to weather conditions (>8 year intervals,

NARRABRI, National Parks and Wildlife Service and State PILLIGA Forests of NSW records). The most common view is that prior to 1830 the Pilliga was open, grass)i woodland with a few old eucalypts and cypress pines per hectare and that now there are fewer old trees, but more young trees and shrubs and little grass (see Rolls 1981; Wyatt 1989 and Norris et al. 1991 for details). Shrubby woodlands were mostly restricted to rocky outcrops and ridges and therefore widespread only in the south and east of the Pilliga. From the 1830s to the 1880s fire was mostly excluded, and grazing increased and was extreme during droughts. Perennial grasses declined, while eucalypt, cypress pine, and shrub regeneration proliferated and logging commenced. From the 1890s to the 1940s, European Rabbits Oryctolagus cuniculus spread and increased and regeneration was reduced, ~-~ PIIIIga Nature Reserve except in the southeast of the Pilliga. At the same time, logging increased in frequency, Fig. 1. Map of the Pilliga State Forests and Pilliga Nature intensity and area, but grazing by stock Reserve. Study sites were scattered across the entire decreased. After 1950 and the release of the area. myxomatosis virus, rabbits declined greatly, but by 1990 populations were increasing. With low Forests (390 000 ha), Pilliga Nature Reserve rabbit numbers and decreased stock grazing, (75 000 ha), and adjacent uncleared crown and eucalypt, cypress pine, Buloke Allocasuarina freehold land. Areas of old forests, woodlands leuhmannii and shrub regeneration increased. and grasslands in State Forests are small, Logging of ironbarks and cypress pines fragmented and difficult to identify (Date, pers. continued to increase from the 1950s, so that obs,). minimum log sizes are now small (40 cm for Logging occurs in woodlands with commercial ironbarks, 12 cm for cypress pine). The result densities of White Cypress Pine Callitris is a woodland with no mature cypress pine, some glaucophylla and Narrow-leaved Ironbark mature eucalypts with hollows, few medium-sized Eucalyptus crebra and to a lesser extent Broad- cypress pine or eucalypts with developing leafed and Mugga Ironbark E. fibrosa and E. hollows, a mostly young overstorey of eucalypts, sideroxylon. Logging has ’been recorded only in cypress pines, Buloke, a dense understorey of state forests and there are no records of logging small eucalypts, cypress pine, Buloke and shrubs in the Pilliga Nature Reserve from 1931 to the but little grass (Table 1). present. Fuel reduction burning occurs only in METHODS vegetation types without commercial densities of C. glaucophylla, because young trees of this Birds species are fire sensitive. In the western Pilliga fire has been excluded since before 1950 and Field survey fuel reduction is mostly achieved through A survey of diurnal birds was conducted along grazing. Central Pilliga north of the Pilliga 568 transects in the State Forests of the Pilliga DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD :SPECIES 179

Table 1. Mean density of trees of different age/size classes, Union (Blakers et al. 1984), Australian Museum shrubs and grasses in the Pilliga woodlands during and National Parks and Wildlife Service of New 1991-93. South Wales (NPWS) databases. Additionally, a Age/Size Class Mean Density (ha-l) search was conducted for early literature Mature Trees: documenting bird records on the north-west eucalypts (>80 cm dbh) <3 slopes of New South Wales. The authors’ cypress pine (>60 cm dbh) 0 interpretations of abundance were accepted .and Medium-sized Trees: divided into three categories: rare, uncommon eucalypts (60-80 cm dbh) <1 <1 and common, to determine which species or cypress pine (40-60 cm dbh) groups of species may have declined since Young Trees; European settlement. eucalypts (20-60 cm dbh) 110 cypress pine (20-40 cm dbh) 48 buloke (20-40 cm dbh) 12 Floristics and vegetation structure Understorey Saplings (<20 cm dbh): eucalypts 44 Floristics and vegetation structure data and cypress pine 180 logging, fire and grazing history records were buloke 30 collected for 230 of the transects. One bird Mean % Cover transect from a pair or triplet was selected and the observers worked together to record Shrubs 38 vegetation data. Grass 13 Floristics were measured by recording the and Pilliga Nature Reserve from July 1991 frequency of individuals of each overstorey through December 1992 and in April/May 1993. (canopy and subcanopy) species and by Transects were selected to include most of the estimating the per cent cover of understorey 59 woodland associations (and all 15 types) (shrubs and grasses) species that were obviously mapped by Lindsay (1967) and 9 of 12 mapped dominant in terms of their biomass. The fire histories (years since last wildfire). Mapped floristics of only 60% of transects matched the logging and grazing history data were not mapped vegetation associations of Lindsay available. Where possible and to avoid repetitive (1967), and thus required reclassification for this sampling of transects, the survey included study (see Data analysis below). transects of similar vegetation type and fire Vegetation structure was measured to history that were sampled in different seasons document foliage projective cover as a per- and in different parts of the Pilliga. Sample sizes centage and height range (m) of canopy, reflected the proportion by area of vegetation subcanopy, shrub and grass layers. Separation of associations and fire histories in the Pilliga. A vegetation layers was determined visually. In subset of the transects was sampled each month addition, presence of individual trees in five for the first 18 months and in April/May 1993. diameter classes was recorded: 0: <20, 1: The transects, which were 200 m in length and 20-30, 2: 30-40, 3: 40-60, 4:>60 cm dbh 60 m in width, w~r~ surveyed once each. Each (diameter at approx. 1.5 m above ground). transect was surveyed within three hours of Height (m) of the tallest tree and dbh (cm) of dawn, by walking along it for 20 minutes, at the largest tree, number of mistletoes, number approximately 10 m per minute. The transects of logs >2 m in length and >10 cm in width, included pairs or triplets with similar vegetation number of cut stumps, and number of dead that were approximately 100 m apart and were trees (stags) were noted. Recency and intensity surveyed by two or three observers recording of fire were rated in five categories: no evidence concurrently. All species and the number of of fire, charcoal present, half the trunks and logs individuals per species seen or heard were burnt, more than half the trunkg and logs burnt, recorded, including individuals flying over the and all the logs, trunks and undergrowth burnt. transect. The presence of other species seen or Eucalypt flowering was also rated in five heard outside the transect was also recorded, but categories: no flowering, a few branches not included in analyses. Records of nocturnal flowering, one tree in full flower, two or three birds were collected opportunistically. trees in full flower, four or more trees in full flower. Slope was rated steep, medium, gentle or Literature and database search flat (>20°, 5-20°, <5°, 0°) and the aspect, and month and year of recording noted. A database search for historical locality records of threatened species sightings (listed on Collection of historical records of disturbance Schedules 1 and 2 of the New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995) was Data on the intensity, frequency and recency conducted for the north-west slopes of New of logging and fires and of the presence and South Wales (28°30’ to 33°0’S, 146°0’ to 151031’) recency of grazing on each transect were using the Royal Australasian Ornithologists’ obtained from the Baradine District Office of 180 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

