Grammar of the Kapampangan Language

IN THE NAME OF THE BLESSED LORD JESUS CHRIST. AMEN.

GRAMMAR OF THE KAPAMPANGAN LANGUAGE

CHAPTER 1 THE DECLENSIONS OF NOUNS

The declensions of nouns are not five ( I mean in this language), because in all of them, the word remains unchanged; for example, guiño, lord; because here you don’t have that dominus, domini, domino; but guiño and more guiño in all cases, like genu, genu, genu; and even for all the numbers, because the same word can be both singular and plural. In spite of this, this language has its own distinction and variation of cases; because, just like genu in the singular, being one and the same word unchanged for all the cases, there is a nominative, genitive, dative, etc., depending on the preposition or article which is placed before it; the same is also true with the nouns of this language, which vary according to the cases, depending on the article which precedes. [The phrase depending on the preposition or article which is placed before it is presented here as referring to the Latin grammatical construction, but it should refer to the Kapampangan.]. The articles with which the cases of the proper nouns vary are the following:

Section 1 Declension of Proper Nouns

Singular

Nominative...,.... y P edro...... Pedro G enitive...... nan Pedro or can (sup[pletive]) Pedro .... of Pedro D ative...... can Pedro...... to or for Pedro Accusative...... can P edro...... to Pedro, against Pedro, towards Pedro, etc. Vocative...... P edro...... Pedro, hi! Pedro Ablative ...... can P edro...... with Pedro, from, etc.

1 You already know that proper nouns have no plural, that is why, if you want to say Pedros, you take the articles of the appellatives, or you say it by circum locution; for example, this sentence “ the saint from whom the Pedros got their name was the first head of Christianity” is translated as santong pequila guioan da ding (this is the article of the appellatives) Pedro or by circumlocu tion, ding milaguioan Pedro or ding mipalaguioan Pedro, etc., yapin ing camumulang a pun o buntuc ning cabinyagan. Going now to a related point, the plural which follows means Pedro and those o f his family, followers or confreres. Now you translate their cases respec tively corresponding to the singular, because you are no longer a child to need to have everything written here.

[Plural]

Nom inative...... di P edro...... Pedro and his group G enitive...... di Pedro or cari (sup.) Pedro ...... of Pedro and his group; to, for, against, etc.

The difference between the two articles of the genitive is this general rule: The suppletive is always placed before the noun, if it is a genitive of possession; if it is of the person who does, it is placed before the verb; the proper noun is always placed after; for example, what you have to learn. If I have to say this sentence by the suppletive, I will say: ing QUECANG where you see the QUECA, which is suppletive, placed before the verb; if by the proper noun, ing pagaralan MO, placed after. Another: what Pedro has to learn: by the suppletive, ing CANPedrongpagaralan’, bythe proper, ingpagaralaNANGPedro. Another example of when it is a genitive of possession: your hat, ing QUECANG copia or ing copia MO’, Pedro’s hat, ing CAN Pedrong copia or ing copia NAN Pedro. The reason for placing the suppletive before is this: if you would say, for example, ing copia CAN Pedro, since CAN, which is suppletive, serves also for the rest of the cases, the sentence would be ambiguous, there being without any reason to make it genitive rather than dative, etc., the hat is o f Pedro, etc. But when there is no ambiguity, the genitive specifically of possession can be placed before the noun, for example, e CO bandi ita, and the genitive of the person who does the verb, for example, e CO buring ibiye ngeni, pota CO ibiyai. If the genitive na precedes the article nan, it is enough to add an n, for example, nganaN San Agustín, calugurana con Pedro, etc. The vocative does not have any article and so you just simply say Pedro,Juan, etc. If you call only one and the verb is in the plural, for example, Pedro ngayo queni means that you are referring not only to the one whose name is expressed, but also to those who accompany him; and so I want to say: Pedro and you who are with him, come here.

2 Note: with the above-mentioned articles, we decline not only all the proper names of men and women but also their surnames; for example, for singular, Y Quilala, for plural DI Quítala, etc., although they be otherwise appellatives, like about Francisco Bondoc, talking about his surname, you will say: Y Bondoc, Di Bondoc, etc., although otherwise, bondoc, mountain, is appellative. And the same is true with the nicknames which are given to animals; for example, y Bucéfalo, the horse of Alexander the Great. The same privilege is enjoyed by this noun cayi, when it is used to say “whatever his name is”. Y cayi, NAN cayi, CAN cayi, but to say “what ever you call it”, the appellatives are used; for example, cuan me ing cayi, etc. The following also vary with the articles of the proper nouns, singular and plural: father; inda, mother;tata, father (the genitive of the singular of the first two is nibpa, nindo and the third nin tata)', caca, elder brother or sister. But these: nono, grandfather or grandmother; bap a, uncle or stepfather, dara, aunt or stepmother; and those of teuagan, are changed with the proper and with the appellatives; taking note that co, for example, means my aunt and her companions; but DING dara co means my aunts. You will notice this in the remaining cases.

Section 2 Declension of the Appellatives

Before saying how they are declined, I call your attention to this, that the suppletive article serves not only as dative and accusative, but also as ablative. I say so because I have noticed that, for some people, when the sentence is in the active, e.g. susulat co QUING calatas', babatbat co CARING anac, they do not remember except the accusative, and so they construct them saying: I write the paper; lam whipping the boys, and they err, because quing is ablative “in”; and the caring, “from”, as you will see in the use of the active. What we say about these two suppletive articles is understood for all the remaining ones.

Singular

Nominative...... ing pusa ...... the cat G enitive...... ningor quing(sup.) p u s a ...... of the cat D ative...... quing p u s a ...... to, for the cat Accusative...... quing p u s a ...... to, against, towards, etc. A blative...... quing p u sa ...... with, from, in, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... ding pusa ...... the cats G enitive...... ding or caring (sup.) pusa .... of the cats

3 Our particles he,they, the, etc. can be wedded to the articles ing, ding and the pronoun iya, ila, etc., because we rarely or never find any of the former which does not correspond to any among the latter. And if there are those who would oppose the marriage, it is certain that there is no need for a divorce because, even if it is difficult to make them agree, there is no impediment to the principal end [of the marriage, so to speak], namely, to determine precisely the THING to which they are attached in order to be able to use the passive. It cannot be denied that, in this language, we construct the passive out of all the sentences which speak of a THING without any specific inconsistency with our own, like the singular; for example, God, Christ, this man and all the demonstratives; Pedro and all the proper nouns and surnames; thou, I, and all the primitive and derivative pronouns my, thine, etc. Question: To use the passive, do we need to follow this rigid rule? Certainly not, as the common practice teaches us, and as we know, that which our particles give to the thing to which they are attached is enough, and this is what is being sought, call it what you want to call it. Because, what is the big deal? Frankly, I don’t know. You already saw that for the vocative of the proper nouns, there is no article. Neither for these, which are simply expressed as they are, for example, banua, nanuta, ininan; but in the plural they admit mañga; for example, MAÑGA ana co, MAÑGA capatad co,etc. Those which in Spanish do not have plural do not have it in this language either; for example, guinto, gold, pilac, silver, atac, iron; and if they say DING guinto co, DING atac co, etc., they talk about them as having been made pieces, like earrings. There are others which do not have a plural but have a plural in Spanish, for example, the commandments (los preceptos) is not DING otos, but ING otos; the words ING amanu, the truths, ING catotoan, and also my eyes, ING mata co, my ears, ING balugbug co; and those which are one per continuationem [taken as a sum total] and are conceived by them as such; for example, ING dayat co, my irrigated land; and the same with days, weeks, months, years, etc.

Section 3 Declension of the Primitive Pronouns

Knowing that a multiplicity of articles of the genitive can be boring, I decided to omit all those with two distinguishing vowels: but recognizing that in reality each one of them has two distinct functions, corresponding to the diversity of their pronunciation, sometimes with a short accent, at other times with a long accent, as will be mentioned when the time comes.

4 Singular

Nominative aco or c o ...... I Genitive.... co, que, da, canaco or caco (sup.)...... of me, to, for, against, with, etc.

This pronoun has three plurals. The first one consists of only two persons, which are la n d thou or thou and I.

First Plural

Nominative...... icata, cata or t a ...... we two, thou and I G enitive...... ta, te, to, or quecataf.....of us two, to, against, with, etc.

Take note that whenever this dual comes ahead, you must use these articles, but the presence of any of these articles does not always mean that there is a dual ahead of them, because they are meant to signify only one; for example, nung manutang CATANG marolas, saca ala CATANG pamayad, marine CATA pota; that is, if one person borrows money many times, one person has no money to pay, then one person feels ashamed. In this sense, you will hear a penitent say, referring to himself alone: marolas CATANG micasala marolas, CATANG mañumpa: one sins many times, etc.

Second Plural

Nominative...... itamo, ita, catamo, cata, tamo or t a ...... we (including everyone) G enitive...... tamo, ta, quecatamo, quecata (su p )...... of us all, to, for, against, with, etc.

Note: All the articles of the second plural which are similar to those of the first plural are so pronounced that ta is long in the second and short in the first. You will hear the indio say: ngata na, short; at other times, ngata na, the ta long. The first one means “let us go, the two of us”; the second one “let us all go”, because the first ta is dual, while the second ta belongs to the second plural. Thus also, calugurana CATA ning Dios: if you pronounce ta short, it means God loves the two o f us; if long, God loves all o f us. Another example: ing quecatang imalan, ta short, (it is the dress of the two of us); long, (it is the dress of all of us). This second plural includes all of those to whom we speak, as distinct from the third, which excludes them.

5 Certainly in this regard, the Kapampangan has expressions which are better- defined and more clear-cut than our own language because if, for example, we find ourselves carrying on a conversation where we are made up of priests and indios, and I tell the indios: dance so that WE will be happy, this WE of the Spanish is ambigu ous, because it does not specify whether those who are going to be happy are only the priests, or if the WE also includes the indios. In Kapampangan, that ambiguity cannot happen, because if you place an article belonging to this second plural, for example, the ta, saying ba TANG soya, you include everybody; and as such, it means in order that we will all be happy, that is , priests and indios; but if you use an article of the third plural which follows, for example, by saying ba QUENGsaya, it means so that we the priests will be happy, without making any mention of the indios.

Third Plural

Nominative...... icami, cami, ique or q u e ...... we (exclusive) G enitive...... mi, quecami, or queque (supl.)...... of us, to, for, against, with, etc.

You might ask: Which articles are meant to be at the beginning, which at the end, which at the middle? I answer: the article aco and all those which begin with i,should be placed at the beginning; all the rest should be placed after, and even if only one letter precedes them, for example, e ca micasala, it will be enough to be among those to be placed after. Concerning the place where to put them, the rule is to put them where they would fit better in the language and there is no other arrangement; like if I would ask why we say correctly in Latin sancti Patris nostri Augustini [of holy father our Augustine], and not correctly in Spanish de san Padre nuestro Augustino [of saint Father our Augustine], but yes, de san Agustín nuestro Padre [of Saint Augustine our father], you will not find any reason except to say: the first one is all right because that arrangement sounds well in Latin; the second is bad because it sounds bad, but the third one is well said, because it sounds well in our language and every language has its own special sound. And so, because in Kapampangan e mo CAMIalipan does not sound well and mo alipan or IQUE e mo alipan is dissonant, but e mo QUE alipan is just right, it is necessary to use here and here only that article que. For the same reason, if you say we are thy slaves you have to say: alipan mo cami, because no article sounds well except cami in this example: thou art our slave, you are our slaves, it is necessary for the same reason to go back to those of i;in the first I CAN alipan mi, in the second ICON alipan mi, etc.

6 Pronouns of the Second Person

To the articles of this singular which end in they usually add an icao, quecao, cao, to end the clause; for example, taño maragul na etc.

Singular

Nominative...... ica, c a ...... thou Genitive ...... mo, me,queca (sup) of thee, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... icayo, ico, cayo, c o ...... you G enitive...... yo, ye, quecayo, queco (sup)... of you, to, for, against, with etc.

If you hear a plural of these primitive pronouns being used to refer to a singular subject, do not get surprised, because it is a discrete and respectful manner, like when an indio tells a minister, e.g., icayo. They also use it to say: we the bishop, icami, etc. To say nostras,nostratis, [of our country; of our native something] they use the suppletives of the above-mentioned, three plurals, each one retaining its respective use, although well-mannered people, when they write to someone belonging to another town, they do not say, ding QUECAMI, in order not to exclude him; but ding QUECATAMUmayap la ngang, lugud ningDIOS. Vestras [of your country; of your native something] is rendered as quecayo or queco,e.g., subli co caring QUECAYO, if to their own, caring CARELA, etc.

Pronouns of the Third Person

This pronoun is very much akin to the Latin pronoun he, she, it, and so it has a masculine, a feminine and a neuter. Although it is true that it is not so accurate to make that observation, because in this language all are common to the two. The only one where I see a distinction is between mas maris, the male, and femina, feminae, the female; the former is lalaqui, and the latter is babay; and concerning uncle and stepfather, aunt and stepmother, the former are bapa, and the latter dara. There are many common to both. Take these: caca, uali, capatad, and pisan, pengari, asaua, nono, etc. These are the only genders of this language. Let the difficult ones (duras) go with the easy ones (maduras) and have courage to do this work (trabajo),so you can climb the hill which you are now about to reach, because it is quiet arduous (trabajosa) [i.e. cuesta].

7 Singular

Nominative...... iya,ya,na,ne...... he, she, it, him, her, it Genitive...... na, ne, no,quea (sup)...... of him, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... ila, la, . they,no the, them Genitive...... da, de,do,careta (sup) of them, to, for, against, with, etc.

Each of these pronouns has an equivalent Spanish particle as you see. One serves to distinguish the cases, and is usually confused with the Spanish which was placed with the appellatives. The other takes the place of pronouns, but both of them determine the thing. [This paragraph is difficult to understand.]. We now reach the hill which is the use and construction of some nominatives and many genitives of all these pronouns. Let us begin ascending by the easier one: iya, ila, are placed before. Their use is, for example, Juan says that you are a pig’, you answer: he is the pig. IYANG babi. To the child who wants to learn and begins to play, IYANG anak a anti queca ing bisang magaral? This is also true for ila, la, and all the rest are placed after. There remain four articles of the noun: three singular, which are: ya, na, ne, and one plural, which is no. You already know that there are nouns which have a plural and you know what is a singular. You also know that there are nouns which do not have a plural, for example, water, wine, oil, vinegar, etc, and others which this language has, for example, canan, otos, casalanan, etc, and those which have an ambiguous meaning referring to what has been mentioned and those which have a vague or imprecise number, for example, mata, balugbug, gamat,etc. Given this backdrop:

This is used when the nominative or noun to which it refers is singular and specific, for example, Pedro is brave, matapang YAy Pedro; this cup is hot, mapali YA iningsuliao; that jar is cold, marimlaYa itang tapayan, etc. It is also used when two species of a genus are placed against each other, for example, the pork in the genus food is hot, the beef is cold; mapali YA ing babi; marimla YA ing vaca; the watermelon is cold, the mango is hot, marimla YA ingpacuan, mapali YA ing manga; marimla YA ing amian, mapali YA ing abagat, etc. When the nominative is among those which do not have a plural, it is more general and surer not to use the YA, for example, marimla ining danum, mapali iyang chocolate; this fish of mine is cooked with vinegar, yours no; ing canacung asan maslam, ing queca ali maslam, etc.

8 In spite of this, I am sure that when there is this relation or contrast especially if the thing referred to is among those which have a plural, is used rightly not only placing it in the nominative, and this is very strict, e.g., iningsapa malinao YA danum, itang ilug malabug YA danum, and this is a good refuge if you doubt whether to place YA or not; but also putting “water” etc., in the nominative.

This one is never used when the noun to which it refers is singular, but only when it has no plural and it always includes the Spanish ya [already] whether it be in the active or in the passive; for example, is that water already cold? marimla NA itang danum? If it is not cold, you will answer (responderás): e pa po marimla; and if it already is, he will say (dira): marimla NA po. This is most certain, although perhaps it does not exactly correspond to our [already]; for example, ining danum a matabang ngeni, paquimique NA quing dayat malat, cumalat NA; this fresh water now, as soon as it enters the sea, it becomes salty. The same is true with those examples given by books: talampacan mo ing masugat, etc. in the passive, for example, leave it alone already, paburian mo NA; say it already, sabían mo NA. Whenever the sentence expresses the consummation of the act, the Kapampangan uses it, although we do not; for example, carry it or carry it completely or carry it once andfor all, etc, the Kapampangan says: carry it already, dalan mo NA.

This is used only if the nominative is singular and it always includes the Spanish ya like the Kapampangan na. If the nominative to which it refers is expressed, its accent is short, otherwise it is long; for example, did Pedro come already? DinatangNE i ? Pedro If he has not yet arrived, you will say: eya pa po dinatang; but if he has already arrived, you will answer: dinatangNE po. Passive, for example, carry this letter; if you like to say that when he goes he should bring it, do not use NE,but if it is the same as bring it once andfor all or carry it already, you will say: dalan mu NE iyang sulat, etc.

This one has the same use and structure, with the only difference that the nominative has to be in the plural; for example, did those men come dinatang NO detang tauo? If they have not come, e la pa po dinatang; if they came already, dinatang NO po. Another: will the Fathers come? datang la ding Padre? they will come, datang la po. They will already come, datang NO po. Passive: call those men already, ausan mo NO detang tauo; I will call them already, ausan co NO po. When these two are at the end of the sentence; for the former, you

9 will say ne ya, for example, con mo NE Y get it already; for the latter, na la, for example, ausan co NA LA. We now pass to the use and construction of the genitives of all these pronouns where there is a difficulty and we omit those where there is none. I already said when discussing the pronoun aco that it would supply with the accent the genitive of two letters, like what I have just done with the nominatives ne and no. I separate the genitive da as it is ambiguous: For example, caluguran da ka, you are loved. By whom? It can be by me, by them, and by us. The context will say it. Given this backdrop, the first article of every genitive of these five pronouns aco, ica, icayo, iya, ila, is co, mo, yo, na, da; all of them are short and they are used only: the first when the nominative of the person who receives the action is plural; for example, the chicken were bought by me or by thee or by you or by him or by them; saliuan CO or MO or YO or NA or DA ding sisi,etc.] the second, when the nominative is among those which do not have a plural; for example., saliuan CO or MO or YO or NA or DA ingpalay. Exceptions to this are the nouns for which these pronoun are used, although they do not lack plural, as can be heard everyday; for example, caluguran da ca, caluguran da la, yo ya, etc. The second article of each genitive of the above mentioned and that of the dual is que, me, ye, ne, de, te; all with short accent, and they function differently from those discussed earlier, because they always explicitly include the nominative of the singular; for example, May God be loved by me, by thee, by you, by him, by them; caluguran QUE, ME, YE, NE, DE, TE ing Dios. Take note carefully that if the nominative which lacks plural, for example, alac, gatas, etc. is individuated, as when it is only one glass, one bowl, one pitcher, one jar, etc., with comparison or contrast, as already said, you should not use those antecedents, but these ones instead; because if you have two glasses of wine, and you want to say drink this and you use mo, which is one of the five antecedents, saying inuman MO iyang, he will drink both; and so you have to individualize with the genitive me, saying: inuman ME iyang, drink this, and not this other one. This contrast is what individualizes here; and so do not feel content with only an article or demonstrative, because this alone is not enough. Because even if there is only one glass of wine and he determines it or shows it while saying iyang, I will not use me to say drink it, but mo instead If you hear me, it means the glass or the mixture, for example, stone of Gaspar, Anton etc. Belonging here is the genitive no of the pronoun iya, which follows these, but since it alone requires the nominative plural, it is placed as an embellishment, for example, patauaranNO ding masama queya, perdona a sus enemigos; do not say, he forgives already, because the genitives do not include ya] for this you would have to say patawara NA NO, etc. What remain now are those which have two functions, and for this reason, they are written with two letters (some might disagree with this); now I supply the accent [the diacritical mark for mabilis of the present day Tagalog] and just in case the printer

10 eats it, I inform you that they all have a long accent. There are twelve genitives, two for each of the following six pronouns:

From — aco — que — CO From — ica — me — mo From — icayo — ye — yo From — icata — te — to From — iya — ne — no From — ila — de — do

The special thing about these is that each one is equivalent to two; so that being only genitive, they serve as genitive and nominative. The former is always expressed, the latter is always implicit and it is always an article of the nominative singular or plural of the pronoun iya as can be inferred from its use, whatever it connotes; and therefore, the sentences of the former are resolved by the latter. This being so, I say: that when we use our pronouns, he, they, him, or a possessive, my, thine, etc, to confirm or deny what has been said about an expressed noun, we use these genitives. The six which end in e refer to the nomina tive singular; the other six of o refer to the nominative plural. Example: Pedro your brother! He answers: he is, capatad QUE po; he is thine brother, capatad ME pin; he is your brother, capatad YE pin; he is thy and my brother, capatad TE pin; he is his brother, capatad NE pin; he is the brother of them, capatad RE po: as if to say capatad CO YA, MO YA, Y O YA, TE YA, NE YA, etc. Another example: carry the letter. I answer: I will carry it, thou wilt carry it, etc, dalan QUE po, dalan ME pin, YE pin, TE pin, etc, if they are the end of the sentence, dalan MO YA, CO YA, NE YA, etc. Examples of those which end in o: Are these thy ? I answer: They are mine, thine, yours, thine and mine, etc., capatad CO po, MO po, YO po, TO po, NO po, DO po, etc. Another: carry the letters', I will carry them, thou wilt carry them, etc.; dalan CO po, MO po, etc.; And take note, for all cases, that although dalan CO po and dalan CO LA are the same, it does not mean that you will always have to use them interchangeably. Instead, use that which sounds better. If, just as you placed po after co, you placed it before, you would say: ua po, dalan CO LA, etc.

11 Section 4 Demonstrative Pronouns

These are: ini, iti, iyang, ita. The three come from the particles of place, ni, ti, ta about which we will discuss when we touch [the Latin] I am, he is, I was. They are followed by iyang. Ini indicates that the thing is in the place of only the one pointing, for example, ININGpl u m a , this pen with which I write; indicates that the thing is in the place common to both the one pointing and the one to whom it is pointed; for example, if both of us get ink from the same ink-well, ITING tintero; iyang says that the thing is near you; ita says that the thing is farther away; that is, over there; and so their accusative singulars are used as adverbs of place, each one indicating the distance which pertains to it, according to its pronoun, and they are queni, queti, queyang, queta.

Singular

Nominative...... ini this G enitive...... nini,canini, queni (sup)...... of this, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

N om inative...... d e n i...... these G enitive . deni,çareni (sup)...... of these, to, for, against, with, etc.

Singular

Nominative...... i t i ...... this G enitive...... niti, caniti, queti (sup)...... of this, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative d e ti...... these G enitive.... deti, careti (sup) of these, to, for, against, with, etc.

12 Singular

N om inative...... iya n g ...... that G enitive...... niyang, caniyang, queyang (sup)...... of that, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... dean ...... those G enitive...... dean, carean (sup)...... of those, to, for, against, with, etc.

Singular

Nominative...... ita ...... that G enitive...... nita, canita, queta (sup)...... of those, to, for against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... deta ...... those G enitive...... deta, careta (sup.) of those, to, for, against, with, etc.

To add more elegance in using these pronouns, they generally add nan to the end of each article if it ends in i;in or nin or ninan, if it ends in a, in or ininan if it ends in n; for example, iniNAN, itaIN or itaNIN or itaNINAN, iyanIN or iyanINAN. They also attach the adverb pin; for example, iniPIN; but this also is joined, unabbreviated, to the primitives, with the meaning retained; for example, aco PINegomet, and to many other things. When they are doubled, they indicate more energy; for example, iyapin-iyan; and if you include the thing spoken of, better; for example, ita pin TAUO ita; and take note that even though the first one, is placed in the accusative, that which is placed at the end has to be in the nominative; for example, queta pin aldao a ITA, that very very same day, etc.

Section 5 Interrogative Pronouns

These are: nino, insa, nanu, and take note that if the article attached to the nominative singular [e.g. nino] is plural [e.g. deta], it is also taken as plural; for example, nino, insanu detal Nanu la deta? etc.

13 Singular

Nominative nino who Genitive ... nino, canino, queno (sup).... of whom, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... dinino, deno (more often used) careno (sup.)...... of whom, to, for,against, with, etc.

The genitive singular nino is generally used only in the passive, e.g. ngana nino, in order not to confuse it with the nominative nino.

Singular

Nominative...... insa or insano ...... which G enitive...... ningsa or ningsano; quingsa or quingsano;caningsano .... of which, to, for, against, with, etc.

Plural

Nominative...... dingsa or dingsano...... which ones, to, for, against, with, etc. G enitive...... dingsa or dingsano', caringsa or caringsano...... of which ones, to for, against, with, etc.

Singular

Nominative nanu...... whatthing Genitive.... ningnanu or quingnanu (sup.)...... of what thing, to, for, against, with, etc.

IT HAS NO PLURAL

When the adverb man is joined to these pronouns, they are not interrogatives, but affirmatives; e.g. ninuman, qui cunque [whoever]; insanuman, qualiscunque [whatever kind]; nanuman, quodlibet [whatever], and more elegantly ninut-ninu, insanut- insanu, nanut- nanu, etc.

14 Section 6 The Non-use and Use of the Article NING, the Union of Nouns and Pronouns, and Other Uses of These

This article is not used when the Spanish [of] indicates the material out of which something is made, and reasonably so; because that Spanish version indicates not genitive, but adjective, as it appears in Latin; for example, house of stone, domus lapídea-, the same when it is joined to a thing native to a given nation; for example, wine of Castille, vinum Castellarum, or of that kind of people; for example, cloth of the king, cloth of the Father; vestís regia, or religiosa-, customs of beasts, mores ferini. Concerning these adjectives, when the Spanish de [of] refers to the material, connect the material to the adjective by using a, if the material ends in a diphthong or a consonant, for example; if it ends in a vowel, connect them by using for example, bale A bato, cáliz A pilac, calix argenteus; cabang A bulaun, etc; if in a vowel, with ng, e.g. murenula aurea, tingaNG guinto, bucayoNG santol, etc. When it does not denote the material, but the ownership or use, they are not connected, if it [the material] ends in a consonant; for example, imalan ari, imalan Pare, dase sanglay, [this example does not belong here, because dase does not end in a consonant] alac castila, asal oyup; if it ends in a vowel, they are connected with NG, e.g. amanuNG castila, amanuNG capampangan, natione Gallaicus, tauoya Galicia, or Beds; capitan Baculud, ucum capampangan, etc. At other times, the Spanish de [of] is ambiguous; for example, when we say a jar of oil, that is, either it already contains oil or used to put oil if the former, you say: tapayan joined ayalac, by a, because it is a consonant; otherwise, by ng; for example, bañgaNG danum. If the latter: if it ends in a consonant, they are not joined; for example, tapayan alac; if in a vowel, they are joined; for example, frascong laro, etc. If it is confusing, say: Lastly, the Spanish de [of] has another meaning, a very ordinary one, and it is said without any ligature, in the sense which the examples will say: for example, masaquit co buntuc, bitis or ipan, I have a headache, my legs are aching, I have a toothache; mayapyapañgatabas, mabaca [macaba?] dan; and this way in all the predications similar to those of the poet; ruber crine, niger ore, brevis pede, lumine laesus,etc. Marcial cured a man sick in the head for being a look-alike of Narcissus, calling him, a man with red hair ( hombre de cabello rubio...), black mouth, short leg, injured eyes, in order not to say “one-eyed.” Here, you cannot translate the Spanish de [of] as ninand so you say bulanggaoya buac, matulingya asbuc, macuyadya bitis ampón dulingya mata. This article ningis also used whenever an appellative is joined to another appellative or to a primitive pronoun; for example, the dog and the cat, itang aso ila NING pusa; thou and thine carabao, ico NING damulag mo; I and my wife, ique

15 NING asaua co. You will say: what is that pronoun ila doing near the genitive pusa, and the other two, ICO ning damulag, IQUE ning Because, in Spanish, there is no “they” nor “you” nor “we” used that way. Your observation is well-taken, but you know that, even if these pronouns are not expressed in Spanish for brevity’s sake, they mean the same as if we were saying: those, the dog and the cat; you, thou and thine carabao; we, I and my wife: and so you have to understand this union of nouns and pronouns in order that ou will explicitly say the correspond ing pronoun when speaking Kapampangan. Yes, when dealing with a plural, the ning is dropped and the ding genitive plural is used; e.g., the cat and the dogs, ingpusa ila DING aso; the cats and the dogs, ding pusa ila DING aso. This being the case, I will now discuss the union of the proper nouns, and you will see with your own eyes how they are joined; something which is easier to hear (and) shorter than giving rules. I and Pedro, iqueNPedro; thou and Juan, icoN Juan;Pedro and Pablo; Pedro ILAN Pablo; I, Pedro and his group, ique di Pedro; Pedro and his group, Juan and his group; Pedro ILA di Juan; we and Pedro, icami ATyPedro or itamu or icata, according to the context; thou and Pedro, go to Manila, icon Pedro nune co Manila; icami NAN Juan ume caring, I and Juan will go, etc.; this nan seems to be limitative. If what is connected to the proper is correlative, it is connected with ng, e.g. Pedro and his brother. Pedro ilaNG micapatad. See the correlative mi. When I treated these pronouns, to avoid confusion, I reserved other uses of some of them for this section. The first is that they use the articles of nouns of the four demonstrative pronouns in the exclusive sense, as the examples will say; taking note that when they are in the nominative, they are short; but when they include this exclusion, the accent is long and spacious (The same with the pronouns ti, ta. See ibid.) Now, the examples. You insist that you have not done such a thing; I insist that no one but you did it, and so I tell you; icapin, with a long ca, you alone, etc. In this sense, we say; ICA pin ing maquianac can Jesucristo; that is, you alone and no other woman had the blessing, etc. And so, whenever in Spanish we emphatically insist in excluding another, the indio uses the long-accented articles which are placed before: ico pin, ique pin, iya pin, ila pin, etc. They also use those which are placed after, in the exclusive sense, depending on the context. These are co, ca, coó, ya, na; for example, mine co queting mialong simply says I have to come to enjoy myself; but if the co is long, the meaning changes and it becomes it is only in order to enjoy myself that I came; for this reason, if the teacher asks a boy, why did Pedro strike you? he answers, binasa co YA mo (longya), meaning, only because I read. Do not argue that it consists in the mo, which is also limitative, because this one is added so that it will sound better and in order to confirm the said meaning of

16 an ordinary thing in this language; but even if it is not added, it has the same meaning; for example, metung YA po, metung YA Another: danum YA catauan ning tauo. If you mean the body of man is water, with short ya, you are mistaken, because what it says is that the body of man is nothing but water as if saying danum MONG catauan ning tauo. Among the negatives, it appears clearer; for example, e NA la peñgan at pinlutac no pa, he not only ate them, but he even stepped on them; for example, the sinabud; where if you make that na short, you get the opposite of what the indio says. And the same with the rest. The na is not only exclusive as those mentioned, when it is an article; for example, ya NA,ya Na mo, atlo NA, atlo Na mo; but also when it is not; for example, ica NAN bala, ica NAN ume caring, etc., and it has other uses which they do not have. First: to express the Spanish word for already; for example, I am going already, I am returning already; maco NA co, muli NA co; it is already getting broken, mabalbal NAya, etc. Second: to exaggerate; for example, catutua NANG catutuan, gigote NANG gigote, tatúa NA cang tatúa, you insist and insist (it is here although it is coated with breadcrumbs). To avoid confusing it with the limitative, consider the context well. If there is no thing that remains to be told, the indio says: angga NA po caring; this is the limitative. But if he speaks weighing something, angga NA caring ing lugud ning Dios, etc., it is exaggerative. The third one is to supplicate; for example, help me, I ask you, saupan mu NA co or saupan mu NA co sa dugo. Do not confuse this with the na meaning already because if he commands, he will also say: saupan mu NA co, help me already; diNA po or diana NA po or din mu NA co po queyang polvos mo, could you please give me powder; baldugana NA po, could you please throw me something; and so, dinan mayumo dugo, balduganan maman, parianan danum, etc. I refer you to the discussion on the adverbs ofprecandi [request]. They a NA sa, amen, is also a supplication. The fourth is to say the future: bucas NA, it will be tomorrow, without adding the hour. Another: ca lacolaco cu NA, I will go when it’s time for me to go; it says, I would like, but when and at what time, etc. The fifth, to exaggerate surprise at something we did not expect, as when, for example, we sip the broth and we get burned, we say: ouch! It’s hot! The Kapampangan says: mapali NA! with a surprised tone and not as nonchalantly as when he says mapali na, it is already hot. The same with Maparas NA Matapang NA! etc. If the nominative is not among those which lack the plural, but it is singular, we use ne with the same meaning and surprised tone or disbelief; for example, Pedro, a coward, threatens a person, I will say matapang Wow/ how brave Pedro is! You can very well translate it in Spanish another way, but be sure it retains the same meaning.

17 CHAPTER 2 THE SUBSTANTIVE VERB

Section 1 The Concept of TO BE (SER)

Since I am following as closely as possible the grammar of the Latin language, after discussing the nominatives, I will now treat the verb I am, he is, I was; and leaving behind questions for the sake of brevity, I say that in this language, there is no word that would say I am, he is, I was, nor any which would fill in specifically for it but, instead, just like in Latin, not a few times, it is understood without it being expressed, as in these words of the apostle: vos autem fortes [We sick, but you strong] etc., where given the subject nos [we] and the predi cate infirmi [sick], vos [you] and fortes [strong], you understand the sumus [are] and estis [are]. The same in Kapampangan; for example, where given the predicate masanting and the subject ya,masanting ya, the he is understood (that one is handsome); and the same with manner and time, given all the remaining parts of the sentence right away the verb I am, he is, I was is understood. The examples will make this clearer: thou art a slave, alipan ca ñgeni; thou wert a slave yesterday, alipan ca napon, thou shaft be a slave tomorrow or another day, alipan capog; before you got married, you already had been a slave, bayo ca mequiasawa, alipan na ca; if I were a slave, etc., nun alipan co sa; alipan ca sa, you were a servant. This way with the remaining tenses, as you will see in the conjugations.

Section 2 The Concept of TO BE (ESTAR)

Now let us discuss the ESTAR concept, which is equivalent to the SER; for example, he is sick, est infirmus. Now I speak of the concept of to be in place; for example, est Romae, he is in Rome; for which this language has three defective roots or verbs, which are ni, ti, ta, whose meaning is found in the demostratives ini, iti, ita. These roots or verbs vary with the persons, as you will see in the examples. But before that, it is important to bear in mind, in order not to make a mistake, that, certainly, this defective verb hi and the adverb queni only denote the place proper to the one pointing-, it infallibly follows that only the first person singular and the first of the plural, which is I, and we, show their proper place when saying ni and queni; for all the rest, it is necessary to add the place proper only to the one pointing-, and so, when he says: here thou art, nica queni, understood, (I will place this example), written in this book which have in

18 my hand, and the same with the rest, except when the thing or place pointed to is not less proper to my addressee than it is to me, as you will see.

NI Singular

First: I. Nico, anico, nico, here I am, for example, when my name is read; we say in Latin ADSUM, aninaco or ninaco, I am already here. Has Pedro not come yet? He who hears it answers: anina co or ninaco, I am already here. If they quarrel with me because I am not in line in the procession, aninaco, aninaco talatag, I am already in line or I will already be in line. Second. Thou. You will notice the same thing with the second person, thou, with only this difference that when I say, for example, anica, nica, etc., it is understood that I mean here in the census or list which I am reading, etc. Third. That. Niyo or aniyo, he is here, for example, in my place or the place proper to me; nine or ninayo, he is already here, as when he already appeared; here, they say, ecce [Latin word], niyo; and take note that where there is this ni, singular and plural, it is well to add queni, even when it sounds well without it.

Plural

First. We. Ñique queni, anique queni, aninaque queni, or ninaque queni. Observe the use of each one, as we mentioned in the first person singular. Second. You. Nico queni, anico queni, ninaco queni, or aninaco queni. Observe what we said about the second person singular. Third. Those. Nilo, añilo, here they are: nino or ninalo, anino or aninalo, they are already here, as we said about the third [person] singular. I have already said that you can add queni to all.