State Forests of NSW. From these data, the Month and year of sampling were also included intensity, frequency, and recency of cypress pine in the ordination to assess seasonal variation (WCP) and ironbark (IBK) logging at the among transects sampled at different times. transect and in surrounding areas of the same Again and for similar reasons, the data were not logging compartment from 1931 to 1991 were transformed or standardized. Except for month calculated. Intensity and frequency were also and year, which were identified as category calculated for the adjacent compartment closest variables, all variables were considered to have to the transect. Intensity was taken as cumulative ordinal or interval value suitable for analysis volume harvested per hectare (m3 ha-Z), with the Bray-Curtis association measure. Thus, frequency was the number of times logging transects were grouped by bird assemblage using occurred, and recency was the number of years classification techniques, and by floristics, since the last logging. Frequency and recency of vegetation structure, fire, logging and grazing thinning o-f cypress pine and poisoning or history using ordination techniques. The ringbarking of eucalypts were calculated in the strength of relationships of avian groupings of same way. Also calculated were the frequency transects with floristics, structure and history of and recency of wildfire from 1951 to 1991 and disturbance was assessed using the PCC and of fuel reduction burns from 1976 to 1991. MCAO, ASIM and GSTA procedures. PCC Older records for logging and fire were not identifies the floristic, structural and historical available. Duration of grazing by livestock from variables which contribute strongly to the 1830 to 1991 was estimated, as was the recency ordination of transects:’and MCAO tests the of grazing at each transect, using State Forests’ significance of their contribution. ASIM (i.e., records and historical records of grazing analysis of similarity) tests the significance of the selections collated by Rolls (1981). ordination as a whole in showing differences between the two groups of transects. GSTA Data analyses determines whether individual variables are significantly different between avian groupings Patterns of decline of woodland bird species were assessed qualitatively and compared with of transects using the Kruskal-Wallis one-way non-woodland bird species. analysis of variance test (Belbin 1987, 1991). Patterns of distribution and abundance of birds The strength of relationships between floristic groupings of transects with structural and among the 568 transects were analysed using pattern analysis (Belbin 1987, 1991). The data, disturbance data was assessed similarly. counts of the number of individuals of each species per transect, were not transformed. RESULTS Preliminary analysis of 10 test species of Declining species of bird medium abundance using log-transformed data did not reveal different results. We used the During this study, 170 bird species were TWAY procedure to produce a two-way grouping detected, compared with a historical diversity of of species with similar distributions among 220 species (Gould 1865; Cleland 1919; transects and transects with similar species Chisholm 1936; Rolls 1981; Blakers et al. 1984; assemblages. It used hierarchical agglomerative Johnston 1986, 2000; Garnett 1993; Robinson cluster analysis, which used the Bray-Curtis and Trail 1996; Reid 1999; A. Morris, pers. association measure and flexible UPGMA comm.; Australian Museum and NPWS method, to determine a similarity index. databases, see.Appendix 1). This includes 140 woodland species detected of 165 recorded since Patterns of floristic features among transects European settlement. Of the 165 woodland were analysed similarly. Because there were a species recorded for the Pilliga, 31 (19%) are large number of plant species that occurred at a small number of transects, only species present known to have declined in abundance, 8 (5%) to regional , compared with 94 (57%) at five or more transects were included in the that are stable or increasing in abundance (Table analysis. The floristic groupings derived from the TWAY analysis were used in the ordination 2, Appendix 1). Of 40 (24%) insufficiently analysis below. known woodland species (Table 2), 17 (10%) are thought to have declined and are listed among Patterns of floristic grouping, vegetation the species of concern (Appendix 1), making a structure and disturbance by logging, fire and total of 48 (29%) known or thought to have grazing were analysed using the SSH procedure declined. Sixteen of the declining species use of the PATN programme, which performs a mature trees for nesting or foraging and 32 multidimensional scaling ordination (we used nest and/or forage on the ground in low grassy three dimensions) of the floristic, structural and or grass/shrub vegetation. Of the 60 non- disturbance variables, and identifies groups of woodland species recorded for the Pilliga area, transects with similar floristics, structure and nine have declined and a further eight (the history of disturbance (Belbin 1987, 1991). insufficiently-known species of concern) are DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 181

Table 2. Numbers of woodland bird species from the Pilliga that are declining, stable, increasing or insufficiently known, grouped by their habitat preferences. Habitat types and their abbreviation in parentheses correspond to those in Appendix 1, Insufficient~ Habitat Typ~ Declining Stable Increasing known Total Grassy Woodlands (Wg) 1 0 0 2 3 Mixed understorey Woodlands (Mu) 12 6 0 6 24 Woodlands with mature.trees (Mr) 4 I 0 3 8 Woodlands and shrublands (W and S) 7 4 0 1 12 Woodlands generally OAr) 6 49 0 17 72 Open habitat and woodlands (O and W) 1 27 7 11 46 Total 31 87 7 40 165

Table 3. Bird species which were significantly different in mean frequency per hectare betweenthe non-creek and creek groups of transects, using the Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) test. Species that are more abundant in the non-creek transects (N = 421) are classified as "non-creek- assemblage" and I~hose more abundant in creek transects (N = 147) as "creek assemblage". " Mean frequencies per hectare for the two groups of transects are also presented. * indicates declining species (Appendix 1). Species Non-creek Creek K-W p Non-Creek Assemblage Australian Raven 0.06 0.01 4.37 0.037 Brown-headed Honeyeater 0.76 0.50 4.44 0.035 Buff-rumped Thornbill 1.00 0.51 4.74 0.035 *Chestnut-rumped Thornbill 0.24 0.02 9.17 0.003 Grey Fantail 0.65 0.42 10.53 0,001 Inland Thornbill 0.82 0.40 24.63 0.000 *Speckled Warbler 0.40 0.15 12.92 0.000 Weebill 3.74 1.13 115.02 0.000 Western Gerygone 0.30 0.12 7.69 0.006 White-eared Honeyeater 1.48 1.06 12.07 0.001 White-throated Treecreeper 0.47 0.20 17.03 0.000 Yellow Thornbill 2.07 0.74 47.64 0.000 Creek Assemblage Australian Magpielark 0.01 0.07 5.29 0.021 Blue-faced Honeyeater 0.03 0.18 9.38 0,002 *Brown Treecreeper 0.04 0.29 35.71 0.000 *Crested Shrike-tit 0.00 0.06 17.34 0.000 *Diamond Firetail 0.00 0.04 14.42 0.001 Dollarbird 0.00 0.01 5.74 0.017 Double-barred Finch 0.002 0.11 16.09 0.001 *Dusky Woodswallow 0.03 1.71 51.86 0.000 Eastern Rosella 0.04 0.25 26.69 0.000 Fuscous Honeyeater 0.002 0,27 13.27 0.001 *Grey-crowned Babbler 0.18 0.50 7.15 0.008 *Hooded Robin 0.01 0.10 10.71 0.001 Little Cuckoo-shrike 0.02 0.15 20.48 0.000 Little Lorikeet 0.14 4.74 99.13 0.000 Mallee Ringneck 0.16 0.43 7.90 0.005 Musk Lorikeet 0.03 0.96 25.65 0.000 Noisy Friarbird 0.35 3.17 34.23 0,000 Noisy Miner 0.08 1.03 39.76 0.000 Pied Butcherbird 0.01 0.04 5.62 0~018 Red-browed Finch 0.02 0.09 8.30 0.004 Red Wattlebird 0.02 0.23 11.25 0.001 *Restless Flycatcher 0.005 0.07 15.56 0.001 Rufous Songlark 0.002 0.03 7.70 0.006 Sacred Kingfisher 0.05 0.13 11.20 0.001 Spiny-checked Honeyeater 0.18 0.38 5.90 0.015 Sulphur-crested Cockatoo 0.01 0.14 12.83 0.002 Tree Martin 0.02 0.23 10.22 0.~ 1 *Turquoise Parrot 0.09 0.18 4.50 0.034 *White-browed Babbler 0.10 0.33 14.52 0.001 *White-browed Woodswallow 0.01 2.22 41.09 0.000 White-naped Honeyeater 0.005 0.18 16.06 0.001 White-plumed Honeyeater 0.20 1.99 55.29 0.000 White-throated Needletail 0.07 1.68 10.65 0.001 White-throated Gerygone 0.02 0.07 5.63 0.018 Willie Wagtail 0,09 0.42 41.43 0.000 Yellow-tufted Honeyeater 0.07 0.31 4.20 0.041 182 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY thought to have declined (17 in total, 28%) Angophora floribunda overstorey and a diverse, compared with 37 (62%) that are stable or grass/shrub understorey. They were rarely increasing in abundance (Table 2, Appendix 1). observed in woodlands with box-ironbark English and Latin names of bird species are (E. crebra, Callitris glaucophylla, Allocasuarina included in Appendix 1. leuhmannii, E. pilligaensis, E. populnea, Acacia deanei, Geijera parviflora) overstorey and Transect groupings by bird assemblages depauperate understorey or in woodlands typical of poor soils with an overstorey of E. fibrosa, E. The two-way cluster analysis of transects and trachyphloia, C. endlicheri and a diverse, shrub bird species identified two poorly-resolved understorey. Differences in mean frequency of groups of transects by their bird species some overstorey species and in percent cover of composition. The first group (N = 421), labelled some understorey species between "non-creek" "non-creek transects", contained the majority of and "creek" transect groups, as defined by their transects. Thisgroup was dominated by 12 bird bird assemblages, support this interpretation species that occurred throughout the Pilliga. Ten (Table 4). The "non-creek" and "creek" transects are considered common and stable in abundance also experienced broadly different disturbance whereas Speckled Warbler is regarded as histories, which are reported in the section, common and declining and Chestnut-rumped Birds, floristic groups, vegetation structure and Th0rnbill uncommon and declining (Table 3, disturbance history. Appendix 1). These species were significantly more abundant among "non-creek" transects in Transect groupings by flor~stic assemblages terms of individuals per hectare than among the second much smaller group (N = 147), labelled The two-way cluster analysis of transects and "creek transects" (Table 3). plant species identified two poorly-resolved groups of transects by their plant species In contrast, 36 species were significantly more composition. The first group (N = 94) was abundant among "creek" than among "non- dominated by Callitris glaucophylla, Allocasuarina creek" transects, 29 of which were virtually leuhmannii and Acacia deanei, but also contained absent from "non-creek" transects (frequency Eucalyptus crebra, E. blakelyi, E. albens, E. <0.1 ha-~, Table 3). The 36 species included 16 melanophloia, E. pilligaensis, E. populnea, considered common, 17 uncommon and three Angophora floribunda, Dodonaea viscosa, Geijera rare species. Of these, two common and eight parviflora and Eremophila mitcheIlii (Tables 5 and uncommon species are thought to be declining 6). We labelled this group "box-ironbark and their status is threatened or of concern transects". The second group (N = 136) was (Table 3, Appendix 1). These birds were typically dominated by Eucalyptus fibrosa, E. trachyphloia, observed along the creeklines in vegetation C. endlicheri, A. doratoxylon, Allocasuarina diminuta dominated by mature Eucalyptus blakelyi and and Cassinia arcuata and 21 shrub species (Tables