This is more universal and more difficult, because it admits as adverbs of place in its territory the accusative of the four pronouns, which are: queni, queti, queyang and queta: and the first two have their respective jurisdictional bound aries. It also admits the adverb caring, because it is the brother of queta. You already know that these four sons are like their parents in the way they signify. Queni, where I am, or near me, or with respect to only me; even if it is a stone’s throw away, as when they say meco QUENIparoba. When I call some body, even if there are others with me, we also use this: ñgamu QUENI, come here, to me who am calling you.

19 Queti, here, that is, where we are, I and to whom I am talking, for example; QUETI quing silid, QUETI quing convento, QUETI quing balayan, QUETI capampangan, etc., presuming that I and the one I am talking to are in those places; but if I exclude the one who is talking to me, I will say queni; for example, the indio sees me as he passes by my window and asks me: o catapo macasaut? Where is your residence? If he asks me about the convent where I live, I will answer queni; if in the town where I am, but not in the convent where I am, and he is not, queti. In spite of this distinction, which is certain, if what is pointed to is a particular thing or a particular place, with no less respect to thee, with whom I speak, than to me who am pointing, as I already said, sons, parents and grand parents do mix up. I mean: queni and queti, ini and iti, ni and ti,as your careful study will notice in the examples.

Singular

First. I. Tico or ático, here I am; for example, talking to you, and in such case you can add queti not queni (unless I am in another room when you say tico; then queni (not queti), tico or ático QUETI queca. If I hear my name, as was said regarding ni, tico or ático QUENI {not queti), I am here, tico or atico, I am there, for example, quean quing lista or census; tico o atico QUETA o CARING, I was there, for example, in Bacolor when you arrived; ati na co or tinaco, I am already, e.g., with you, as when you ask me to hurry up; or I am already here, tinaco QUETI, not queni. Second. Thou. Tica or atica, thou art here with me, for example, queti, not queni; but if I say: you are here in the list or census, or atica QUETI or QUENI, because one and the other is true, etc. Atinaca or tinaca, thou art here already, as when I see that you have arrived, and it is understood to be queti, not queni. For the queyan, queta and carin, as was mentioned earlier; for example, tica QUEYAN quin libro, tica QUETA or CARING, iñang miras co, etc. Third. That. Tiyo or atiyo, it is here caco or queca, for example as when they ask about you, who are with me, I will say: caco or tiyo queti, or queni caco; if with you, tiyo queca or queyan queca; if with that one, queta or carin queya. Also, they say around here, ecce, tiyo, remembering its difference from niyo; atine or tinayo, he is already here; as was said earlier. Atine sususlat, he is already writing.

Plural

First. We. Tique or atique, we are here, for example, with you, QUETI queca. If they call us, tique or atique QUENI, not queti, we are here; tinaque queti, we are here already, for example, what do you like from us? Second. You. atico, tico or atinaco. Observe what was said. Third. Those. Tilo,atilo, they are here; for example, TILO, queca na la, take

20 them, here they are; if, for example, on the table, it is understood to be queti; if from my hand to yours, queni. Tilo or atilo, they are, for example, those whom you asked me to see whether they were at home or downtown; it is understood to be caring. In queyan and queta, there is no difficulty. Tino or tíñalo, atino or atinalo, they are already, queni, queti, queta or caring, as has been said. You are already aware of the confusion between queni and queti; the same there is between ini and iti. But here is a way out. When they are joined to show one and the same thing* if you use ini or queni, you are excluding the addressee; if iti or queti, you are including the addressee. You will not get confused even if they occur.

We already said in the two preceding discussions what the equivalent of [the Latin] ecce is here; for this we say [the Spanish] en [English: in], which connotes more distance than ecce; and even if it is placed in the third person, niyo, tiyo, tayo; it is because it is the most ordinary, and not because they can be used under all circumstances.

Singular

First. I. Taco. I am there, for example, in the roster which was read or in the mirror where I look at myself. Tanaco, I am already there, for example, in the list or in the raffle wheel.. TACO panoya na, he is waiting there for me; TACO lalaua na, he is looking at me there, for example, while I am near the window and he out in the patio, or my image in the mirror which seems to look at me. TACO mamangan, I am eating there. And take note that this way of putting it seems to be preposterous, because if I am here talking to you, how do you reconcile my eating there? But if you reflect, this way of speaking is not lacking in our language; for example, you called, I left the food which I had started eating, I go to where you are, and I say to you: someone is eating and you call him; and yet (while I am saying this), I am neither eating nor are you calling me. This way of expressing it explains lam there eating. In the imperfect tense, it is clearer; for example, what were doing a while ago? TACO mamangan.I was eating. Taco queni (another word which also dances well) means la m there, in this raffle wheel, for example, or written in this book, etc. Tanaco, I am already there, meaning that even if they did not put me in the list, I presume that they have already put me, tanaco misulat; you already know which corresponds to queta and caring. Second. Thou. Taca, for example, I call the boy, and seeing that he is coming grudgingly, I tell him: TACA mamangan1 Are you eating? (as already said) or TANA CA mamangan? Are you already eating?

21 Another: I did not call you because [I knew that] you were eating, uling TACA mamangan, [and I did not like to disturb you]. It follows the past tense in everything. TACA queni [Come here] (It has stopped raining). [TACA queni] quing libro or quingpadrón. [You are listed in the book or in the census]. [Translator’s note: I rearranged this paragraph because the original did not seem to make sense.]. Third. That. TAYO queta or caring,there it is; TAYOpo inam da. The Spanish is: they already went there to call him. TAYO queni, queti or queyan (and this is, oh, so easy!). You are looking for someone, and I use one of these forms to tell you where he is: tane or tanayo; for example, TANE mecao or tanayo, he already left; TANE mamacao, he is about to leave. I will say more about this form later.

Plural

First. We. TAQUE queta or caring, we are there, for example, TAQUE caring macapadron Baculud, etc. Follow here the same pattern as that of the first person I. Second. You. taco or tanaco. The same. Third. Those. Talo, taño or tanalo. The same as the third, singular. With these three modes, we express what in Spanish we say, I am about to, I was about to, etc., as the examples will show. You come to visit me, and I am putting on my black habit; if you ask me, what is that? I will tell you with the first two, NICO or TICO maco na, I am on my way out; and the same with all the grammatical persons with which we use the Spanish expression; for example, TIQUE or NINAQUE maco na. And so NINE or TINE maco na ing Padre, the Father is on his way out; TINE macao or mamacao. Et sic de reliquis. (And the same with the remaining ones.) And the same is true about eating, about writing, about reading, etc., NICO or TICO manga na, sumulat na or masa na. If around here you want to say I am already writing, etc., change the future to the present; and place the na which is at the last, close to ni or tv, for example, tico sumulat na, I am about to write; tiNAco susulat, I am already writing, etc. To say I was about to, use this ta; for example, as soon as you saw me with the habit, you went back; if they ask you why the visit lasted too short, you will say uling TANE maco na, because he was already about to leave. If they ask me: Why did you say goodbye right away?, I will say uling TACO maco na, because I was already about to leave. Another: I did not enter your house because you were already about to eat, uling itang datang co TACO mangana, etc. Now, if I want to say according to the style of the preceding sentences, for example, because when I arrived, you were already eating, I will say uling itang datang co TANACO [should be TANACA] mamangan; et sic de reliquis (and the same with the rest). To conclude these discussions, I tell you, firstly, that if you just want to indicate simply the place where someone is, use the adverbs mentioned: queni, queti, queyang,

22 queta, caring, and follow the variation of the persons. I will give you some examples: I place a chair near the stage to see the comedy afterwards, I will say queti or queni co luclucpota: you have to be there; for example, without leaving, quean ca lucluc; be here, you, restless fellow, for example, near me, queni or queti ca, caring ca, be there; and the same with the rest of the persons. The second: the same thing said about the four pronouns in making limitatives, if they are pronounced with a long accent is also true with all of these, so that tiyo, tilo, talo, etc. with a short accent mean to be as has been said, but with a long accent, it means they are still;tiyo caring or tayo caring says only it is there; but tiyo or tayo with a long accent means it is still there. Up to here we have only treated how to say ESTAR (to be). What remains to know is how to say not to be. So, I say that in this case, we use the defective verb ala, which also varies with all the persons. It takes little to know this, because inasmuch as contrariorum eadem est ratio (opposite concepts follow the same logic), and ala signifies not to be. When it is joined to the adverb of place and the person of whom we speak, as mentioned earlier, the contrary is said, because we deny with it all what the above affirms: nica queni, you are here, for example, in the list; but ALA ca queni says you are not here. Take note further that the Spanish present, for example, estoy [I am], the Latin adsum [I am present], nico, can never be denied, because if you yourself say here and now, ala co, it is the same as that which the other said: I am not home. The Spanish I was not here, etc. fits in, for example, with ALA co queni quing libro IñANG ilicas mo ding bautismo; and also this one: I was not here when you arrived; ALA co queti IñANG miras ca. Et sic de reliquis [and this way with the rest]

Section 3 The Concept of TO HAVE (HABER) or TO HAVE (TENER)

For this, you can use the defective verb tin or atin; for example, is there rice there? TIN pale caring? He answers: there is, atin. The syntax and construction in personal sentences demand that you join to it (so that, otherwise, only adverbs can mediate) the verb or noun, and that you always put the person who does or has, in the genitive and use the passive. Examples of verbs: is there a man killed by you1 TIN cayang pete MONG tauol To answer this, always use for example, there is a man killed by me, ATINpete CONG tauo. Examples of nouns: does your brother have a hat? ATIN copia NING capatad mol Di Antonio ATIN baro, Antonio and his companions have a shirt. Another: do you have a dress? ATIN imalan MOl And in case you hear atin MONG imalanl you see at once that the noun is not atin, and so it must have another meaning, because that mo is an adverb which means still,and so the sentence means Is there still a dressl

23 The negative of haber and tener is done with in the first example, ALAN pale caring? Is there no rice there? The personal sentences are done not only according to the atin, that is, join to ala the thing which is had and then the genitive of the one who has it; for example, do you not have dress? ALAN imalan m ol but also by joining to ala the person who has in the nominative, and then the thing which he has. Connect them with n because the thing is indeterminate; for example, don’t you have a dress? Ala caN ? If the Spanish version speaks of something definite; for example, do you have that horse? it does not belong to this section, but to the preceding one; because for this language, it is the same as saying Is that horse with you? For the verbs, it is shorter to give you examples than rules: there is no man put to death by me, ALA pete CONG tauo, or CONG tauo petay, ALA CONG petay a tauo; and they also say, for example, I have many things to do, without the atin; dacal cu dapat; you have many pigs, dacal ca babi, etc. Take this as true for the rest.

24 CHAPTER 3 THE SIMPLE VERB AND ITS CONJUGATIONS

Before going into the conjugation of verbs and their formation, I want to give you the conjugation of tenses. This language conjugates only three tenses, namely, the present, the past and the future. The root of these verbs and the various particles are used to form all the moods and tenses which correspond to our Spanish, both in the active and in the passive; and this should not surprise nor confuse you. Something new: because our language totally lacks the Latin form of all passive verbs, and we supply it with the word, for example, loved (amado), which is the participle, and I am, he is, I was, (sum, est, fui); we say: I am loved, I was loved, he will be loved. Do not get confused if you see that one and only one Kapampangan tense corresponds to two or more Spanish tenses, because we also encounter cases where three Spanish forms correspond to only one Latin form; for example, the Latin legeres is equivalent to the three Spanish forms leyera, leería or leyese [I would read, I would read, I would read] and yet you do not get mixed up. But if you still find the above difficult, comfort yourself with the shortcut of not needing to change the ending of the verb as you conjugate, saying scribo, scribis, scribimus [I write, you write, we write], etc., but instead all you have to do is to change the persons; for example, you escribe, tu escribe, nosotros escribe [I write, you write, we write]. [The correct one though isyo escribo, tu escribes, nosotros escribimos]. Let one be taken for the other. And presuming that you have not forgotten the preliminary observation, I give you the example sulat. I want to tell you how to form the present, the past and the future, so you will understand better the variation of tenses.

Root: Sulat

If between s and u, you insert um, it will be that is the future. If instead of that um, you insert in, it will be sINulat and this is the past. But if you double the first syllable of sulat, it will be SUsulat, is it not? Well, this is the present. Now, observe how I conjugate them and I will give you all the tenses and moods of the Latin grammar.

25 Section 1 The Conjugation and Variation of Tenses Indicative Mood

Present Tense

Singular

I write: acongsusulatorsusulatcu. Thou writest: icang susulat or susulat ca. He writes: iyang susulat or susulat ya.

Plural

We write: iqueng susulat or susulat cami, You write: icong susulat or susulat cayo, They write: ilang susulat or susulat la.

To express the present more clearly, they usually place the adverb salocoyan or casalocoyan; SALOCOYAN or CASALOC In the passive SALOCOYAN or CASALOCOYANqueng isusulat Notice that this Spanish I write, I give, I eat, I wash, I receive, etc., which for us is present, for this language, when it is not the same as I am, I go writing, giving, eating, etc. are ordinarily in the future: what I mean is that, many times, the Kapampangan expresses them by using the future, active; and more times, the passive; although it uses the present to express that which is done many times even if at the moment it is not being done; for example, susucaya, susulat ya, sasalaya\ he is vomiting, writing, failing, etc. See the section about the simple future.

The Imperfect Tense

This is done with the voice of the present [sic] in the active and in the passive, and rightly so, because escribía cuando me llamaste [I was writing when you called me] is the same as estaba escribiendo [I was writing]. To explain the imperfection of the work, which this tense expresses, you add sa or sana. In all the tenses, I will give an example only of the first person, because in all of them, it is the same, and because this grammar was not written for children.

Singular

I was writing [yo escribia] or I was writing [estaba escribiendo] susulat co sa or sana; passive: isusulat co sa or sana ini.

26 PRETERITE PERFECT

You already know that this has two variations in Spanish: yo escribí [I wrote] or yo he escrito [I have written]. The first one many times only says that I undertook or started to do the work, and in that case, it is done with the simple past; at other times it means I already, for example, or I perfected the work, as the second Spanish variation, and so we say, either with the same simple past adding na, which means already or, with the maca of perfection or active (of which I will speak in due time) and the root with na also or without it. Also, the preterite is done with the imperfect future. See there.

Singular

I wrote: acong sinulat or sinulat co Passive: sinulat co ita I have written: sinulat co na or mecasulat co Passive: sinulat co na or asulat quita

PLUPERFECT

If, in the preceding tense, the two forms rightly express the act as finished, because it is perfect, here they express it more, because it is more than perfect.

Singular

I had written (yohabia escrito): aeon mecasulat or mecasulat co or mecasulat na co or sinulat na co [sic]

Passive: sinulat na co [sic] or asulat co na, etc.

It can also be said some other ways; for example, I had written when you arrived. IB AT na cung SINULAT or MEARI nacung SINULAT, etc.

IMPERFECT FUTURE

For this one, you don’t need to look for something to borrow, because it is one of the three tenses which this language has, as I already said.

Singular

I will write (yo escribiré): acong sumulat or sumulat co Passive: isulat quita, etc.

27 When the future says an indefinite time, because nobody knows when or at what time, for example, you will write, you will die, etc., it is all right to add the adverbpog, de quo postea [about this later]: sumulat ca mate ca POG, etc. Also, the particle or adverb na usually indicates an indeterminate future, for example, today there is no place; tomorrow yes; bucas NA. Calaco-laco cu NA, I will go I don’t know when.

Observations

The first thing that I call your attention to is that this language often says with the future what we say with the present. I mean, to express the present, it uses the voice of the future, both in the active and in the passive, and regularly this happens when our Spanish present, doy [I give], recibo [I receive], llueve [it rains], comes [you eat], lavo [I wash], etc., is not the same as estoy dando [I am giving], I am receiving, it is raining, you are eating, I am washing, etc. If you argue that the first Spanish expression is the same as the second Spanish expression, I answer that, let it be for you whatever you like; what is certain is that for the indio it is not the same thing very many times, and especially when you make or conceive the act, not as permanent, but as ; not as something which lasts, but as something which passes later, not as something which is being done, but as something which done. [Following the logic of the first two phrases, this third one was probably meant to be “not something which is done, but as something which is being done.] Let us go to the practice. An indio sees another indio eating meat on Friday and getting surprised about it, he tells him: MASAN ca pala ñgening bulbul a bago Viernes? Do you eat meat [grammatically, will you eat meat] even if it is Friday today? No sooner does the indio see that it begins to rain than he says: muran, it rains; mayun, there is an earthquake [grammatically, it will rain, there will be an earthquake]; MUYAS ca ñgeni? do you wash today? if he sees him wash on a fiesta or on Maundy Thursday; and so, me voy, me vuelvo, me despido [I go, I return, I say goodbye], etc. In many of these futures, which serve as present, I have observed that their accent is somewhat longer, as distinct from the future which are fast. But in the passive, I do not see this difference although I hear it used every day; and so, you will hardly find a minister who will not say with the voice of the future I give you these arras, and ask using the same future voice do you ? And I have not heard any indio answer I receive it using the voice of the present, but with the voice of the future: TANGAPAN coya.[grammatically, I will accept it, but meaning Iaccept it.]. To say that everybody is mistaken is an invalid argument. The second point. To express a habit or what one usually does, for example, como carne [I eat meat], I do not drink wine, I miss mass, I fight, I curse, etc., they sometimes use the voice of the present; for example, SAS ALA co, DARAMDAM co, SUSUMPA co;and sometimes that of the future, marolas cong SUMALA, MASAN

28 cong bulbularv, and at other times, either of the two; bebes vino, [you drink wine], for example, (you drink wine), MIMINUMor MINUMor MACAINUMcan alac, etc. When it is better to use the present than the future, and when either one will do, I do not dare to determine. What seems to me is that usually when they use the voice of the present, they mean a repetition o f acts, more than when they use that of the future, although both one and the other expresses a habit or custom.

Future Perfect

I could not at first understand why this [future perfect] should not admit the maca of perfection, while the preterite perfect and the pluperfect, as I told you, admit it [that is, the maca of perfection. ]. The thing ultimately became clear to me when I heard it [the future] joined with it [the maca], not however in the preterite, but in the future imperfect; and in reality, it means the same, because the Kapampangan says, for example, before you come, I will finish and what else does before you come, I will have finished say? And so, this tense has two varieties; one like the Spanish antes que [before something happens], etc. and this is its own. To express our own [Spanish] variety, the Kapampangan uses the preterite with the defective verb ibat or meari, both of which mean that the act we are talking about has already been completed; and I will place examples of both, in the active and passive, always assuming that this tense [future perfect] is preceded by the sentence in the future tense the Kapampangan style antes que [before something happens], etc., and our own style cuando [when something happens] for example, cuando llegues [when you arrive].

Singular

I will have written (Yo habré escrito): macasulat co or macasulat na co Passive: asulat co or asulat co na Yo habré escrito I will have written (Yo habré escrito): ibat or meyari na cong sinulat Passive: ibat co nang asulat or sinulat ita or ayari co nang asulat or sinulat ita

Imperative

It is formed by using the future, active and passive, and to speak with more efficacy and intention, by using the present: PUPULAY ca, e ca TATANGIS, run, run, run, do not cry at all.

29 Singular

Write: sumulat Passive: isulat iyang

Optative or Subjunctive

Present

We use the optative, either in expressing a desire, for example, I wish, or if only, etc., or with those of asking; for example, sa, sana, uari, etc.; these ones can serve not only for all the tenses of the subjunctive, but also for the future and the imperative, as the case may be. Let us go to this present, which is formed by using the future, as you hear it everyday, for example, iñgatana ca or saupana ca ning Dios, etc.

Singular

I would write (yo escriba)...... acong sumulat or sumulat co, Passive ...... isulat co ita, for example.

Preterite Imperfect

I would write, (yo escribiera, escribiría, escribiese), sumulat co sa I have already told you not to get confused at seeing one and the same tense for different moods; because the mood in which they speak is distinguishes very clear. This is done with the future, active and passive. Example: I would write if they would pay me, SUMULAT co SA nun upan da co; and better if you add ngeta; e.g. sumulat co sa NGETA. In the passive: isulat co sa NGETA,etc., and also with adverbs of desire. The other Spanish form: yo estuviera, estaira and estuviese escribiendo [I would be writing] is constructed better by using the present indicative: SUSULAT co etc. SA,

Preterite Perfect

I would have written, (yo haya escrito)...... sinulat na co

This is usually formed by using the preterite perfect. Is well to attach to it the particle na, which means already. It is also formed with meca and its passive. The Spanish will guide you. Example: I am happy that you have written, matula co

30 quing SINULATNA ca or quing mecasulat In the passive: matula quing sinulat mo naya, or quing ASULATmo NA itaninan, for example, etc.

Pluperfect

I would have written (yo hubiera, habría, hubiese escrito)...... acó san sinulat or sinulat co sa or sana

This is formed by using the preterite perfect in the active and passive, and the particle sa or sana; for example, if I had written, he would not have laughed at me; non aco SAN SINULAT or non SINULAT co SANA or non SINULAT co SA, etc. In the passive: non SINULAT co SA or SANA ita, for example, e na co SA QUEILIAN.

CONDITIONAL FUTURE (FUTURO TANTO)

Notice that this one has two forms in Spanish: yo escribiere (I would write) or hubiere escrito (I would have written). The first one is constructed by using the imperfect future, active and passive; the second one, by using the preterite perfect, active and passive, and also with its passive perfect; and the appropriate word to use here is uari. Examples: if he would write, pay him, nun UARING SUMULATya, etc. In the passive: nun UARING ISULAT na ita, upan If he had written, whip him; nun UARING SINULATya,etc. In the passive: nun UARING SINULAT neta or ASULAT na ita, batbatan mo ya.

Infinitve Present

You already know that the infinitive always carries a determining verb, and as long as the determining verb is not preterite, the determined verb is put in the future; for example, I desire to write [Determining verb: I desire. Determined verb: to write]. Malsinta cong SUMULAT, he will judge again, subliya queting MOCOM, etc. Passive: the same; for example, palsintancong ISULAT ita; sublia non OCOMAN ding mabiay, etc. If the determining verb is preterite, you have to look if the determined verb is also such; that is, if what is said is a past thing, etc., he came to write; if he already wrote, it is the same as he came he wrote. Another: you decided to meet somebody; if you met him, you can say you decided to meet him or decided you met him, and the meaning is the same; and so, you will say to them in the preterite: dinatangyang SINULAT, sinari cangsinalubung, etc. Another: he did not like to write, e bisang

31 SINULAT, because it already happened. Passive: the same. If what he says is not a past thing, you use the future. For example, I came to take a if I have not yet taken a bath, or I am still taking a bath, it is not a past thing and so I will say; dinatang cong MANDILO,etc. This is the ordinaiy, even if perhaps, in cases where there can be no ambiguity, you will hear them talking of a past event, sometimes in the preterite, sometimes in the future.

PLUPERFECT

To have written (haber escrito)...... sinulat or mecasulat This is constructed in the active and the passive, using the preterite, and when considering its being perfect, better with maca and the root; and in the passive, with the same root and a placed at the beginning, which more appropriately indicates that the work is perfected and completed. As to which of these two moods fits in better, the meaning of the sentence will determine and so you have to reflect; for example, I am happy to have written, matula cong SINULAT or matula cong MECASULAT. Passive: matula cong ASULATque ita or sinulat, etc.

FUTURE

To have to write (haber de escribir)...... sumulat

This one, since it is so imperfect, needs adhesive plasters; for example, to have to write, I would have written, nun sumulat co sa. etc. Passive: nun isulat co sa ita, for example.

Second Circumlocution

That I should write or that I should have to write (que escribiera o hubiera de escribir).... sumulat

This is constructed almost the same way that you would construct using the future. Examples; he who should write or should have to write, ing sumulat sa; that which should be written or should have to be written, ing isulat sa.

Gerunds

It is shorter and easier to give you hard facts than to give you so many rules; for example:

G enitive.... it is time to write .. panaon a sumulat Passive...... panaon a isulat ita for example

32 Dative...... This is put in Spanish the way we do it in Latin Non sum solvendo [I cannot pay]

Examples

No estoy para escribir I am not ready to write ...... eco macasulat P assiv e...... asulat Accusative...... Iam going to w rite...... ume cong sumulat Passive...... I am going to be written...... ume cong isulat A blative...... by writing, you will know.... nun susulat ca mabiasa ca A nother...... Iam tired of writing ...... mapagal na cong susulat If he already wrote...... mepagal na cong sinulat

SUPINE

to write (a escribir)...... sumulat Passive: to be written (a ser escrito)...... isulat

Now you know how to form the future, active and passive. For this second one, I will give an example: manauang yang ISULA ini, this is an ugly thing to write

Present Participle

These are formed with ing, quing, because the participle includes pronoun and relative: see the

Examples

He who writes ...... ing susulat He who was writing...... ing sinulat or susulat

Passive

That which is being written ... ing isusulat That which was being written ing isusulat

33 Past Participle

The paper on which was w ritten...... silatan That which was written...... ing sin ulat

Future Participle

He who has or has something to write ...... ing sumulat That which has to be written...... ing isulat

The verbal in the active voice is formed with pa, the verbal passion [passive voice] with panga, as you will see in each one; for the latter, pamañulat and pañgasulat, etc; and the same thing for the rest of the simple verbs. This is the variation of tenses; for their use, the most ordinary particles are non or cum they; mean when, and they serve for all the tenses, present and future. Iñang or queta, also mean when and they serve as preterite imperfect of the indicative, and for the preterite perfect of the indicative and for preterite, although they come close to the future imperfect. Ngeni and queni mean hie et nunc [here and now]; they serve as preterite, present and future. I do not put examples, because the Grammar is fiili of them.

Section 2 The Regular Conjugations of the Active Voice

After you have conjugated the root sulat in all the tenses, so that in imitation of them, you will be able to do the same thing with any other verb, I now move to give you the conjugations of the rest, in their three tenses and roots; for which it is presumed that there is rarely any root which is not conjugated as simple, or at least compound, although it is in its simple form that it is a noun, an adverb, etc. and you know that just as [the Latin] grammar reduces all its regular active verbs to the four conjugations; so also this language reduces them to three; with the difference that, in the former what is considered is with what letters the verb end, to know to what conjugation it belongs; in the latter, you look for the letters with which it begins.

34 First Conjugation

To this belong the roots which begin with a vowel. The future is formed by adding m before the first vowel; and then by doubling the first syllable of the future, you will form the present. The past is formed by inserting in between m and the first vowel of the future, as you will see in the

Examples of this first conjugation

Root abal Hut orod uma yi Meaning to weave to assist to shave to kiss to urinate as a midwife Future mabal milut morod muma miyi Present mamabal mimilut momorod mumuma mimiyi Past minabal minilut minorod minuma miniyi

Second Conjugation

Belonging to this are the roots that begin with b, p, m. The present is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root; the future by changing or to m; if it starts with m, there is no need to change, because the root is the future. You have formed the present and the future. The past, for you to avoid commit ting an error, needs some rules which have exceptions. Do not get surprised. Remember the many things which you studied in the Latin preterite.

First Rule

The roots which have more than two syllables, and even if they only have two, if they have two consonants after the first vowel, to form the preterite, which is formed from the future, change the first vowel of the latter to e or depending on which sounds better; if the first vowel of the future is I, it is left as it is, or you will do what I will tell you about the exceptions to this rule.

Second Rule

I said in the preceding, even if they are made up o f only two syllables, if they have two consonants after the first vowel, because if its does not have them, you will form the preterite by inserting in between m and the first vowel of the future; that is, if it does not lack exceptions (si bien no carece de excepciones). Let me now give you, under each letter, examples of all the varieties of verbs.

35 Examples of the Second Conjugation

Root balictad busñgi basa Meaning to turn to open to read upside down Present babalictad bubusñgi babasa Future maliciad musñgi masa Past melictad misñgi minasa

Root palacol panday pilit Meaning to cut with an to work a metal to force Present papalacol papanday pipilit Future malacol manday milit Past melacol minday minilit

Root mulagat molmol mulat Meaning to open to rinse to open one’s eyes one’s mouth one’s eyes Present mumulagat momolmol mumulat Future mulagat molmol mulat Past milagat milmol minulat

Exceptions

Regarding the rule that those which have more than two syllables must form the preterite by changing the first vowel of the fixture to e or I do not find them among the roots which begin with b or m; because even if they could be found among those which begin with hi or mi,there are few of them which are trisyllabic. In p I find that pintacasi inserted in between m and the first vowel of the fixture. Preterite, minintacasi, to distinguish it from the future; not so with piraya, whose preterite and fixture is miraya. Among those with two syllables, which have two consonants after the first vowel, I find that, in the case of bingcas, to open by extending, its preterite is mlNingcas; bintang, accuse falsely, preterite mlNintang; but bindang, to break to pieces; to remove wrinkles form the present like the future mindang, minlit; in those with p, the same thing happens with piláis, to twist as with a spindle; preterite

36 B

The second rule has many exceptions, because there are many which have two syllables and begin with b and p, which do not insert in the preterite: take these which form the preterite by changing the first vowel to e or to girdle; bacam, to break wind; bagac, to work, as in timber-cutting; to mani fest; baril, to gun down; basa to, wet; bata, to smell bad like meat; bating, to spread the net; basac, to drip; bobo, to turn upside down, as ajar; bucal, to boil; bulung, to grunt; bono, to hit; busa, to toast rice; but as, to determine; bicang, to divide; and bilad, to air. Their preterite is like the future, micang, milad, etc. Baba, to lower; its past, mEba; baba, to carry; its past, mEba; bayo, to renew; past, miNayo; bayo, to thresh; past, ME bayo; bacas, to rake; it has no past; if it has to be used, say MEmacas; bucbuc, to nourish woodworms; past, micbuc or miNucbuc; buat, past, miuat.

Pagal, to get tired; pait, to make bitter; palis, to sweep; pamon, to say goodbye; pango, to entrap; panic, to go up; pari, to separate with a wedge; pasag, to flounder anxiously; patac, to drip; patad, to snap, as a rope; patay, to die or to kill; pulad,to adorn an arrow with feathers; pulas, to return; poloc, for a cock to get irritated; puput, to suffocate; purul, to become blunt; pusan, to carry on the shoulder; pusit, to squeeze; putal, to pull the rope; putao, to make something short or deficient; puti, to whiten; all their past tenses change the first vowel of the future to e or i;pili, to choose; past, MEmili; pilig, to shake, past and future, milig; puc, past, Mlipuc, to destine.

Concerning this, I do not find any exception to this rule. The good thing about it is that almost all the roots have various compositions, which you will find one by one in the Dictionary.

Third Conjugation

Belonging to this are the remaining consonants, namely, c, d, y, I, n, ng, q, s, t, v, but this last one, as I told you in its place, does not adhere. For each of them I will give you an example, so that, from it, you will learn how to form words from the remaining roots. You know that in all of them the present is formed by doubling the first syllable of the root; the past, by inserting in to the root after the first consonant.

37 To form the future, take note of the following. First, concerning the roots which have more than two syllables, or even those with only two, if there are two consonants after the first vowel, its future is the root itself Second, those with only one syllable (which are many) form the future by inserting um the first consonant. Third observation: concerning those which have two syllables but do not have two consonants after the first vowel, some admit um, while, in some others, the root serves as the future.

EXAMPLES OF THIS CONJUGATION

Root cutang dalaquit gaga yaus Meaning to ask to cross to quarrel to call Present cucutang daralaquit gagaga yayaus Past quinutang dinalaquit guinaga ynaus Future cutang dalaquit gumaga yumaus

Note. In case you hear, yaus, yauad, also follow those which begin with a vowel: maus, mamaus, minaus; mauad, mamauad, minauad.

Root lud nabo ngatba Meaning to complete to bring down to be even with Present lulud nanabo ngangatba Past linud ninabo nginatba Future none numabo ngatba

Root quiput sac tila viguig Meaning to narrow to thicken to stop to sprinkle raining Present quiquiput sasac titila viviguig Past quiniput sinac tinila viniguig Future cumiput sumac tumila viguig

I do not doubt that you want to know which ones, among so many having only two syllables, admit um in the future and which ones do not, but you know well that people more intelligent than I have not been able to find a rule; perhaps because there is no general rule; but, just the same, take these, which can give you some kind of relief. First, a verb which admits in for the first passive preter ite usually admits um in the future. Second, is very rare to find a root with an acute accent which admits um inthe future', and so you will take note of what I place in the Vocabulary under this letter (A).

38 The Irregular Conjugation of the Active Voice

Notice that most of these irregulars follow the formation which you saw in those which begin with a vowel, and in such cases are irregular.

First Irregular

Belonging to this are many of the disyllabic roots which begin with a and have two consonants following it, or have two vowels after the first consonant. The present is formed by merely placing at the start of the root its first consonant; that is, another like it; for example, agtal, present Gagtal, and from it we form the preterite and the future; for the former we change the first vowel to in, for the latter to un; and notice that both in and un, if they are followed by i, are changed to ñi.

Examples of This Conjugation

Root agtal atua albay asias aduang Meaning to pick to argue to watch to harden to give [to pass] Present gagtal tatúa lalbay sasias aduang Past guintal tinua limbay sinias inuang Future guntal tunua lumbay sunias dunuang

Note: I said that there are many which admit this conjugation and not all because those which have norm after the first a (even if it does not immediately follow a), or have ng after a, do not admit it; although angsad, to emit an underarm odor; angsul, boredom, have MASangsad and MASangsal. Neither are they admitted (except perhaps rarely) by absic, immature; abtac, crack; abpang, sticks for ñipas; acbag,noise; aclug, to roar; agnan, on equal terms; agsap, to end, albut, to pick out; alduc, to sip; abnoc, to stoop; there are others which have only the present, like Babual from abual, to lever up; abli, to pay; abnus, to draw lots for; apiac, to close one’s eyes; others also admit the preterite, like apda, present, Papda, preterite, PINda, and it means to extinguish; apsay, extend, like the hand, present, Papsay; preterite, MINsay; asdo, for a dress to be tight, Sasdo, SINdo; aspa, to throw into the mouth, Saspa, STNpa, etc. There are others which do not admit it, nor do they admit the regular; but in their construction, they imitate it; for example, ablus has MIBablus, to replace; abno, to meet, MIBabuo; alda, the multitude, MALalda; alpa, to overwater the rice being cooked, MALapa, etc. Later we will treat them. There are others like them which I will content myself with listing, so that you can see their irregularity in the Dictionary, for example, acua, to take; abyay, to give; ablas, to reciprocate; aptas, to bind; abpa, to rest, like a bird; apsao, to recover from fever; agli, to conceive; atbud, to rot.

39 Second Irregular Conjugation

With this, we conjugate many dissylabic roots which begin with and we form the abstract by putting c or dibefore them. They are adjectives of where we change m to c. Those which admit this conjugation are: length; cayan, lasciviousness; cayap, goodness; calat, saltiness; calbag, swelling; cauo, thirst; capia,richness; capias, burning pain; casac, thickness; cascup, narrow ness; casdan, fright; casias, hardness; casnoc, anger; casñgao, usefulness; cati, low tide; catas, height; catlac, deafness. Coming close to these are camin, to be consumed; camog, to get wet; capno, to fill; catmo, the same; caslam, to turn sour; casna, to fill up, and some other such thing; and their meaning is expressed neutrally and intransitively. To form the present, double the first syllable; the future, insert um between c and a; the preterite, in.

Examples of This Conjugation

Root ayap amin asias aslam Meaning to improve to be to harden to turn sour consumed Present cacayap cacamin cacasias cacaslam Preterite quinayap quinamin quinasias quinaslam Future cumayap cumamin cumasias cumaslam

Note: This conjugation is not admitted by those roots which in their regular conjugation are active or signify transitive movement, because those of this conjugation connote something immanent. Note further that some of these roots admit all the other conjugations and compositions of which they are capable, although not always with the same meaning; for example, aslam admits SASlam, SINlam, SUNlam and its compound masaslam, etc. and they both mean the same as cacas lam; but in the regular conjugation, mamaslam, minaslam, maslam, means to pour vinegar on the food. Which conjugations admit this and which do not, the Dictionary will tell you.

Third Irregular Conjugation

There are few under this heading. They mean the same as the preceding conjugation. They are dissyllabic and begin with the vowel i. To form the present, double the i which does not adhere to the other, as I said in the observations. For the preterite, put in before; for the future, insert um after for example, root, to be stingy; present, Iimut; preterite, INimut; future, IUMimut; here y is attached to u, as I also said; but since the roots which belong here are defective, copy them; look them up in the Dictionary.

40 List of the Roots

yiac, to shout; ina, to get weak; ingay, to make noise; inguis, to be stingy; intac, insac, to get smaller; ingpis, to grow thin; iring, to be playful; to make a face. I don’t remember the rest.

Section 3 The Regular Passives and Their Formation

Do not think that a root has only one passive as lego [I read], which has only legor [I am read], etc.; here, there can be more, although some admit only two, others only one, because its meaning does not give place to more. They take their name from their distinguishing particle. The first is known as the i-passive, because it is formed by placing this letter i before it; the second one the an, because this letter an is placed after it; the third is known as the anan, for the same reason, although an is in place of anan. I will call them thefirst, second and third. To form the tenses of the first, if the root begins with a vowel, place / before it and you will have the future; bearing in mind that if the vowel is not i, you will pronounce this iwhich you add as a consonant; having formed the future, double its first syllable, and place another vowel i before it and you will have the present; the preterite is formed from the root by placing before it. Among the roots that begin with a consonant, all the tenses are formed from the root; the future, merely by placing ibefore it; the present by placing the same i before it, but doubling the first syllable of the root; the preterite requires a separate explanation. First

Among those with only one syllable, insert it right after the first consonant.

Second

Among those with three syllables, change the first vowel to e or among those with two syllables, where the first vowel is followed by two consonants, or the first consonant is followed by two vowels, insert in; but if they are purely dissyllabic, for example, sulat, sulut, insert in or not for the preterite the same way with um for the future active. I only know that most of those which have um in the future insert in to form this preterite. The others at times insert in and at times change the first vowel to e or i.There is no other remedy than to examine them one by one, or to go see the Dictionary. Note: In this first passive, we never place i before [the root] to form the preterite, and even the present and the future usually drop it, especially if they have more than two syllables.

41 Exmaples of This First Passive

Root aval salicut irid sulat sulut tun Meaning to teach to hide to rub to write to open to cook Future yaral isalicut Iyrid isulat isulut itun Present iyayaral isasalicut Iyirid isusulat isusulut itutun Preterite inaral selicut Inirid sinulat silut tinun

I have already said that even if i adheres to the a and the it does not adhere to the i, and in the present of irid, pronounce three vowels, and in the future two, aside from the last i. Note: Concerning the trisyllabic and the dissyllabic which have two consonants after the first vowel and begin with i, to distinguish the preterite from the future, per haps they admit in,like lindayog, to be hesitant, preterite, sitsit, to whis per, preterite, sinitsit; simpan to keep safe, preterite, sinimpan, something which is kept safe; but tiltil, to touch lightly, and liualas, to widen, preterite liualas, and this way for the others. See the Dictionary. Concerning the dissyllabic, which have two vowels after the first consonant, I find that they do not insert in: buat, lift; lual, go out; sui, do violence; tuag, to empty by turning upside down, like ajar; but only preterite biuat, liual, siui, tinag; tayi, to sew, preterite teyi; layi, preterite leyi.

Second Passive

All the verbs form their tenses like the first [passive] by dropping the which is the beginning, and placing an, which is its distinctive particle, at the end; but they drop it in the preterite; except labul, to ignite, abto pay what is bought; boyad, to pay a debt; tauad, to haggle; dagang, to buy whole sale; utang, to borrow, and some others; sali, to buy, has also seliuan, but more commonly the preterite seli, etc. Anac has one and the other, like sali,babi, etc. Among the roots which end in a, usually it is enough to add n; for example, uma, second passive uman, the one kissed; although some roots which end in a are not contented with n only; for example, asa, to trust; asaan, to intercede. I note this in order not to forget miralitan, which means to sing, and miralitaan, which is to suffer. Others insert n, like quilala; for example, quilalanan; tanda, remember, tandanan, salpantayanan, casalanan; others insert u before an; like saliuan (not salían), what is bought, and its compounds. Tabili, let fall from one’s hands, tabiliuan; bali, to cancel; baliuan; lili, take note of a defect, liliuan,etc. In place of this u, others insert n. Pili, to choose; pilinan; alili, to exchange, alilinan or alinlan ; tibay, to strengthen, becomes tibian; libay, to barter, libian; lauay, to look at, lauan; babay. Look at their composition. They are in the Vocabulary.

42 Example[s] of This Second Passive

Root agtal tacal sui dapat patay Meaning to catch to measure to force to make to kill Future agtalan tacalan suiyan daptan patayan Present yayagtalan tatacalan susuiyan daraptan papatayan Preterite inagtal tinacal siui depat petay

Third Passive

Its formation is like that of the second, except that sometimes it ends in and sometimes in anan. The preterite always has an or anan; among those which begin with a vowel, in is added before; in all the rest, its first vowel is changed to e or i, although, in the case of some, to distinguish the preterite from the future, they admit in, [as you will find] in the Dictionary.

Examples of This Third Passive

Root agcas sulat tacal siclaud Meaning to say to write to measure to kneel Present yayagcasanan susulatanan tatacalanan sisiclauran Future agcasanan sulatan tacalanan siclauran Preterite inagcasanan silatan tecalanan siniclauran

Section 4 The Irregular Third Passives [sic. Three?]

Go over the irregular conjugation of the dissyllabic roots which begin with a and have two consonants after it, or two vowels after the first consonant; those ones admit another irregular in these passives.

First Passive

Take the present of the irregular active (about which alone I speak now), put before it, and you get the present; the preterite is the same as that of the active without i before it; for the future, change the first a to This is its first passive.

43 Second Passive

The present is that of the active with an at the end; the preterite that of the active without an; the future that of the active with an at the end.

Third Passive

Take note that if something in the active changes or to m, here it does not change. Its present and preterite with anan; its future, the root with anan.

Examples of These Three Passives

First Passive

Root agtal aduang assuit aptas Meaning to gather to give to open to bind Present/ gagtal idaduang isasuit ipaptas Preterite guintal dinuang siñuit pintas Future igtal iduang isuit iptas

Second Passive

Present gagtalan daduañguan sasuitan paptasan Preterite guintal in aduañg siñuit pintas or inaptas Future agtalan aduañgan asuitan aptasan

Third Passive

Present gagtalanan daduañganan sasuitanan paptasanan Preterite guintalanan inaduañganan siñuitanan pintasanan Future agtalanan aduañganan asuitanan aptasanan

Not all the roots which begin with a and have two consonants after it or two vowels after the first consonant admit these passives. There are many irregular: Take this copy and look them up in the Dictionary. Why will you make me tired transferring here what you have there?

LIST

Agías, to clear by opening a road; atdas, to burst; atbus, to rescue; to crack a nut; assiad, to bite; aslat, to wedge in; atbac, to pierce; atdac, to thrust

44 a stick in the ground; apiac,to close one’s eyes; apsay, to extend, like an arm; albay, to watch; alua, to throw out of the mouth; abiai, to give; asdap, to find out ahead of time; atbay, to flood; atñga, to raise and incline a bit; abual, to pull; Aspa [either this is a wrong spelling or the ancient word for the present apsa], to throw out of the mouth; asdo, to pack tight clothes; agcat, to invite; altao, to surface; aclis, to shout; and more which you will find.

45 CHAPTER 4

The Use of the Active and the Passive in General and of the Three Passives in Particular These two principles are the two firm foundations on which the aesthetic structure of this language rests. They are the two axles in which the whole machine moves. And so, after having discussed wha a noun is, what a verb is, what active is, what passive is, how many there are and how they are formed [These last two clauses are not italicized in the Spanish original]; I found it convenient, if not necessary, to put this chapter next; because, to want to put into practice what has been said, without understanding it, would be more a guesswork or a recitation from rote memory than saying things intelligently. I suppose that you have not yet forgotten that the first sentence of the active is made up of the nominative of the person who does, the verb and the accusative o f the person who receives the action. The same is true in Kapampangan; and that the first sentence of the passive is made up of the nominative of the person who receives the action, the verb and the ablative o f the person who does. Change the ablative to genitive and try doing that in this language. You will find here many examples of one and the other.

Section 1 When to Speak in the Active and When in the Passive

First Rule

But before putting this rule and the others that follow, since we have the good fortune of having our Spanish as a blind man’s guide in all that is essential among them, it is important for you to be very aware of how our language expresses things, to see whether to explain or not the nominative o f the person who does. It is certain that in simple sentences, it usually does not express it, but implies or includes it in the verb; and so we say: Call Juan, not You, call Juan The same way: write (escribid) [understood: vosotros, you], we read (leemos) [understood: nosotros, we], etc. and if such sentences express the nomi native of the person who does, it is the same as when they do not express it, because it does not add anything to its meaning; because these two mean the same: Call Juan and You, call Juan. Notice that this is true with the second, third and fourth rules, and the use of the nominatives or articles that are placed at the end, as distinct from the use of those which are placed at the beginning, as you will observe as you go along. Sentences which are not simple refer explicitly to the person who does the action. The explicit reference is sometimes done by pointing to the definite doer of each thing, for example, You have to write the letters', thou hast to sweep the room; I will pray the rosary etc. Sometimes, the sentence searches for the doer

46 or asks who he is; for example, who killed that man? Did you kill him? Sometimes it insists and empathically affirms that he and not another one was the doer; for example, you killed him. Sometimes the person is given emphasis or stress, as when the teacher tells his student: Yes you understand it more than I; and the same if it includes surprise or a mystery; for example, in these two sentences: You will wash my feet! autem dico vobis [but I say unto you], etc. Lastly, the sentence begins with a proper name or a definite thing. In all the above-mentioned sentences, our language never implies in the verb the person who does, but instead necessarily expresses it, and corresponding to that, the Kapamapangan language necessarily includes the use of the nominative or articles which are placed before; and from this comes this.

First Rule [sic.]

Whenever the Spanish sentence begins by expressing the nominative of the person who acts, the Kapampangan active is properly used by starting with the corresponding nominative. From here we infer that all the following sentences and those similar to them are well said in the active.

First: He who steals little things today will become a thief tomorrow. Ing GAGAMITngenin ditac, bucas manacoya. Second: Pedro will look for people. YPedro MANINTUNyan tauo. Third: I will call the Father. Aeon YUMAUSquing Pare Fourth: You seize the horses. lean MANYACAP caring cabayo. Fifth: You bring the chairs down. Icon MITIPA caring siya. Sixth: The sick repents of his sins. Ing solunan SUMISIya quing casalanan na. Seventh: I am the one who should hear his confession. Aco ing PAPAGCOMPISAL queya. Eight: He is the one who has to ring the bell ing TIGTIG quing campana.

From the rule, we further infer, and with more reason ( fortiori) that the active is very appropriate, whenever the sentences are interrogative, admirative or emphatic; for example, Who sold Christ? ninon MIBAYAD can Cristo! Which of the soldiers pierced him? Ingsa cay CARING soldados ing tinandus queya? You, Lord, will wash my feet? Icapun MUYAS quing bids co Guinu co? Does the disciple resist the master? Ing alagad LUMABAN ya pala quing maestro na? etc. You must have noticed that this rule covers all verbs, be they simple or complex, be they about something definite or indefinite. Now, you might ask whether, in sentences falling under this first rule, we can also use the passive. My answer is that even if, in these sentences, the active is more commonly used and more elegant and safer from

47 errors, nevertheless, excepting those which refer to an indefinite tiling, like the first two, all the rest can also be put in the passive, because they retain the same meaning. I will give some examples for you to serve as models in constructing the rest.

First: Aeonyumaus quing Pare Passive: AcoYAUSANque ing Pare. Second: Icon mitipa carin sia Passive: Icayo ITIPA yo ding sia. Third: Aco ingpapagcompesal a Passive: Aco ing quey co ya. PAPA Fourth: Nino mibayad can Cristo? Passive: Nino ney Cristo? Fifth: lea pon muyas quing bitiş co? Passive: lea po ing UASAN mo co bitis? or UASAN mo ing bitis co, Guinu co? etc.

Second Rule

But there is no point in giving this rule unless you first recall what was said earlier about nominatives which are placed after, and unless I explain to you what I mean by an absolutely indefinite thing which you will see in this rule. I therefore say that an absolutely indefinite thing is that which, in our Spanish is in the accusative, being the receiver of the action, and is left in the air absolutely naked of any particle that can make it definite, as you will see in the examples. Given this backdrop, I now state the rule. When a Spanish sentence begins by implying the nominative o f the person who does the action, if it refers to an absolutely indefinite thing, the active is used, and not the passive. From this, we can infer that the following sentences and others like them sound well in the active, but sound bad in the passive. Bring water, CUMA can danum; go up get nuts, MUQUIATcan luyus; look for a plank, MANINTUN can tablero; eat meat, MASAN con bulbulan; I cannot find chicks, e co MACAQUIT sisi; call a sacristan, YUMAUS can catauong sacristan or YUMA US can sacristan or YUMA US can metong sacristan; he who insists in putting them in the passive will prove that he does not know the language. This rule is very certain and very general. There are two exceptions, namely, these two adverbs, atin and ala, there is, there is none, with which the sentences referring to indefinite things are also made passive, e. g. MECAMATE can tauo? Have you put people to death? Passive, ATIN PETE mong tauo? He answers: e co MECAMATE tauo. Passive, ALA con PETAY a tauo, I have not put any man to death, there is no man put by me to death. Also exceptions to this rule (and even to the most general rule which teaches that we must put in the genitive the person who does the action in a passive construction) are these adjectives, dacal, ditac, many, few, whose norm is to put the person who does the action in the nominative; for example, you killed many people, active: mecamate

48 CAN DACAL a tauo; passive, DACAL CA petay a tauo. The same with these: we ate little, DITAC QUEpengan; DACALya inuman, he drinks a lot etc. The same norm covers these adjectives: matas, mababa, mar ay o, malapit, etc.; for example, I am showing somebody to somebody else and he does not see him; I tell him: how can you see him if you are looking down? nun MABABA CA lalauan? etc. He answers: MATASnaCO lalauan, I am now looking up, etc.

Third Rule

Because this rule, as you will see, is the exact opposite of the preceding, I will prepare you to understand it by a preliminary explanation. And so, leaving behind irrelevant reflections and useless objections, I say that are talking o f an absolutely definite thing, whenever our Spanish uses a singular to refer to the person who receives the action. For example, God, Christ, hie homo [this man] and any of the demonstratives: Pedro, for example, and any of the proper nouns and surnames: thou, I, and any of the primitive pronouns; mine, thine, and any of the possessives; lastly, any thing which goes with some of our particles, el, los, las, la [equivalent to only one English word: the], etc. is absolutely , for which the passive is used, this being the only thing we are looking for here. Given this backdrop, here is the rule. Whenever the Spanish sentence begins by implying the nominative of the per son who does the action, if it refers to an absolutely definite thing, the passive is appropriately used. In this rule, I see no difficulty, nor do I find any exception, nor any danger of committing an error. But to be able to know when the sentences covered by it can also be put in the active the way they are easily put in the passive, hoc opus, hie labor est [this is the work, this is the labor]. This difficulty will be laughed at by one who makes no distinction between the use of the articles which are placed after and those which are placed before, but does not realize that in using the former you don’t meet the set back that you might meet in the first rule. And when we use the latter, there are many (as will be seen in this rule) in which I would prefer to hear the other. In the first place, I suppose that it is indubitable that these sentences and those like them can never be put in the active.

First: Call the Priest. A USAN me ing Pare [sic; the same as the first example below] Second: Close that door. ICABAT me itangpasbul. Third: Catch the thief. DACPANme Fourth: Throw this inkstand. YUGSE me iyang tintero

And that these ones and all those like them can be put in the active; but in that case, they have a different meaning from that of the passive.

49 First: Call the priest. A USAN me ing Pare [sic; the same as the first example above] Second: Close those doors. ICABAT mo detangpasbul. Third: Catch those thieves. DACPANmo detang mapanacao. Fourth: Whip this boy. BATBATANme iyang anac or these boys deang anac. Fifth: I cannot read those books, e co ABASA detang libro. Sixth: Eat this chicken. ASAN me iyang manoc.

I also suppose that, with the neutral verbs, to speak in the active is the same as to speak in the passive; for example, LUMAPITcan Pedro or me y Pedro; LISIA ca quing dalan or LISIAN me ing dalan; TATACUT CO queca, I am afraid of you; TACUTAN da ca, the same, etc.; and even if they are active, they look at the person (who receives the action) merely as a pure term or object or motive. Tuqui or musi ca caco, come with me; tuquian or usian mo co, the same; sow on this land, SALBAG ca queyanggabun or SALBAGAN; TATANGISco can ibpa co or TATANGISAN que,etc. LUMABA carela ox LAB ANAN mo la. And this is not only among those which require the third passive, but also among those of the first; for example, I cry over my father, ITANGIS que ibpa co or TUMANGIS co can ibpa co; GUMALANG ca caring matua queca or igalang etc. GAUA can chocolate canaco or IGAUAN con chocolate, etc. Given this backdrop, and such variety, I say first of all, that the surer way is to put all of them in the passive, although among the neutral verbs, I find no danger of making a mistake, whether they are in the active or in the passive. Among those active verbs which look at the person (who receives the action) as merely a term, an object, or a motive, it is usual (even though not surer) to speak in the active; among the verbs which are more properly active, because they look at the person who receives the action as one who receives the action, you never refer to an individual in the active; and when they are in the plural or wherSthe action is divisible, they have their own active and passive, but they do not fall under this rule, but under the next one.

Fourth Rule

Whenever a Spanish sentence begins by implying the nominative of the person who does the action, if it refers to a thing which is definite as a whole and to an indefinite part of it, the active is appropriately used and, never the first passive nor the second, but yes, the third passive, anan or ananan. To understand this rule, I presume something which cannot be denied, namely that, in our language, there is a very common way of saying something where the whole is definite, but not the part; for example:

50 First: Take some from those pesos. Second: Drink some from this bottle. Third: Pour some of this water. Fourth: Do not take from that. Fifth: Take from this. Here, as you see , the whole is definite, but not the part. More clearly tell a sick person: Sixth: Eat some from this chicken.

The chicken is the whole and becomes definite because of the demonstra tive from this', the part remains indefinite because you do not specify whether it is the breast or the leg, etc.

This way of speaking, actually a wider way, is also found in this language, and so here, whenever the whole is definite, and not the part, the active is well used and in that case, its articles do not have the function of the accusative (where many make a mistake), but of the ablative ex or de [from], and for this reason this active also leads to the third passive of anan or ananan, which does not specify the part which it removes, implying, however, that where that part is removed, something remains. Here are the examples

First: CUMA ca caretang pesos; Passive: CUAN AN AN mo detang pesos

Second: MINUM ca canining frasco; INUMANAN me ining frasco Third: MIBATING ca queyang danum; BATINGANAN mo iyang danum Fourth: E ca CUMA canian; e me CUCUANAN iyan Fifth: CUMA na ca canini; CU ANANAN mo na ini Sixth: MASAN ca queyan capon; ASANAN me iyan capon Seventh: Bibite ex hoc omnes [All o f you, drink from this]; PASIINUM co ngan canini.

INUM ANnayo ngan ini, etc. DACAP ca caretang manacao, catch some of them, DACPANAN mo; BATBATAN mo; CABATANAN mo, etc. None of these sentences can be put in the passive, whether the first or the second, unless you have recourse to the poor man’s pan, atin, ala, there is, there is none; the reason is clear, because if it could be put that way, it would have to be by placing the oblique case [that is, the non-nominative case] in the nominative of the person who receives the action and giving it the passive which corresponds to it; for example. Let us suppose that the sentence “take from this” cuma ca canini, " is put in the second passive, which is what corresponds to it; you would have to say cuan mo ini, and this one does not mean “take from which is what it should be, but

51 “take this,”which is what it should not be. That nominative ini does not refer to a definite whole and an indefinite portion, which is what this clause takefrom this means precisely, but it only refers to an absolutely definite thing: take this, which totally changes the meaning; you will just be insisting that drinkfrom this is the same as drink this cask, etc. In order to show how these three rules conform to our above-mentioned three manners of speaking and how those who confuse them will mess up everything, I will summarize them for you on the chess board

First. If you want to play, for example, bring a chessboard Second. For example, with which we usually play. Third. If the chessboard, for example, breaks into pieces and we ask some from them, we say; bring from that chessboard.

The first model corresponds to the second rule, which refers to an absolutely indefinite thing, CUMA can tablero, in the active only; the second corresponds to the third, which refers to the absolutely definite thing, CUAN me itang tablero, in the passive only, the third corresponds to this fourth rule, referring to a definite whole and an indefinite part: CUMA ca quetang tablero in the active; CUANAN AN me itang tablero in the passive etc. Et sic de reliquis [And the same with the rest.] A last point. If you hear SUMUGAT e.g., or MATBAT ca queyang anac, do not think that it is the same as saying SUGTANor BATBATAN me iyanganac, whip or hurt that boy (as somebody thought); because, as I already said, with those active verbs, you do not construct sentences about an absolutely definite thing in the active. What it says is “you (you also), hurt or whip” and so the indio usually adds naman to it, and for us it is as when we say “you (you also), try and see, you (you also), wet it. So, this manner of speaking is not absolute; it always presupposes that somebody else or others are already doing the same thing; for example, si cuando en toro muerto todos mojan, tu también mojas tu carranza, [when you see everybody pouring water after a bull is killed, you also pour water], sinuldul NA ca MANqueya; and in the passive it retains naman; for example, sugtanan mu NE MAN; batbatanan mo NE MAN; sindulanan mu NEMAN; etc. If the receiver of the action is in the plural, it also admits this meaning and that mentioned in this rule.

Last Rule

[In Latin, the nominative case is also called “right” as in “right angle,” while each of the rest is called “oblique” as in “oblique angle,” namely, genitive, dative, accusa tive, ablative and vocative, because when listed on paper, the nominative, which is the first, is like a horizontal line forming a right angle with the vertical line (left margin) from which all of them begin, while the others form slanting lines or oblique angles. Casus rectus. Casus obliquus.]

52 Whenever a Spanish sentence begins with an oblique case, the passive is appropriately well used; for example, whom are you looking for? Ninon PANINTUN AN mo?, I am looking for you, lean PANINTUNAN co; are you washing my feetl Aeon uyasan mo po bitis? and Judas also, y Judas pa naman UYASAN co bitis, etc. [The direct objects or receivers of the action are said to be in the accusative case]. I already hear you say under your breath: it would be clearer and better if the rule would say whenever it starts with the person who receives the action, as in the examples given and in these: What are you doing? What are you thinking about? Nanun daraptan mu? Nanung isipan mo? etc. without referring to oblique cases. I ask: and when the Spanish sentence begins with a dative or an ablative, etc. whom we do not refer to as the person who receives the action, how can this be understood using your rule? Because it is certain that, even then, the passive is used; for example, fo r whom do you make chocolate? Ninon IGAUA mon chocolate? I am making for Pedro IGAUA que y Pedro. With what do you write? Nanun ISULATmo? With the pen, ingpluma iyangISULATco; With which learning aid do you study? Nanun PIPAGARALANMO? The grammar book, Ing Arte ing pipagaralan co etc. [These examples are in the ablative.]

Section 2 The Use of the Three Passives First Passive of I

Since there is so little to say about vague or indefinite things, the remaining set of innumerable external ways with which the soul expresses its concepts are summarized by this language in only three passives.

The first refers to all that is moved or moves', the second refers to all that is attracted or is changed; the third, refers to the place, object or end o f all actions. And take note that in all of them, when I say agente [doer], I speak of the person who does something in the sentence, which has to be always in the genitive. By cosa [thing], I mean the receiver of the action, be it stone, man, plant, etc. and this has to be always in the nominative. This having been said.

First Rule

When you put in the nominative any thing which the doer moves, especially outward, you have to use this passive. This means that if you put in the nomina-

53 tive the habit, which a person takes or moves to wear, or the morsel which you take or move towards your mouth or that of somebody else, I must say me habito, wear the habit; I SUB U mo ing canan etc. So also, close your eyes, IPIA C mong mata mo; open them, IMULATmo; extend your arm or your leg, IAPSE me ing bids or tacde [sic, not respectively]; withdraw them, ICLONG mo la, etc.; remove that, ILACO moyan, etc. I said especially outward because even if this rule is about movement properly or not properly so called, outward movement is more common; and so when you put the following in the nominative, namely, that which is thrown, shot, sown, scattered, poured, put somewhere, spat out, mixed with another thing, and anything that is given, use this passive, because, in all these ways of speaking, there is movement; for example, throw that dagger, YUGSE me iyang sundang; put that sword down, IBILI me iyang calis, etc.

Observations

First, when you refer to the doer as moving something, this is not taken so strictly as to require that it be perceived by any external sense the way, for example, you perceive the palay which you sow or the blood that you vomit. It is enough that you think of it as being moved in some aspect; for example, when the minister says I will solemnize your marriage, he neither moves nor pushes nor expels the one who is getting married, but because it is conceived that in some way he influences and moves him from being unmarried to being married, it falls under this rule; for example, I will solemnize your marriage, IPAQUIAS AUA ra ca. This way, when, for example, I am asking about you, I certainly do not throw you out of my mouth, but because in some way you go out of my mouth through the word which means you, I will say ICUCUTANG DA CA, and so, you say: answer for me, IPAQUIBAT mo co; and everything that is asked and answered, etc. Secondly, if you do not like to get confused many times when you want to know if there is this movement, do not mind so much our way of talking as that of the indio, for example, in this sentence, teach the boys, we do not consider this as a movement, but the indio does, because, from his habit of using the verb TURO this way, he says that, in teaching them, he moves them outward, ITURO mo deang anac. Also, he sees movement and we do not when, for example, when he asks forgiveness from somebody, and he usually says: I kneel down in your presence carrying my sins, ISICLA UD co po quecang casalanan co; and the other answers, for example, nga mo na quing dios mo ISICLAUD or ISISI mo queng G.n.t. [Guinu tang] DIOS, etc. This is a general practice. Notice also that many verbs, due to their way of signifying, can use not only this passive, since they signify movement, but also the second and third, because they also refer to changelessness or place, etc., for example, sabi. Because the

54 thing that is said goes out, it admits isabi;and because it is related or unchanged, it admits the second: sabían, tungcos, that the thing is moved in packing it, itungcos: from the point of view that it refers to a place or cloth. Tungcusan. Third etc. Lastly, remember that, when the doer and the receiver of the action are in the same area, only the doer expresses this passive; for example, hasten your pace, ilacad mo; force yourself to eat, ipangan mo; lay your legs, iquera mo, itudtud mo, etc.

INSTRUMENT

This rule covers all that which serves as an instrument, strictly or broadly speaking, because it is understood that in order to work with it, one has to move it; and do not be limited by the Spanish con que [with which], because many times, we also use para [for] and even the Spanish de [of]; for example, This is the knife de [to be used for] sharpening pens, para [to be used for] sharpening pens, con que se cortan [with which we sharpen] pens, ini ing campit a IPANILOS or IPANLAYI or PANASA carin pluma', bring the razor, para, de, con que [for shaving], cun meng labasas a IPANURUD; Lord give me the grace or spirit to serve you, luguran mo co, Guinu cun gracia or lub a ISUYU co queca, etc. The same is true even when the only acceptable Spanish is with which; for example, the pen with which la m writing, ing co; this is the knife with which I wounded you, ini ing iuang INIUANA queca [The Spanish original heri means I wounded, while the Kapampangan iniunana queca means he wounded, which in Spanish is hirió]', the carabao with which my brother plows, I also plow with, ing damulag a ISASAROL ning capatad co, iya na man ISASAROL co; these are the stones or pieces of wood with which you have to make your house, ila denin calap a IGA UA mo queng bale mo.

SECOND RULE MOTIVE

This passive is also used when the motive for which or for whom something is done is put in the nominative; for example, Why are you working? Nanong IGAGALO mo?; for the money, ing salaping IGAGALO co; Why did they whip you?, nanung BITBAT da queca?, for example. It is true of course that these ways of speaking are ambiguous, because they can mean with what do you work, with what did they whip you? And aside from that, one can ask using the adverb and get the answer using the adverb uli;but sometimes, they are precise, and when they are a compelling and ultimate motive, the construction is this and the third. I will give you an example: In the name of Jesus, every knee bows, ING LAGUIONG jesús ISICLA URA ngan, etc.; in everything that you do, have Godfor your motive, IYAN IPUN mong DIOS queng sabían daptan mo; if do it fo r him, he will undoubt edly reward you; nun IYAN IRAPAT mo or DAPTANAN mo, ablasanan queca

55 alan sala; why are you cryingI NINON ITATANGmo? or TATANGISAN mo?; ibca co, etc.

This second rule covers the following Spanish idiomatic expressions: in behalf of whom or fo r whom; for example, IGAUA mo CON chocolate; ICUA mu CON api, danum or maman, etc. Bring him sweets my behalf ICUA mo CON mayumo queya; write him in my behalf ISULATmo CO quea; pray or say mass in my behalf IPANALANGINor IPAGMISAmo CO; ask him how he is or kiss his hand in my behalf, IPAGMANANO mo CO or YUMA MO CO gamat queya; etc.

TIME

I give a separate rule for this, even if the Kapampangan conceives or comprehends such sentences under the concepts of con [with] or para [for], as was said of the instrument: and so, the time “in which” or “o f’ is not constructed with this passive, if at least it does not conceive of an immanent action as it does not conceive in “the day someone dies or is conceived, etc. but neither must this rule be restricted to only the time, which we explained with the Spanish “in which,” because it admits other Spanish forms, as you will see.

THIRD RULE

This passive is used when the time in which, of, for doing something, for example, is in the nominative. The explanation of this rule, together with other things which it covers, can be given through the examples that follow. Time in : which Today, Thursday, is the day on which I write this, ing aldao ngenin Jueves ISUSULAT co queni; Thursday was the day on which I was writing this, Jueves ing aldao a SINULATco queni. Under this concept, continue: On Friday, I will fast. On Saturday, I will give alms. On Sunday, I will hear mass. On Monday, I will arrive in Mandaloya [Mandaluyong]. Ing Viernes IPAGYUNALco. Ing Sabado IPANLIMUS co. Ing Domingo IPAQUIRAMDAM con misa. Ing Lunes IRAS co Mandaloya. May God grant you time within which you will be converted or will repent or will take care of your soul or will confess. Lugurana ca ning Dios aldao a IBALIC ning lub mo or mo or ISISI mo quing caladua mo or IPAGCONPESAL mo. Time of, etc. Here we can very well translate what is said by Ecclesiasticus [should be Ecclesiastes, 3:4] tempus flendi et tempus ridendi [a time to weep, and a time to laugh] etc; for example, time to weep a IPANANGIS; time to laugh, panaon a IAILI, etc; day to work, aldao a IGALO, day of rest, aldao a IPIALONG; day marked for an audience, aldo a IPANIC quing señoría; time for the trees to bear fruit and for flowers to bloom; panaon a IPAMUNGA ra

56 ding dutung or IPAMULACLACda ding samLlent is a time to confess and to fast, ingcuaresmapanaon a IPAGCOMFESAR manga IPAGYUNAL, etc. You now realize that this way of speaking is in the gerund of the genitive; if the sentence is in the future or preterite, the appropriate Spanish phrase is en que [in which]; for example, the time will come in which you will cry, datang pog ing panaun a IPANANGIS mo, or IAIL1 mo;that time which you cried or ; itang panaun a PENANGIS mo or INAILI mo; por el mes [during the month] or en el mes [in the month] of May, the flowers bloom, bloomed or will bloom, ing bulan a Mayo iyan IPAMULACLAC or PEMULACLAC da ding sampaga etc. Et sic de reliquis [and the same with the rest.] Time o f orfor. For example, during the day, I work during; the night, I sleep, ing aldao IGAGALO co, ing bengi ITUTUDTUD co; the day is for working, the night for resting; ing aldao IGALAO, ing bengi IPAINAUA. This last pattern includes that for which a thing is intended or which corresponds to a thing; for example, the carabao is for plowing, the dog for hunting; ing ya, ing aso IPANGASO ya, sin is that for which one kneels, the body is fo r punishing or for being punished; ing casalanan ISICLAUD, ing catauan ISUT quingpangosap, etc. Point or moment to do something. For example, the moment he arrives, he lies down CARATANG na IQUERA na; the instant my father turns away or as soon as my father turns away, or is out of sight, I prostrate myself. PANGAGULUT, PANGAPANPANA nibpa co ISUBSUB co; to arrive and to continue were the same, or at the moment he arrived, he continued, CARAS NA BELAUS na carin. This time or way of speaking is also true of the verbals; for example, PANGARATANG na iyan PANGAQUERA co; PANGAPANPANA iyan PANGASUBSUB co; PAMANGAMANO mo iyan PANGATUDTUD co.

Section 3 The Second Passive of AN

The principal concept of this second passive is the exact opposite of the principal concept of the first: that of the former is Scotist; that of the latter is Thomistic [The reference is to John Duns Scotus (1265-1308) and St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). Thomas fused reason and faith— philosophy and theology. Scotus later drove a wedge between reason and faith-between philosophy and theology.]; because while the former serves for all that the doer releases, the latter for all that it grabs, as is shown by the [first mle].

57 FIRST RULE

When put in the nominative, that which is taken, is received, is asked, is removed, is bought, is sought (even if it be by hunting or by fishing), is called, is requested, is coaxed, is eaten, is drunk and finally everything which the doer draws to himself tries to or manages to acquire, if the attraction is the first concept of the sentence, as it is in these verbs,-all of them-fall under this passive an; and it is not necessary that it be so material an attraction that it can always be seized by the hand; it is enough that it be conceived as an attraction, and therefore, this rule extends to what is thought, considered, imagined, pondered, understood, and including anything that is looked at, except acquit which falls under the first passive and is irregular.

Examples

Let us begin with sañgap, which means to draw to oneself by breathing; for example, draw that mosquito with your breath, SANGAPANme itangyamoc; cunlutan, etc.; attract or pull that to yourself, CUNLUTAN or GUNLUTANmo queca ita, draw or pull that door to yourself, CABIRANme iyangpasbul. Following this are to get or to receive: for example, CUAN co, or ADUANGAN co, or TANGGAPN co ining babie mo, etc. Try to attract sleep, ALAPAN mi ing mipalilu ca. Following this are sali,to buy; manintun , to seek; aro, to coax; mangan to eat; inum, to drink; isip,to think; lauay, to look at, because all this is to attract, etc. The last in my list is yaus,which means to call and therefore falls under this second passive; for example, call Pedro, yausan me y Pedro; but if you hear YUMA US ca quing, G. n. t. Dios, do not be deceived into thinking that it means to call him like calling Pedro; it means to cry out to God. That which the person cries out for or beseeches by crying out, first passive, iyaus, etc. and to whom one cries out that way, third passive; for example, I cried out to God about that suffering, or while undergoing that suffering, INAUS co quing Dios itang casaquitan, ing Dios iyan PIYA USAN co quetang casaquitan, not inausan, etc.

Second Rule

When put in the nominative, any thing which is received or which is changed due to the action o f the verb, falls under this passive. From this rule, it follows that whatever is done or undone, is composed or destroyed, is improved or is mined, is cut, wounded, whipped, beaten, hurt, broken, erased, extinguished, burned, killed, annihilated, etc. should be put in this passive, because it always indicates a situation where something is received or an intrinsic change of a thing, at least broadly speaking.

58 Let us begin with fació [make]; for example, God made heaven and earth GUEGUA na ning Dios ing banua’t labuad; make the house where you have to live, GAGUAN mengbale a pacasautan mo, etc. Also, dapat: exert effort; for example, to acquire holiness, pagcasipagan mong DAPTAN ing cabanalan; do repent of your sins promptly, danunan mong DAPTAN ing pamanisi mong casalanan, etc. To translate what we say, for example, make breeches out of this cloth, etc., this language does it by making a verb of the thing which a person is asked to make and putting in the nominative the raw material out of which; for example, make breeches out of this cloth, SALUALAN me ining pano; make tapis out of this piece of cloth, TAPISAN me ining cabulus; make wine out of these flowers, ALACAN mo deang sampaga; make a bonnet out of this linen, BONITIAN mo ining lienzo; and what the other says to the onion, PERDISAN da ca, I will make you a partridge. [?]. [The original Spanish is Hago te perdiz. Perdiz, from the Latin Perdix, refers to the bird Also, SALAPIANco or PAL AYAN co caya itang utang co queca, I will make palay or money what I owe you, meaning , I will pay you in palay or in cash, etc. Take note that if the thing about which you are talking has already been made, then this passive refers to the use o f it; for example, BONITIAN me ining boniti co; CULUMBUANme ining culumbu co, use my bonnet, or my mosquito net. At other times, it is only from the context that some of these sentences can be understood; PALACOLAN me ining atac, can mean make an axe out of this iron, or axe this iron; the context will show it. This is a given: to find out whether the thing is already made or not, see the context; for example, SUNDANGAN me ining sundang, etc. When you are not sure about these sentences, get it from the beggar’s paten; for example, GAUANmen palacol ining atac; GAUAN men boniti ining lienzo, etc., make a house out of this wood or stone, etc. See the third passive.