Table 4. Plant species that were significantly different in mean frequency (overstorey) per hectare or per cent cover (understorey) between the groups of transects identified by their bird species assemblage: "non-creek" and "creek" transects, using the Kruskat-Wallis (K-W) test. Plants more frequent on the "non-creek" transects are grouped under "non-creek assemblage" and those more frequent on the "creek" transects are grouped under "creek" assemblage. * indicates understorey species. Species Non-Creek Creek K-W p Non-Creek Assemblage Atlocasuarina leuhmannii 53.40 11.40 4.23 0.04 * A. leuhmannii 4.24 0.69 8.99 0.03 * A. diminuta 1.78 0.18 6.22 0.01 * Callitris glaucophylla 4.19 1.99 4.37 0.04 * Melichrus erubescens 0.35 0.00 4.12 0.04 Eucalyptus crebra 25.52 21.82 N.S. Creek Assemblage Acacia polybotria 0.28 1.80 4.82 0.03 Angophora floribunda 9.38 21.84 7.61 0.006 * A. floribunda 0.29 0.47 10.17 0.001 Eucalyptus blakelyi 24.22 42.44 5.94 0.01 E. melliodora 0.04 2.46 7.42 0.007 * Bossiaea rhombifolia 0.55 1.58 11.18 0.001 * Brachyloma daphnoides 2.83 3.91 4.21 0.04 * Ca~sinia arcuata 10.87 20.73 7.71 0.006 * Hibbertia obtusifolia 0.53 0.92 4.84 0.03 * Cyperaceae 0.36 0.48 4.96 0.03 DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND G1L~ING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 183

Table 5. Overstorey plant species which were significantly different in mean frequency per hectare between the creek-and-poor-soil and box-ironbark woodland groups of transects, using the Kruskal-’t~allis (K-W) test. Species that are more abundant in creek and poor soil transects (N = 136) are classified under "creek and poor soil woodlands" and those more abundant in the box-ironbark transects (N = 94) under "box-ironbark woodlands". Creek and Species Box-Ironbark Poor Soil Kruskal-Wallis p-value Box-Ironbark Woodlands Acacia deanei 25.43 8.59 45.99 0.0001 A. lanigera 1.82 0.00 13.49 0.0002 Allocasuarina leuhmannii 96.98 7.84 70.71 0.0001 Callitris glaucophyIla 481.00 14.76 168.18 0.0001 Dodonaea viscosa 3.98 0.59 12.35 0.0004 Eucalyptus albens 5.18 0.02 5.41 0.02 E. melanophloia 4.32 0.00 7.36 0.007 E. pilligaensis 9.36 3.07 14.54 0.0001 E. populnea 10.35 0.99 16.16 0.0001 E. sideroxyplon 5.72 0.45 11.31 0.0008 Geijeria parviflora 7.19 2.45 25.23 0.0001 Creek and Poor Soil Woodlands Acacia doratoxylon 1.44 16.31 6.78 0.009 A. gIadiiformes 0.03 1.30 7.25 0.007 Alloca.~uarina diminuta 0.84 9.88 21.09 0.0001 Callitris endlicheri 0.36 39.46 46.50 0.0001 Eucalyptus fibrosa 5.14 64.65 46.35 0.0001 E. macrorhyncha 0.00 6.68 8.70 0.003 E. melliodora 0.00 0;96 4,24 0.04 E. trachyphloia 3.01 44.88 42.54 0.0001 Exocarpos cupressiifor~nes 0.68 2.11 6.46 0.01 Jacksonia scoparia 0,00 1.79 4.97 0.03 Angophora floribunda 7,43 15.31 N. S, Eucalyptus bIakelyi 18,62 34.79 N.S. E. crebra 16.84 30.15 N.S. Table 6. Understorey plant species which were significantly different in per cent cover between the creek-and-poor-soil and box-ironbark woodland groups of transects, using the Kruskal- Wallis (K-W) test. Species that are more abundant in creek and poor soil transects (N = 136) are classified under "creek and poor soil woodlands" and those more abundant in the box.-ironbark transects (N = 94) under "box-ironbark woodlands". Creek and Species Box-Ironbark Poor Soil Kruskal-Wallis p-value Box-Ironbark Woodlands Acacia deanei 7.32 1.17 33.68 0.0001 A. lanigera ¯ 0.61 0.07 4.64 0.03 Allocasuarina leuhmannii 6.05 1.69 27.29 0.0001 Aristida ramosa 5.29 1.05 4.91 0.03 Callitris glaucophyIla 7.75 0.93 83.86 0.0001 Callicoma sp. 0.10 0.00 7.36 0.007 Dodonaea viscosa 2.40 0.58 6.35 0.01 Creek and Poor Soil Woodlands Acacia doratoxylon 0.10 2.49 17.16 0.0001 A. gladiiformes 0.00 0.47 11.03 0..0009 Allocasuarina diminuta 0.29 2.22 12.25 0.0005 Boronia glabra 0.04 0.84 10.25 0.001 Bossiaea rhombifolia 0.15 1.21 5.56 0.02 Brachyloma daphnoides 2.30 3.59 12.88 0.0003 Callitris endlicheri" 0.03 2.14 20.13 0.0001 Cassinia arcuata 3.59 19.52 46.61 0.0001 Dampiera lanceolata 0.00 0.18 8.70 0.003 Dillwynia sp. 0.00 0.29 7.19 0.007 Eucalyptusfibrosa 0.04 0.87 8.78 0.003 E. trachyphloia 0.11 0.47 6.94 0.008 Exocarpos cupressiformes 0.05 0.45 6.68 0.01 Grevillia floribunda 0.22 0.25 5.26 0.02 Hibbertia obtusifolia 0.21 0.89 5.37 0.02 Homoranthus flavescens 0.64 1.00 8.23 0.004 Leptospermum polygalifolium 0.49 1.69 4.66 0.03 Melichrus urceolatus 0.09 0.46 3.91 0.05 Ricinocarpus bowmanii 0.00 0.51 11.81 0.0006 Stypandra glauca 0.00 0.I5 4.24 0.04 184 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

5 and 6), but also contained Angophora floribunda, of White Cypress Pine logging, frequency of E. blakelyi, E. crebra, E. macrorhyncha, E. ironbark logging, recency of White Cypress Pine melliodora, C. glaucophylla, A. leuhmannii, Acacia thinning, number of logs, stumps and dead trees deanei, and G. parviflora. We labelled this group and subcanopy foliage cover, which were "creek and poor soil transects". The two transect positively associated with "box-ironbark" groups experienced different disturbance woodlands. Influences opposite and orthogonal histories, which are reported in the next section. to logging impacts included shrub foliage cover and frequency of wildfire, which were positively Plant species differed significantly in frequency associated with "creek and poor soil" woodlands or per cent cover between the two groups of (Fig. 2, Table 7). These variables were strongly transects (Tables 5 and 6), except for Angophora correlated with the ordination (R>0.45>MCAO floribunda, E. blakelyi and E. crebra which were expected R-value) and significantly separated the more frequent, but not significantly so, on creek two groups of transects with different flora (p < and poor soil transects (Table 5). The result for 0.05 for ASIM and Kruskal-Wallis tests, Table 7). E. crebra was not expected but may be explained Transects with "box-ironbark" woodlands by the large numbers of small trees of this experienced more frequent intense logging, species on poor soils (Tables 4 and 5). more frequent thinning, less frequent wildfire, Creeklines in the Pilliga, which have sandy or and had lower shrub and higher subcanopy duplex sand-clay soils, are mostly dominated by foliage cover than transects of the "creek and E. blakelyi and A. floribunda, whereas poor, poor soil" type (Table 7). Th¢"differences in size shallow, sandy and rocky soils, typically but not of large trees and grass foliage cover were in the exclu’sively on ridgelines, are dominated by E. opposite direction to that expected in relation fibrosa, E. trachyphloia and C. endlicheri: Creeks to differences in logging and fire history, but and areas of poor soils had similar compositions were consistent with natural size differences in of dominant understorey shrubs and tree species and differences in shrub foliage experienced more similar disturbance histories, cover between the transect groups. which are reported in the next section. Birds, floristic groups, vegetation structure and Floristics, vegetation structure and disturbance disturbance history history The ordination of vegetation structure, The ordination of vegetation structure and disturbance history and floristic grouping was disturbance history was influenced by variables influenced by variables that measured the that measured the impacts of logging and impacts of logging and fire and floristic silvicultural treatments: frequency and intensity grouping. Frequency and intensity of White

Table 7. Vegetation structural and disturbance history variables which were significantly different between the transect groupings by floristics ("creek" and "box-iron"), using the Kruskal-Wallis (K-W) test. These variables are also correlated strongly (R) with the ordination of vegetation structure and disturbance history in Figure 2. Note that "Freq. adjacent WCPiIBK logging" is the frequency of White Cypress Pine/Ironbark logging in the State Forest compartment adjacent to the transect, "Volume WCP logged (m3 ha-a)’’ is the volume per hectare of White Cypress Pine logged from 1931 to 1991 in the compartment contai;aing the transect and "Volume adjacent WCP logged (m3 ha’~)’’ is volume per hectare logged in the State Forest compartment adjacent to the transect.

Variable R Creek Box-Iron K-W P Diameter of largest tree (cm) 0.49 79.81 85.96 3.92 0.048 Subcanopy foliage cover (%) 0.55 9.20 19.22 49,82 0.001 Grass foliage cover (%) 0.49 11.01 14,62 8,60 0.003 Number of logs 0,75 30.55 50.64 38.45 0.001 Number of stumps 0.64 7.83 48,55 91.36 0.001 Number of dead trees 0.52 13.80 16.94 16.37 0.001 Freq. WCP logging 1931-91 0,63 0.10 0,81 61.97 0,001 Freq. adjacent WCP logging 0.72 2.47 7,46 65,04 0,001 Freq. IBK logging 1931-91 0,49 1.67 3.22 23.35 0.001 Freq. adjacent IBK logging 0.54 2.62 5.52 38.93 0.001 Volume WCP logged (ms ha"1) 0.64 0.78 5.33 76.22 0,001 Volume adjacent WCP logged (ms ha"1) 0,64 1.76 4,74 37.87 0.001 Years since last thinning 0,70 12.20 26.63 4.12 0.043 Shrub foliage cover (%) 0.81 49.59 21.87 67.72 0.001 Fire rating (0--4) 0,58 2.20 0.80 64.88 0.001 Frequency of wildfire 1951-91 0.65 2.02 0.70 75.06 0.001 ’; Box-t ronbark,Woodlands v Creek and Poor Soil Woodlands ----- Subcanopy Cover ------Shrub Cover ~ (3rass Cover ~ No, of. Logs ---- No, of Stumps ...... Diameter of LargestTree ~ Fire Rating ~ No. of Dead Trees ------Freq. WCP Logging

x "--- AdjacentiV0iLWCPLogged ----- Adjacen~-Fre~.:?vvc~ Logging --- VolumewcP Logged "---- Adjacent Freq.~ IBK Logging ----- Years Since Last Thinning ----- Wildfire Frequency

Fig. 2, Ordination of vegetation structure and disturbance history data for the 230 transects for which vegetation and disturbance data were collected. Each point represents the position of a transect in the ordination and transects are labelled based on their classification into two groups by plant species composition and abundance. Vectors show the variables that are strongly correlated witta the ordination. Vectors for White Cypress Pine logging variables are all shown in pink, vectors for ironbark logging variables in light blue, for number of logs, stumps and dead trees in green and for wildfire variables in dark blue. Transects containing creek and poor soil woodlands experience wildfire fi’equently and logging infrequently and at low intensities and they have high shrub cover, low subcanopy and grass cover and low numbers of logs, stumps and dead trees compared with transects containing box-ironbark woodlands.

= Nml~creek:Birds CmekBirds ¯ ...... P~esen~eof Large :Trees :~60 ¢m, d bh :- ~Diarneter:0f Largest:Tree ~ No:ofDead Trees. ~ Freq~ WCP Logging ,Freq, 1BK-Loggtng ~ AdjacefftFreq..~ Logging Volume WCP Loggect AdjacentFreq. IBK koggingi ------Wildfire Frequen~ ----- Yeats:Since La~,,..Wildfire ~ Box,|ronbark Flora Creek-&-P, oor-Soi! Ftera

Fig. 3. Ordination of vegetation structure, disturbance history and floristic groupings for the 230 transects for which vegetation and disturbance data were collected. Each point represents the position of a transect in the ordination and transects are labelled based on their classification into wvo groups by bird species composition and abundance. Vectors show the variables that are strongly correlated with the ordination. Vectors for White Cypress Pine logging variables are all shown in pink, vectors for ironbark logging variables in light blue and for wildfire variables in dark blue. Note that most transects with the creek assemblage of birds are positively associated with presence of large trees (>60 cm dbh), diameter of the largest tree, frequency of wildfire, time since last wildfire and the "creek and poor soil" floristic grouping and negatively associated with logging frequency and intensity, number of dead trees and the "box-ironbark" floristic grouping. The reverse association does not hold for transects with the non-creek assemblage of birds. 186 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

Cypress Pine logging, frequency of ironbark wildfire (every 20 years on average). In contrast, logging, number of dead trees, and box-ironbark the box-ironbark woodlands, containing high flora were positively associated with transects densities of commercially valuable C. glaucophylla containing a "non-creek" bird assemblage. and E. crebra and depauperate understorey, had Frequency and recency of wildfire, the presence a tall, dense subcanopy, sparse shrub foliage of large trees, size of the largest tree and cover, and a large number of logs, stumps and creek-and-poor-soil flora were positively dead trees, reminiscent of logged woodlands. associated with transects containing a "creek" These woodlands experienced frequent and assemblage (Fig. 3, Table 8). These variables intense logging of White Cypress Pine and were strongly correlated with the ordination ironbark and frequent White Cypress Pine (R>0.45>MCAO expected R-value) and thinning, but had rarely burnt in the 40 years significantly .separated the two groups of prior to this study (due to fire exclusion and the transects with different bird assemblages (p < use of grazing for fuel reduction). Differences 0.05 for Kruskal-Wallis tests, Table 8), although between the deep sandy soils of box-ironbark the overall analysis of similarity was not woodlands and alluvial and skeletal soils of creek significant (p > 0.05 for ASIM test). Transects and poor soil vegetation also may have with a "non-creek" bird assemblage had smaller contributed to the differences in vegetation. trees and greater logging frequencies and intensities for White Cypress Pine and ironbark Bird assemblages . ,,/ than transects with a "creek" assemblage. They had also experienced less frequent, less recent The broad assemblages of birds ("creek" and wildfire (Table 8). "non-creek") were associated with vegetation structure, floristic composition, and historical DISCUSSION disturbances by logging and fire. The creek bird assemblage .was associated with vegetation, Floristic assemblages containing mature trees (>80 cm dbh) and few The broad assemblages of plants identified commercially valuable tree slSecies, which was were associated with vegetation structure and logged infrequently and at low intensities. The historical disturbance. Woodlands on creeks and assemblage was also associated with a moderately on poor soil, containing low densities of cypress dense and diverse understorey, a likely product pine and small ironbarks, had a short sparse of moderate frequencies of wildfire. The non- subcanopy, moderately dense shrub foliage cover creek bird assemblage was associated with and few stumps, logs or dead trees, reminiscent vegetation containing smaller trees and more of woodlands affected by infrequent low-intensity commercially valuable tree species, which logging and by moderately frequent and recent experienced frequent, intense logging. It was