Section 4 The Third Passive of ANAN AN, ANAN or ANANAN Compared

It seems that it would be enough to say that the rule for this passive is only the observation that whatever is not covered by the first and second, should be constructed according to it, but for greater clarity, and in order to follow the ordinary procedure, I will give the rule.

The Only Rule

When put in the nominative, any thing which is, in the strict or broad sense, a place, an end or an object of the action, falls under this passive.

59 Examples

PLACE PROPERLY SO CALLED, for example, from what town do you come? insang balayan ing IB ATAN mo? By which road did you pass? Insang dalan a DELANANmo?; ing cabunducan LECARANco; up to which town will you go? Insang balayan ing PAINTURUAN mo? sow palay in that land, SALBAGANANmonpalay itang labuad; plant rice in my garden TAMNANmong palay itang mula co, etc. PLACE IN THE BROAD SENSE, for example, ARALAN mo deang anac, these children are the quasi-place where your teaching will go or end; ican PENACAUANAN con salapi, you are the quasi-place where I stole the money; TABASANAN men baru ining bilusan, cut a dress out of this piece, or let this piece be quasi-place from where, you will cut a dress; LIMUSAN mo deang salanta, let these poor people be the quasi-place of your alms; LAPITAN me y Pedro, let Pedro be the place, in the broad sense, or the end where you will arrive, etc. OBJECT OR END-POINT, for example, SASAMBAN co ding santos, the saints are the object or end-point of my adoration; PALSINTAN co ing sampat banua, the beauty of heaven is the object of my love; INUSIAN cong utang co,the objective or motive of my having gone with him, for example, was my debt, meaning, the hope of having it written off; TATANGISAN que ibpa co, my father is the object or end point or end of my crying. But even though these sentences expressing an object fall under this passive, they belong more properly to the compound verbs, as you will see. This is the Kapampangan way of what we would put in the second passive; for example, make a house of stone or wood, DUTUNGAN or BATUAN meng bale mo, and the same about a courtyard of bricks, LARIUAN mo ing patio; about a street of sand, or make it a street made of sand, BALASANmong minangon, lansangan, dalan, etc; place capis on the window, CAPISAN mo ingauang; as when they say, give me light or give me shade, SULUGUIAN mo co; place a candle before the Lord, CANDILAN me ing Guiño, or ing altar; trace the cross on your forehead, CRUSANmong canuan mo, etc. They also say: e mo PANASAN iyang mayumo, meaning, do not let ants reach this sweet; there is no more Spanish example to give, etc. You will say: when I give Pedro a spear wound by thrusting the spear into him, Pedro is the place or quasi-place where the spear will stop; if Pedro is in the nominative, I will have to say TANDUSAN que y Pedro, which is the second passive, and not tandusan [sic], nor tandusanan, third; and so it is wrong to say that, when the place is in the nominative, it should be put in the third passive. This is an irksome argument which touches all the passives, and since its solution presupposes a knowledge of what the formal concept of each one is, and since there are various considerations, I will explain these various points. If anyone considers them worthless, he does not have to read them.

60 In the rule which I gave you for the second passive, I told you what I am again telling you now, namely, that whenever the doer (by force of the verb’s way of signifying) intends merely to change the subject, which is in the nominative, as happens in the example of the reply given above, the second passive should be used, because this is its formal concept or formal object; it shows that we can say in Spanish the place where he will stop, a sentence in the second passive, which looks at the nominative as the receiver, because its action is like practical, while that of the third is speculative, because it looks at its nominative merely as an end point. And so that you will understand me, change the verb tandusan to luguran: LUGURAN quey andPedro, you will find out that because the doer ( by force of the meaning of the verb luguran ) looks at Pedro merely as an end point of his goodwill and Pedro is nominative of the third passive; whether Pedro is changed or not, the verb, luguran does not say. More clearly: change the verb luguran to : ITU LA quey Pedro, and you will have the same Pedro of the first passive, because the doer, by force of the meaning of the verb itulac intends to move him; whether Pedro is changed or is a place where the push ends is not indicated by the verb itulac, with respect to which the change and the place is a secondary consideration. On the other hand, if you should say from which place I have to push him or throw him, then the place is the primary consideration (se habet de formally, and the action of throwing out is a secondary consideration (de materiali); and so I have to speak in the third passive and not in the first, insang PITULA CAN CO? I already understand this, because the very way by which the verb gives the meaning helps me know which passive corresponds to the nominative [which passive corresponds to the doer], but when one and the same verb admits all the three passives, including the final an of the second and third, as happens for example with lub, first, and lub, luban, second; luban, third; and where there is the same way of signifying, how can we understand each other? Your question is well taken, but let us go slowly, change to low gear. Remember that with one and the same meaning is not the same as with one and the same way o f expressing the meaning. Look at it and think of it well. It is true that the verb Hub of the first, luban of the second, luban of the third always have one and the same meaning, namely, to enter; and the verb of the first, lapitan of the second, lapitan of the third, also have always one and the same meaning, namely, to arrive; but every passive has its own way of expressing the meaning. Now here is my answer to the question: To know how you can make yourself understood, you must look at the rules placed for each passive, and this is the truth. In the first, you will find that, to express what comes out of the doer, we use the passive z; that way, you will know that Hub, ilapit, do not only mean to enter, to go nearer, but also that its way of giving the meaning is moving in recto [straight] or outward. In the second, you will see another rule, which says that all that the doer draws to himself must be put in the second passive, and so luban and lapitan , second

61 passive, do not only mean to enter and to arrive; but also its own particular way; to enter to get something. As explained a while ago, all that is considered place or end point, belongs here; and so in this concept luban, we mean to enter in a certain place, or to look at the subject as the end point of one’s entry; lapitan is the place or like a place where one arrives or the terminus where one ends his action of arriving. If you hear people speak, there is no other rule to distinguish the second from the third, than those that come before and those that come after; because one will necessarily make a mistake if one simply hears without giving attention to the context, and also if one speaks without attention to the general rules; because, even if it is certain, that if the nominative is a place properly so called, it can end in an without making a mistake, because with it, they do not admit the second passive; but it is wrong to believe that with the nominative of place in the broad sense, they do not admit the third an and also the second; and so it is inevitable to make a mistake. PULAYIAN me ingpisamban is third passive only, but PULAYIAN me y Pedro is third and second. The same with these, SUBLIAN or ULIAN me ing asaua mo, for example, in all of which, if you hear them, there is no way to understand them other than the context, because they are ambiguous; to make them, it is necessarily to go back to the general rules; and so for example if I talk to Pedro, who divorced his wife, and I like to tell him to go back to her, I will say, ULIAN me ing asaua mo, which is the third passive, because it looks at her as the end point ad quern [to whom]; but if he has come only to confess, for example, and I want to tell him that he should go back to his wife so that they would come together, I will also say ULIAN me ing asaua mo, second passive, because it is like attracting. The same is true with similar cases. I have no doubt about this.

DIFFERENCE

BETWEEN THE AN OF THE SECOND PASSIVE AND THE AN,ANAN and ANANAN OF THIS

This is as much important as irksome a point to those who are satisfied with careless speech, and so they usually despise these reflections as useless, although in reality, they are very necessary. And if not, tell me: How will you understand an indio when you hear him speak of a place properly or improperly so called using the second passive, if these belong to the third? For example, when they say SARULANmo itang labuad, plow that land, which is a place properly so called; throw stone at Pedro, BASIBASAN me y Pedro which is a place in the broad sense? And if you believe that you understand him, tell me what will you think when you hear those sentences in the third passive, e. g. SARULAN AN mo itang labuad; BASIBASANAN me y Pedro, etc.

62 You will answer, and you will answer correctly, that the first two sentences belong to the second passive, because, even though the nominative of the person who receives the action in them is a place, it is not a place as an end-point, but a place as the receiver; when we say that a place or a quasi-place is constructed in the third passive, we imply that the doer, by force of the meaning of the verb, looks at it as a place where the action ends or stops; not when he sees it as a principal recipient of it, as was already explained. About the two other sentences, you will say that you already know them to be among those active verbs which express the definite whole and indefinite part, of which way of speaking you will find many examples in the fourth rule on the use of the active and the passive. Having said that, let us now see the use of the an of the third passive.

This should be used when in the sentence there is nothing except a doer and a receiver; for example, teach me, aralAN mo co, sow on the land, salbagAN mo iyang labuad; go up and be with the sick person, panicANmeng salonan; throw me, baldugAN mu co; open it for me, busngiAN mo co etc.

ANAN

This should be used when the sentence adds a thing to the doer and the receiver; for example, go up bring money to the sick, panicAN AN meng salapi ing salonan; sow palay in this land, salbagANAN mon palay iyang labuad; open a capis for me, busngiAN AN mo con capis; open for me a vein or another part of the body, meaning bleed me, abarANAN mo co or abarANAN mo con oyat; and so this anan is always connected to something or to a place or the remaining ones, etc. You might say: everyday I hear them say salbagAN or salbagANAN con palay ining labuad; baldugAN or baldugANAN mo con tabaco, etc.; and so, even though a thing is added to the doer and the receiver of the action, they say it with an and anan interchangeably; therefore, concerning the use of an and anan, there is no difference between them when something is added to the doer and the receiver. I agree that they also say it that way, although less properly; but not even this is a general rule, because it is proper only with active verbs whose concepts outside of relations include a thing or an instrument; but not among verbs whose third passives only express the place, like the neuters, with which, when a thing is added, we cannot use the third passive an; for example, panican,luban, which expresses only the place or quasi-place to which one goes up or enters, and the place through which one enters or goes up. And if you should say panicAN mo con salapi, for example, the indio would understand it as, come up to me through the stair of money; lubANmo con sundang, enter into me through a knife; and so one has to say

63 con salapi; lubANAN mo con sundang. They are also different in that the an refers to the place or end-point, etc.; while anan refers not only to the place or the end-point, but also to the thing one is talking about; and when the verbs do not admit the third of an, as in the case of all those under the fourth rule on the use of the actives and the passives, anan always means an indefinite thing and the place from where it is removed or taken; for example, sarolANANmo itang labuad refers to the unspecified portion which has to be plowed and the rest of the land; basibasANAN quen lu yus Pedro, where anan means that there is another place aside from that where I took the luyp or luyos which I threw to him. None of these uses is admissible in the passive of an. From this, it follows that there is a great difference between them.

ANANAN

This one is different from anan, first in that it never refers to a definite thing', and so in the sentence salbagANAN mon palay iayng labuad, you cannot say salbagANAN AN, because in that case, the sentence will not mean sow palay in that land, but sow palay in a part o f that land. And the same with the rest. What remains now is to give the difference between this anan which does not specify and the ananan which can never be used to specify; and this most certainly consists in that ananan says less than anan, for example, inumANAN mo iyang alac, batbatANAN mo deang anac [Bergaño presumably meant this second sentence to be part of the next example] only means drink from that wine, without saying whether little or much, as long as it is not the whole; and also in this, whip somefrom among these boys [this is where that example belongs]; and when it ends in ananan , for example, inum bdXbdXANANAN, it is never the intention of the one speaking that you drink much or you whip many, but some part, someone or some, etc. But since it is very general among the verbs to admit this anan and ananan, and hard to know which aspect they refer to in their various ways of giving the meaning, I will give you two examples, in order that, from them, you will draw out the rest. First: uquiat and I am referring to the definite anam, for example, uquiatANAN men lario itang babao; I say definite because it expressed; that it has to be bricks; and let us move to the two concepts which this verb can say using this pattern; for example, uquiatANAN mo deang luyos means climb up bringing some from these luyos; that is, bring up part o f them, not all: uquiatANANAN mo deang diminishes, means bring up some or a few o f these luyos. If the one who speaks is upstairs, he will say uquiatANAN mo con lario, that is, bring up to me some bricks, not all, or uquiatANANAN mo con lario, meaning bring up to me some brick or a few ones. Another: if there is a brave gamecock, for example, they say sabungANAN or sabungANANANya, meaning, let us have it fight ours; in the first, not with all, in the second with some or more or less from those

64 of ours. If I say sabungANAN ta la ,I mean let us fight some from among their gamecocks; sabungANANAN ta la, with one or the other. From these, construct other examples.

LAST SECTION

Section 5 All-encompassing Notes on Which Passive Admits Which Kind of Verbs

FIRST

Verbs which express movement, like lacao, ugasay, salbag etc. admit the first passive referring to the thing, the third referring to the place or to the remaining parts; for example, first passive, ILA CO me IYANG PL UMA can Pedro; third, LA CA UANAN mo DING PL UMA nan Pedro; ISALBA G mo ITANG PALAY, first; SALBAGANAN mon pale ING PATIO, third. And the same with the rest.

SECOND

The verbs which express working with an instalment, for example, to cut, to wound, to hunt, etc., admit the first passive referring to the instrument', for example, IBARIL me ITANG PISTOLA; the second referring to a change', for example, BARILAN mo YA. Verbs which express getting, taking or removing one thing from another admit the first passive referring to in behalf of whom or the motive', for example, ICUA mo CON tabaco; second passive, the thing; for example, CUAN mo ITANG TABACO; third, what remains or what remain', for example, CUANANAN mo ITANG TABACO, take some from those cigars, and also the place.

THIRD

Verbs that express counting or measuring also admit the three. First, what is counted or measured in order to hand over; for example, IBILANG or ITACAL mo ITANG ADUANG CABAN can Pedro; third, the end point or what remains; for example, BILANGANANor TAC ALAN AN me y Pedro a palay; BILANGANANAN or TACALANANAN aduang caban a pale; that is, out of the heap.

FOURTH

Verbs expressing intransitive movement, for example, uquiat, lub, panic, also admit all the three. First what is moved or in behalf of whom; for example,

65 ILUB me itang pesos CAN ACO; second, referring to the attraction; for example, LUBAN meng silid na, enter his room; and also LUBANAN or LUBANANAN mo detang pesos na; the definite whole and the indefinite part. Above all, there is no better guide to know which verbs admit which passives than to see the way they signify, and to see the rules given for the passives. The most general rule which can be given is for the third passive, because it is admitted by all the verbs of all kinds. While we explain what still needs to be understood, entertain yourself by finding out which third passive covers these words: pitacutan, pitacasan, tulacan, pitulacan, pitulacanan; pitacalan, pitacalanan; pilarinan, cabaldugan, pibalduganan; pibangisan, caluguran, because each one has each own mode of signifying. Look them up for your own good; you know that to avoid saying things the wrong way, you have to do your homework.

66 CHAPTER 5 THE PROTOCOMPOUNDS

After we treated the simple verb in the previous chapter, we will now treat the compound verb, starting from the first composition which it admits, to be referred to as protocompound, the way Saint Stephen is called protomartyr because he was the first martyr; and since in this language we cannot apply that rule compositum simplexque modo vairantur eodem [the compound and the simple vary the same way], the first section will be

SECTION 1 The Variation of the Protocompounds

Our Coronel says that there is one particle to express multiplicity, namely, man in the active, pan in the passive. This particle, attached to the root, is most properly the proto, as is clear from its way of signifying, about which I will talk afterwards. That way, one can understand better the soul of this composition, whose pattern is followed by the Tagalog, Ilocano and Pangasinan grammars. To form it among roots that begin with a vowel, l,n,ng, all you have to do is to attach it to them, for example, aral, MANaral; lucas, MANlucas; ñamas, MANamas; ngangas, MANgangas; no problem about not saying MANnamas, MANngangas; one n will do for the particle and the verb, as in caluguraNA, where one n will do for the verb and the pronoun; and the rule in this language is that when two letters, different only in number, meet, one of them is dropped; and, parenthetically, among verbs which begin with n, ng, there are very few protocompounds, because they might be mistaken for the neutral verbs of ma. Among those of b, p, m, change b and p to m, and drop the n of the particle man , like batbat, proto MAMatbat; pMAMa co; some among the m admit the whole particle man; for example, molmol, MANmolmol; malmal, MANmalmal, which confirm what was said. Among the verbs which begin with g, c, q, the n of man is joined to these first letters and the pronunciation becomes nasal; for example, gaga, MANGaga; calus, MANGalus; quilabut, MANGilabut, or say that c, q, are changed to g. Among those which begin withy as consonant, the n is also joined to them and it results in ñy, as in yaus,MAÑYaus, etc. Among those of d and s, the n is also joined to them; d and 5 are changed toy; for example, doloc, MAÑYOloc, sulat, MAÑYulat. But these ones of d and 5 have some exceptions, because there are those of d which admit the particle without change; for example, dali, MANdali; dilo, MANdilo; dayo, MANdayo, etc., and there many which drop the first letter, which is then replaced by n; for example, dalao, MANalao; dugarug, MANUgarug, etc.

67 For all the rest which drop the first letter, both those of d and those of take this rule, which is very general: whenever the root has another d or s, aside from the first letter, the first is dropped and is replaced by N; for example, daldac, MANaldac; dalumdum,MANalumdum; dara, MANara (except dacurac, which becomes MAÑYacurac). The same is true with those of s, like sadsad, MANadsad; sacsi, MANacsi, etc. All of those beginning with t drop t and its place is taken by n; for example, tulac MANulac. The conjugation of the protocompound is easy, because there is only one for all the letters, and because the future is the same word as the present, although the pronunciation is different; because in the case of the present, the stress is on the a of the particle; in the case of the future, the stress is on second to the last syllable of the verb; for example, aral, present AÍANaral;[Bergaño does not give the future manAral.]. In the simple past, the a of the particle is always changed to e or because it then sounds better, for example, MENaral, MIN aral. The verbal action of these is constructed like that of all the rest; that is, by placing the particle pa before; for example, from manaral, to preach, PAmanaral, the act; bear in mind that these same verbals, without any distinction, are also applicable to the simple verbs, which is the only defect I find in this language; although this is no cause for great surprise, because we see in our own and even in Latin, that with only one word, for example, lección [reading], we express, the verbal active and the verbal passive. These same verbals are also used to express, first, the manner; for example, itang PAMANLACAD mo ing atuan co, that manner of walking of yours is what I call attention to. Another: your manner o f walking is like the manner of walking which Pedro has, ing PAMANLACAD mo PAMANLACAD nan Pedro, etc. Notice that, instead of pamanlacad, you will hear, panlacad, without the m, and with pan pronounced long, like also, pamanlacao or panlacao, pamañyatang orpanyatang and others. And take note along the way that when the verbals are intransitive or neuter, since they can express not only the receiver of the action but also the doer, they are constructed with pa or panga; for ex ample, PAmiñgay or PANGAcay; PAmanlacao or PANGAlacao, the departure; agli, its verbal, PANGagli or PAmangagli, both active; and so to refer to the Conception of Our Lady, for example, you will say ing PAMAÑGAGLI or PAÑGAGLI CANNuan a Virgen, and you will not say, ning nuan a Virgen. Secondly, they use these verbals to express the moment or time of the ac tion, for example, the moment or time of his entry, he fell, PAMANLUB na iyang pangaragsa na. You will find some examples of these in the first passive of time and in the explanation of the particle panga , which is its sister in these two functions. The passive verbals of the protocompounds are also made like the rest; namely, by placing the particle panga before, and here it is not mistaken for the simple, where that particle is attached to the root; nor is it mistaken for the rest of

68 the compounds because, even if it is also placed before them, they differ in the composition. But those which admit passive verbals are few, and even among these, it is hard to know the genitive of the receiver of the action, because in some it refers to the thing; for example, ing pañgapanaral NING EVANGELIO, the preaching of the gospel; ing pañgapanagcas NING AMANU; ing pañgapanunggue NING PANGADYI. Among these which belong to this group, if you are not sure, say them with panga and the root; for example, ing PAÑGASABI ning balita, the reporting of the news. In others, it refers to the instrument; for example, pañgapañyulat NING PLUMA, ing pañgapanurud NING LAB ASAS; ing pañgapañgunting NING GUNTING. In case of doubt as to whether it admits it, look also at the simple; for example, ing PAÑGABARIL ding ayup. In others, it refers directly to the person or thing that receives the action of the verb; for example, ing pañgapanansaquit co or ing pamanasaquit co; ing pañgapanilut MO the strong message which they gave you. The extension here is less certain than in panga and the root. Others will be mentioned in their places.

Examples of the Conjugation of the Protocompounds

R oot aral Hut orod lucas molmol M ean in g to teach to massage to shave to untie to rinse P resen t m anaral m anilut m anorod m aniacas manmolmol & Future Preterite m enaral m enilut m enorod m inlucas m inmolmol

R oot uañgis batbat p a sia g cutang gaga M ean in g to conform to w hip to manifest to ask to quarrel P resen t m anuañgis m am atbat mamasiag m añgutang m añgaga & Future Preterite m inuañgis mematbat m emasiag m eñgutang meñgaga

R oot quilis ñamas dalpac damdam samba M eaning to sw ay to endow to tram ple to feel to adore P resen t m añgilis manamas m añyalpac manamdam mañyamba and Future Preterite m eñgilis menamas m iñyalpac menamdam miñyamba

R oot sesay tugtug ngatñgat yaus M eaning to take care to w ater to gnaw to call P resen t manes ay m anugtug manñgatngat m añyaus and Future Preterite mene say m enugtug minñgatngat miñyaus

69 And you should not think that people violate the rule of this conjugation if you hear them say, for example, mamanaral, mamanolo, etc., because this is not the present. Seethe ffequentatives. The passives are equally easy, because for all the tenses, all you have to do is to change m to p. Passive: present, IPANaral; future, IPANaral; preterite, PENaral. Second passive: present, PAMatbatAN; future, PAMatbatAN\ preterite, PEMatbat. Third: present, PAMasiagANAN; future, PAMasiagANAN; preterite, PEMasiagANAN. Notice that there are verbs which, even though they follow this manner of conjugating, are not protocompound, even if they seem to be; and belonging to this kind are; mañgulugui, manalañgin, manimalang and mañyumpa. A proof of this is, for example, PINYUMPAN cuya carries the meaning of a simple verb, because it is correct to say that I cursed him, even though I did so only once; and if it were a protocompound, it would always mean to curse many times; and if one wants to give that meaning, he will construct it like the protocompound verbs which begin with m , which is a clear proof that the said particle is what makes it protocompound; and so, to say I curse him many times, they will not say PAÑYUMPAN,but PAMAÑYUMPAN cu ya. Now that we have discussed how the protocompound differs from that of the simple, I like you get interested in their manner of expressing such meaning, because if you succeed in grasping it well, you will clearly see that the many rules which this chapter elaborates are not new, but are corollaries flowing from the principle just discussed.

Section 2 The Meaning of the Protocompounds

There is no doubt that the meaning expressed by a proto extends wider than that of a simple verb, because, to the meaning which it has in itself, we add the particle man , which multiplies it; and, undoubtedly, the number becomes bigger if it is multiplied than if it remains a simple number. That having been said, I say, that the difference between a simple verb and a proto consists in that the simple verb expresses only one act; the proto expresses acts the number o f which can in no way be ascertained, but only indicates a plurality o f the act expressed by the simple verb. What make the rules clearer are the

Examples

I tell somebody to write and I do so using the simple verb: sumulat ca. He sits down, and after writing only once, even if it is only one word, he will correctly say: sinulat naco, I already wrote; because the simple verb means only to write and does not mean to write many times; but if I say ca, using the proto, and

70 if, having written only one word or only once, he stands up and tells me: MIÑULAT na co, he tells a lie, because neither the act of writing one word, nor of writing only once is expressed by the proto. In the passive, it is the same. For example, I talk to you, employing simple verbs; I tell you batbatan mo iya, tampaliñgan mo ya, palucan mo ya; if he scourged the other person once only, slapped him once, beat him once, he will correctly answer: bitbat co ya, timpaling cu ya, peluca co ya, because these sentences with simple verbs do not require the act of whipping, slapping, beating to be many; and if I want to tell him to do many such acts, I must use the protocompound, pamatbatan ,panampaliñgan, pamalucan. The same is true with all the tenses and all the passives. And so, when the act meant by the verb has to be multiplied by doing distinct individual acts, you have to use the proto, not only when they are done to one thing, like one blow and another blow on the same receiver, but also to different things, for example, close those doors. The right sentence is PAÑGABATmo detangpasbol, because we multiply the act meant by the simple verb, for which it is enough to close one door. Always look at the meaning of the simple verb and even if it signifies many, the proto comes in to signify more, for example, ilut, to massage; it is not enough to put your hand on and withdraw it for the simple verb, because to massage means more. If I give the cloth, for example, to be used for an ordinary massage, I will say IYLUT me ining paño; but if I say ipanilut, it has to be either more than an ordinary massage, or a massage done many times and this is why they call a midwife manilut. Because of this, we usually say that protocompounds are more appropri ately translated with our words that end in or, as in mamuno, apuñeteador [boxer]; manaral,enseñador [teacher]; manilut, sobador [masseur]; mamipi, labador [laundry person]; mañgaso, cazador [hunter], etc. This is certain, but if you make this a general rule, because these look well, you will find yourself entangled many times, because there are many protocompounds which do not mean any of our words ending in or. The function of the simple verb and of the proto consists in this that, if the verb, according to what it signifies, can have one or another action and also many, that one should be done by that, this one by this. I told you at the beginning that if you understand this point well, it will save you many mies, which, if well-considered, are nothing but the consequences of this antecedent. One rule is that, when the root expresses an instrument, the proto expresses the use o f it. Another, that if the root expresses a function, the proto expreses the exercise. I ask: these instruments and these functions, do they become simple verbs? There is no doubt, because sarul has sarıdan,bilango bilangoan, panday pandayan. And these simple verbs, do they not express the use of the instrument and the exercise of the function? Who can deny it? So, does the simple verb express the same thing as

71 what the proto expresses? The same thing, but in different ways, because the simple refers to the use of it one time or another, the exercise of it one time or another; but the proto refers to the use many times and the exercise many times; and what else do sumulat and mañyulat indicate? And so, that general rule is enough. I say the same thing about the rule concerning the roots, which signify , for example, big small,, narrow, wide, etc., because their protocompounds express things according to the general rule. It was said that if the root, according to what it signifies, can express action (because it is clear that there are many terms which do not signify action, but thing) and those ones either will not admit the proto or, if they admit it, remember that as general rule it will always continue to signify a multiplicity of what is implied in the root to which it is connected; and in that case, it signifies the immediate use which that thing more commonly has for people, or that which expresses a multiplicity of the thing. The examples will make this clear. What is the most immediate and most general use of the banca? To ride in it. Well then, this signifies its proto, mamangca. Balay, house, protocompound mamalay, he who governs or takes care of, as the landlord or steward; iyan PAMALERA ding Balayan, town; mamalayan, the inhabitants, or those who govern it, like the heads. From this rule follows what is usually said, namely, that when talking of things which are sought for human life, the proto is to seek them. So it signifies the more general use of those things; and from this follows that you must not always translate it into Spanish to seek, but into what is appropriate to every root, which many times is rendered into a Spanish that is worse than Vizacayan. Mañgaso does not mean to look for dogs, but to hunt with them, which is the most general use. Along this line, you will philosophize in relation to the rest; for example, bulaon, molave, mamulaon, to go cut them and carry them; compay, hay, mañgumpay, look for it; talaba, large oysters, manalaba, to go fishing for them; biabas, guavas, mamayabas, to gather them; tuba, manuba; liab, manliab, to extract these liquors. This is the reason why I told you that it is not to but the most common use, manner, or exercise relating to that thing; and so among the roots which mean food, the protocompound is to make it; those which mean fish, to go fishing for it; among fruits, to gather them; firewood, go get some, etc. I said or that which primarily expresses multiplicity relating to the thing, for example, tulud, shoot, manulud, for the shoots to sprout; and the same for all those belonging to this kind: butul, bone, mamutul, to separate the meat from the bone or leave behind the taguiang, rib, managuiang, to remove the meat of the ribs, or for the ribs to be lean, etc. There are others whose meaning is hard to determine exactly, even if they follow the rule given, for example, dalumdum, manalumdum, to look for, like a fruit in a leafy tree, and also to inquire; locloc, to sit, manalocloc, for a hen to sit in different places, sometimes here, sometimes there, as when it wants to rest; not to lay on the

72 eggs, because this is lolocloc. It also means to be expecting, like a hunter or somebody who everybody says never feels at home anywhere. In relation to illnesses, like pio, gout; gatal, itch, gutli, scabies, the protocompound signifies to have any of them; mamio, mañgatal. It is very necessary to understand well the first and most general use of a thing, in order to understand how and when to use the protocompound, not only among those which we have just explained, but also in order not to get surprised, as strange, at what is very much in agreement with the rules. For example, they ask why, in pugay, which means to remove the hat, if you remove the hat from another’s head, you have to use the simple, but if you remove it from your own head, you have to use the protocompound. The same goes with putung, to crown, and cucu, to cut the fingernails, etc. Let me ask you this. What does the general rule say? The simple composition indicates doing once or twice what the root says, while the protocompound indicates doing it many times. Now let us see what a man does in connection with removing the hat. Does he not usually remove the hat from his head out of the courtesy, unless he is rude? Of course! What about removing somebody else’s hat, is it not true that we seldom do that? Oh yes! When we slap somebody hard, if ever, or when we take part in some games. And so, if the act of removing one’s own hat is done many times, why should one get surprised if we use the protocompound in relation to one’s own self, and the simple composition in relation to somebody else, because this rarely happens? The same goes with putung, which means to tie a handkerchief around one’s head or to cover one’s forehead with it; the same also goes with cucu. However, in spite of this, if there comes a need to express doing many times what the root says, there should be no objection to using the transitive protocompound; for example, remove the nails of these horses. PANGUCUAN mo deang cabayos, etc. Bear this point in mind because it is true with many roots. With verbs expressing in transitive , m the protocompound indicates plurality of subjects; for example MENACAS la ding , etc. The same goes with lacad, uli, albay, dating, lacao and all their brothers.

Section 3 The Various Compounds

Some of the roots which begin with vowels admit manga to form the protocompound; like ablad, to fear; mangablad, to get scared; aco, mangaco; acua, mangacua; and since it has an irregular form, mangua, to gather a lot; manicua, also to collect many things, but with an instrument; which is panicua; ulila, orphan; mangulila, solitary; passive verbalpangapangulila; and they admit it sometimes, although it otherwise has an ordinary protocompound; like amanu which has mangamanu, to squabble; tiling, coal manuling, to blacken; manguling, to draw a portrait with charcoal; alipan, manalipan, and mangalipan; uuad, spronthas manuad,

73 to sprout or to imitate; but manginuad, to gather or harvest the new growth; pangapanginuad, what is harvested. Anyaya, to harm; manganyaya, to cause great harm; pangapanganiaya co, the great harm that I suffered, passive, Others admit and they usually become like future active; for example, uyut to flatter; manamuyut; uili, manauili or managauli, to attract; ula, decoration; managaula, to decorate lavishly, like a ship with pennants or with well-decorated statues, etc. It is also attached to those with m, like mulin, manamulin to steer the ship; the mang is admitted by some of those beginning with n, like nabo, mangnabo, and /, like luai, mangluali; lualo, manglualo. Others form the mani protocompound and they come close to the simple future; for example, palad, fortune manimalad, to look for it or to fortell it by palmistry; putla, ; manimutla, to become such as when one is scared; puyasao, the same with puti, mamuti, to become very white; but manimuti, to become white or pale, as when one suddenly gets angry; calma, good fortune, maningalma, to become lucky ( audaces fortuna juvai) [luck favors the resourceful]. It also has mangalma, which is regular, to look for it, muna and manimuna is to be absolutely the first to go.

Mañyali

Some use this particle, which usually expresses anxiety or force associated with the action of the root to which it is attached; for example, mañyalimana, to anxiously desire to have a share in the inheritance, either because one has a right to it or out of avarice. Mañyaliguinto, pilac, mutya, bandi, etc., one is anxious to acquire these things, either by legal means, like by purchasing it, or by some other way, etc.; mañyalimura, to insult vehemently; to desire strongly, like that which is hard and one wants to so away with the pain, he keeps invoking this male saint and that female saint; mañyalipagal, to think about the work very seriously. Its passives follow the general rules. First passive, that which one is given for gold, for example; or the motive. For the gold, or the motive. Third, whom or the object; for example, PAÑYALIGUINTOANA ngan ing sabia, he wants to turn everything to gold, he wants everything in gold; PAÑYALIPAGALANA ngan ing sabia, he considers everything as tiresome; PAÑYALIPAGALAN da co, they make me do a lot of work without compensation, etc. This and mura admit verbal passives, for example,pangapañyali, mura, the person insulted is made to work a lot, etc,

74 Section 4 The Frequentatives and Their Mode of Signifying

The protocompounds become frequentatives in various ways. The first is by adding MA at the beginning; for example, from manolo, mamanolo; from mangutang, MAmangutang; from mamabat MAmamabat. The middle is short. Those of b, p and m have three ma. The second mode is done by doubling what remains of the protocompound a parte post [the one that comes after], and if there are two syllables, both are doubled, for example, from mañgutang, mañgutang-ñgutang, from manolo, manolo-nolo; from mamono, mamono-mono, etc. If there are three, the first is doubled; for example, from manalastas, mananalastas, mananampalasan, mananaguri, etc. Those of b, p, m are somewhat irregular in this second mood, because not only those with three syllables, but also some of those with two, sometimes change, sometimes repeat, for example, from mamalacol, mamalamalacol; mamayamayabas, mamalimalita, mamulpucmulpuc. I will not tarry in such a ridiculous thing. It is not possible to spell out clearly the meaning of these two modes of the frequentative. I will tell you something, and be alert. Well, I say that one or the other ordinarily indicates more plurality o f the acts than does the ordinary proto, but those acts are more imperfect and insignificant. I also say that the second mode indicates an even greater insignificance and imperfection than does the first, although in some, it is hard to distinguish them. I say lastly that in those which signify function, they express occupation and they usually double the first, even if they have two syllables; afterwards, they move farther to signify more; for example, manutang, to borrow more things or from many, prescinding from whether they trust him or not; mamanutang, to borrow money sometime here, sometimes there; some give him, others no; manutang-utang, to borrow here and there. I presume the regular proto and I will move ahead. Mamanolo, going around healing, here and there, as one who knows some thing; and perhaps it refers to a good physician; manolo-nolo, this one knows less, he does not cure many and does it with fear, and perhaps clandestinely; mamasa, to go on reading, at times here, at times there; mamasamasa, to read, now opening, now closing, like in order to see which is better or because he does not feel like reading. Mamanacao, to go on stealing; manacao-nacao, to steal, now a little here, now a little there; and when they take advantage of the split-second in their hand, they say, MANACAO-NACAO lang mamangca;mamanungi, to go on stringing now in this house, now in the other; manuñgi-nuñgi, those who earn upa for stringing to baccos when they gather them; and if you ask someone who is sewing, she will answer

75 MANUÑGI-NUÑGI co; mamañiñgil, to go on collecting, to collect payment of small debts; manamsa, manunugas, manunuba, to exercise these jobs. They are there for you. The last one is well-known. It is done by changing the second m top; like, from mamañyumpa, maPañyumpa, and if you are not pleased, insert pa in the proto, like, from manaral, maPAnaral; it is an adjective and exaggerative, a great doer of what the root expresses and this is the most commonly used frequentative.

76 CHAPTER 6 THE PARTICLE MAG

Section 1 Its Conjugation and Some Uses MAG: To Make Verbs

This particle is the favorite help in expressing what is at the tip of one’s tongue. Even the indio, when not knowing how to say in his own language what we say in ours, he uses it and says something like this: MAGentremete, MAGnegocio, MA Gpresenta, etc. Its conjugation is mag, present and future; mig, preterite; its verbal is with pa, pamag. For all the verbals of pa,if the verb expresses an immanent act, this pa always leaves, it in its way of expressing the meaning. For the passive, change m top; for example, pagdirila.Its ffequentatives will be discussed later. Its most general job is to accommodate itself with that which is convenient to every root or noun to which it is attached, as you will see. Remember that when we reach many of our words which have no equivalent in this language, it serves only to make the verbs; for example, MAGpenitencia, to do penance; MAGayunal, to fast; MAGmisa, to say mass; MAGchocolate, to make choco late; MAGlamesa, to set the table etc. The passives of these are, first, inbehalf of whom or the motive or the time; for example, ipagpenitencia or IPAGPENITENCIA ing casalanan co, or ing utus, or ing viernes etc; IPAGYUNAL mo CO, fast for my sake; etc. the third, for exampl e,pagpenitencian,pagyunalan means either that which is done as penance or that from which one fasts; for example, ingpamibabata or ingpamibatbat; in fasting, meat or wine. Among the rest, the third passive is the passive of the ; for exampl e,pagchocolatianorpipagchocolatian, the chocolate pot, etc. Given this backdrop, this particle is joined to the names of things which are used for human life, its proper meaning is to use them, for example, magsalual, wear breeches; magtapis, wear tapis; magcopia, wear a hat; and the same with sandata, tandus, sundang, singsing, tinga, baril, catana. And this composition is as general as the multitude of things which serve for our use; you can use it confidently with the following roots: banca, cabayo, sabung, asan, dayat, samat, tabaco, sutla, mutya, asin, atbo, and the like. We associate this composition with the Spanish concept of using because its passives, which are the third, have the same meaning as that which we said regarding the use of the second passive, namely, that they become passive when the thing which has already been made is put in the nominative; the thing made already was in the nominative; that is, they express the act of using and there we placed the example

77 BONETIANmo ining boniti co, because the sentence literally means the same as PAGBONETEANmo ining bonete co; PAGTABACOANmo ining tabaco co, use this hat of mine, use this cigar of mine. And the same is true with all the rest. From here you will conclude that this composition of mag is the active of the former and of the latter in expressing the concept of using; for example, MAGCABAYO ca queyang cabayo co; in the passive, CABAYOUor ining cabayo co; and even though we said there that they were in the second passive, I now feel more certain, due to what has just been said here, and because all have an in the past, that they are third. With the corresponding adjective, ma also means the use of a color; for example, magmaputi, magmaluto, magmatuling, use or wear white, black, red etc. Its first passive is, that which. This composition corresponds to what we say, to behave, to represent, etc., because in reality, it consists in using in general, for example, magbabayi, for a man to use a woman’s dress or costume, or to play her role; maglalaqui (this one belongs also to another composition), for a woman to dress like a man etc; magcastila, to use the dress or language of the Capampangan or of Castilla; for example, PAGCAPAÑGPANGANAN or PAGCASTILAN mo co, speak Spanish to me, etc.

MAG: To Use (Function)

This second composition or second mode of signifying is the way with which the protos express things when they refer to the exercise or ; and so the frequentatives are also expressed by using it, as you will see; and even though it extends to other things, as I will say momentarily, its principal point is that you don’t have to do anything except to double the first syllable in all of the things which we said about the preceding composition, to be used for human life, as long as there can be exercise or function regarding them. Let us go to the practical: magcabayo, to use a horse; magcacabayo, to buy and sell horses; magtabaco, to use tabacco; magtatabaco, to buy and sell tobacco; magmutia, to use precious stones; magmumutia, lapidary; magsutla, to use silk; magsusutla, to deal in it; magabias; magyayabias, rice industry; and the same with bangca, atbo, cabyo, asin, samat, asan, sabung, dayat, dutung, layag etc. The preterite tense follows a similar pattern; for example, migdurugtung, miglalayag etc. When it is extended to the other roots or verbs, if the syllable is not doubled, even though in some of them it signifies like the proto, it does not say as much as when the first syllable is doubled; for example, maglacad, to walk a lot, maglalacad, to have it as a job, as a walking postman; magligao, to fish a lot, magliligao, to have it as a job, fisherman; magcapitan, to perform the role of captain one or another year; magcacapitan, to do so almost for life, like magari; magculam, to be a witch one

78 time or another; magcuculam, to have it as one’s job. The same is true with, magcucusin, magcucutud, manggagauay. Included here are magdirila, to dispute hotly; its passives, first, motive or that which; third, the kind or object, etc. Because not everything that follows is as clear as what was said, before moving further, bear in mind, to help you understand, that by its nature, this particle never expresses a transitive act, but immanent [that is, no direct object]; and so, it does not go with verbs which are properly active; and if it goes with them, it is in order to remove from them the transition which they express; and even though magdala expresses a transition, it is regular and it falls under the transitive mi. Bear in mind, secondly, that generally, by its nature, it goes only with roots and verbs which express actions which fall under human activity or free will; and for this reason it connotes either doing something intentionally or doing on purpose or infact what the action expresses. From here it follows that when it speaks of some natural properties or natural passions, it sounds fictitious with them. You can go on observing all of this.

MAG: Reflexive

If it is joined with verbs which are properly active, it makes them reflexive, if they express actions which are usually done, either in themselves, or in another thing; for example, lusay, to stretch; maglusay, to extend itself; sinup, to cover as holes; magsinup, to cover oneself; to take shelter; sub, to give steam; magsub, to take it; culub, to cover, as ajar; magculub, to cover oneself in bed; duyan, to put in the cradle; magduyan, to put oneself in it (only the root is to use); susi, to close; magsusi, to close oneself; aral, to teach, magaral, to teach oneself, etc. Its passives: first, the motive; third, the place; pagaralan is that which one teaches oneself or applies oneself to learn.

MAG: Intent

Although, as I already told you this particle remains in its mode of signifying to do truly or intentionally that which the action says, it also appropriately expresses an intent; maglolao, to stroll, which is what we intend when we leave every afternoon. And even if we encounter a root which, with its simple verbs, seems to do it intentionally, even then, we cannot deny that when what the root or verb says is only intended, this mag comes automatically; and otherwise there would not be actions which are not done except intentionally; for example, fall down MAGDAGSA ca; MAGPULID ca, tumble; MAGBILAD ca, stay in the sun; MAGSACAB ca, prostrate intentionally. This can be clearly observed in one who tells a lie, because of whose intention of deceiving, this is expressed with mag; maglaram, better than with the simple verb, which happens with one who says a

79 falsehood without the intention of lying, but never if he does not have the intention of deceiving. This mag is used in all roots which express any posture of the body; for example,, cañian, talacad, tiñyacad, ticad, timocmoc, talungcu, alelay, talindiquing, quera, tudtud, talindata, tuag, yungyung, salampac, ñgañga, and others which can say the same thing; for example, lambut, tindayag, buntalag, buntaga, tanto, and all those which can be done intentionally, even if they belong also to another composition. Its passives, first and third.

MAG: To Put Oneself

When attached to roots and verbs which refer to a place, it signifies to be or to put oneself in it; for example, maguacas, to put oneself or to be in the end of a town, for example, as a sentinel; magsiduan, to put oneself in a principal place; maglual, to put oneself or to be outside; magsulud, to be or to put oneself even only in a sack; maglulan, to put oneself or to be even in a box or bañga; and if the place is appropriate for one to be in for a long time, even for life, people here say, for example, magbalay, to be in the house; mag baleyang magbalay, to be always in the house, what we [Spaniards] say he does not leave the house; MAGSILID do not leave the room etc. Belonging to this composition are bantay, tanud, abang, abong, abat, etc. Also, carin, sulmuc, culung, cubo, catre, papag, talumpac, babao, sulip dasay, dapoc, daton, pasbul, cabat, susi, and they can be passives o f intent.

MAG: To Pass by

With other names of places where people usually pass by, it means to pass by them for a certain purpose, for example, because the road is bad or dangerous; it is like the preceding composition, although this one is about passing; for example, magsabana, to pass by the savannah; ipagsabana, the motive; pagsabanan, the savannah. These ones also: lansañgan; minañgon, maranglay, masucal, batas, liput, liclic, danuman, mamala, bundoc, caqueuan, lacbay, etc.

MAG: To Become

With roots of qualities that can be acquired, it means to act so as to acquire them, for example, MAG ASAL ca angel quing calinisan, act like an angel due to your purity, make yourself an angel by having it; MAGBANAL ca, do acts of virtues, become a saint; MA GTIMTIMANcayo,act like pmdent people, be prudent; MAGAÑY0 can santo, let your movements or actions or behavior be like those of a saint; MAGOUICANca, he is so scrupulous and cautious that he notices every movement that is less modest, for example. Here belongs balit cayo. Magdauac, to do bad things,

80 to become bad; magmulang, to do mischief, to become mischievous, etc. Its passive, in those verbs which admit passives, are third: pagasalan, pagañyouan, for example, ing cabanalan;pagdauacan,pamulañgan, for example, the object; dingmacaquit; or the first passive, the vice, nanu tangPIGDAUA co or co queca? Belonging to this composition are magpadre, magmonja, magcardenal, to become such, etc.

MAG: To Do

With all those which follow, it means to do what the root says: bearing in mind that in all the roots it means, to do intentionally, truly or efficiently. In roots which are verbals, it adds more to what the simple says than to those which it makes verbs, which will go first; for example, magpusung, to makepusung, meaning, to jest; salbat, magsalbat, is not to cause but to suffer the affliction, like maglunus, magmalun; magmola, to start; magcusa, to take the initiative; magdusa is not to cause grief, but to bear it; magtingquis, to prepare oneself or to arm oneself. Its passive: first and third.

Examples of the second; pipilit, to force or insist; magpilit, tenaciously; for example, MAGPILITcang magaral; sisipag, to work diligently; magsipag, more diligently; daramot, to humble oneself; magdamut, to humble oneself more, to be very modest; Umut, to be miserable, magimut, to be more miserable or intentionally; and finally, mag always adds either intensity or truth or ; in those which express its intensity with the composition mi, it usually adds only the intent or intention.

MAG: Intensification

With those which are adjectives in themselves or in composition with ma, although they otherwise do not admit mag in their simple form, for example, lago, tapang, etc., to insert ca between mag and the root does not only indicate that the action has a greater intensity than a previous one, but it also indicates that such action is done very intentionally, more purposely ( magCalago, to make oneself very presentable, as a woman who prepares to attend a fiesta.); and you can confidently use this composition with the following words, maintaining the way each one expresses the idea: lunus, tingquis, pipit, sipag, inut, lalaqui, banal, bañgis, lasing, mata, puyat, dugal, mal, matas, lub, mababa, imbut, saya, datna, dauac, ayap, lungcut, sindac, gula, santing, sampat, bayat, luca, lambat, magcasaquit (expresses intensity, but not the intention) [The original “dice intension, pero no intento” is I n the singular], and all the adjectives of ma, which express passions, like maragul lub, weakness (without intention), fortitude, sadness, happiness, bravery, etc. and the like. Its passives, first the motive',

81 third the object. If you still want to delve deeper into this composition, insert the particle paca; for example, magPACAlago, magPACAsanting, etc. Magcamali, magcasala, magcaupaya, connote magculang happening by chance.

MAG: To Make Oneself Appear Like

When attached to the verbs of ma, it means to appear what the adjective says, whether the subject is such or not; for example, magmatapang, to show oneself brave, either because he is or in order that he will be feared by those who want to kill him, for example; magmaratna, to appear well-behaved, either because he is, or because, although he is not, he has a reason to appear such before his superiors, for example; magmalasing, to show oneself drunk, like for fun, but if he is drunk, MALASINGya, without mag. This is true with all the adjectives of ma. Its passives, first the motive, third the object.

If you double the ma of this composition, it goes higher and it comes to mean appearing more than what one is. MAGMAMALUNCUTya, the first ma is long in all, he shows more sadness than what he has; MAGMAMALUCA ya, he shows himself poorer than he is; he is not as poor as he shows himself to be; MAGMAMAINA ya, he shows himself weaker than he is, he is not in such bad shape as he thinks; MAGMAMABABA [should be MAGMAM ABABA] lub, he is not as humble as he shows, etc. When we encounter adjectives which express an increase in quality, it also expresses to show oneself, but it is equivalent to arrogance or presumption; for example, MAGMAMATAPANGya,he shows, or presumes to have, the bravery of a Bernardo; MAGMAMARATNA ya, he shows, or presumes to have, the modesty of a Saint Bernard; MAGMAMATUNUD heya, shows or presumes to have the maturity of a Seneca. Et sic de reliquis [And so with the rest], like malago, masampat, masanting, masaya, etc. Its passives: first the motive, third the object.

Section 2 MAG of Fiction and Appearance/Frequentatives

When it is joined to roots whose action or passion is not in the hand of any man to have whenever he likes to, the mag is o f intention and smells offiction', for example, MAGLUNGCUT ca, be sad; MAGSALUN ca, make yourself sick; and the same with tapang, saya, lumbay, licsi, tunud, pilo, etc. First passive, the motive', third the object. Its frequentatives, by doubling the root, maglungcut- lungcut, and they are diminutives. [A clarification: action means I see', passion means la m seen', for example].

82 APPEARANCE

If in this composition you double the root or its first syllable and add an, you will say maglungcut-lungcutan or maglulungcutan, and its means to do something appearance and not in reality, to be sad not in reality, but in appearance; magbanal- banalan or magbabanalan, to perform acts of apparent but not real virtue, like the hypocrite, and this is to pretend to be holy; magsalon-salonan or magsasalonan, to show oneself sick, but being so only in appearance, for example, in order to avoid working, and this is to simulate sickness; magmate-matayan or to play dead, to pretend to be such, like the fox, which is dead only in appearance. This is true with those which follow: tapang, saya, lumbay, licsi, tunud, anaç, sulat, mulang, lasing, and all the like. To make your understanding of this composition more solid, take note of another pattern which this language has, principally regarding nouns. It is done by doubling the root and adding an at the end; for example, tauo, tauo tauoan, and it means the appearance of what the noun, without such composition, signifies in reality, like the example given, which in the compound means, homini caco, or a painted man. Such is api, true fire, api-apian, fire in appearance, or fire of that place compared to that of hell; it is enough that in comparing, it shows as very much reduced the nature of the thing or the appearance of it; for example, gun, baril-barilan, toy gun like one made of cane; balay, house, bale-balayan, tiny hut or toy house which children make; caba-cabayoan, tiny wooden horse painted, etc; gaud, oar, gaud-gauran\ small oar; and even a thin paddle is referred to in GAUD- GA URAN mo, and it does not deserve to be called a paddle. They construct verbs using this composition of nouns with mag; and so, when they refer to I do not know what things, which they see at night, they say: magpusa-pusaan, magdarapuan, magcacambiñgan, etc. which have the appearance of cats, crocodiles, or goats. This composition does not express real beings but simulated or apparent, as you see; and its way of expressing is not different from that of the preceding. Its passive, in those [verbs] which are capable of them [passives] are the first, the with which; for example, ala con BALAYANor IPA GBARIL-BARILAN, I have no material with which to make a toy house nor a toy gun, like one made of cane, to go into a make-believe war; third, the object, for example, e mo co PAGBANAL-BAN ALAN, I will not buy your holiness, your virtue is fake. Et sic de reliquis. [And the same with the rest].

FREQUENTATIVES

Rare is the composition of this particle mag which does not admit its frequntatives, like the protos or by doubling the ma, as in magaral, mamagaral, mamagcapitan. The first expresses frequency, and so does the second, and those which are capable, like these two, also express plurality o f subjects, as was said

83 about the neutral verbs in the protos where we placed, as an example, MENACAS la ding discípulos. The second frequentative is made by doubling the root or the first syllable, depending on which sounds better; for example, magaral-aral or magaral-garal. And take note that the first one means to go on teaching another, the second to go on teaching oneself; maguañgis-uañgis, maglupa-lupa express diminution; magbibiasa, bachelor of the stomach, maglaram-laram, to go around deceiving people, maglalaraman, the same. This is true with the rest. The compositions of maca [should presumably be ] also admit frequentatives; for example, mamagcasanting and ; magpaca does not admit frequentatives. The frequentative adjective, for example, learner, liar, etc. is done in all by insertinggag; for example, maPAGaral, maPAGlaram,maPAGcaula, etc.

84 CHAPTER 7 THE PARTICLE MI AND ITS FORMATION

This is the most popular particle of this language, and because of this, it is also the most difficult; but its formation is very easy, because for all the tenses in the active, it is mi and in the passive pi;in the present, active and passive, it is attached to the present; for the future and the preterite, to the root; bearing in mind that both mi and p i of the preterite have a long accent; for example, sulat, present active, MISUsulat; passive, PISUsulat; future active, MIsulat, passive PIsulat. If the future to which it is attached begins with for example, ynum, it is retained; for example, future miynum. Its verbal action, always by placing pa before it; for example, pami, and this m of the verbal is never changed to p; that of the particle, if it is recomposed, is changed top; and so you will not say macaMicasala, but macaPicasala; not paMilarinan , but paPilarinan. And it is a general rule that, if m is to be recomposed, it is changed top, unless otherwise noted.

Section 1 TRANSITIVE MI

In order to see the great extent to which this mi fills the vacuum in the language of Pampanga, I will first uncover its holes. There are many sentences which should be put in the active, and for all, there is a lack of active verbs, not only among those which belong to the neutral verbs, for example, to go down, to go up, to enter, to go out, etc. which, being intransitive actions, clearly cannot serve as active; but also those which belong to very many active verbs, because they have two concepts and they have only active for one; for example, larin, which means to repair what is destroyed, and also to put something in a safe place; to say the first, the simple will do; to say the second, for example, tu pondrás este Arte a recado [you will keep this grammar safe] the simple will not do, and so it has no active. Batbat also has two concepts: the first, for example, to whip; the second to shove and for this, it has no active. Bilang and tacal mean two things; to measure and to count, and also to measure or to count in order to deliver, and for this last one, the simple verbs will not do; because if you say, for example, who counted those pesos in order to deliver them? Ninon MTNILANG caretangpesos? using the simple, you leave the delivery on the writing desk. The same thing happens with all those which mean to work with an instrument. To talk of the instrument, for example, Juan shot with my gun, the simple will not do; and in the others, for example to drink water with sweets, accompany with milk, the same thing happens, because there is no verb to talk about the sweet and the milk. In one word: to speak of things in the active which

85 if done in the passive, belong to the first passive of movement, active verbs are lacking in this language, except those which in themselves express movement. And having said this, I say that this transitive mi, together with the simple, fills in for and serves as, active in all o f them, and that all such sentences should be said with it, because this is the active which corresponds to them; for example, did you bring that chair upstairs? lean MIPANIC quetangsia?; passive PENICme caya itangsia? Will you keep this grammar safe? lean MILARINqueuing Arte? Passive, ILARIN me ining Arte?; I pushed Pedro, aeon MIBATBAT can Pedro; Juan is counting the pesos to deliver them, y Juan iyang MIBIBILANG caring pesos; Passive: IBIBILANG non Juan ding pesos; Juan shot with my gun, y Juan MIBAR1L quetang baril co; passive: BERİL nen Juan itang baril ko; do you want to drink water with this candy? Bisa can MIYNUM danum quening caramelo? Passive: Burl men IYNUMdanum ining I will accompany with this milk; aeon MIULAM quening passive,gatas; IULA co ining gatas, etc. I said above that with the exception of verbs which in themselves indicate movement, because with such ones, there is no need always to resort to the transitive mi,because,since this one is essentially the active of the first passive, and those verbs independently have almost the same capability not being irregular, like lacao, dayao, etc. To speak of using the simple is the same as to speak using of the mi; for example, aeon MINUGSAY quetang libro is the same as aeon MIUGSAY quetang libro; ican TINABIis the same as ican MITABI quetang ican is the same as ican MISALBAG quetang palay, etc. Also, because the simple verbs do not lack passive, but active, there is no need of going to the passive to have the passive; but to get hold of the passive iwhich they autonomously have, as you saw in the examples. This transitive mi also serves to put in the active the sentences of the passive MI of company; for example, who made them quarrel? Ninon MIG AG A carela? etc; then, the passive that corresponds to it is that of M I of company; for example, you made them make peace, ican MIAGA carela; passive PI AG A mo la, etc; and although in the active they are usually made protocompound, for example, mamiaga, in order to express multiciplicity, as in mamiasaua, the priest who solemnizes the wedding of many; and this protocompound is not used in the passive to avoid confusion; it is filled in for, when speaking of many, by doubling the root; for example, aeon MEMIASAUA quecayo; PIASAUA-SAUANANda cayo, etc. The receiver of the action in all the sentences of the above-mentioned composi tion must be in the passive mi as a neutral verb, because they all presuppose the transitive mi or active mi, which imprints in them the movement or action; for example, aeon MITIPA quetang sia. If you want to say, using the neutral verb, that that chair se paro bajada [stopped in the completed step of giving been brought down], you can never use the neutral verb ma, saying METIPA ya itang sia; but specifically, the neutral verb mi (MITIPA ya itang siya, that chair stopped in the completed step of having been brought down), which I call, as already said, the passive mi, because

86 it is the effect of the transitive or active, and to distinguish it from other neutral verbs of mi,which I will discuss. The same can be said of aeon MIASAUA quecayo, for example. You are the passive mi, miasaua, because in this case, that mi is the effect; it is passive with respect to the transitive mi, without this being a hindrance to composing the mi ofcompany, as you will see in it. The same is true with this sentence, aeon MIYNUM quetang caramelo, I drank water with that candy; the candy stopped as such; you should say: MIYNUM ya itang caramelo,etc. This passive M I has its corresponding intransitive protocompound to express plurality, for example, where you said miynumya, because there was only one candy: if they were many, you would say meñgainum; the chair mitipaya, if they were many MENGATIPAla; the baril mibarilya; if they were many, MENGABARIla; ing libro, for example, miugseya, the books MENGAUGSE la; ingpaco mipaco ya; the nails, MENGAPACOla. I find no reason to doubt any of the things I have said up to here.

Section 2 The Passives of Place with PI and AN at the End

I am placing this very important section immediately after the transitive mi because it plays the principal role in these passives. We commonly say that the place in which is expressed with pi and an; for example, PIlurAN, PliyAN, the place in which a person spits or urinates. I now ask: luran, iyan, are they not also the place in which a person spits, urinates? No doubt about it. I ask further: baldugan or balduganan, are they not the place in which, an object is thrown? And so, what is the use of pibaldugan and and if and an always express what in Spanish is the place in which the expression the place from where or through where, which many times cannot be expressed except with pi and an , will be confused with the place in which. I would like to hear the explanation of this from somebody else, rather than give it myself. Anyway, I am willing to say what I am capable of. And so I say that pi and an, by their very nature, are generally meant to express the place of an action, be it the place in which, to which, through which, or whatever the Spanish would like to indicate. What I mean is that this passive has to be used whenever the speaker wants to specify or identify the place in relation to which an action was done actively or is presumed to have been done. And so, it cannot be used if it does not precede or presuppose the exercise of a verb, active or passive. Let me explain. I presuppose that Our Lord Jesus Christ was flogged. If you ask me to specify or identify the place of that action, I have to put that place in the nominative and I have to use pi and an; for example, the house of Pilate is the place where they scourged Christ, ING BALE nan Pilato ing PIBATBATAN da quing Guinu tang Jesu Cristo. Another: I presuppose that He was nailed. If I

87 want to identify the place of that action, I will say: CR UZ PIPACUAN da queya. We also know that He was sold. If I am to identify the quasi-place in relation to which the sale took place, I will say, for example, “ The Jews were the people to whom Judas Iscariot sold Him. DING JUDIOS ila pin If one is to identify the place properly so called where they sold Him, it is the same, for example, carin bale nan Caifas ing PIBAYARANANA, etc. You might say: these examples clearly demonstrate the use ofpi and an, because they make you know that the action preceded and the format identifies the place of the action. But what about the future and the imperative? How do you make us understand that pi and an indicate the place of a consummated action if that action is yet to be done? Because even if they say; for example, referring to the future, PISALBAGAN co ining lahuerta, and as an imperative, PISACULANmo iyang mola, etc., this does not indicate any difference in the tenses; it only indicates that the pi and an in that future and that imperative are meant to introduce nouns related to what the pi and an say; for example, in the first example, this field will be my rice paddy; in the second, this land will be your canefield; etc. It follows from this that pi and an as verb has only a past tense, where alone the action is presupposed to have been done. It cannot be denied that in the above-mentioned examples and in very many others that can be given, the pi and an combination is also used to signify that the place being talked about is a thing intended or marked for that which the word expresses; like also, for example, PIPAMADUASANque ining busto in the present tense, means I intend to use this basket for the fishes which I will catch with the help of hooks; if these nouns do not indicate frequency of acts, the root is not doubled, as in piluran, piiyan, pipatayan, etc. If they indicate frequency, they are doubled; for example, piPAPAtayan, slaughterhouse; piSUSUlatan, desk, where one writes many times; if you only mean that on which you usually write, it is enough to say pisulatan; and the same with pibabatbatan, pibabatiñgan, piyayañgoan, pilululanan, pisasablayan, pitutunan, pibebeuan,pipamiñyagan, pipandiluan, piyayapian, pilulutuan., etc., and whatever can be called a place where it is appropriate to do what the verb signifies. None of this prevents pi and an from having different tenses when the action is presupposed, even if it is not exercised. From this as from a root comes the above-mentioned composition of nouns. When these nouns (take note of this very carefully) do not express frequency of acts, they are constructed as future, but with a very different pronunciation. The word is pronounced short and fast as if in a hurry to reach the end: but when it is future, it is pronounced slowly, and this difference of tenses among the nouns is very common in this language; for example, canan, food, because it is a noun, has short accents, but canan future has long and is pronounced more slowly. You will notice the same thing when the root is doubled, as distinct for the present indicative which is pronounced somewhat slowly; for example, danum,

88 noun, is pronounced with all the accents short, but when it refers to the place where you actually get water, you pronounce it slowly. Listen to the indio patiently and carefully, and you will find that there most certainly is such a difference. Let us now see how action is presupposed in the future and imperative. It will take less time and it will be clearer to give examples than to give mies. Examples: Sow this rice. You will answer: where will I sow it? Here, the action of sowing is presupposed and you are asking me to tell you the place where you have to sow, and this is in the future. It is necessary to use pi and an , and to say, ingsan PISALBAGANANco? Another: suppose you like to whip the servant. Iflaskyou to tell me the room or place in which you have to whip, I have to use pi and an. Ingsangsilid ingPIBATBATANmoqueya? You can also answer using the future. Ingsilid mon PIBATBATAN co, I will whip him in your room. The same is true with the imperative; for example, I have nowhere to pour this water starts already with pi and an, because this Spanish sentence presupposes the act of pouring it and speaks of the place which presupposes that act, you will say: ala congPIBATINGAN. Now the imperative: pour it down this window or down this opening, PIBATINGAN me iyang aslat or auang. Another: I see you bringing the cane back because, you say, you cannot find a place where to sow it, I tell you: sow it here in my garden, PISACULANmo iyang mula co, etc. Present: where is Pedro fetching water? This way of speaking presupposes the action, and so I will say: Ingsan PISASACLA UANAN [sic, spelled CLA] danum Pedro ? If he is fetching water in the river, Ing ilug iyang PISASA CLOU ANA [sic, spelled CLO]. And so, ing mula co iyang PISASALBAGANAN palay, PITATAMNANAN ubi, PIYUYUSDANANAN gandus. You might say: there is nothing wrong in saying ing mula co, for example, ing SASALBAGANAN palay, TATAMNANAN, YUYUSDAN AN gandus, etc., and so, in talking about aplace, the simple is the same as the combination of pi and an. In such sentences, it is the same materialiter and per accidens; but the concept of pi and an is always different; as when, for example, you tell somebody wrap these pesos in the cloth, directing your attention to the cloth which is the place, whose concept belongs to the third passive: TUNGCUSAN ME ITANG PAÑO careting pesos, and because the sentence is materially or per accidens the same as this next one, he changes the focus of attention and directs it principally to the pesos, and he answers you, ITUNGCOS co pin DETING PESOS quetang paño. This does not infer, however, that the first passive is the same as the third; neither is pisalbaganan formally the same as salbagan, tungcusan aspitungcusan, etc., The difference between the third passives of the simple and the passive of pi and an is as follows: The passive of the simple expresses only the place where the action of the verb ends (if one can call action that which is not done ): SASALBAGANAN mon palay ining mula co, for example, only says that the garden is sown or is affected by the act of sowing, which is not considered as an action

89 that does, but as an action which is going to end in the place; just as the process whereby a shower [an apparatus] which wets the place where it falls seems to be an action. The passives ofpi and an also express the place, but not the place unqualified, the way the other passives do. They instead always indicate the place, in relation to which or in which an action properly so called was done; and so it always includes two passives, that of the place referred to and that of the action which was done or is presupposed, which is the first passive regularly, because you can rarely find a verb which does not admit this passive, whose active is always the transitive mi; and this is the concept behind the above-mentioned passives pitatamnan, piyuyusdanan; as ifpi would say at one time, isalbag, salbagan; itanam, tamnan; yusad, usdanan, that which and such place; or as if you use pi instead of the i of the first passive, saying Ipisasalbaganan,Ipitatamnan, Ipiyuyusdanan; and since in the above-mentioned sentences, you put or join per accidens the land which is presupposed to have been sown and the land in relation to which there is the transitive mi or the first passive, it seems that some passives have the same meaning as others, even if they are very diverse. And so, when the simple passives do not express more action than what they express in themselves, even if we mention a thousand times the place where those actions were done, we can never use pi andy in them; for example, SILBAGANAN or TIMNANAN, INUSDANAN mo napon ing muía. I now ask you to identify to me the garden in which you did those actions (if they must be called such): ingsa cayangmula ing SIILBAÑGANAN, TIMNANAN, INUSDANAN mo napon?; never with pi and an even if we mention the place of those actions done a hundred times, but instead we add the action of the transitive mi or first passive; for example, ican misalbag napon palay? Et sic de reliquis [And the same with the rest.] I said that generally the passive i is the one which always corresponds to the transitive mi;for example, with which, ining caramelo IYNUMquen danum; din mu con danum a PIYNUMAN co queuing caramelo. O f : ing baril co iyan IBARIL mo quetang usa; itang usa PIBARILAN mo quing baril co. On behalf of whom: ILIUAT mo con alac quetang frasco; itangfrascong PILIUATAN mong alac caco. O f movement, aside from those mentioned: ican MIQUE queni queang libro; ique Me queni iyang libro; queni ing PICAYANmo queyang libro; ican MILUB caco quing silidmo etc.; ing silid mo PILUBAN mo caco; ILIPAT mo co cañgatba; cañgatba ing PILIPATAN mo etc. With the verbs of intransitive movement, such as lub, lipat, lual, uquiat, etc., the pi and an combination has perse [by itself] something in which it exercises the action, because it flows from the transitive as you saw in piluban and pilipatan; but if, per accidens [by way of exception], it does not have the thing, the action stays in the doer himself; for example, get out of there. You answer: I do not have a place through which, ala con PILUALAN, as if saying ala con ilual-lualan or pilualan quing catauan co.

90 Among the verbs of intransitive movement, the combination pi and an also presupposes per [inse itself] the action of the first passive or its active, because it flows from the transitive mi,as you saw in piluban and pilipatan; per accidens [but by way of exception], it can lack that thing, and in that case, it does not lack the passive of i either, and the action remains in the doer himself; otherwise, these verbs would not be able to admit pi and an. To express the place in itself only, always use the simple; for example, ala con PAN I CAN, TIPAN or as we said about salbagananan, tamnanan, etc., namely, simply the place like the stairs or the tree where one climbs. With p i and an, the first passive presupposes the movement of one’s own body and identifies the place through which or to where, etc.; for example, I want to enter or to go out; the door is closed; I would say con or or PITA CASAN. And this last one also indicates the place to where, as a mountain to which his body fled. At other times, although what was mentioned about and an is enough, we see the point better because here we add the concept of the doer to the concept of the action; for example, ala con or TIPAN queca queuing mua co or queuing tula co, I don’t have a place through which to bring up or to bring down my happiness or my anger towards you; ala con PIUQUIATAN, for example, I have no place through which to bring my body up; it also always connotes turning one’s attention towards the space to which one is walking. Construct other examples based on this. When the pi and an [combination] does not presuppose the action of the first passive or its active, it usually presupposes the action of the second passive or its active; and in all the rest, the same procedure is followed; for example, bring us a glass en que beba agua [from which to drink water], cuma can bubug a PIYNUMAN mi; here we presuppose the act of drinking water and indicate the place en donde [in which]. Another: from what tree will you harvest? (I am presuming that you are going to): insangpun Ing dalandan, for example, ing PIPUPULAN co. Another: in what house are they whipping those boys? Insang balay PIBABATBATAN da caretang anací They whipped them in the school, quing escuela ing PIBATBATAN da carela. I said ordinarily, because inasmuch as the third passives of an indefinite thing come from active verbs, they can also indicate true action; and, assuming that point, we also use p i and an to indicate the place; for example, ican matbat careteng anac or batbatan mo detang anac, whip one or some of those boys. En donde [Where?] InsangsilidingPIBATBATANANco carela? Quingpisamban ing PIBATBATANAN mo\ where did they catch each of those thieves? Nu carin ing PIRACPANANANda caretang mapanacao? And the same with the rest. Up to here, we have treated the actions which the combination regularly presupposes. But none of this goes against the following point, namely that, if the actions are expressed by the compound verbs, the pi-and-an is also used to indicate the place of those actions; for example, or pipacanan, the places

91 where the people ate or fed the animals, etc. In all these, the pi of the past is always pronounced long, as was mentioned at the beginning; and if you are wondering why I am not giving the reason for the endings anan or ananan, look at the use of the third passive which is also the same as that ofpi and an. As a complement of this pi and an, I will add a last point. It is something which is associated with it, namely, that when the verbs include in their meaning the concept of waste, of broken into pieces or left-overs of the principal action, these are expressed with pi and an, and bear in mind that this one is usually the third passive o f place: tabas, to cut a cloth in pieces,pitabasan, shreds and also the place;pialacan, dregs; pipalutan, the straws that remain after the harvest; pilagarian, sawdust and the place inwhich one saws; picuturan, if you add cauayan, you will mean the pieces that remain after you cut the bamboo. Be attentive to the context of the conversation so you will not make a mistake.

SECTION 3 Neutral MI and with AN

Rare is the root which expresses movement, in the strict or in a broad sense, to which this mi is not attached; and since it is not active with any of these roots, it is called neuter, and in order to clarify what function it has in all the verbs and what specific function it has with some, we can reduce them to three groups, although this is not an essential division. The first group covers those verbs which by their way of signifying imply principally the concept of by chance; for example, sumpung, taquid, to bump against, to trip; sagquil, sagcul, knock against; subsub, suñgasong, to fall flat on one’s face; tagco, to have a bad luck; and following these are sacab, to he on one’s face; talindata, to lie on one’s back; and all those which express any posture of the body, which, if with mag, indicate done on purpose, as we said. The second group covers the verbs of intransitive local movement; for example, lapit, dayo, lacad, urung, sulung, dasug, dasig, das, tipa, panic, locloc, etc. The third group covers all those verbs which admit the passive mi because they flow from the transitive mi and from the passive of i; for example, misalbag, miugsay, etc., that which is sown, thrown, etc.; and here they belong to this neutral mi, because with those verbs, it has the same meaning as when with the rest, except that the verbs to which they are joined do not signify ad hoc [meaning “specific”] intransitive action. The way all of them signify consists in saying that the nominative stops doing or receiving the action signified by the verb to which it is attached; for example, susumpungya, he is tripping; MISUSUMPUNG ya, he stops tripping; sinubsub ya, he fell flat on his face; MISUBSUBya, he stopped falling flat on his face; lalapitya, he is arriving; MILALAPITya, he is stopping the process, having

92 arrived; minurung ya,he retreated; MIU he stopped the process, having retreated; MIYUYUGSEya, it is stopping the process, having been thrown; MISALBAG na ingpalay, the palay already stopped the process, having sown; MITACAL na, it will end being measured. And the same with the rest. To be able to use the simple and the mi respectively, remember that in all the verbs (except those of the mi,n,p ), the simple is like to be and the mi is like to remain; and so as Our Father Saint Augustine says, one has to be in a place first before one remains in it, prius est esse alicubi quam [being somewhere comes before remaining in it], so also you first have the simple which only signifies action as transient and not complete enough, before you get which expresses it as completed; and since it is as inseparable from the simple as the shadow is from the body, the simple verb consequently always comes ahead to express the meaning of the verb, and mi follows to signify that it is stopping the process of having been completed, etc. All the verbs having this composition, without any exception, admit their proto to signify plurality with the nominative, and it is constructed with manga; for example, MAÑGASACAB la, they (because they are many) the process that ends in their lying flat on their face; MEÑGALAPITla, they stopped, having arrived; MENGAYUGSE la, they stopped, having been thrown. All those which refer to some posture of the body ad mit pa between mi and the root; and that way they signify that the subject did the action which the verb expresses without knowing what was being done; for example, MILOCLOC co, I ended up seated; but MIPALOCLOC co, I sat down without being aware of it; mitod co, I ended up standing; but MIPATOD co, I stood up without being aware of what I was doing, because I got frightened by a noise, for example, and this is true with the rest. All of these and those like them also admit ca inserted between mi and pa; miCApa, and in that case they signify that the thing happened to him many times; for examples, MICAPALUCLUC co, MICAPATICDO co, I sit or stand many times without being aware of it. And the same with the rest. It also admits this mi with all the above-mentioned verbs expressing posture (belonging to the construction of maca related to being [estando]), where is inserted between mi and the root; for example, miPACAloclocya, he finishes doing the process of sitting, as the Italian who does not get bored per niente; miPACAsacab ya, he completes the process of prostrating, he is in that position; and so miPACAtalindata and all in its group. You can extend this mi to all those which admit maca related to being [estando]. Vide ibi [Look it up there]. When the above-mtentioned verbs only admit pa, for example, miPAlocloc, they are followed (in the same way of signifying) by those ofmovement belonging to the second group; for example, miPAtipa, miPAlapit, etc.; and to be listed with these are lucsu, cay, ñgisi, sigue, guiguit, mulagat, culisac, tañgis, cullyao, baliquid, tudtud, nigla, tacla, mipaaili, or mipacaili, etc.: mipalatut, mipaliyi, these two with pal.