Table 8. Vegetation structural and disturbance history variables and floristic group frequencies which were significantly different between the transect groupings by bird assemblage (shown as "non-creek" and "creek"), using the Kruskal- Wallis (K-W) test. These variables are also correlated strongly (R) with the ordination of vegetation structure, disturbance history and floristic grouping in Figure 3. "Frequency of adjacent WCP/IBK logging" refers to the frequency of White Cypress Pine/Ironbark logging in the State Forests’ compartment adjacent to the compartment where the transect was located. "Volume WCP logged (m3 ha-~)’’ refers to the volume per hectare of White Cypress Pine logged from 1931-1991 in the compartment containing the transect. Variable R Creek Non-Creek K-W p-value Number of Dead Trees 0.51 12.8 15.9 4.14 0.042 Freq. WCP logging 1931-91 0.59 0.22 0.44 5.04 0.025 Freq. adjacent WCP logging 0.71 2.30 5.15 15.05 0.001 Volume WCP logged (m3 ha"~) 0.65 1.63 2.97 12.62 0.001 Freq. IBK logging 1931-91 0.46 1.26 2.61 8.58 0.003 Freq. adjacent IBK logging 0.52 2.12 4.29 12.47 0.001 Box-Ironbark Flora (freq.) 0.61 0.28 0.44 4.g6 0.037 Presence of large trees (>60 cm dbh) 0.47 0.86 0.65 6.37 0.010 Diameter of largest tree (cm) 0.56 92.70 79.61 9.79 0.002 Frequency of Wildfire 1951-91 0.61 1.98 1.34 7.84 0.005 Number of years since wildfire 0.45 20.33 25.25 4.12 0.043 Creek and Poor Soil Flora (freq.) 0.61 0.72 0.56 4.36 0.037 DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 187

also associated with a sparse and depauperate impacts are moderate. It is intriguing that the understorey that typically follows frequent, non-creek transects do not appear to be intense logging and the absence of wildfire. characterized by any habitat specialists. However, Interestingly, the group of transects to attribute this conclusively to habitat type or characterized by the non-creek bird assemblage past disturbance regime requires further included 96% of transects characterized by the assessment using an experimental rather than an box-ironbark floristic assemblage (N = 90 of 94) exploratory approach (Underwood 1997). and 91% of transects with Broad-leafed Ironbark The overall (86 vs. 101) and mean (9.68 vs. (poor soil) vegetation (N = 90 of 99). Con- 9.53) species richness at creek and non-creek versely, 74% of transects characterized by the transects respectively was not significantly creek bird assemblage had Blakely’s Red Gum different (p > 0.05) and did not reflect the (creek) vegetation (N = 37 of 50), 18% (9) had patterns in bird distribution detected by the Broad-leafed Ironbark and 8% (4) box-ironbark pattern analyses. Our results depict the uneven vegetation. The 99 transects with Broad-leafed distribution of bird species at non-creek and Ironbark vegetation were included in the creek creek transects, such that higher abundances of and poor soil floristic group and 90 of them a large number of species (i.e., high diversity) were excluded from the group of transects with were recorded for creek transects, whereas a creek bird assemblage. This may explain why higher abundances were recorded for only a few mean diameter of the largest tree was smaller species at non-creek transects (i.e., low diversity). and mean frequency of E. crebra larger for creek A number of factors may be acting synergistically and poor soil than box-ironbark (floristic group) to drive high bird diversity on creeks. Creeks transects, whereas mean diameter of the largest (streams) have been identified~ elsewhere as tree was larger and mean frequency of E. crebra significant factors driving high bird diversity smaller for creek than non-creek (bird group) (Bennett and Ford 1997). Also creeklines in the transects (see Tables 4-8). Pilliga have been less subject to logging than non-creek areas. The association of bird species The 12 bird species which characterized the diversity with moderately dense, diverse non-creek transects also occurred frequently on understorey that we recorded is also documented creek transects, though significantly less so. by Seddon, Briggs and Doyle (2000) for birds These species can be described as habitat in woodland remnants of "central western New generalists. The relatively fiat topography and South Wales, but without proximity to creeks. A mostly dry climate of the Pilliga may result in feature of our results is that fioristically, sites on the broad distribution of suitable habitat poor soils are more similar to creek sites, but in conditions for these bird species. There may also terms of bird distribution, poor soil sites cluster be a homogenizing effect on habitat conditions with box-ironbark sites. This suggests that many of logging, combined with changed fire regimes bird species are responding positively to the and stock grazing, and the dense regeneration probable greater productivity of creeklines in the of cypress pine, casuarina, and some shrubs Pilliga. This assertion also requires further characteristic of the Pilliga (e.g., Acacia deanei, investigation. Callitryx tetragona/-Cassinia arcuata, Dodonaea viscosa, Geijera parviflora, Eremophila mitchellii). Declining birds and habitats That is, the disturbance history of the Pilliga may have imposed a pattern on the biota which The study area has a unique biogeographic masks the effects of topography, soils and location at the convergence of the Eyrean, vegetation. Bassian and Torresian avifaunal zones (Spencer 1896 in Frith 1977). As a result, the avian All 36 bird species which characterized creek biodiversity of this region is rich. However, the transects were very infrequent on non-creek status of many woodland and non-woodland transects. This distribution pattern is similar to birds of the Pilliga and the north-west slopes has other findings for avifaunal richness in riparian changed since Gould (1865) journeyed across systems relatively undisturbed by logging (e.g., the Liverpool Plains to Narrabri in 1840, Knopf et al. 1988), and suggests a strong Cleland (1919) travelled by dray across the association of this bird assemblage with creek Pilliga and Chisholm (1936) visited Baradine. habitat and its disturbance history (see Fig. 4). Significant declines of bird species dependent on Most of the 36 species can be described as mature trees for food and nesting, and ground- habitat specialists, as they are dependent on foraging and ground-nesting species have mature trees for abundant nectar, habitat for occurred in the Pilliga (Alan Morris, pers. insect prey and nest or roost sites or they are comm.; Rolls 1981; Blakers et al. 1984; Johnston dependent on a grassy or grass/shrub mosaic 1986, 2000; Robinson and Traill 1996; Reid understorey in which to forage and nest. These 1999; see Appendix 1). Evidence suggests that habitat features occur in the Pilliga where more of the Pilliga in pre-European times was logging and grazing impacts are low, but fire a mature grassy woodland (Rolls 1981; Flannery 188 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

m~ ~reek Sites ¯ Non-creek ~ites ¯ Greek Habitats [] Non-creek Habitats

~{~ALE : 1 : 900000

Fig. 4. Creek and non-creek habitats in the Pilliga, as determined by mapped vegetation types, showing the locations of transects as classified by the creek and non-creek bird assemblages.