93 Mipacañian, mipacayap, mipacarauac, mipacamal, refers to someone who ended up that way, either luckily or unluckily; mipalaot refers to what drifted to the open sea, for example because one did not know how to swim or the banca was not well directed or because the waves pushed it or the sea is wide; and those which went with it are also mipalaut. Mipacarauac, mipatiueuay is one who finished doing the act of double-dealing. And with this, let us leave their actives, and let us go to their passives. The verbs belonging to the first group which when with always connote by chance, like to trip, to fall, to fall flat on one’s face, etc., use the third passive, and the place is in the nominative; and since this passive we are talking about is not for the simple verb, but for its MI which expresses completion of the act, it must always use ca and an; for example, misumpung quetang dutung, I completed the unintentional act of bumping against that wood; its passive, QUESUMPUNGAN que itang dutung. Another: I completed the act of bumping into you, mitataquid co queca, CATATAQUIRAN da ca; and so quesacban, queragsan, etc. Like the passives ofpi and an, the form of the present also serves to express names of places destined for doing something actively (remember we said this earlier); and so, in these, if they use the form of the present, pronouncing it fast, the latter signifies the place where something happens by chance, which is the point here; for example, casusumpungan , catataquiran, stumbling block; catatyaban, sandbank, as Scyla [should be Scylla]; casasayaran, dry dock, etc. Those belonging to the first group which we said signify the posture of the body also admit this passive; for example, QUETALINDIQUINGAN que ing ulunan. Among those belonging to the second group, it seems that only those which include distance admit it, and these are: lapit, dayo, dasig, dasung, urung, sulung, and similar ones, and the distance is in the nominative; for example, in two hours the ship ended the processes of becoming six leagues far away, lub ning aduang horas mirayu yang daung anan [sic] a leguas; ANAN [sic] A LEGUAS ing QUERAYOUANA ning daung lub ning aduang horas. Another: I completed the act of retreating from you or moving towards you four yards APATA VARAS ing CAYUYURUNGANor CALALAPITANco queca, etc. All those of the third group, which are those of the passive neuter mi, admit it and in all it connotes by chance; for example, MIUGSE co quing patio, Icompleted undergoing the process of being thrown in the courtyard; quing patio ing QUEYUGSEYAN or QUEBINDUNGAN or QUETAPUNAN or QUEBALUGSEYANco, etc. All the passives by chance are very well constructed by placing a to the future of ca and an, for it and for the preterite, or to the root of the simple; for exampl e,ACASUSUMPUNGANda ca, or ca, I complete bumping into you many times. Another: completed bumping into my father, ACATAQUIRAN or ATAQUIRA que ibpaco. Another: if complete bumping

94 against me, I have to whip you, nun uarin or mo co, batbatan da ca, etc. You now see how I refer to Spanish for the purpose of making you realize that many times we express with the action of the transient verb what for the language is to stop and complete. See the neuters of ma and their passives.

M l with AN

You can use this composition with the verbs of the preceding one, because when you put in the nominative the place or quasi-place to which the action or movement refers, all admit this pattern (except lagco which does not imply place); for example, if I bumped against you, you are mitaquiran; if you put yourself face down over the chair, the chair is misacban; if Pedro approached Juan, Juan is milapitan; if the banca is rocked, the place is milingguian; if they throw you in the road, the road is miugseyan, etc.; and also all with their mañga expressing plurality, to indicate the places; for example, meñgaugsay, as we already said, are the things thrown; but the places in which are meñgaugsayan; mengatubu, the trees, for example, grown or sprouted; mengatubuan, the places in which; but notice here that, in both compositions, if the subject or nominative is singular, for example, mengasabit or mengasumpung YA, it indicates that either he bumped against many parts or he tipped in many places, etc. Those of the passive mi,if the nominative is singular, it is used only with an, in which it agrees with all the rest; for example, MENGASALBAGAN or MENGASAMBULATANya, the one who would be like a place in which many things fall, like the Father whom people fill with flowers on Palm Sunday; MENGASABITANya, like a maiden adorned with many jewels; and so, the first one, mengasumpung, mengasabit, for example, is one who bumped against many people, or who hang many things; the second, mengasumpuñgan, meñgasabitan ya is one against whom many people bumped or in where many things are hung, as when they adorn the banca to make salubung. I omitted all this in the preceding composition, because this way, it can be better understood and also because that one is only one branch of this, as it has many others; and so that we will not be dealing with branches, we will deal with the trunk, and explain the root in which this composition principally consists, namely that particle which is placed at the end.

I am certain that this particle is the an which constitutes the third passive of place, and so, in all the nouns and verbs to which it is attached, it expresses the place or quasi-place. The noun is where the action reaches. If its verb is neutral, which is always mi with an, it points to the place or quasi-place, which is about to be

95 reached or was reached or will be reached; because Just as the subject or nominative of the person who receives the action in the second passive has its neutral verbs ma to express the completion of the given act; so also the place or quasi-place has this neutral verb of mi with an to get the same result. This having been said, you now understand better that mitaquiran, for example, is the place or quasi-place reached by the act of stumbling; as if while pasing, I stumble over your foot either for fun, which is or by accident, which is acaTAQUIRANor QUETAQUIRAN queining bitis mo; always your foot is with an; MITAQUIRAN or MITATAQUIRAN yanbitis mo; and if you approach me, I am the place or quasi-place reached by your movement, MILAPITAN co; like if they throw you in the street, the street is the place or quasi-place reached by your being thrown, iyan MIUGSAYAN. If the place is not appropriate for the verb, then it will be a place per accidens [that is, by way of exception]. Let us go back to the particle an which constitutes the third passive of place and which therefore is almost always admitted when with its to express the place or quasi-place where such act is completed; for example, liban den cay MILUBAYAN diablos. The same is true with misaldacan, misandulian, mipungpungan, mibungbungan, miyablasan, mibatoan, and with a thousand others. To avoid making a mistake about them, take mituran, mituliran as a model. Example: the mass was assigned to you and the sermon was assigned to me, ican MITULIRAN quing misa, aeon MITURAN quing aral. Even if the Spanish varies because of the variety of the roots, the mi and an never changes this meaning. But you must take note very carefully that, even though it has this primary or principal concept, (su concepto formal y constitutivo), it very often expresses the situation of the receiver as its additional or secondary concept (materialiter o identicef for example, for mialdauan or mialdauanan to be true, it is enough that the sun touches one, and this is the point of the an; that a being gets hurt by this, like a horse that is harnessed, is extrinsic and secondary (de materiali y extrínseco) to this composition. It is therefore in this sense that you must understand mibulanan, miañginan, miambonan, when one is talking about illnesses: for example, misas alunan misalunan, to be a victim of that situation which is the process of receiving; and the same with saquit, bulutung, bilig, baclao, buni, gutli, baya, tigsa, paltus, etc., whose composition is like that of bulbul, alimpuyo, gumi, guti, etc. And in this regard, mebulbulan is the same as mibatoan, because the fact that one is natural and the other artificial, is beside the point. And so that I will not forget, I will inform you here that even if a house made of stone is referred to as bale a bato, a house made of wood is not referred to as bale a dutung; but with the third passive, bale a DITUNGAN; and if it is made of wood (tabla), bale a DELIGAN; windows made of capis, auang a QUEPISAN, these and all similar to them admit mi with an.

96 So that you will see how certain it is that, just as the neutral verb of corresponds to the second passive, so this verb of with an always corresponds to a place as a receiver of something, and it is the third passive. If it expresses the process of receiving, it is very improperly so conceived because it is not a place properly speaking. Take note of the difference between the two when they are joined together in one verb; for example, mesalaing, ; mepaluca, ; mebatbat, mibatbatan', mebaril, mibarilan. Mesalaing is connected to the second passive for example, the candle which you lighted on the altar; this candle is misalaing by chance, and as a place in which the fire arrives, it is misalaingan', for this reason, they usually say macabulad, misalaing [the first vowel is i] or misalaingan and you will never hear them say macabulad, mesalaing [the first vowel is e] ya. Take note of this well when dealing with some verbs which admit an in the preterite second passive, and also admit ma and mi. We said above that the place of the neutral passive mi and of the passive by chance is done with mi and an, miugsayan\ and so when someone gets burned, he is the place of mi : misalaingan, misulsulan, milablaban\ and he is also the third passive of ca and an of by chance. Mebaril, mebatbat correspond to the second passive; mibarilan, mibatbatan correspond to the third passive ca, which connotes by ; for example, MIPALUCAN ca means that, because you clubbed somebody, I club you; that is, the club is the passive mi,mipaluca, and the place to which it is per accidens directed, or in which it fell was you: ican MIPALUCAN', you will philosophize the same way with mebaril and mibarilan', mebatbat and mibatbatan and all those similar to them; because those of that group, if they somehow connote receiving the action, it is always per accidens, inadvertently, and always with the an of the third passive; for example, if you were coming close to me while I was bending a stick and without my intending it, the stick broke loose and hit you, you are said to be mibalantican and mibatbatan', because here, the stick was the passive mi and you are the place to which it moved, etc. So it should be clear now that it never becomes a second passive, and if it connotes receiving the action, it is per accidens or, moreover, not possible; because if the sentence uses a neutral verb, you use it, because you must not use ma. [In this context, accidens means inadvertently, unintentionally.]. I forgot to put a fourth group of neutral verbs, and although it is included in those words of the beginning, you can hardly find a root expressing movement strictly or broadly so called to which this mi etc. is not attached. Nevertheless, because this fourth group of neural verbs is often cited in the Dictionary, the way the other three are, even if any further discussion of the neutral verb and of the mi will not add any special thing to those already discussed, I will say something about them in particular. I therefore say that there are many neutral verbs in which there is no other movement than that which is enough to admit the first passive o f thing and the third

97 passive 0/ place and; this is also sufficient for them to be part of the and not of for example, lablab, as a candle; dalacdac, as fire; dicat, to stick; sauaua, lamas, catauan, to be part of; dalan, to pass, and all similar to them, with which the neutral mi signifies the completion o f the thing being referred to, as has been said about the rest. And the place or quasi-place also admits its third passive ca and an, but it does not belong to this case; for example, calablab that which catches fire, like grass; caricatan, that in which one gets attached (even though it means emotionally); capadtan, quepadtan, like a bird tied; caralanan, as a quarrel or a work, and all admit mi with an, as was said about the rest. I suppose that they all have MANGA of plurality or o f intensity, as each verb requires; for example, MENGAGUTLIANya, MEÑGAGUTLIANla, many parts of the body or many people itching, etc. and that those which express the receiving of the action or as if receiving, even though only as secondary concepts ( identiceor per accidens) all of them make the verbal by putting panga in place of mi; for example, pañgataquiran, pañgapauasan, pañgagutlian, pañgauranan, pañgatuluan, pañgayaldauan, pañgabulanan, pañgayalimoman, pañgayambonan, pañgayandalian, pañgabayaran, pañgacayan, etc. And lastly, I say that, with the future of the third passive (if the root is a verb), and (if the root is a noun), putting the particle am, they become adjective nouns, which express the place or quasi-place where that thing is done; for example pandilouan, bathroom; ligauan, fishing-ground; dulañgan, mine, etc. almonan, throat, etc. Nouns; pindangan, place where they make pindang; liaban, where they make rice cake; etc. and with the names of illnesses; for example, gutlian, sick with scabies; pionan, gouty; gumian, hairy; bunian, nettle-rash; butulan, skinny, etc.

Section 4 The Active MI and the Frequentatives

The neutral mi has a restful job, because all it does is to stop-, the job of this one is more tiresome because it always expresses action, whether somebody else’s or its own, depending on what the roots require; for example, mibaya, to make live coals or to heat up, like an iron; micaunay, to extract, as when you make a belt out of leather; migaua, to pretend, as in lying; micudta, to invent or compose the history or novel; mitula, to compose verses; mialung, to play, etiam cum membro [even with one s organ;] mialit, to device, as a trick; mibata, to suffer. This composition includes the following: dapal, lagaua, saguli, casi, galing, ganaca, aco, añyo, asal; for example, behave like a saint, PIASALAN mong asal banal. Also: uçul, gani, tangca, dangca, adia, saddia, tañara, tagana, talaga, etc. Micubu, miralungdung, milamo, to do these or [other] things as if borrowing them because they are meant to last a short time; picubuan, piralungdungan.

98 pilamuan, the place, or for what they are meant: for example, PICUBUANmo maiz, etc. They also connote combination since they put together the materials out of which are made. [The grammatical technical term is de compañía, of company.]. And the same is true with the roots which require immanent act; for example, miligaya, to enjoy oneself; mitula, to be happy; milasa, to taste; and the same with saya, sigla, saquit, ganaca, etc.; but bear in mind that none of them admits an in the preterite. It is possible that inasmuch as they refer to an action, they are second passives: lungcut has an in the preterite; also mimua, micasbo, mitubud.

MI: Intensification

With the following, it connotes intensification, and they are: mibañgis mibagsi (with an and without it in the preterite), micaluco, milablab, miralacdac (these three, when the nominative is non-living, belong to the neutral mi), misañgil, mirañgin, mirañga with an and without it; the preterite mitacut always has an, as also misama, milugud. See the particle ma. All of the above admit frequentatives, although pronounced differently from the present, because this one is pronounced fast, but the frequentative is pronounced as if staying a little in the first syllable of the verb; for example, miligaya', and some usually use it only, like: sañgit, ñgalip, buri, yassa, biasa, pibibiasnan, etc.

MI: To Make Fun Of

When this mi is joined to roots or verbs whose meaning somehow refers to ridiculing, making fun of, fooling about, they become frequentatives which connote this kind of fooling about or mockery, which consists in either praising as good what is bad, or always and intentionally doing the opposite out of fun; for example. I ask you to hand me the inkstand and you give me the salvadera. I ask you again and you give me the pen; you are that frequentative, misalasala. Another: you ask me, for example, what the meaning of tinapay is, and I tell you that it means a squash; you ask me again, and I answer you camote: I am misalasala, because intentionally, I mess up and you are pisalasala, because all of them have this passive. Misasaria is, for example, the servant who, precisely because I order him to stay in the house, intentionally, on purpose, in order to do the opposite, goes out; I am pisas aria. Someone does a foolish thing and I, to make fun of him, tell him that what he did was admirable: I am misono-sono, mitaro-taro; and the same is true with misudsud-sudsud, mitatalindua, etc.

99 MI: Thwarted Action [and MI: Desire]

This composition is the same, but the meaning is different and more general. It is principally connected with verbs which express action,prevention, disposi tion, etc., and its way of signifying consists in that, after having been started, the action is thwarted because it lacked the end for which it was started, for example, I prepared the food because I expected you to eat and you did not come; I will say MISADIA-SADIA con canan e ca dinatang; PISADIA-SADIA ra can canan, etc. This way of speaking usually goes with a second sentence in order to express that, inasmuch as the action was begun, just so that not everything will be in vain, I will do this or that, for example, MITIPATIPA na co pin man papagcompesal quetang salonan, ngeni mete na ya, MANALO na co mo, since I was not able to go down and hear the confession of the sick person, I will just at least go visit the altars. Another: you come to me borrowing ten pesos; I don’t give you, and I tell you: take one if you want, so that you will not leave with your intent completely unrealized, MISASARIA ca casi ngeta, niyo ining pesos. Belonging to this composition are miaqueacay, lacad, gani, tangas, dangca, tangca, adyia, tubud, talaga, and all those like them. From here comes a very ordinary way of speaking which we explain by saying: you are full ofplans, but you never put them into action; it is expressed with the frequentative; for example, to someone who keeps on preparing to go to confession but never does, PIGANI-GANI mo mong PIGANI-GANI ing pamagcompisal mo; the active, MIGANI-GANI cang MIGANI-GANING magcompisal, etc.; and the same with someone who always answers that he will do miagad and he never arrives, MIAGAD-AGAD cang PIAGAD-AGAD mo mong PIAGAD-AGAD ing pamaquialang mo quing pamagcompesal mo; to the painter who never comes up with the painting, in spite of repeatedly showing that he is preparing to do so, MIUCUL-UCUL ca mong miucul-ucul, you have nothing but plans. And the same with the rest. And bear in mind that even if you hear this composition reconstructed by using the MACA of perfection, the meaning does not change at all.

MI: Frequentatives

Aside from the frequentatives which we have already discussed, you can use them with all the composition of mi,and it means to keep on doing what the root expresses; for example, in all those of the transitive and passive mibalag-balag, keep on allowing things to fall, and that which you keep on allowing to fall, like plates; misui-sui, like a father to a single girl, that she get married, and also that single girl, because it is the passive mi; mitaquid-taquid, and all those of the neutral micudta- cudta, its passive,picudta-cudta, which belong to the active mi;

100 orod, milabon-labon, of the reflexive mi ; and the with which, like a razor orod, piulas-ulas, etc. I don’t see any reason for anyone to make a mistake if one follows the respective rules and ways of signifying of each composition.

Section 5 The Reflexive MI and the Correlative MI

This one also expresses action, so covetous an action that wherever it is attached, in whatever way it can do, it appropriates it. And so, when attached to verbs whose meaning can appropriately be applied, whether to someone else, or to oneself, the action always remains in the doer and becomes reflexive, correspond ing literally to our reflexive, me (myself), te (thyself), se (himself, herself, for example, ulo, to cure someone; miyolo to, cure one’s own self (medice, cura teipsum; physician, cure ; thyself sampat, to beautify; misampat, to beautify oneself; orod, to shave; miorod, to shave one’s own self, even if it is by another’s hand. Belonging to this composition are labon, batbat, omalid, ontay, suclay, ulas, imalan, dasay, dalayap, lar a, asin, aslam; but do not think that with they mean to put salt on your self or to pour vinegar on but to take salt or vinegar, for your food. All those mentioned require the first passive withpi\ for example, PIOROD que ini, this is the razor with which I shaved myself; PIBATBATque ita, that is the whip or lash with which I flagellated myself. Also this, PIOLO mo ini, cure yourself with this medicine; PIIMALAN co iyan; PIULAS yo ita; PIASINmo ining asin. If you eat without a plate, I will tell you: MIPINGAN ca, PIPING AN me ining pingan co, etc.; pibayad, pisali, pilibay are not reflexive, but transitive and irregular. Also belonging to the same composition, although they do not admit the same passive, but they admit the paca of intensity, are larin, sinup, tiñyao, napnap; for example, larin, to repair another thing; milarin, to fix one’s own self; mipacalarin, to fix oneself perfectly well, etc.; and when they admit paca, they are followed by santing, lago, sampat, bayat, banal, lalai, lasing, saua, angsul, asnoc and micapacañyaman, to relish or lick it again and again with great pleasure; bangon, tali; guising does not admit paca. MI: To Acquire

When joined to root-nouns which for the most part signify things which can be possessed or acquired, they also use the subject or nominative to signify that they acquire and that, consequently, they possess them; for example, MISALAPI co ngening datang yang daung, when the ship arrives, I will receive money; the same with MISICAPAT CO , I received money, etc. Belonging to this composition are guinto,bacsao, singsing, alipan, tapis, bandi, sandata, dayat, cabayo, calma, palad, nuan, şalap, dangal, puri, pala, damla, usa, like in the mountains; daguis, like in longlong; asan, like in the lake; dapo,

101 like in the river; bunga like on the tree, etc. Also pertaining to this composition of acquiring, even though they are mate rially equivalent to other Spanish words, are those expressions which were added to the correlative mi; for example, miyanac is to beget children and mialipan, to acquire slaves, like mimanuyang, to acquire a daughter-in-law or son-in-law; so now, biasa yang MIMANUYANG means he knows how to acquire a son-in-law; that is, he knows how to choose one; mapagalpala ing MIAÑA C or MIALIPAN, it is tiresome to acquire children or slaves; because when they come to you, and consequently you have them, you have more people to take care of. The passives of this composition are the third ofpi and an, that from where it came (although not all can admit that something); for example, ingpamagcapitana iyang PISALAPI na; ingpamangalona iyan PISALAPIANA, etc.

MI: Correlation

The function of this one consists in that, when joined to a relative noun, it refers to its correlative without necessarily expressing them; but, as the saying goes fundamento relations, resultat relatio, [if you give the basis of the relationship, the correlate automaticallyfollows]; and so, in the same way, if you express this mi with some relative noun, you implicitly include its correlative; for example, ibpa is a relative noun, because it implies relationship with a son; and the same happens with anac, which implies relationship with a father; now if you join mi with any of them, you not only mention the relative noun which it expresses, but also the correlative which corresponds to it; for example, miibpa does not only express father, but father and son; mianac does not only express the son, but the son and the father; in such a way that to express one term is the same as expressing the other, because every term includes its correlative; although if you want to put it in Spanish, you have to start with that which is expressed, for example, miibpa, father and son; mianac, son and father. Grandfather: To whom is it related? To the grandson; and so, minono, grand father and grandson; apo, grandson; miapo, grandson and grandfather. The same is true with father-in-law and son-in-law, brother-in-law and brother-in-law. If the children or grandchildren, etc., are many, double the anac and apo; for example, mianac-anac; miapo-apo; the children and the father, the grand children and the grandfather. Up to here, you have only said father and son, son and father. And the same is true with miindo, mother and son or daughter; but if you want to call any of them by their proper name, you must not attach mi to the proper name, but to its correlative. Let us suppose that the name of the son is Martin; you will say: Martin Martin and his mother; if I want to say Antonia and her father-in-law, I will say Antonia ilang MICATUYANGAN; Jesus and his mother, Jesus ilang MIINDO; and the same with uncle and nephew, grandfather and grandson, etc.

102 In others, this difficulty is not found because the term is the same in the two correlatives: micapatad, two brothers; mipisan, cousins; miasaua, spouses, mibilas, brothers-in-law. Do you want to say Pedro and his brother? Well say: Pedro ilang MICAPATAD and if there are many brothers, Pedro ordi Pedro ilang MICACAPATAD. The same is true with the rest. Also belonging here are miguino, master and servant; and the same with miprior, mivicario, mibilango, misabuat, micabangca, micuyog, etc.

Section 6 MI of Company

We now reach the famous composition of of company. It is called o f company because it signifies works and things in which there has to be two, at least; for example, bono, to beat; mibono one beating another; present mibobono; preterite, mibono; the concept of quarreling indicates that it proceeds from both with a mutual and simultaneous relation of one action to another; or if it is passive, the things which are nominative of the person who receives the activity, also signify mutual and simultaneous relation in the reception of the action, etc. so that the two actions or passions are considered to be one. Before going any further, notice that mibobono refers to an encounter between two and no more; if they are many, to specify it, double the whole root: mibono-bono. You will now say: which present tense has to double the root even if there are two syllables? Look, if they are two, the first syllable is doubled to get the present; if they are many, the whole root is doubled; for example, misaup, help each other, misasaup, present; but if they are many, say misaup-saup; and the same with the passive pisasaupan if two; pis aup-s aúpan, if many; even if you will also hear them using the structure of the present tense. The verbal, according to how it comes out of the two, is with pa, pamisaup; if they are more, pamisaup-saup. To express the action, according to how it comes out of one, pamaqui; and in order to express the companion in these actions; for example, the sparring partner, the working partner, I must inform you that there is one particle ca which is generally equivalent to our Spanish con [with, co-]; for example, condiscípulo [classmate], conovicio [co-novice], concolega [colleague]. This having been said, since in these actions there is always a companion, it is called o f company. Each of the protagonists is formed with ca and the root; for example, Pedro and Juan quarrel, MIGAGA di Pedro ilang Juan; now, Pedro is the cagaga of Juan and Juan is the cagaga of Pedro; and this is true with all. See the particle ca. This composition has two varieties. The first one is what we have just discussed; namely, that when the action proceeds from two or more; but it has to be an action o f company; what I mean is that the action of one must express precisely a relation to the action of the other, because otherwise they would be partial actions, like those of the rowers, where the action of one is not shown to be related to the action of the other

103 and so we never say, for example, MIGA UDGA UD of company, but gagaud la, using the simple; and this should also be observed in the second variety which we will discuss, under pain of not being able to be the of company, if such relation is not there. This having been said, going back to the first variety, as distinct from the second, it consists in that the action o f company comes from the nominative; for example, Pedro and Juan quarrel, MIG AG A la di Pedro ilangJuan; Francisco and Antonio help each other, MISASAUP la di Francisco ilan ; do not quarrel, e co MIYAMANO; the mapias argue stubbornly, MIYATUA-YATUA la ding mangapia; it is always understood, for example, that they quarrel with each other, that they help each other, that they fight each other, etc. These above-mentioned actions always have a motive fo r what or over what or in what, and also that which. This last one, when put in the nominative, is always expressed with the third passive; for example, ING COPIA PIGAGANDA di Pedro ilang Juan; ING BALE a PISAUPAN dang tinali di Francisco Hang Antonio; ING DAYAT dan piyamanuan da; ING NUNINONG MAGCAPITAN, iyan PIATUAN-ATUAN da ding mangapia; misamac la ding santos quing cabanalan da; ING CAB AN ALAN ding santos PISASAMACAN da or S.AMACAN da, etc. Exceptions to what was discussed because they are irregular are pilibay- libay, pibayad-bayad, as a slave or a prisoner, which is always o f company, and always with the first passive; pisali-sali is frequentative; that which is bought and has no use belongs to the thwarted action. The second variety of this composition consists ordinarily in making it pas sive; it is always the second passive, because the action comes from a different doer, which in the active is the transitive mi; for example. PI ASAUAN AN mo la; active, ican MIASAUA carela; make them quarrel, that is, one against another, PIG AG AN mo la; ican MIG AG A carela; PILAPITAN mo detang caban, put those boxes near each other; ican MILAPITcaretang caban; put these chairs one in front of the other, PITULIRAN mo deangsia, etc. In this consideration, the mi of company which results, for example, MIASA UA, MITULID la ding sia, etc. is the passive because they are where the actions or movements of the transitive mi are received. The following are very appropriate for this com position o f company, lupa, anas, para, alas, ascay, uangis, asal, sucad, asbuc,pantay, abay, etc. See the particle sang.

Section 7 The MI of Alternation and of Competition

Earlier I referred to this as the mi ad invicem [ for each other], and it indeed is, because the ad invicem is the class to which the of company and this one belong, just like animal covering man and horse. The difference consists in

104 that the former is for each other simultaneously and the latter is for each other successively or alternately, so that MISASAUP la is for each other, the action of the two occurring at the same time; MISASA UPAN la is fo r each other, the action of the two occurring not at the same time but alternately; today by me, tomorrow by you; you trim my beard, I will trim your hair; to give what the other gives; carry the burden o f each other, MIRALITAAN cayo. And this same thing is very applicable to good spouses who bear with each other’s limitation, because, for example, the husband is in bad mood in the morning, and the wife tolerates; she is in a worse mood in the afternoon, and the husband bears with her, MIRALITAAN la; and do not say miralitan la, because this one means that he sings popular songs and she listens; she sings and he listens. You see now that this is alternating, just like MIYUYUMALIRAN la, literally, they clean each other alternately; figuratively, MIUMALIRANcata, keep silent and we will keep silent. The opposite MISUSUMBUNGAN, the mesqueros quarrel, and the bars of cheese are discovered; MIQUIQUIBUSAN la, they alternate like the altar boys who alternate with the orimon, etc. So also, because there is this alternation, Pedro, for example, sold a slave to Juan, the latter sold him back to Pedro, you will say: di Pedro Hang Juan MIBABAYARANlan alipan, because one and the other alternate in being the buyer and seller, etc. And the same with miyoyotosan, mipapatauaran, miyuyutañgan, miiyuaran, bearing in mind that, in all of them, the first syllable of the verb is pronounced long, and the rest short until you reach the end. The passives of this composition are always the third, like those of the first variety of company; and in order to distinguish them, one must look at the difference which distinguish one from the other; for example. In this sentence: What is that which they passed from hand to hand? Nanure tang PIRADUANG-ADUANGANda? If this passive is that of MI ofcompany, the actions which look at the nominative of the person who receives the action must be considered as one with respect to it; and this means that the thing is passed from the hand of Juan to that of Pedro and that of the latter to that of Antonio, and that these correlative actions become only one action; if it is of the MI ofalternation, it signifies that the thing is passed, for example, from the hand of Juan to that of Pedro and from that of Pedro back to that of Juan, and from there to that of Antonio, and this thing goes back to that of Juan or Pedro, like a ball, etc. Here you see that the action of one is not considered as one (no se tiene per modum unius) with respect to the action of the other. This having been said, if I say: this is the sword with which they wounded each other, I will say: itipin ing espadang PISUSUGATAN da; that is the club with which they clubbed each other; tayongpalucang PIPAPALUCAN da; and the same goes with the rest belonging to this composition, so distinct from that of company, because the actions do not connote company, but as alternating; one action has no connection with the other, or the action of one with respect to that of the other.

105 COMPETITION

This composition which I label COMPETITION connotes rivalry in all the verbs appropriate to it; for example, we mn a race, damned be the last, MIPULATYAN or MITAGALANcata;let us see who is faster, MILICSIANcata; MISALUSUAN cata; let us try the bancas and see which runs faster; MITUTURANANla, they vie with each other, they compete, to see who hits the mark, etc. When the verb can be applied either to alternation or to competition, for example, mibabataan, mibabasibasan, mibabarilan la, mipapanan la, which can mean alternating in shooting a gun or an arrow, and also competing to see who shoots better; to find out what they signify, all that you have to do is to find out if those actions carry an extraneous object; and if they do carry, for example, MIBABARILAN la, MIPAPANAN la quetang ayup, it is one of competition; otherwise, it is one o f alternation. And take note that the competition between the contenders, like for an office or a woman, is not expressed with this composition but with the MI of company and the verb aslat; for example, MISASLATla quetang babay or quetang oficio, etc. The passives are like those of alternation except that these ones do not indicate competition and those of competition always indicate it. And so, both in the MI of alternation and in the MI of competition, the verbal action is with pa, always retaining the an; for example, ing PAMISA UPAN da, ing PAMIBACALAN da, etc. To express the action of one, use pa and maqui; for example, ingpamaquisaupana; ingpamaquibarilana. The companion is expressed with ca, retaining an also; for example, casaupan, cabarilan, etc. Which are the ones that admit the neutral verb of with anl Or do all admit it? [We are asking these questions] even though we already said much about this point when we said that the candle which is lighted is with an; and regarding the lighted candle on the altar, we said, for example, that, considering it as a neutral verb of ma: masalaing, mesalaing, it cannot be misalaingan [sic, same as the next], in spite of the fact that it is also misalaingan [sic same as the previous one], like the cloth which is accidentally burned. We will reserve the explanation of one and the other of these for our forthcoming discussion of when the neutral verb of ma means to stop and when not.

Section 8 The Verbal and Nominal MICA

I call it verbal because its first use is to make verbs. You pronounce it by attaching ca to mi, as if the two were only one word separated from the verb, hyphenating it after the ca; for example, mica-metong; the present doubles the ca and attaches the two ca to mi, hyphenating it after the second: micaca-metong. If there are more than two, you pronounce the two ca such that the first goes with mi, the second with the root; for example, mica-cametong. The verbal, if it has

106 two , pamica-metong;if it has more, pamica-cametong. To express the action as one coming out of someone, maquica-metong; its verbal pamaquica-metong. Concerning the comparisons, we will say something later. Its way of signifying in all the verbs to which it is attached is easily the same as the mica-metong; that is, the two or more which carry the connotation of agree about one operation; for example, MIC AC A BURI la, they agree on loving each other; MICA CA-SAMAla, they agree on despising each other; they equally love each other and equally despise each other. Their passives are either second, or third o f object. In these two examples, it is not possible to have passives, because they are immanent actions and have no other object than the doers themselves, who also become the receivers of each other’s actions; but if you add an object to them, they can admit the third; for example, they agree in wanting this thing and also in despising it, iyan PICACA-BURIANda mañga PICACA-SAMANda, etc. If you want to make it second passive, use the structure of the MI ofcompany with an extraneous doer; for example, aeon MICABURI or carela, I will make them agree on loving each other; passive, the second o f company. PICA CABURIAN,PICABURIAN, PICABURIcula, etc. So also la, they are having an illicit affair; this [esta] cannot admit an object, as the Spanish itself shows; but, yes, second passive, like the past ones, by adding a third one of the devil, and it will then be; ingMICALUGUD carela, PICALUGURAN, PICALUGUD na la; the same also with micasangil, micasangit, picamua. It admits the third passive of the object, and the second o f company with the doer, which is always transitive mi. With these verbs micayari-metong, bitasa, sungdo and their brothers, it admits the second passive o f company, not only with an extraneous doer, as those mentioned, but also when you put in the nominative the thing which the action intends; for example, PICACA-METONGAN, PICAMETONGAN, PICAMETONG or PICACASUNGDUAN, PICASONGDOAN, PICASUNGDO ra ing lub ; and the same with PICABITASA ra ingpiamanuan, PICAYARIrangpamitango ra. And bear in mind that even without an extraneous doer (with which all those of this composition admit the second passive), when we say that they admit the third o f object, if that object is the motive of the action, it becomes the third passive and the doer; for example, if they are angry with or despise Juana, she is picasaman, picamuan, and she is also the MIC AMU A and the MICASAMA carela; as if in that sentence of the MI of company, MIG AG A la quetang copia, itang copia, we would say: ing copia yang MIG AG A carela, it would be well said; and so you will be able to observe it in that composition and in this, whenever the object which the third passive looks at is the motive; and it also goes with the second o f company like a true doer; for example, PIGAGANor PIGAGAor detang migaga; PICACASAMAN, PICASAMAN, PICASAMA or non Juana detang micasama.

107 When this composition touches the verb lugud, since with the root it does not signify to love, but with caluguran; to refer to those who agree on loving each you do not say micalugud, because as we already said, it is a lascivious love, but micaluguran with its third passive the ; object and although some verbs, like: sungsung, balaus, langpus, lutas and some others, not only admit the second passive o f company, lik eyari,metong, etc.; but also the third, picasungsungan, etc.; it is not in the sense that doers are micasun etc. but in the sense that they are micalutasan, micasungsungan, micabalausan, so that materially one variety is the same as the other, although they are looked at from different aspects; like every lighted candle is misalaing and is distinguished from itself in that it is misalaingan. See the neutral verbs of ma. In case you hear micasalusuan, micagaliñgan, micalicsian la, do not confuse them with these ones because they are competence together with the passives of ca and an which connote excess as you will see in the passives of ma.