1994, see Norris et al. 1991 and Benson and Most of the Pilliga is more densely vegetated Redpath 1997 for an alternative view). It is also than at the time of European settlement. In the likely that much of the land outside the present absence of fire and after frequent logging and Pilliga forest was a mature woodland with a prolonged grazing, woody shrubs including grassy or mixed grass/shrub understorey, which cypress pine and casuarina, eventually dominate supported diverse bird assemblages. This land, (Norris et al. 1991; Gill and Bradstock 1995). In which was taken up more rapidly than the Pilliga the Pilliga, widespread fire exclusion, frequent, for grazing, probably contained core habitat for intense logging and sometimes prolonged grassy woodland birds, but has been grazing have simplified the floristic and bird predominantly cleared. Within the region, communities. ’This pattern of dense woody pastoralism and clearing outside the Pilliga regrowth is common throughout eastern probably account for the major impacts of Australia (State of the Environment Advisory European settlement on grassy woodland birds Council 1996; Bauer et al. 1999; Harris and (Date and Paull 2000). Lamb 2000; Eyre et al. 2001) and is repeated in semi-arid areas of North America following The Pilliga, particularly to the east, was more similar logging, fire and grazing regimes densely vegetated than surrounding lands even (Fleischner 1994; Belsky and Blumenthal 1997). at the time of European settlement and was Similar patterns of multiple resource use occur poorer quality habitat for grassy woodland birds in other semi-arid areas of the world and are than the areas now cleared for agriculture. likely to have similar simplifying effects (Date et Additionally, the Pilliga contained more mixed al. 2000). grass/shrub mature woodland, a structurally more complex habitat suitable for some forest Logging regimes species. Regardless of quality, these habitats are now the largest area on the north-west slopes of Logging in the Pilliga is associated with New South Wales available for woodland birds habitats which have high frequencies of and need to be managed accordingly (see Eucalyptus crebra and/or Callitris glaucophylla. following sections). Thus, the frequency and intensity of logging DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 189 varies across the landscape. Past management understorey). Habitat trees need to be retained included the culling of eucalypts over 90 000 ha not only to provide hollows as nest and roosting of the Pilliga in an attempt to stimulate the sites, but to provide a diversity of foraging growth of C. glaucophylla. Although this practice substrates for bark and foliage foragers (see ceased in 1982, it contributed along with logging Recher 1991 for examples). Different plant to the removal of many immature and deformed species provide different foraging and nesting eucalypts, which would now provide habitat for resources for birds seasonally and from year to nectar-, hollow- and bark-dependent fauna. year. Fire and grazing management strategies There are few large logs with hollows or also need to be developed for retaining these decorticafing bark as fauna habitat. Also, stags diverse resources and for reducing the dense and logs are collected for firewood (Date and regeneration of some species, such as C. Paull 2000). gIaucophylla, Allocasuarina leuhmanii and some shrubs (see following section). Logging also influences the management of fire and grazing in the Piltiga. Fire is excluded Some prescriptions for conservation have been from commercially valuable s,~ands, but is used implemented in State Forests of the Pilliga (Date for fuel reduction in non-commercial stands. In and Paull 200), but further habitat retention, the absence of grazing by stock and feral systematic monitoring of logging regimes, their herbivores, fire exclusion results in the dense consequences for conservation and regular regeneration of cypress pine and casuarina review are required (Table 9). The requirement which then requires manual, non-commercial of systematic ecological monitoring to assess thinning. However, the timing of grazing can the long-term effects of disturbance and be used to enhance the management of management was emphasized by Norton and regeneration as well as fuel (Wilson et al. 1997), Kirkpatrick (1995) as an essential component of but has been used primarily for fuel sustainable forestry. management and revenue generation, including in E. blakelyi woodlands (Rolls 1981). Fire regimes Logging, fire, and firewood collection need to Fire regimes in the Pilliga appear to diverge be regulated to retain togs and coarse woody to two points on a range of possible fire debris and to limit the destruction of stags and intensities, frequencies and, seasons, between fire hollow trees. Logging also needs to be managed exclusion in western and central Pilliga and to ensure the retention of habitat trees and their frequent wildfire and fuel reduction burning in long-term replacement by a succession of cohorts eastern and southern Pilliga. Box-ironbark of trees. An appropriate management strategy woodlands with depauperate understoreys in for birds dependent on mature trees and large which C. glaucophylla is very frequent, logs in the Pilliga would be to exclude logging characterize most of the rarely burnt western and firewood collection from commercially and central Pilliga. E. blakelyi and E. fibrosa marginal areas (i.e., creek and poor soil floristic woodlands with diverse understoreys of the assemblages) and from areas with an existing creeks and poor soils in which C. glaucophylla is high number of mature trees and structurally less frequent, characterize the eastern and complex understorey (i.e., remaining box- southern highly fire-prone areas (see Map 2 in ironbark mature woodlands with grass/shrub Date and Paull 2000). These patterns are

Table 9. Management recommendations from this study for the State Forests of the Pilliga and Pilliga Nature Reserve. Fauna Group Threats Mitigating Actions Research Mature Trees/ Ironbark logging, Habitat reserves, 1. Hollow and nectar/ Large Logs Firewood collection Logging and Firewood mature tree requirements prescriptions 2. Monitoring of logged and unlogged sites 3. Logging regime experiments Grassy Woodlands Heavy grazing, Habitat reserves, 1. Further surveys Fire suppression/ Suitable grazing regime, 2. Grazing regime expts exclusion, Suitable fire regime, 3. Fire regime expts Firewood collection Firewood prescriptions 4. Monitoring sites of different ages since fire and/or grazing Mixed Understorey Ironbark Logging, Habitat reserves, 1. Further surveys Woodlands Heavy Grazing, Suitable grazing regime, 2. Grazing regime expts Fire suppression/ Suitable fire regime, 3. Fire regime expts exclusion, Logging and Firewood 4. Monitoring sites of Firewood collection prescriptions different ages since fire and/or grazing 190 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY repeated in mallee woodlands contaimng range. Duration, intensity and area of grazing C. verrucosa in south-west New South Wales need to be regulated to ensure the retention of (Lord 1994), open woodlands containing adequate grass and shrub cover for ground- and C. glaucophylla in Central Australia (Bowman and shrub-dwelling birds. Similarly, the timing, Latz 1993) and tropical woodlands contaimng intensity and area of fuel reduction burns need C. intratropica in the Northern Territory to be co-ordinated with grazing and the (Bowman and Panton 1994). Implementing incidence of wildfires to create or to maintain a intermediate fire regimes (2-25 year intervals) mosaic of age classes of both grassy and grass/ in the Pilliga and in other cypress pine shrub understorey and to maintain tree woodlands of Australia should increase the recruitment (Date and Paull 2000; Table 9). heterogeneity of woodland habitats contaimng Varying fire and/or grazing frequency, intensity Callitris spp. and benefit avian diversity (Johnson and season on a small geographic scale may be and Jennings 1991; Price and Bowman 1994; appropriate for the conservation management of Williams and Gill 1995; Woinarski and Recher birds in the Pilliga, but will need to include 1997). To maintain floristically and structurally consideration of the logging regime and heterogeneous tree, shrub and grass assem- firewood collection (Table 9). blages, and to" increase the heterogeneity of The work presented here gives evidence of a habitat available for birds, an adaptive approach diverse fauna and flora in/the Pilliga which (see Johnson 1999) is needed when determining require adaptive managdment of grazing, appropriate intensities, frequencies and seasons logging and fire regimes and firewood collection for planned fires and when deciding to suppress to be conserved. Careful long-term monitoring unplanned fires (Table 9). and review of management protocols through experimental research which examins different CONCLUSION disturbance regimes at different geographic Grazing interacts with the effects of logging scales (Table 9) should ensure the long term and fire and it is necessary to consider the three survival of the Pilliga for the mutual benefit of together when developing management plans both wildlife and people. for the avifauna of the Pilliga. Grazing and fire can be used in State Forests to thin cypress pine ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS regeneration (Johnston and Jennings 1991), Grants from the Australian Research Council reduce fuel, promote grassy and mixed grass/ and the Bird Observers’ Club of Australia shrub understorey (Filet et al. 1997; Wilson et al. supported this work. The authors wish to thank 1997; Date and Paull 2000) and benefit many Tessa Ivison, Theresa Nano, David Jenkins, Carl ground-foraging and ground-nesting species of Gosper, Bruce Quin and Clive Barker for the "creek assemblage" (Table 9). However, the assistance with the collection of data, David timing and intensity of grazing and fire areJenkins and Theresa Nano for assistance with not appropriate to meeting these goals in plant identifications, Tania Parkinson for State Forests of the Pilliga and Pilliga Nature assistance with data collation, Anne Kerle, Mike Reserve, as grassy and mixed understoreys are Fleming and Nick Reid for statistical advice, and contracting and structurally simple, depauperate Julian Reid and John Woinarski for critical understoreys are expanding in geographic assessment of the study. DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 191

APPENDIX 1 Bird species recorded in the Pilliga. Frequency of sightings on transects in this study: P = present but not recorded on transects, N = not recorded during this study, Status codes: C = common, U = uncommon, R = rare, E = extinct, O = of concern, Status under Threatoned Species Conservation Act 1995: T = threatened, V = vulnerable, Population Trends: D = declined, S = stable, I = increased, IK = insufficiently known, Habitat codes: I = intermittent waterbody, P = permanent waterbody, O = open habitat, S = shrublands, G = grasslands, W = woodlands generally, Wg = grassy woodlands, Mu = woodlands with mixed understorey, Mt = woodlands with mature trees. Nomenclature follows Pizzey and Knight (1997). Sources for determining population trends since European settlement: Blakers et al. (1984), Chisholm (1936), Cleland (1919), Garnett (1993), Gould (1865), Johnston (1986, 2000), Alan Morris (pers. comm.), Reid (1999), Robinson and Traill (1996), Rolls (1981), NPWS(NSW) and Australian Museum databases, this study. Species Common Name Freq. Status Trend Habitat Dromaius novaehollandiae Emu 3 U S OW Leipoa ocellata Malleefowl N E,T D SW AIectura lathami Australian Brush-Turkey N E D W Coturnix ypsilophora Brown Quail P U S GWg Coturnix pectoralis Stubble Quail N U S GWg Anas superciliosa Pacific Black Duck 1 U S P Cygnus atratus Bl~ack Swan P R S P Anas gracilis Grey Teal P R I P Chenonetta jubata Australian Wood Duck 1 U I P Oxyura austraIis Blue-billed Duck N R,V IK P Tachybaptus novaehollandiae Australasian Grebe P R S P Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Little Black Cormorant P U S IP PhaIacrocoax melanoleucos Little Pied Cormorant P R S IP Pelicanus conspicillatus Australian Pelican P R S IP Ardea alba Great Egret P R S IP Nycticorax caledonicus Nankeen Night-Heron P R IK P Ardea pacifica White-necked Heron 1 U S P Ardea novaeholIandiae White-faced Heron 4 U S IP Botaurus poiciloptilus Australasian Bittern P R,T D IP Threskiornis spinicollis Straw-necked Ibis P U S IO Threskiornis molucca Australian White Ibis P U S IO Platalea regia Royal Spoonbill 1 R S IP Platalea flavipes Yellow-billed Spoonbill P R S IP Elanus axillaris Black-shouldered Kite P U S O Milvus migran~ Black Kite P R S O Lophoictinia h’ura Square-tailed Kite 1 R,V D Mt Hamirostra metanosternon Black-breasted Buzzard N R,V D GWg Haliastur sphenuru~ Whistling Kite P R S OP Hamirostra melanoste~zon Black-breasted Buzzard N R,O IK GSO Accipiterfazciatus Brown Goshawk 4 U S W Accipiter cirrhocepludus Collared Sparrowhawk 1 U S OW Hieraaetus morphnoides Little Eagle P U S OW Aquila audax Wedge-tailed Eagle P U S O Circus assimilis Spotted Harrier P U S O Falco subniger Black Falcon N R S O Falco hypoleucos ~’ Grey Falcon N R,V IK OS Falco berigora Brown Falcon 1 U S O Falco peregrinus Peregrine Falcon 1 R IK W Falco longipennis Australian Hobby P R IK OW Falco cenchroides Nankeen Kestrel P U S O Grus rubicundus Brolga N R,V IK I Ardeotis australis Australian Bustard N E,T D OG Burhinus grallarius Bush Stone-Curlew P R,T D GWg Turnix varia Painted Button-Quail N R,O IK OWg Turnix velox Little Button-Quail N R,O IK OWg Turnix pyrrhothorax Red-chested Button-quail 1 R,O IK OWg Pedionomus torquatus Plains-wanderer N E,T D OSG Gallinago hardwickii Latham’s Snipe N R IK IP Rostratula benghalensis Painted Snipe N R,V IK IP Elseyornis melanops Black-fronted Dotterel P U S IP Vanellus miles Masked Lapwing P U S O Vanellus tricolor Banded Lapwing N U S O Geopelia humeralis Bar-shouldered Dove 9 U IK W Geopelia stricta Peaceful Dove 10 U,O D OW Geopelia cuneata Diamond Dove N R,O IK GWg Phaps chalcoptera Common Bronzewing 58 C S OW Phaps histrionica Flock Bronzewing N E,O IK OS Geophaps stricta Squatter Pigeon N R,T D GWg Ocyphaps lophotes Crested Pigeon 1 U I OW Calyptorhynchus lathami Glossy Black-Cockatoo 4 U,V S? Mt Calyptorhynchu~ bank~ii Red-tailed Black-Cockatoo N E,V D Mt Calyptorhynchus funereus Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoo 1 R IK Mt 192 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

Appendix -- continued Species Common Name Freq, Status Trend Habitat Cacatua leadbeateri Major Mitchell’s Cockatoo N E,V D GMt Cacatua roseicapilla Galah 72 C I OW Cacatua galerita Sulphur-creasted Cockatoo 11 C I OW Cacatua sanguinea Little Core!la P R I O Glossopsitta pusilla Little Lorikeet 69 C S W Glossopsitta concinna Musk Lorikeet 27 C S W Trichoglossu~ haematodus Rainbow Lorikeet P R IK W Lathamus discolor Swift Parrot N R,V D Mt Alisterus scapularis Australian King Parrot 6 R IK W Aprosmictu~ erythropteru~ Red-winged Parrot 10 U S OW Polytelis swainsonii Superb Parrot P R,V D WgMt Nyraphicu3 hollandic_us Cockatiel 3 R S OW Platycercus elegans Crimson Rosella P R IK W Platycercus eximius Eastern Rosella 26 C I OW Platycercus adscitus Pale-headed Rosella N R S OW Barnardius barnardi Eastern Ringneck 66 C S OW Nortt~ieIla lmeraatogaster Blue Bonnet P R S OW Psephotus haematonotus Red-rumped Parrot 2 C I OW Psephotus varius Mulga Parrot N R S OSG Psephotus pulcherrimv3 Paradise Parrot N E,T D Wg Neophema pulchella Turquoise Parrot 31 U,V ~ D Wg Neophema chrysostoma Blue-winged Parrot N E,O D OSG Melopsittacus unduIatus Budgerigah N R IK OSG Scythrops novaeholliandiae Channel-billed Cuckoo P U S OW Eudynamys scolopacea Common Koel P R IK W Cuculus pallidus Pallid Cuckoo 6 U S OW Cacomantis flabelliformis Fan-tailed Cuckoo P C S W Cacomantis variolosus Brush Cuckoo P R IK W Chrysococcyx osculans Black-eared Cuckoo 3 U S W Chrysococcyx ba~alis Horsefield’s Bronze-Cuckoo 7 C S W Chrysococcyx lucidus Shining Bronze-Cuckoo 6 C S W Ninox connivens Barking Owl P R,V , D Mt Ninox novaeseelandiae Southern Boobook P C S Mt Tyto alba Barn Owl P R S Mt Tyro novaehollandiae Masked Owl P R,V D Mt Tyto capensis Grass Owl N R,V IK SG Podargu~ strigoides Tawny Frogmouth P C S W Eurostopodus argus Spotted Nightjar P R,O IK W Eurostopodus mystacalis White-throated Nightjar P R,O IK W Aegotheles cristatus Australian Owlet-Nightjar 10 C S Mt Hirundapus caudacutus White-throated Needletail 24 C S W Apus pacificu~ Fork-tailed Swift N R S W Dacelo novaeguineae Laughing Kookaburra 30 C S OW Todirhamphu~ sancta Sacred Kingfisher 31 C S W Todirhamphus pyrrhopygia Red-backed Kingfisher N R,O IK GWg Alcedo azurea ATure Kingfisher P R S P Merops ornatu~ Rainbow Bee-eater 6 U S OW Eurystomus orientalis Dollarbird 2 U S OW Climacteris picumnu~ Brown Treecreeper 35 U,O D Wg Cormobates leucophaea White-throated Treecreeper 165 C S W Malurus cyaneus Superb Fairy-wren 159 C S OW Malurus lamberti Variegated Fairy-wren 41 U S OW Malurus leucopteru~ White-winged Wren N R S SG Amytornis textilis Thick-billed Grasswren N E,O D S Amytornis striatus Striated Grasswren N E,O D SG Pardalotus punctatus Spotted Pardalote 117 C S W Pardalotus striatus Striated Pardalote 128 C S W Sericornisfrontalis White-browed Scrubwren 1 R IK W Hylacola pyrrhopygia Chestnut-rumped Heathwren 13 R,O D Mu Hylacola cauta Shy Heathwren N E,V D SG Chthonicola sagittata Speckled Warbler 118 C,O D W Aphelocephala leucopsis Southern Whiteface N R S OW Gerygone fusca Western Gerygone 99 C S W Gerygone olivacea White-throated Gerygone 18 C S W Acanthiza reguloides Buff-rumped Thornbill 142 C S W Acanthiza uropygialis Chestnut-rumped Thornbill 38 U,O D W Acanthiza chrysorrhoa Yellow-rumped Thornbill 9 U S OW Acanthiza apicalis Inland Thornbill 168 C S W Acanthiza lineata Striated Thornbill 3 R IK W Acanthiza nana Yellow Thornbill 238 C S W Smicrornis brevirostris Weebill 418 C S W Anthochaera carunculata Red Wattlebird 14 R IK W DATE, FORD and RECHER: IMPACTS OF LOGGING, FIRE AND GRAZING REGIMES ON BIRD SPECIES 193