NOMINAL MICA

All those which we have said are made verbs by this particle are also made nouns without modifying anything except that they are pronounced differently and they make use of the future, for example, mica-buri, when ca is pronounced long, it is a verb; the two who agree on loving or wanting each other', but micacaburi, all syllables pronounced fast, refers to the two lovers', like mica-lugud, carry on an illicit affair; micacalugud, the two pronounced fast, the woman and the man, as distinct from those who are not having an illicit affair, where the ca is pronounced long and the structure used is the future. The same with mica-cametong, the two agree on one thing; micametong, pronounced fast is the noun of two companions in the union. And that way with all the rest. When the two companions in this composition are more than two, the structure used is the present, but with a distinct pronunciation; for example, micaca-lutas, the two ca are joined to mi,and as if one lingers a bit in the second, it is the present of the two who agree to finish the business; and if they are more than two, the first one is pronounced with the mi and the second with the root; for example, mica-calutas, present tense of many verbs; and this one also serves to indicate the companions who exceed two. There are other companions who seem to belong to this particle but do not; they belong instead to the MI of company, where, as we said, the companion in the quarrel of two in migaga is cagaga ; this is one of them; to refer to the two, attach the mi, because one and the other is cagaga, and you will say micagaga, the two protagonists quarrelling; micalo comes from milo, the two companions in helping each other, even if they are fourteen; from miinum and misulo, those who eat or drink jointly, macainum, micasulo the companions, etc.; micalatic, micasuman, micasantol, etc., the special partners, (los compadres)

108 Last Section

Section 9 MICA of Novelty/Plurals

First point. This composition joined to the roots of things which happen from time to time, or outside of what is expected, signifies this novelty, as a thing which regularly surprises people; and to indicate frequency, double the for example, micadurun, to have locusts; micacadurun, it is repeated every short while; and the same goes with these roots, bungo, salot, salon, doloc, silab, saquit, danup, salat, laui, bulutung, etc. In all of them, one speaks without a subject nor a nominative. Those which follow are always predicated of the second subject or nominative, with the same way of signifying; for example, MIC ARAPOyening ilog, this river has crocodiles and it never had them before. If you are afraid of crossing a certain stream which I know does not have crocodiles, I will tell you: sapa ali ya MICA CARAPO, this stream never had them, or there was never any in it; MICAYUSA ya ining bundoc; MICAYASAN ya ining ilog; MICABUNGA ining dutung; MICAPILAC ining daung, this ship carries a lot o f money, it is a novelty because it was hardly expected. Belonging to this composition are guinto, palay, bandi and all those which signify ordinary and obtainable things. Those which are predicated of an inanimate thing admit the third passive of the place or thing from where: nanong PICARAPOANA ining Hug? From where did this river have crocodiles? ing bundoc or ing bolos iyan PICARAPOANA, from the mountain or from the flood. Those which have subject in the nominative also admit the third passive from where, nanung PICAGUINTOAN or PICABANDIAN mo? ing dulungan or ing dayat iyan PICAGUINTOAN or PICABANDIAN co\ and also the first passive o f motive or o f movement', for example, nanu tang PICAPALE mo? ing sipag cong galao or ing linibe co iyan PICAPALE co. And if the from where is the same as the motive, it will admit the first and the third; for example, dening bayabas ding PICAYABIAS co or co\ these guavas which I bartered, for example, were the motive why I got clean rice and also that from where I got clean rice', or put in the nominative the person from whom or from where he got them, and always in the third; for example, PICAYABIASAN co detang anac carering bayabas, from those boys, I got clean rice through these guavas, etc. Following this composition are gutli, alimpuyu, tigsa, tamu, cutujugmu, lungcut, gula, tula, tacot, sucal lub, dinay, puri, damla, micacamal, micamura, like what happens one day, then the next day, in the Parian [Chinatown, where the price of commodities is high one day, and low another day]; with its first and third passive.

109 It also goes with the following roots although its way of signifying is different, and it is impossible to give the exact Spanish equivalent. Micasala, to fall or to commit a fault; micautang, to fall into debts or to contract them; micautang, to fall or to get into an obligation to pay, not what one bought, but what one broke or lost; micatiban, to fall into an error; for example, you think that today is Wednesday, a holyday, and so you came Thursday; micatiban ca\ if you came on Wednesday, the agreed day and by some accident you moved it to Friday, ing miércoles or MICATIBAN queca. Try to put that in Spanish, which must never be in the transitive. If you want to return and it is a holyday, I will tell you: do not go, uling MICAPANAON ngeni, because now the time has come for you to enjoy yourself; if you answer me that there will be an occasion or time, you will say: MICA PANAON pug. Belonging to this composition are tagun, libay, pali, dimla, etc. The passives, like the preceding ones, are the first and the third. Second point. When this mica is joined to some verbs of intransitive actions, it expresses plurality ofacts, which are mostly done out of confusion; for example, micapulai, to run from one place to another, like someone who does not know to whom to run; micaculisac, to run shouting here and there, like a woman rattled because her house is being robbed; micalañgutngut, to gnash the teeth, as one who is asleep or as a result of pain, like the damned; micasalobong, he who bumps into somebody many times; micabalatong, to err many times, either because one is in a hurry, or because, for example, he does not know the lesson; the same with baliñgus, balaquid, subsub, baligao, balinas, sagouil, pulpuc, pungcul, and to this also belong lagusgus, langutac, dabibil, dabulbul, the continuous strokes of flowing water. Also belonging to this composition are all those of micapa, like micapaticdao, micapalucloc, without the pa, and they all admit the first passive, either ofmotive, for example, ing PICACULISAC na, etc., ox o f movement, although it is difficult to understand it; for example, PICABALINAS or PIC ASAL UBONG co ya, etc. Lastly, belonging to this composition are the adjectives of ma which, when with mag, indicate to show, when with magca, indicate intent and intensity, and when with mañga, indicate plurality. In this composition, change m to c, and attach and you get the plural; for example, from maratna, micaratna; from maputi, micaputv, from malasing, micalasing, etc. The difference between these and those of mañga is that mañga expresses plural as a mass, mica distributes, for example, mangatapang means the brave ones, like the beggar’s pan where everything enters', but micatapang means the brave ones, taking each one distributively, as if saying that each one of them is a Bernardo. Now you will be noticing the frequentatives and their way of signifying in every member of the body of this composition. Those of the first, like micadurun, micabungo, micaalimpuyo, micabulutung, micasalapi, micapalay, micadapo, etc. are constructed by doubling the root; if it has three syllables, the first one; for example, micadurun durum, micadaporapo. Its way of signifying is that, when

110 that which the root expresses comes, it comes full blast or without end; for example, MICADURUNDURUNngeni e napiyayangga the locusts came late, but now that they came, they came all at once; MICADARAPO yang Hog, e la pabilang; there were no crocodiles then, but now that they came, they are so many that you cannot count them; MICASALAPI ya itang tauo; as if to say: that person never knew what a real was, and when he got one, it was such that he did not know what he had, etc. The same is true with micabubulutung, micabungo-bungo, micasalot-salot, micasalon-salon. But bear in mind that when they are predicated of a subject in whom they indicate physical ugliness, they use this way of speaking either to exagger ate the appearance or to praise it more; for example, you quarrel with your sister, who has smallpox, and to revenge, you call attention to this ugliness, exaggerating it, even if she does not have many marks, inyapin MICABUBULUTUNG ca or MICABULAG-BULAG ca, although she is only blind in one eye. And, the opposite, if she is somewhat sickly, for example, for having worked for her brothers, you stress the illness to praise her, you say: MICASALON-SALONA ca quingpamiliñgon mo carela; either in favor or against, depending on the root and the context. Somewhat belonging to this construction are those of the second member, although some roots vary somehow, for example, micacasala connotes frequency only; MICA UTANG-UTANGyay Pedro,following the constructions given above; that is, he never borrowed anything but once he started, there is no dog nor cat to whom he does not owe something. It admits another mode: for example, MICAUTANG-UTANG lan apolon pesos ox MICA UTANG-UTANG cong apulong pesos ? as if saying: what kind of debt is that of ten pesos? It is nothing. Or what kind of respectable man is one who owes ten pesos when he is ready to pay a thousand? Micacautang is the thwarted action; for example, he borrowed so he could go into business, and he did not go into business, micatiban-tiban or ; this one only signifies as a frequentative; micacapanaun is like and so with micapali-pali, micarimla-rimla, etc. Those of plurality like micapulayi, micabalatung, micabaligao, etc., whose first syllable is doubled are purely frequentative; the plurals, when the root can have an action, cease to be plural when the root is doubled and they signify like the first ones; for example, about one who never used even to smell wine is now very drunk, MICALASING-LASING ya ; n and the same with tapang, datna, sampat, puti, tuling and their brothers. This composition is equivalent to what in Spanish we say that we have more than enough; for example, we needed a certain thing, and we could not have it: but now we get more of it than we need, ngeni MICALALO-LALO na, MICABIGLA-BIGLAna, etc.

I l l CHAPTER 8 THF. PARTICLE MAQUI

This particle has four functions: to introduce oneself, to procure, to enter and to have. In this last function, it is invariable. In the other three, its conjugation in the present tense uses maqui, the ma pronounced somewhat long; in the future tense maqui is pronounced fast; in the preterite tense In the passive, you change w top in all the tenses. The verbal with pa,pamaqui, which is the future, the action is fast. This having been said, let us see its first function, which is the most general.

Section 1 MAQUI: To Introduce Oneself

I don’t think there is anything that intrudes more than this maqui. You find it wherever it can share something, even if only figuratively, and what is more, even if it is a matter of distributing daggers and clubs. First, let us look at the verbs of MI of company, and take note of it well, because it is not enough that the root be among those which admit this mi for maqui to be used where there is no for example, gaga\ if you want to say quarrel with him, you must not use maqui: MAQUIGAGA ca queya; nor PA QUIGA GA N moya; but GAGAN moya. In order that those verbs can use the mi,it has to presuppose reciprocity, as when we say: quarrel with then it is all right to say MAQUIGAGA ca PAQUIGAGAN moya, because it presupposes MIGAGA, and it enters at the middle or part of the action. Given this backdrop, whenever there is the MI of company or o f alternation or o f competition or the verbal MICA, this maqui always enters to express that part of the action which is its turn as one of many; and so, in all the above-mentioned compositions, I said that the composition, since it comes out from one, has to be said with maqui; for example, of company: MIGAGA lan Pedro Han Juan; y Pedro MEQUIGAGAya can Juan',y Juan MAQUIGAGA ya can Pedro; bearing in mind that when those compositions have passives, they have maqui; and even if the do not have passives, as in this example, there are passives for it; for example, PAQUIGA GA nen Pedro y Juan or PAQUIGAGAnen Juan y Pedro; they are third passives. We also said that when the MI of company expresses the nominative of the quarrel, for example, migaga lang PEDRO ILAN JUAN can Antonia, Pedro and Juan quarrel over Antonia, the motive is placed in the nominative and it requires the third passive: Y ANTONIAN PIGAGAN di Pedro ilan Juan. The same composition admits the maqui in connection with the action of each one: PAQUIGAGA nan Juan can Pedro; iyan PAQUIGAGA nan Pedro can Juan. The same is true with MI o f alternation; for example, MITABACAN la di Francisco ilan Pablo; y Francisco MAQUITABACAN ya can Pablo; y Pablo MAQUITABACANya can Francisco. The action pamaquitabacan [sic], if it is of the

112 two: pamaquitabacan [sic]. Passive: PAQUITABACAN nen Francisco y Pablo-, PAQUITABACAN nen Pablo y Francisco.If the motive, for example, were those pesos, put it in the nominative because the action comes from the two, you will say: DETANG PESOS ding PITABACAN di Francisco ilang Pabla, considered as coming from one, PAQUITABACANEN Franciscoy Pablo caretang pesos or detang pesos ding PEQUITABACAN Pablo can Francisco-, and the same with all the rest; and with them they can admit the first passive o f movement-, for example, e mo co IPAQUIGAGA or PAQUITABACAN can cay, etc. The same rule is followed by maqui, whatever way it is introduced; for example, you join the children in their games, MAQUIALONG ca caring anac; PAQUIALONGAN mo ding anac, third; you bring him to play with the other children, IPAQUIALONG me caring aliuang anac. Another one: you went to wash clothes with those who were washing clothes, MAQUIPAMIPIca caring mamipi; if you washed that cloth with them, PAQUI carela itang imalan\ which you will notice in the above-mentioned ones o f company, and I tell you that you should not judge that, just because the examples given are motive, it is not the same as in any other thing; for example, when the principal pinggan are joined with the plates, mibilang la caring pinggan-, PIBILAÑGAN do ding pinggan-, the maqui and paqui come in; for example, ding pinggan PAQUIBILANGAN na ning metong quetang metong, etc. Neither is there anything special about maquitolong; for example, MEQUITOLONG co queya; PEQUITOLONGAN co ya\ and if I helped with one ganta of rice, meto pating abias ing PEQ the same with MAQUIAPUS co queya or quing cabanalan na\ PEQUIAPUSAN co ing cabanalana. Maquiupa and maquisugo do not indicate a relationship to companions, even if they have, but the one who pays the opa or the boss of the work; mequiupa co or mequisugo co CAN PEDRO; pequisuguan or pequiupan quey Pedro, I received opa from Pedro or I worked for Pedro for pay; and as opa he gave me a carabao, PEQUIUPAN co neman itang damulag. The first passive, those carried for this; PEQUISUGO or PEQUIUPA co la can Pedro-, PEQUIUPA queng damulag, first passive, I had my carabao rented, etc. I now move to the more difficult point. When there is an inclusion, and if this has to finish in the passive, what corresponds to those among which another thing is included? For example, let us suppose that somebody is washing clothes to which the second passive corresponds: pipián co ining imalan\ I mean that I wash the piece of cloth with that bundle of clothes or while washing these. Should I say PAQUIPIAN [sic] or PAQUIPIPI mo ining paño? So that you can understand this, take as a general rule that there is never a second passive in this way of speaking, because the first thing that is found in such ways is the movement and application of what is introduced to what is introduced; and this, if you know how to distinguish it from that o f complement, will never fail you because it is always first passive and so you must say: PAQUIPIPI me ining paño, with

113 such force that the same thing happens even in the finest second passives; for example, you buy a horse and a pig and I tell you: bu this hat also, I must say: PAQUISALI me ingcupia; ausan mey Pedroy alsoFrancisco', call Diego, PAQUIYAUSmey Diego; cuan mo iti; cuan mo ita; PAQUICUANmo ini, and you will not miss it, even if it is ff [facerefacere,facerefieri, see chapter 12] you will say: paquipainum (first [passive]), also give him water to drink, and if this paqui has such a force that what at first glance should be second passive becomes fist passive, much better, and there is no reason to doubt that it will conserve the first where it finds it; for example, suppose that you ask someone to carry some letters and saypatad co or pabal co dening sulat, which first passive; now I say ask them to carry this one also; I must say, using also the first passive, PAQUIPATAD or PABAL me ini', there is no doubt about this at all. Another thing that needs to be understood well, when paqui comes with what is assumed to be in the third passive; for example, if you write a letter and I tell you write also, you might doubt whether it is paquisulat orpaquisulatan. About this difficulty, what you should take as certain is that whenever the third passive of anan comes before, the paqui can follow, as you can see in the following examples: send Pedro, send Juan, patdanan me y Pedro, patdanan me y Juan; also send Francisco, PAQUIPATDAN AN ME y Francisco; daptanan daptanan meng mayapy Juan; PAQUIDAPTANANmeng mayapy FrIn this rule, I don’t see why one should err, and this one, even if it is among those of or ad invicem [for each other]; for example, mipatdanan, which means to send to each other, like if you send him chocolate and he reciprocates to you with cacao or some other thing, paquipatdanan;and the same with miabiyayan, paquiabiyayan. You will always notice this same thing and whenever the nominative of paqui is conceived as purely an end-point to where something is going to stop, even if the third passive ends in an; for example,pahalan mey Pedro, etc., m ey Juan; but if it is conceived not as purely an end-point, but as something that has to be introduced, and as applied by the doer to the other who is doing, it follows the rule o f movement, that is, use the first passive. This having been said, my answer to the difficulty is that you must say PAQUISULAT mo ini and not paquisulatan, because it is conceived as a movement and an application of the paper which it introduces. Concerning the active voice of this maqui, you have to know that in some verbs, it is ambiguous. I will give you two examples, which I think will be enough for you to understand me: maquisilu can be active and neuter, because if one comes to place traps with others who are also putting them, it will be active; if he passes and falls in the trap, it is neuter. Maquibatbat, to come and whip, and also to bring them among those who are whipped; the same thing will happen in maquiroloc (there is no maquimaruloc), although this one more commonly expresses neutrality: to be burned with somebody else.

114 When this maqui is joined to nouns, it retains the same concept of introducing oneself to be part of the way it fits in the root; for example, maquisiuala, introduce oneself to take part in the voice of the other, that is to say, to speak or sing like him, imitate or mimic his voice; maquiquisiuala, to do this often; , to introduce oneself among slaves, to deal with or communicate with them; maquiquialipan, to do this frequently; maquipugut or maquipugot-pugot, with Aetas; maquitauo-tauo, maquianac-anac, a boy who meddles with elders, or a man who meddles with boys; one who is inferior in age or quality who introduces himself and deals with those who are above him, is metaphorically referred to as MAQUIGUSI-GUSIya e tampayac man, the little cruet tries hard to become a large earthenware jar. This composition admits frequentatives the same way as the protocompounds, either by doubling the first syllable of the particle or the second; for example, MAMAquiapus or maQUQUIapus, MAMAquisugo, MAMAquiupa or MAQUIQUIupa, MAMAquigaga or maQUIQUIgaga, etc. The first one indi cates frequency, the second one indicates diminution, either in the action, in the objects, with their passives like the rest.

Section 2 MAQUI: TO TRY TO

When attached to those roots which in some way express a direction or a tendency towards any thing it signifies trying to get it. Let the model be ungguit, which means to try or to aim at like a jewel, and for greater energy, it admits this maqui; for example, the devils try hard to make us become part of their group, MAQUIUNGQUIT la ding diablos quing miqueque carela. Another one: Do not induce abortion, e ca MAQUIPAQUICUAN. Another: I will try to get him or to know him through the voice, aeon MAQUISIUALA queya, etc. It is ordinarily heard as passive, where the thing which is attempted is put in the nominative, and it is in the third passive, for example, try to gain the indulgences, PAQUIABUTAN mo ING CAPATAUARAN; PAQUIABUTAN co ING CATULIRAN co, I will try to obtain my right; I will try to to attain the glory PAQUIRASNGANco ing BANUA; try to know it or to ascertain it, or to clarify it, PAQUIBALUANor PAQUISUGIRANor PAQUIUSTANmo, etc.

SECTION 3 MAQUI: To Complete

This way of signifying consists in making the doer join what remains to be done to what has already been done so that, given what is presupposed and what is joined to it, the work becomes complete and finished. It is more often in the passive, that is,

115 the third, where the thing which is being completed is in the nominative. As a model example, take maquiyari, which means to finish perfectly. I have started working. I still need to perform some more strokes to finish it; if then, for example, they call me, I will say: wait, I will just finish this work which I am doing ali ca copa ininan. Another example: one is cutting a tree and he wants to leave it half- done; well, I tell him PAQUIPUNGCAN me pa iyang dutung, finish cutting it by adding what is lacking to that which is already done. It is for this way of speaking that this composition was constructed. In this sense, you can confidently use the following: lasac, titi, asuay, sir a, and according to some, also sulat, sarol, doloc; but if you want to remove all doubts, if you are not sure if it is correct to use it, see any of the following: paquiarian, paquilutasan,paquiluran, paquilangpusan, paquiganapanan, and this way you will avoid being misunderstood for using what should not be used.

SECTION 4 MAQUI: To Have/To Own

This maqui is invariable and always has the accent in the i: maqui. It indicates that the subject or nominative has what is expressed by the root to which it is attached, and principally that he has it as the owner, master or author; for example, maquibalay, he who has the house as its owner; God is Lord and Maker of all things, ing G.n.t. [guinu tang] Dios ing MAQUIDAPAT nano; Calderon is the author of this stage play,y Calderon iyang queting comedia. This format is applicable to the rest; for example, maquiiqui, to have a tail; maquibalu, to have certitude; maqi catubaran, to have partial deafness, to be partially deaf; and so maqui guinto, maqui palay, maqui pilac, maqui casalanan, etc.

116 CHAPTER 9 THE PARTICLE MA

Section 1 Neutral Verbs of MA and Their Formation

Starting with this, the general rule is that to form the present of all the verbs, place ma in place of the first iof the present of the first passive; for example, in this root aral, the present of its first passive is iyayarak, put in place of the first and you get MAyayaral, which is the present of ma, and this is true with all the rest; for example, MAyuyuma, MAtutula, MApapno, MAgagtal, MAbalbal, etc. To form the preterite of those which begin with a vowel, attach the particle to the root, but change a to e\ for example, tula, preterite MEtula; and so, MEsucul, MEruluc, etc. If the root begins with a vowel, insert y between the particle and the root; for example, aral, preterite meYaral; agtal, preterite meYagtal; orod, preterite meYorod. The preterite of some irregulars changes the first vowel to and attaches only the m of the particle to it; for example, apno, preterite MIpno; aslam, preterite Mis lam] asías, preterit eMIsias, etc. To form the future of all the roots which do not begin with a vowel, just attach ma to the root; for example, balbal, future ; saul, future ; doloc, future MAroloc, etc. If the root begins with a vowel and it has a future, insert between the a of the particle and the first letter of the root; for example, aral, future maYaral; from uma, future maYuma from; orod, future ; from albay, future maYalbay, from agtal, future maYagtal, etc. I said if it has a future, because no root which is an abstract noun begins with a vowel like ayap, asías, aslam, or with a consonant like lago, santing and about all the remaining abstracts, I say that none of them has a future of ma because with ma they are adjectives. To proceed with more clarity in the explanation of the uses of these neutral verbs of ma, I will separate them from those compositions where this particle adds something to what the simple root signifies; and now I will treat only the verbs where the ma does not add anything to the simple, but only signifies that the subject or nominative stops only at what is predicated of it by the connotation of the root to which it is attached. Although the neutral verbs of ma properly as such, about which we are now talking, have different origins, because some presuppose the simple neutral verb, like madurunut which presupposes durunut ; others presuppose the active verb, like mebatbat, which presupposes bitbat ; others which the ma converts into verbs, like mebina, mebenat, mabenus, mebanal, etc; nevertheless, all these neutral verbs of ma, as such, are the same in that they indicate passion or quality which is attached to the subject; for example, to become cold, hot, dry, wet, white, black, ugly, handsome, good, bad, wounded, corrupt, hurt, happy, sad, etc.

117 This having been said, the greater difficulty consists in finding out when to use the simple neuter or the ma, because our Spanish does not distinguish them, because it looks properly only at the simple; for example, for these two Kapampangan verbs, bisa ca and mebisa ca, we only say you ; and for these: durunut and marurunut, we only say to get rotten; and so, lulunao and malulunao, to get used to, etc. I already answered this difficulty when I explained the use of the neutral verb and that of mi.I therefore say that when you speak of a transient function or exercise, or its hie et nunc [ here and now], then you should use the simple. That of ma presupposes this exercise or transition of the simple and explains the meaning more perfectly saying that it stops as such; for example for this Spanish, you wanted, if you speak here and now in which you gave your “yes” (in other words, your wanted), you have to use the simple, BISA ca; if you speak of that yes, already given and therefore you have stopped the act of wanting, you will use the ma\ MEBISA ca; and since in the preterite, one and the other is verified, each one retaining its concept, you can use both. Also, to refer to that actual and transient progression of the thing, for example, that it is rotten, you use the simple DURUNUTya; if you don’t speak of that progression as transient, but of what inseparably follows from it, which is to finish or go on getting rotten or go taking advantage o f the corruption, you will say madurunut; and this is true with all the remaining neutral verbs and of ma. But concerning the future tenses, take note first that no abstract, of which we will treat later, has a future of ma; and so, if you want to say, for example, it will become white or it will end up becoming white, black, beautiful, brave, etc., you must always use the simple: mutya, tulingya, santingya, tumapangya, etc. Secondly, when the root is an adjective, you must not use the simple, but the ma; for example, suffer in order that you will become or end up being just, mibata ca ba can MABANAL, not ba can banal; step on it so that it will get rotten, DAPACANmoya bayan marunut, not bayan dunut; biasa, adjective: [not] magaral c a ’t ba can biasa, but ba can mabiasa; because the roots which are adjectives cannot be used as future; but the root, (the simple is neither an adjective, nor a compound with m a) uses the simple and the ma; for example, ba can lumao or ba can malumao, each one retaining its concept. When the roots need precisely the ma for them to become verbs, like mabenat, mabina, mabenus, etc., it is necessary to use the neutral verb of ma, because there is no other choice; the same thing quasi happens with the active verbs, which with ma are always neutral; for example, mabatbat, masucul, masugat, etc.; where there is no other choice either. I said this because, inasmuch as with ma they are passive, one can perhaps doubt if belong to the simple passive or the passive of ma; for example, in this Spanish sentence, he was whipped, whether to say or ya. These doubts can be resolved by bearing in mind what we have said about the use of the simple and of ma, as in BISA ca and MEBISA ca. Before placing the protocompounds which the verbs of this composition admit, I will place its passives, not one by one, which would never end, because there are innumerable verbs which it includes, but some examples of every kind.

118 The first kind has a few verbs, which are those whose roots do not become adjectives with ma; for example, marunut, masilim, mabeñgi, malumao, malutas, mapno and matay, etc.; and assuming that here we are not dealing with the passive of ica, but only with the third passive of ca and an, which is the proper passive of the neutral verbs of ma; I say that the general rule is that one should consider carefully each neutral verb of ma, what it says or can say about any reference to another; because if it does not say such a reference, it will not admit any passive, and if it expresses one, two, three references or concepts, it will admit the passive of ca and an that number of times. Given that backdrop, marunut only indicates the reception of a thing with out reference to another; it is then not capable of a passive. Masilim and mabengi refer to those included in the neutral verb ma; for example, MEBENGI or MEBENGI cami; and so, if you put the receiver in the nominative, use the third passive of ca and an,CACABENGINAN, CABENGIAN, QUEBENGIAN cami, depending on the time one is talking about; and the same with casiliman, etc. Malumao refers to a thing to which one gets used; and so when put in the nomi native, it admits that act of receiving. You will say: QUELUMAUAN co, for example, ingpamagyunal. Mapno and matmo are irregular, and are also such in referring to an action, for example, CATMOAor detang banga; ing carunutan or calutasan, pangarunut orpangalutas are not third passives. Matay refers first of all to the place, like matudtud; for exmple, ing cruz a QUEMATAYANning G.n. t. Jesu Cristo; ing dase a CATUDTURANco, etc. and given the object, as a place where or from whom, they also admit it; for example, I die of laughter at you, MAMAMATE cong maili queca: CAMAMATAYAN da CANG cailian, like saying, you are AT WHOM I die o f laughing or who causes me to die of laughter; or who makes me die of laughter. CAMAMATAYAN da CANG cailian. It also indicates something about the interested one in two ways; for example, the horse which you lent me died fo r you, not fo r me, mete ya QUECA, not CACO; ICANQUEMATAYA na, aliACO, etc. And this pattern is also applied to quematayan CO, although it does not admit an active; it is like saying: meteya CACO, mesira or melauiyaCACO; quesiran or quelauian CO; although they also usually put the interested in the nominative; for example, malaui CO, quelauian CO. Here they conceive the subject of the ma, the subject as the place from where, the same way that in the mi the same subject is like a placefrom where; for example, miluluualor milulual or milalagay or mibabait CACO; quelualan or quelegayan or quebaitan CO; like mirarasug QUECA, ICAN cararasuga na, etc. The second variety embraces many. Count if you can the adjectives of ma, to which so many neutral verbs belong, and see the various points to which they refer, either inwhich, or from where or to whom, etc., some more, others less, and because of this, it is not easy to look for the passives. For example, this first point: these third passives, calalagoan, calagoan, quelagoan (comes out of the neutral verb of ma: malalago, malago, melago), this one makes reference for example to

119 the person for whom she is malago. Let me give this example: MALA GO CA CO ing lago ning ana co, e man MALAGO QUECA, the mother says: she is beautiful to me, even though she is not to you; you now see that ma is related to the caco and the queca; put them in the nominative and give them this third passive: CALALA GOAN CO quing lago na, e CA man CALALAGOAN you now see that this malago is not a word in the future tense as future, but an adjective, which is enough for it to have a passive, as you will also see later. These passives include quebangloan, queparasan, quesantingan, quepaitan, and others which indicate such references. The second point. They also admit calagoan, quelagoan. The calagoan by its mode of signifying, is like present and future; it comes from the neutral verb of ma, malalago, melago, to finish the act of admiring the beauty, and the passive expresses the aspect where that being admired or that beauty is; for example, ing calagoana tiyo quing MATA na; in other words, ing MATA na and it is here in this part if you compare it to another; for example, ing QUELAGOANA quea ing MATA na, the beauty where she excels are her eyes. You will rarely or never find an adjective of ma which does not admit these two concepts, namely, the where or in what part do you find that which the root expresses, and the excess; for example, nan QUETUA na, his years are in which his old age is found; apat a BANUA ing QUETUA na cacu, he is four years older than I; MEBANALya quing PAMAGYUNAL na; ing PAMA GYUNAL nan QUEBANALA na, his fasting is where his virtue is; MEBANALya caco quing PAMAGYUNAL; ing PAMAGYUNAL QUEBANALANA caco, the virtue of fasting is where he is ahead of me; limanTALIRIing QUECABA na caco, his height is five fingers; if you add queca, it will mean that he is taller than you by five fingers; and this is so in all the rest where you ordinarily speak in the preterite, because ordinarily you speak of the thing in facto esse [as something done already]. The verbs of this second variety which do not express quality nor form but passions [emotions, feelings] are easier, because you at once know what experience is referred to by ma; for example, matutula, maliligaya, masasaya, etc. It is clear that they talk in terms of the object in which or to which the process of experiencing ends; put this object in the nominative and it admits the third passive; for example, MALILIGAYA, MELIGAYA, or MALIGAYA(although this one serves as future, it is not, the Spanish considers it as an adjective) co quing tula banua; ing tula banuang CALILIGAYAN, QUELIGAYAN or CALIGAYAN co; catacutan looks at the object as a place from where his fear comes; carinayan, looks at it the way he looks at catulan, etc. Those of the third variety which are the ones that express the passions [the process of receiving the action] of the active verbs, for example, mabalbal, maruloc, also always express some reference, which is to the companions who remain, or to the owners as interested; for example, MEBALBALya hang banga, or expresses reference to the owner mebalbalya quing MAQUIBANGA, and he will be the third passive, QUEBALBALAN YA quetang banga, or expresses reference to those

120 remaining; for example, if there were four, one broke, quebalbalan la DETANG A TLO; the same with querolocan, the owner and the things nearby did not bum. Masucul expresses reference to three points: For example, the debt. MASUSUCUL co QUETANG UTANG co queca; CASUSUCULAN co ITANG UTANG co queca, as a cause or place from where the imprisonment comes; it also expresses reference to the place in which he was a ; MASUCUL co queta QUING SILID; QUESUCULANque ITANG SILID; finally, reference to the companions if he has any; for example, MESUCUL co CARETANG YABE co; DING YABE co ilan QUESUCULAN; that is, cacon mesucul; casugatan only says reference to the remaining companions, like capilayan to the bones which remained healthy; casaulan says reference to the remaining ones and is also o f excess. From these, construct the rest.

MA: Plurals

All the neutral verbs of this composition admit manga. All those of this last variety, which proceed from active verbs, express multiplicity corresponding to the nominative; for example, MENGARULUCya itang balay or detang balay, that house got burned in many parts, or those houses got burned; the same with MENGABALBALya and MENGABALBAL la; mengasucula expresses plurality of the subjects, like mengasaula. This is true with those of the first variety according to what is proper to each verb. Those of the second variety with this manga. Most of them express plural, like with mica, and they are ganaca, dañga, bañgis, lasing, dauac, bilog, dagol, aba, tulid, tampa and all those which speak of qualities, like tapang; odours, like banglo or buloc, or tastes, like yumo, salpac, etc. with all those that speak of passions, like din ay, tamad, sama, lugud, ligaya, uili, tacut, etc., it says intensity in the form of protocompound which admits its third passive the object. Its way of signifying is like that of the verbals in ble, as a thing which is lovable, horrible, abomi nable, etc. for example, of the lies told by pleasant people they say; laram a PANGAILIAN, and to exaggerate, double the nga; for example, PANGANGALUGURAN yang tauong mababa lub, the humble is lovable; PANGANGALUNGCUTAN que yang salita mo; co ing tula banua, the glory is pleasant to me; PANGANGAS AMAN co ing casalanan, it is abhorring to me, etc. Mangatulid is plural: the rights. Also, mangatulidcomes from the passive mi: those placed straight, like the canons, which face the Chinatown; mañgatuliran and meñgatuliran, the places towards which they look, like the houses there, as was said about meñgaugsay and meñgaugsayan. Also mitulid and mituliran, like mitud and mituran. Also, mañgatuliran, meñgatuliran, with singular and plural subjects is the quasi-place, that or those to which a thing has a right by many titles, as we said about the singular mitulid and mituliran ; and from here proceed MAÑGATULIRAN,

121 MENGATULIRAN co queca, which we say, have an action, I have a right, I deserve that; its passive is the third, PANGATULIRAN, PENGATULIRANco ita.

MA: FEASIBILITY

With those that follow, it does not express to stop or to finish as it does with the preceding ones, but it indicates that the thing being talked about is feasible; and from here it follows that in negative sentences, it is equivalent to potential; for example, MARARAPAT, MERAPAT, MARAPATing dapat, whatever thing is being talked about is actually feasible, it will be or it was. With negation, even if it is not potential, it is equivalent to; for example, e MARAPAT ita, it is not easy to do that; and consequently, it cannot be done. Belonging to this composition are acut, daclut, dampot, añgo dala, daquit, bitbit, yaus, salac, guyud, sulut, sagmit, dara, accua, tanggal, dacap and their brothers. All of them admit manga to express plurality of the subjects or of the nominatives. Also, they all admit ca or an, and it that case, they usually refer to the number of times o f the action, and those which refer to other viewpoints follow the preceding over in the passives; for example, caraptan only says the number o f times something is done, and if they are two, it will say adua caraptan; dampot and daclot also express the time and what the time includes; like caralan and cayacutan, the time and what is carried or brought one time; cayangoan or cayangoanan, the number of times, what is taken and those remaining; like cayausan, the number of times, those called and those remaining; but bear in mind that to express those remaining, use the preterite. Cagoyoran, the time, that which is pulled and the people who ordinarily take part in pulling, and if it is gravel, there are three hundred CAGUYORAN lang guijo; and the gravel that they pull OUEGUYORAN la; like QUEYACCUANAN la, QUEGUYORAN CO, Transivetively, it is that in which I lost: MEGUYOD la caco DETANG ATLONG PESOS; QUEGUYORAN con ATLONG PESOS. If you wrote more letters on one page than I did on two papers, MEGUYUD con cabulung or MEGUYOD ya caco ing cabulung; QUEGUYORAN con cabulong, etc.