Appendix -- continued Species Common Name Freq. Status Trend Habitat Philemon citreogularis Little Friarbird 10 U S W Philemon corniculatus Noisy Friarbird 127 C S W Acanthagenys rufogularis Spiny-cheeked Honeyeater 72 C S W Plectorhyncha lanceoIata Striped Honeyeater 113 C S W Xanthomyza phrygia Regent Honeyeater 2 R,T D Mt Ento~nyzon cyanotis Blue-faced Honeyeater 15 C S W Manorina melanocephala Noisy Miner 45 C S W ManorinafIavigula Yellow-throated Miner 1 R IK SW Lichenostomus chrysops Yellow-faced Honeyeater 163 C S W Lichenostomus virescens Singing Honeyeater 1 R IK S Lichenostomus leucotis White-eared Honeyeater 294 C S W Lichenostomus melanops Yellow-tufted Honeyeater 17 U S W Lichenostomusplumulu~ Grey-fronted Honeyeater N R S Wg Lichenostomus ornatus Yellow-plumed Honeyeater N R S Wg Lichenostomusfuscus Fuscous Honeyeater 7 R S W Lichenostomus peniciIlatus White-plumed Honeyeater 92 C S W Melithreptus lunatus White-naped Honeyeater 8 R,O D W Melithreptu~ brevirostris Brown-headed Honeyeater 121 C S W Melithreptv3 gularis Black-chinned Honeyeater 3 R,O D W Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris Eastern Spinebill 13 C S W Certhionyx niger Black Honeyeater N R S S Certhionyx variegatus Pied Honeyeater N R,V D SG Grantiella picta Painted Honeyeater P R,V D W Lichmera indistincta Brown Honeyeater 3 R IK SW Epthianura albifrons White-fronted Chat N R IK SG Eopsaltria australis Eastern Yellow Robin 241 C S W Melanodryas cucullata Hooded Robin 12 U,O D Wg Petroica goodenovii Red-capped Robin 41 C,O IK Mu Microeca fascinans Jacky Winter 76 C S Wg Pomatostomus temporali~ Grey-crowned Babbler 42 U,O IK Mu Pomatostomus superciliosus White-browed Babbler 21 U,O IK Wg Cinclosoma punctatum Spotted Quail-thrush 8 R,O D Mu Cindosoma castanotus Chestnut Quail-thrush N E,V D Mu Daphoenositta chrysoptera Varied Sittella 27 U S W Oreoica gutteralis Crested Bellbird 2 R,O IK W Falcunculusfrontatus Crested Shrike-tit 6 U,O IK W Pachycephala pectoralis Golden Whistler 28 U S W Pachycephala rufiventris Rufous Whistler 247 C S W Pachycephala inornata Gilbert’s Whistler N R,V D Mu Pachycephala rufogularis Red-lored Whistler N E,T D SG ColluricincIa harmonica Grey Shrike-thrush 147 C S W Grallina cyanoIeuca Magpie-lark 6 U S OW Myiagra inquieta Restless Flycatcher I0 U,O IK W Myiagra rubecula Leaden Flycatcher 17 U S W Myiagra cyanoleuca .: Satin Flycatcher N R S W Rhipidura fuliginosa ," Grey Fantail 210 C S W Rhipidura leucophrys Willie Wagtail 65 C S W Coracina tenuirostris Cicadabird 2 R IK W Lalage sueurii White-winged Triller 4 R IK OW Coracina papuensis White-bellied Cuckoo-shrike 16 U S W Coracina novaehollandiae Black-faced Cuckoo-shrike 38 C S OW Coracina maxima Ground Cuckoo-shrike N R,O IK OSG Oriolus sagittatus Olive-backed Oriole 19 C S W Artamus cyanopterus Dusky Woodswallow 33 C,O IK W Artamus minor Little Woodswallow 2 R IK OW Artamu~ personatus Masked Woodswallow 1 R IK OW Artamus superciliosus White-browed Woodswallow 21 C,O IK OW Artamus leucorhynchu3 White-breasted Woodswallow P R IK OW Artumus cinereus Black-faced Woodswallow N U IK OW Gynmorhina tibicen Australian Magpie 5 U S OW Cracticu~ torquatus Grey Butcherbird 65 C S OW Cracticu~ nigrogularis Pied Butcherbird 8 U S OW Strepera graculina Pied Currawong 69 C S W Corvus coronoides Australian Raven 19 C S W Corvus mellori Little Raven P R S W Corvus bennetti Little Crow N R S W Struthidea cinerea Apostlebird 4 U,O IK W Corcorax melanorhamphos White-winged Chough 9 U,O IK W Chlamydera maculata Spotted Bowerbird 1 R IK Mu Anthus novaeseelandiae Richard’s Pipit P U S O Mirafra javanica Singing Bushlark N R S SG 194 PACIFIC CONSERVATION BIOLOGY

Appendix -- continued Species Common Name Freq. Status Trend Habitat Taeniopygia guttata Zebra Finch P R S OW Taeniopygia bichenovii Double-barred Finch 8 U S OW Neochmia temporalis Red-browed Finch 11 C S Mu Neochraia modesta Plum-headed Finch P R,O D Wg Neochmia ruficauda Star Finch N E,T D GWg Poephila cincta Black-throated Finch N E,T D SWg Stagonopleura guttata Diamond Firetail 5 U,O D Wg Dicaeum hirundinaceurn Mistletoebird 121 C S OW Hirundo ariel Fairy Martin N U S O Hirundo nigricans Tree Martin 8 U S OW Hirundo neoxena - Welcome Swallow 2 U S OW Cheramoeca leucosternus White-backed Swallow P R S OW Cinclorhamphus cruralis Brown Songlark P R IK O Cindorhamphus mathewsi Rufous Songlark 5 U S GWg Zosterops lateralis Silvereye 77 C S W INTRODUCED SPECIES Columba livia Domestic Pigeon N C I O Streptopelia chinensis Spotted Turtledove N C I OW Turdus melura Common Blackbird N U I OW Passer domesticus House Sparrow N C : I O Sturnus vulgaris Common Starling P U I O

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