Section 2 MA of Abundance

First point. When this particle ma is attached to roots which imply a place and have their neutral verb of mi to express to stop, to complete, it indicates that what is signified is an adjective which connotes very or much; for example, MAYANAM la ding judíos or MAYUGSEla, they are spread or scattered through out this world: MAYAGTANG ing cayupaya ning aring castila, the jurisdiction of the [Spanish] king covers an extensive area, etc. Belonging to this composition are tilao, langtad, aclat, laganap,talactac, taloctoc, talongtong, suluc, salicut,

122 salingit,cutcut, simpan, salindo, liput, tungcus, etc.; they admit manga; as protocompounds, they fall under the passive mi. Its third passives retain the same concept; for example, ing CAYANAMAN ding judíos; as if saying: ing CAYANAMAN dang maragul. They can also appropriately imply a comparison and express an excess, although for more clarity it is better to include lalo; for example, LALO ing CATALUCTUCA ning isip ning banal, quingQUETALUCTUCA ning isip ning etc. By merely adding an, this composition also applies that adjective o f abundance to places; for example, MAYAN AM la ding judíos only says that they are widely spread, without specifying the places; but MAYAN AMAN la ding judíos says that they are wide spread inrelation to the places, for example, throughout Italy, France and Turkey. It is this way that we distinguish malacbang from malacbañgan, magauang from magauañgan, etc. Belonging here are maleganapan, he who is understanding in everything; it is distinguished from malaganapan, in which for this to happen, one time is enough; with the preterite, it indicates that he has it as a habit, a custom or an obsession, like maselan, masibucan, malecaran, magu [sic in the original; apparently a typographical error], maguelauan. The following indicate that they have the vice, and they are: maomisan, malibacan, masabian, etc. When joined with substantive nouns, it most properly indicates that the nominative has an abundance of that which the root expresses; for example, MABANDIyay Pedro, Pedro has a lot of property; MAPILAC yay Juan, Juan has a lot of money; MAPAN AS ing mayumo, the candy has a lot of ants; MAB UNGA or MASAMPAGAya ing thedutung; tree has a lot of fruits and flowers; MABAYABAS ing balayan', MAR1CUTing sabana', MATA UOya ing baleco, my house has many guests or visitors; MARAMULAG or MABABI or MAYUSA, as mountain; MAYUNGUT ing muía; MARAGUIS ing long long; MAYANGIN ing bulan a agosto; MAYURANing bulan a septiembre; mayalon, like sea, etc., protocompound of manga, but it is only in order to use adj ectives which signify that they continually have such an abundance. All those belonging to this composition admit ca and an\ for example, caguintoan, and nothing more. It is used in three concepts: the first to express the time of abundance, putting the subject or nominative in the genitive; for example, CASALAPIAN da ngeni DING CASTILA, now is the time when the Spaniards have a lot of money; iñang CABANDIAN MO e mo co agaganaca, when you were having a lot of property you were not remembering me; now is when the rains abound, CAYURA na ñgeni NING PANAON; iñang CATAUOAN MO, when you had many guests. And the same with the rest. The second point. It is used to express the place of abundance as a noun; for example, caguintouan, gold mine; capilacan, silver mine; casaguiñgan, banana plantation; capanasan, anthill; cayuñgotan, coconut plantation; pasture, and the same with the rest which can have a place like the above-mentioned ones. The third point. It is used to express the place o f the abundance as a verb, where you

123 put in the nominative that which is a place or quasi-place. For example, ING JARDIN iyan CASAMPAGAN, it is the place which abounds in flowers; INGLONGLONG iyan CARAGUISAN, it is the place which abounds in rats; capanasan pungso; carapoan ing Hog; caramologan ing caqueuan; cayusan or cababian ing casucalan, etc. The present and preterite of this composition have a very different way of signifying, and it consists in expressing that, because one is very busy about or distracted or so focused on what the root expresses, he fails to do what he is supposed to: for example, why doavaricious people seldom commend themselves to God? because they are so engrossed in their properties, uling MABABANDI la or MAGUIGUINTO la or uling MAPIPILAC la. If you are wondering, for example, why Pedro does not take his lunch, I will tell you: Why should he eat when the whole morning he has been chewing puto? MAPUPUTO or ya; MADURUMAN or MEDUMAN ya\MADARALANDAN or he has been filling his stomach or has filled his stomach with Seville oranges, and this is true with all the rest, for example; this one does not take care of his house because he is preoccupied with watching stage plays ulor ya, etc. So , because of the abundance or excess in doing the root, it says that he is prevented from doing the original job, and from here they say that the paddies can no longer be used for planting rice because the carabaos have turned them into marshes, medamulagya ing dayat, etc.

Section 3 The MA of Adjectives and Their Abstracts and Frequentatives

When this particle is joined to an abstract term or noun (so called because we conceive of it as separated from the subject, as if it were in the air, for example, puti, whiteness; tapang, courage; lago, beauty; dauac, evil, and many others), it makes them, very appropriately, terms which we call adjectives; for example, maputi, white; matapang, brave; malago,beautiful, marauac, bad, etc. I already said before that these ma-modified terms admit manga, some of them to express plurality, others to make them Mw-modified verbals, [see chapter 10, section 2] and others to express intensity. And since I am very sure that the abstracts referred to as ca and an come from this ma, which also include the simple abstracts, I find this the most appro priate place to say in what they consist and to explain the difference between the former and the latter; that is why I said before that it is enough to be an adjective to belong to the passive of ca or an. And since there is nothing else to say regarding the simple because they definitely belong to our abstracts, I will discuss what remains to be said about those of ca and an. I say first of all that its composition is that of ma, where you change to and

124 put an, which is the passive of ca andan; and bear in mind that it is future, not as a verb, but as a noun. This having been said: maputi, for example, is an adjective which signifies that which is white; and it is white, either his whole body is white, or a part of it; because caputian (aside from other concepts) inasmuch as it is a word of the third passive, signifies either the whole body, or that part of it modified by whiteness, as a place of the whiteness; just like malago which indicates beauty, for example, of the lips, malago ya LABI or malagoing LABI na; so CALAGUANA, her lips are the place caught by her beauty; so, her beauty consists in her lips. And from this flows the point that these abstracts also indicate the essential elements, because they say in what it consists, as when I ask: in what is or in what does the virtue of Pedro consist? Ingsanu ta in CAB AN ALAN AN Pedro? If you answer: it is or it consists in his humility, you will say ing CAB ABAN lub iyan cabanalan na; and from here it also follows that these abstracts indicate the strength of the essential element in its point; that is, in its maximum, in such a way that there is nothing lacking, no more, no less; for example, CALAGOANA ning babayi, the time, the strength, the force of her beauty; in the flower of her youth, CASAMPATANA ning panaun, for example, if I wanted to end the mass at the break of dawn and I woke up half way through dawn, iyan CASAMPATANA ning panaon. A rod is totally straight and somebody wants to straighten if further; leave it alone, it cannot be made more straight, catulirana na, etc. From here you will conclude how great a distinction there is between this abstract and the simple, because even if it sounds the same as that, because we conceive it as separated; for example, cabanalan, virtue; it can never be conceived, however, as something as naked as that, because it includes essentially the concepts of the third passive of ca and an; and this, even if you always conceive it as abstract; e.g., caraclan, queraclan, cacaldan, quecaldan, etc. See the earlier part of the Vocabulario and more will be said in the chapter on the particle ca.

MA: Frequentatives

All the above-mentioned adjectives of ma admit the frequentatives their own way, some exaggerating, and others downplaying or exaggerating; and the first ones do so by doubling the adjective, joining the second to the first with a, if it ends with a consonant. For example, masampat A masampat, or with ng, if it ends with a vowel, as in malagoNG malago. Its way of signifying is in the superlative degree; that is, most handsome, most beautiful, and the same with all. If in joining some with the others, you insert nan; for example, masampat NANG masampat; malago NANG malago; they will indicate frequency, which in practice is a nuisance; for example, masampat NANG masampat, he who says masampat to everyone; like the flatterer, the ignorant or the charlatan; malago NANG malago; for example, in the presence of Maria, one says malago ya; in the presence of Juana, he or somebody else also says malago ya; he who hears so many malago gets mad and says: let us change the topic, it should not all be malago NANG malago

125 , without leaving malago behind. This expression is like gigote NANG gigote-, and in this land sisi NANG sisi, and like the charlatans sabi NANG sabi, etc. The second variety is done only by doubling the root; for example, masampat- sampat, malago-lago. This one has two ways of signifying: the first one exaggerating a good point in order to call attention to a bad action; for example, you allowed the prisoner to leave, and so I tell you: MABILOG-BILOG cang tauopalualan moya; that is, you are not a half-man but an entire man, to exaggerate the fault. Another: you transferred something from where it was and you broke it; in order to blame you, I will say: MAYAP-AYAPya queti, it was so good it was here. You went to make the water hotter; I get angry and tell you: YA, it was hot enough, there was no need to heat it further, etc. The second way downplays; for example, MASAMPAT-SAMPATya, it is somewhat nice; somewhat beautiful; for example, you ask wether Maria is pretty, and they answer you: MALAGO-LAGO ya; alia malago; mapali-pali, somewhat hot, it has not become mapali, etc. This way of signifying also extends to any substantive noun, even if it is an adverb ma\ and so it is very general and (in all verbs) it indicates that it lacks something to be able to arrive at the end point which is reached by those of its state, kind or condition or name; for example, MATA UO-TA UOya, this is said with reproach; as if to say that he does not arrive at being a man. Also it is used to say it looks like a human; for example, if from afar we doubt if he is a man or a beast, the one who thinks it is a man will say: MATA UO-TA UO YA; MARA UNG-DA UNG, it does not arrive at being a daung; MABAGUIO-BAGUIO iningangin, UALI-UALIN baguio, it is not completely a typhoon, it is a younger brother, it has not arrived at being a caca [elder brother]; mararamolag, a reproach, he lacks a little to become a carabao; and this is not said of a little carabao, because even if it is little, it is complete in its species; but one can say: MABABAINTAUO YA; MARURUMALAGA YA, or ya, if it is a female; and the same with any similar thing.

Last Section

Section 4 The MA of Evaluation and the Passive of ICA

Although the future is ordinarily used to indicate the present, it nevertheless has a conjugation; for example, in the adjective marauac, we add an to the end, marauacan, this is the future; MAMArauacAN, present; MEmarauacAN, preterite; the verbal, PAmarauacAN. Its construction is always passive; the person who does is in the genitive; and that which receives the action is in the nominative. Its way of signifying is to say that the doer has the thing as described by the adjective, or future of ma, which is clearer, both because there is no future of ma which it does not include, and because in this composition, there is no reason to stop and find out whether it is an

126 adjective of ma, or a future. This having been said, all the compositions of ma admit this passive, each one retaining its way of signifying. Starting with the adjectives of ma: for example, MASAMPATAN co ita or MAMASAMPATAN, MEMASAMPATAN, I am considering, I will consider, I consider or I considered or I took that as beautiful; mapaitan, as bitter; matapangan, as brave; mayaslagan, as glowing; masalaingan, as lighted; as rotten, and the same with all the rest. Those of abundance retain it, for example, MAM AYAN AM AN co ding Judíos, I take them, I consider them to be widely spread; MALAGANAPAN co ya, I consider him as a man who is involved in everything; and the same with mayaclatanan; masimpanan, etc. The same with MABANDIANcoya, I consider him very wealthy; MAYURANAN coining panaon, I consider this time to be very rainy; the same with maguintoan, mamatauoan; MEMARAPOAN que ining Hog, et cetera. Those which proceed from active verbs vary in their way of signifying; for example, MAMARUNUTAN, MEMARUNUTAN or MARUNUTAN co ita (inasmuch as dunut is also active), means Ido not consider it as pounded, like in the preceding ones; rather it means is seems to me that it can be pounded or ground; like if we argue whether one tobacco leaf, for example, being wet, could be pounded or pulverized; if you are of the opinion that it cannot, you will say: e que MAMARONOTAN, having the opposite view, I will say: MAMARUNUTAN que pin. It is in this same sense that you must understand all those which come from the active verbs; for example, MAR ULOCANco ining dicut; MAMASIRANque ining bangca; MASAULAN que y Juan; MAMASUGATAN que y Pedro; MABULAGAN, MAPILAYAN, MABUCUTAN da ca; MAMABALDUGAN que ining bato; mayañgoan, maraptan, mayausan, masasagmitan, maralan, mamaguyoran, etc. That this ma means to consider or to take as such is clear from the fact that all what has just been said is also said with the irregular verb amanan, which is very ordinary, and undoubtedly means the judgment or view or opinion which one has of the thing; for example, MAPAITAN coya, I consider it bitter; the same with. AMANAN cong mapaitya; and the same with all the rest, each one with its respective concept. The same idea is expressed by pa of to say; for example; PAMATULIRAN co ya, I say that it is right, because each one speaks according to what he feels or his opinion, when he does not lie; and here, it can very well mean to approve; for example, PAMAYAPAN co ita, I say that that is good and consequently I approve it as such. The same idea is expressed by the paticle mina: MINAMARAUAC or MINAMARAUACAN(with or without an) co ita, I take or consider or condemn that as bad. If you need to speak in the active: for example, who was that who approved or disapproved? You will say: ino tang PEPAMAYAP oxPEPAMARA UA C? And if you need to say, for example, who ordered you to approve it?, you add another pa; nino tan PEPAPAMAYAP queca?

127 Passive of ICA

This particle, as you can see from its very appearance, can only serve as a first passive. It is the future; to form the present (if the root or verb is not among those which begin with ca, like cayap, capias, etc., in all of which the present has two ca, icacayap, icacaplas, etc.), the first syllable of the root is doubled, for example, from lugud, future 1CAlugud,present ICACAlugud but; bear in mind that the i is very often omitted; the preterite is always que: preterite, QUElugud. Its concept expresses that the thing which is in the nominative is always the cause or the reason why the thing which is in the genitive does or receives that which is expressed by the root or verb to which it is attached. Although this particle is attached principally to the neutral verbs of ma and mi, for example, nanong QUESAUL mo? what was the cause or the reason why you were masaull uling atin QUETAQUID co or QUERAGSA co, because there was a cause or a reason why I tripped or fell, that is, I ended up as having been metaquid or meragsa; and this way you can use this with all the varieties of mi and ma; but bear in mind that in using it with the ma of abundance, you must retain ma, even if only disguised because the m becomes c; for example, what is the cause or the reason why that person has a lot o f gold, property, palay, etc., you will not say nano tang ICAMAGUINTOANA? but nano tang ICACAGUINTO nal And take note in passing that, because the m changes to c and there are two ca, they serve as present; and so, nano tang QUECAPALENA, QUECABANDINA, QUECACAPPIANA? etc. The same is true with the other ma of abundance, for example, what is the cause or the reason why the Jews are so widespread? Nanong ding Judíos? Ing pamacamate ra quing G.n.t. Jesu Cristo iyan QUECAYUGSE ra; and the same with the rest. Bear in mind, however, that when ma speaks of passions that look at another object, the ica does the same; for example, nano tangICALUGUD or ICABANGIS mo queya? You must not construct it as nanong icatacut mo queya ? because this one indicates that the genitive suffers the passion of fear; as if you are saying nanong quesaul mo cang Pedro? what was the reason why you were defeated by Pedro? But those two do not say that the genitive receives the action, but that it does the action; what is the reason why you love him? what is the reason why you are angry with him? And so if the verb to which it is joined speaks of an action, the ica is retained; for example, nanong can Pedrol what was the reason, not why you were defeated, but why you defeated Pedrol and the same is true with icapalsinta, icamua, icasangit, icaburi, etc. This is true with those which speak of receiving the action and with those which speak of doing the action. Let us now move to see the concept expressed by this ica when it is preceded by time, for example, year, month, days, etc., of which there are many examples in Sio, fol. 55. ALDAO A ICAMATE mo; ALDAO A QUERANUP na; ALDAO A

128 ICAIABLAS na ning Dios quing dapat mong mayap. In all these examples, it is most certain that the ica does not say that the day is the cause or reason, but it simply indicates the time or the day on ; which as if saying aldao ning PANG AMATE mo; or aldao ning CAMATAYAN mo; aldao ning PANGARANUP na; aldao a PAMANABLAS ning Dios or aldao ning PAMANABLAS na, and these modes express the same thing as ica and none of them express cause or reason. Neither does this: ALDA O AICAROLOC ning bale mo, the day on which your house will bum, although it is as ordered by the judge; as if saying: aldao a pangaroloc ning bale mo, etc. It was cautiously that I said when it is preceded by time, and not when the nominative is the time of ICA, so that whoever disapproves these ways of speaking will look at them reflectively and not roughly, because in them, not even a thousand leagues will make you reach the fatum [destiny]. It will mean that when the time is in the nominative of ica, then the time becomes the cause or reason for what happens; for example, those who consider Tuesday as unlucky to travel by banca, because, as they say, it will overturn ; and if it happened that somebody had his banca overturned, the superstitious will say: ing martes a panlaco na IYAN QUECATIAB na or IYAN MECATIAB queya because of the causal maca. Whatever might the superstition be, it should always be dismissed; but the poor ica and maca, what is their fault? The blame should go to those who abuse them. In case quetiab disturbs you because it does not belong to the ma o f abundance and yet it retains ca, I will answer you: firstly, one can also say iyan queyatiab na; secondly, I already told you at the beginning that those roots that form their abstract with c, like from ayap cayap, from apia capia, from aplas capias, and also, catas, caba, casyas, casnoc, calat, caslam, etc. retain their ca with ica; and so, in them, the present tense does not double the root; it is also retained in the preterite because quecasnoc, for example, is more often used than queasnoc; but between quecaba and queaba, there is a difference. The first one expresses the reason for becoming long; the second, for being late. Among the rest, there are no two concepts.

129 CHAPTER 10 THE PARTICLE CA

Section 1 The Companion and the Coequal

First of all, this particle ca, as already mentioned in the o f company, M I of alternation and MICA verbal, serves to indicate a companion; for example, cayabay or cabayabay, the companion of another which has to be in the genitive; for example, CAYABE CUya; and so casugal, caramay, capantoc, cainum, etc. and even if they come from mi or mica. Here they say regionmate, calabuad; boundarymate, carulon; co-parishioners, capañgadyi or confidant,catutu, cacasi; counselor, cacutang; provincemate, caprovincia or cayocom; fellow inhabitant, çabalayan (calicupan); twin-fruit, like two pears in one stalk, casalay; neighbor-branch, casapi ox casanga; neighbor-trunk, capun; half-sibling, if of the same father only, caibpa; if of the same mother, ; if he is your brother having the same father and mother, CAIBPA, CAINDO moya; cabalayi, neighbor-post, because it is in front of the other, etc. With this ca, they also refer to their companions, with whom they are united by a special bond which they call de compadrazco, that is, those who start a friend ship by sharing eating the same thing, for example, a banana, and each of them thereby becoming casaguin of the other and the two taken together are micasaguin; if they are more than two, micacasaguin; or because in order to start a special friendship ( encompadrar), one gives the other a flower or a lemon, and if this one takes it, one becomes casampaga or caralayap; if you become a special friend ( compadrastes) for having traveled in the same galley (galera), he will be your cagalera and you also become his cagalera; and the two of you will become micagalera, etc. Up to here, we have dealt only with companionship in that which the root expresses, and for this it is enough that it agrees with what the root expresses, even if they are unequal; for example, CAINUM naya, even if one drinks very little and the other drinks a pitcher; but with those that follow which are mostly about accidents or properties or quantities, etc. this particle ca expresses equality of comparison.

COEQUAL

Capara, equal to the other; for example, CAPARANG (galera) anac coya, we are the same or he is my equal in young age; CALUPANE ning capatad na, he has the same features as his brother, they are of one face; as if saying, misang lupa la; CARAGUL na caco, I am as big as he is, I am his coequal in size, we are equal; and the same is true with all the roots of quantity, like tall, low, small, etc and in qualities such as beautiful, ugly, bad, good, etc.; and in features, like asal, anyo, anas, buac,

130 etc; and in the colors and tastes, like banglo, yumo, etc. and with these: linao, tindag, salaing, aslag, ningning, sigla, ñaua, cascup, etc. In order that you will not find the Kapampangan ways of speaking so foreign, see our own Spanish having a similar way, and you will not feel it strange; the tower of Uaua is co-equal in height to the tower of This way of speaking is translated in a similar way, ing torre Uaua CA CATAS or catas ne ning torre Bacolod. We express the same thing when we say the height o f the tower o f Uaua is like the height o f the tower o f Bacolod; this kind of expression is rendered in Kapampangan as ing torre Uaua PAÑGATAS or PAÑGACATASne ning torre Bacolod. We also say the same thing with this Spanish sentence; the tower o f Uaua is as high as the tower o f ; Bacolod in his turn, the Kapampangan says: ing torre Uaua ANTIA CATAS (or if you would say it is such in height), or PAÑGATAS quing torre Uaua; and bear this well in mind because all those belonging to this composition, to which I add for you anti and alimbaua, can be well translated according to these ways of expressing things. With those belonging to this composition we form the superlative, such a big word for negative sentences, only by putting the defective verb ala before any of them; for example, ALAN cay anti; ALAN cay alimbaua; ALAN catulad; ALANcauangis; ALANcalupa; ALANcacatas, etc. Ba, Virgen a ALANcalinang, ALAN calinis, ALAN calinao, ALAN cauagas, ipnalangin mo cami; iya na sa. For the superlative of affirmation of the above-mentioned comparison, which only expresses coequality, or that it is like it, and says that it is its identical, without removing a dot nor comma in what the root expresses, there is nothing to do except to double it, as the examples will show: for example, Christ’s features are very similar to those of his mother, ing G.n.t. Jesucristo CALUPA NA NENG CALUPA Nindo na, indona CAUANGIS NA NENG CAUANGIS, CATULAD NA NENG CATULAD ning Anac na, etc. And the same with panga; for example, PANGALUPA NA NENG PANGALUPA, PANGAYANTI NA NENG na; Indo na PANGAUANGIS NA NENG PANGAUANGIS, PANGAYANIO NA NENG PANGAYANIO, PANGATULAD NA NENG PANGATULAD ning Anac na. And the same with the rest. But if instead of exaggerating what the said composition expresses, you want to downplay it, all you have to do is to double the root; for example, CALUPA- LUPA ne ya,or PANGALUPA-LUPA ne ya means that he somehow looks like him, that there is a resemblance of him in his face; CASAYA-SAYA, SAYA mo co, you are like me in having a happy disposition, you somehow resemble someone happy; CALAS-ALAS na can Pedro or na ca, you are a bit like Pedro; your long legs resembling a stork’s are a bit like his; CABA CABA na ca or PANGABA NGABA or PANG AC ABA-CAB A na ca bids ning tagac, because caba belongs to the irregular abstracts.

131 I tell you, lastly, that if you want to make a comparison in the roots which express actions the same way that the above-mentioned roots express qualities; just as we also use panga for those ones; so for these, we use the active verbal, which being her husband has the same functions as she; for example, Pedro walks like Pablo, YPedro PAMANLACAD neng Pablo; Andres walks like a show-off, like a Portuguese, Andres pamangimbe yanPortugués; Francisca wears the jewel of Juana, Antonio repents like Francisco; y Francisca PAMALIAS o PAMA G-IYAS nen Juana, y An tonio PAMANISI nen Francisco; and the same with PAMANAGUIO nen cay y cay; your way of talking is like mine, PAMANGAMANO ra ca; PAMANA GCAS da can amano; to exaggerate: PAMIBALIC na nen PAMIBALIC lub: PAMANGAMANO ra na cang PAMANGAMANO or PAMANAGCAS da na cang pamanagcas etc. amano,

Section 2 CA of Just Finished and Verbals of BILIS

To start with, when you join ca to any root, you indicate the time in which the genitive finishes doing or receiving the action which the root expresses; but bear in mind that when the root is transitive, it is also neutral, because it admits the neutral verb of ma or mi; with it, you can express the doing and the receiving of the action. When it is action, it carries the accusative sentence which receives. Also, if the sentence is not transitive, the same can be said either with panga or with ca; if the sentence is transitive, the corresponding verbal says the same thing as the ca; observe everything in the examples, which are many and too time-consuming to repeat. CARATANG na pa mo, or PANGARATANG na pa mo or PAMANYATANG na pa mo (these verbals have an identical meaning), he has just arrived ; CASALAING da pa mo ding candela or panga, the candles have just been lighted; CASALAING da pa mo or PAMANYALAING caring candela, they have just finished lighting the candles; CAYARI na pa nitang balay, PANGAYARI na pa nitang balay, that house has just been finished being finished; [sic, the original is ahora acaba de acabarse aquella casá\ CAYARI na pa quetang balay or PAMANYARI ra pa quetang balay, they have just finished constructing that house, etc. Double the root if it has two syllables, and double the first syllable if it has three, and you will narrow down the time of the action in all of them; for ex ample, CABUCLAT-BUCLAT na pa or PANGABUCLAT-BUCLAT na pa ning masala, now, just now, dawn has just come, [the Spanish literally: the starting of the daylight has just ended {ahora, ahora acaba de )]. CASA GMIT-SA GMIT or PAMANYAGMIT-NYAGMIT na pa quetang espada or pluma, now, just now, he has just taken that sword or pen; and if you push the genitive a bit farther, you will be stretching and exaggerating as far as possible the immediacy of the action; for example, CALINO-LINO NA pang CALINO-LINO or na pang

132 PANGALINO-LINO ningpanaon; now, just now, at this very moment, at this very instant, the weather has just improved; CAYAUS-YAUS pang CAYAUS-YAUS or PAMANYA US- YA US na pang PAMANYA US- YAUSna can Pedro, now, just now, at this very moment, he has just called Pedro, etc. The above-mentioned composition, together with its varieties, is what very punctually marks the time in which one has to do what is indicated by a second sentence which is usually paired with it, and in such a case, it admits the preterite; for example, CARATANG na or PANGARATANGna, batbatan moya, as soon as he arrives, whip him; this as soon as is not so soon that between the arrival and the whipping, there is no room to get the box, get some powder and grab the whip. Second: CARATANG-DATANG na or PANGADATANG-DATANG batbatan moya, as soon as he arrives, whip him right away; this one is in a hurry because it only gives time, for example, for the grabbing of the whip. Third: CARATANG-DATANG NANG CARATANG-DATANG or PANGARATANG- DATANG NANG PANGADATANG-DATANG, batbatan mo ya; this one is too much in a hurry, because the arrival and the attack admit no space at all in- between. Take another variety which is even more in a hurry than any of the above and it is done with the verbal that corresponds to it; for example, CARATANG na, PAMAMATBATAN mo quea\ meaning that his action of arriving and your action of attacking have to be at the same one moment; at the same time that he arrives without letting him arrive properly, etc. It is of course true that if the genitive of the first sen tence is also the genitive of the second, because two actions cannot be done at one and the same time, there is no such precision, although this is what is expressed some what by ca with exaggeration; for example, caratang na, caragsa na, pañgaragsa na. The same is true in all and in the preterite; for example, CAYAM ANO na or QUEYAMANO na, bitbat moya, as soon as he spoke, you attacked him. Second: CAYAYAMANO or QUEYAYAMANO na, etc; just right after he started speaking, etc.; CAYAYAMANO NANG CAYAYAMANO or QUEYAYAMANO NANG QUEYAYAMANO, bitbat mo ya; just precisely at the very moment that he spoke, etc. With the second variety of the above-mentioned composition, we make three other ways of expressing, all of them different: The first one, as distinguished from the one discussed, absolutely requires that the second sentence is so linked with the first that, given the latter, the former must follow necessarily as its effect. Its way of signifying is to show the promptness and ease with which the doer actually does what he intends to; for example, CASULAT-SULATna, sinulat naya; this statement, if it is not understood, seems to be a truth understood by Pedro Grullo, because it sounds like: as soon as he wrote, he wrote\ but it has more sense and it can mean two things; either that the doer is so smart that the very first time that he started to write, he knew how to write, or that if he knew how to write and started writing some work or sermon, he wrote without falling under the cross up to the end.

133 In this sense, you can say, for example, about a smart boy: CAPAPAGARAL mebiasa ya, he starts to study something, he learns it right away; meaning that whenever he starts studying something, he immediately understands it well; CARAPAT-DAPATna macayaria, whenever he does anything, he does it perfectly well: CAPAPANINTO na macaquitya, whenever he looks for something, he finds it right away; QUEBARIL BAR1L na tira naya, whenever he aims, he hits the game; and they also admit verbals of the above-mentioned second variety, etc. The second, as distinguished from this one, does not infer the second sentence from the first, but from the first, the second, [sic. The original is El Segundo, a distinción de este, no se infiere la segunta oración de la primera, sino de la primera, la segunda.] because it always presupposes the implicit or explicit statement that disposes or facilitates the thing; from this it follows that the doer is prompt and eager to do the action when he feels like doing it, for example: [this concerns] the implicit statement. If you hear them say CASAQUE-SAQUE ta na, we can embark when we like to; it presupposes that everything is ready, and that there is therefore no problem; CATUDTUD-TUDTUD co na; CALACO-LACO co na; I will sleep when I feel like: it is presupposed that the bed is made. I will leave when I feel like doing so; it is presupposed that all the things needed for the travel are already there. Explicit, for example, ilantang mon bacon CATUDTUD- TUDTUD; isadia mong sandata, ba con CASAGMIT-SAGMIT; provide the materials so that when the workers come they will do the work without being delayed, ba ran CARAPAT-DAPAT ding maestro queang balay, for example, etc. The third one very rarely includes the explicit statement and indicates that the action was inconsiderate and done without courtesy, for example, CALUBALUB mo queti or CARATANG-DATANG mo queti quing silid co, you enter my room unceremoniously; if you want to express the second statement which corresponds to it, you can say: ala can marinay. Another: QUESULAT-SULATmo co, you wrote something on my paper without my knowledge; if you do not want to treat him rudely, you can add this second statement: e ca quinutang, without asking my consent; QUEDURUP-DURUP na canaco, he came to my house without previous notice and shamelessly, etc. This way of expressing also includes CAYAGCAS-AGCAS na mo, he speaks without first thinking of it; CAPAPANARAL na mo, he starts preaching without first reflecting. During their fiestas if they want to get acquainted with some body, the one among them who is the least ashamed grabs the hand of the stranger impulsively and for that they describe him as CAPURI-PURJor QUEPURI-PURI na mo; you understand what they mean. Also from this comes our courteous way which they also use; for example, when we tell a person whom we treat with openness and affection, you have your house here, you may enter here with liberty as if it were yours; that is, without asking permission, CARATANG-DATANG mo, CAPANIC-PANIC mo or CALEB A Lmo, etc.

134 Summary of These Four Modes

Of these four modes of promptness related to the particle the first one expresses promptness of the action between the second and the first with respect to the time; for example, CASULAT-SULAT na batbatan mo ya. The second expresses promptness of the first sentence with the second with respect to the doer; for example, CASULAT-SULAT na quetang sermon sinulatya. The third one expresses promptness and the feasibility of the action with respect to the first sentence, which it expedites; for example, Tiyongpaniulat, CASULAT-SULAT mo. the fourth expresses an insignificant promptness of the action with respect to none; for example, CASULAT-SULAT mo mo quetang sulatan co, mabibigla ca; and so the Kapampangan explains this fourth mode by saying that the doer is mabibigla, etc.

VERBALS OF BILIS [Latin, amaBILIS. Spanish, amaBLE, English: '.]

The last composition of this section consists in forming nouns which are our verbals, using bilis; double the root or the compound if it has two syllables; the first if it has three. Bilis is not attached to any of the roots of the previous composition nor is that composition attached to the roots of this one; which only admits those which signify passions or actions which have their origin or effect principally in the soul; and even if this language has more verbals than ours, by looking at those which correspond to ours, we will understand theirs. This having been said: capapalsinta, lovable; calunus-lunus, pitiful; this is what is in the nominative; cagulat-gulat, horrible (so great for children that they usually get sick); caquilaquilabut or capapangilabut, that which makes your hair stand on end, sabían ing carin qung infernos; casusumami, disgusting; and the same with these: tacut, magsalbat, yasa, saya, malsimi, yoyot, magbitquil, agías, asag, sindac, yama, magmulala, sambitan, or manyambitan, casdan, cauan, etc. Those that follow belong to these as verbals of bilis,and, aside from that, they also admit the superlative, while the above-mentioned ones do not. They are: lungcot, lugud, ibug, sanglit, dinay, tula, ligaya, uili, tangís or manangis, galimguim, etc. The way we construct sentences using one or the other group as verbals of bilis is, for example, one feels pity when one considers the situation of a sinner, CALUNUS-LUNUS isipan or pigaganacan (they take the place of passive sigh) ingpañgabili nangpacalulu ningpalpicasala; it is pitiful to see him enjoy and laugh, CALUNGCUT-LUNGCUTalbayan ingpangatula na’tpañgaaili na; it is a joy and an inspiration to contemplate the beauty of a soul in the state of grace, CATUTULA-TULA manga CAUILI-UILING pigaganacan ing sampat ning caladuang macasaut quing gracia, etc. Those which admit the superlative follow the pattern of the passives, for example, you deserve to be wept for ( ), ican CATANGIS-TANGIS;

135 the superlative, icon CATANGIS-TANGISAN, you deserve to be wept for to a high degree ( llorabilisimo). The same is true with sentences like this one: lungcut albayan, etc. it is extremely saddening to see; calugud-luguran a Jesus co! and CA UILI-UILIAN are like casanting-santingan, as you will see.

Section 3 CA of the Abstracts

First Point. When this ca is joined to certain roots, which are mute and irregular, they become abstract; for example, from abpa, cabpa, brace; from alam, calam, liberality; from albag, calbag, swelling; from alpit, calpit, sound; from anglap, canglap, suspicion; and the same with capiawealth; anger; capad, suitabil ity, as concerning mood; catlac, deafiiess; catni, loudness; caniani or calang-alang, respect; etc. Those among these which admit an, for example, canglapan, calaman, canianian, calang-alangan, indicate the third passive of CA o f ; those which admit ca and an of the abstract, cayapan, casiasan, cascopan, catlacan, etc. are distinguished like the simple and compound of which we spoke in the ma of adjectives; and for now, take this example: ding tauong alan pusu alan ihatanda quing CASCOPAN', that is, people with no heart are not helpful in difficulties', where if you say quing cascop, it would be as a cold thing and even out of time, because this is difficulty in genere [in general], while the difficulty mentioned in the sentence is difficulty hie et nunc [here and and so, even though it is equivalent to the abstract Spanish, it cannot be removed from the third passive from which it proceeds. Every abstract must be used when its concept calls for it, without connecting it to the Spanish, because this one expresses only a Kapampangan abstract, and in these about which we are talking, there are three, while there is no more than one Spanish: you have already seen two. Now take a third spade ( and afterwards, you will see more): tepañgan, sipagan, sintiñgan, legoan, temaran, degolan, licsian, sicanan, bilusan, neuañgan; there can be a few more of these. Now santing, sintiñgan, casantingan, etc. are three and for all the three, there is only one Spanish term, namely, beauty. Each one requires its respective use, because each one has its respective concept, and the first is the only one we understand because it corresponds to our Spanish, that is, for example, santing, The second is sintingan; this one differs from the first because it refers to beauty adhering to something, and not to beauty as separated: it differs from the third, namely, casantingan, because it does not include place in its concept the way casantingan does. Those of ca and an seem to be abstracts of pharmacy, which combines two simple ones into a third. So that you will understand, see what happens to you with the buyo; chew it with lime and, in the saliva, there comes a third component which is neither buyo nor lime and it is certain that there is lime and buyo which are two simple components from where it emerges; in this grammatical model, masanting, for example, where there are two simple components, ma and santing, they become

136 casantingan, where you see neither ma nor and it is certain that the former and the latter are there, because they are the two simple elements from which it emerges; and so casantingan essentially indicates the place or quasi-place made or possessed by beauty. All the above-mentioned abstracts of ca and an which come from ma become superlative when you double the root, as you can see in this example; SANTINGANya in Guinu tang Jesucristo caring sablang tauo, eyata capilan ta ya caya aquit itang Jesus a CAYUMO-YUMOAN, CASAMPAT-SAMPATAN, CAYAP-CAYAPAN, CAMAL-CAMALAN, CALUGUD-LUGURAN, SANTOSAN, CAB ANAL-BAN ALAN, CACATULA-TULAN, CASALAN-SALAN, CAPUPUN-PUNAN ning sablang n a n m a n g a UILIANA, etc. Here, you have to take note that these superlatives are not only adjectives, but also abstract in the superlative degree; for example, ing casanto-santosan does not only mean someone very holy, but also the holiness in the superlative degree; for example, ing CASANTO-SANTOSAN or CABANAL-BANALAN nuan a Virgen Maria, the holiness of the highest degree of Our Lady; and the same is true with all the rest. Although few, there are some superlative abstracts which, as those given, serve to upgrade; these ones serve to downgrade; their composition retains ma; for example, camamainsacan, very very small; camamaulian, most inferior; camamababan, lowest; camamalatian, the smallest, and all their brothers; for exam ple, ing CAMAMALNSACA ning dapat na or ing dapat nang CAMAMAINSACAN; CAMAMAINCUITAN de ding sabllang tauo, the most repulsive person; dapat a camimistulan, can be put close to these. There are other abstracts of ca and an, very different from those given, not only because those ones indicate passions while these ones indicate actions, but also because of their composition; because those are of the nouns, and these ones are of the verbs and frequentatives. There are two varieties. The first one has only a future tense, ca is placed before the verb, an at the end; for example, from magbitquil, CApagbitquilAN; from magmalun CApagmalunAN; from maguinaquit, CApaguinaquitAN; from mibabata, CApibabatAN; and so CApalsintAN, CApagdalitAN, CApagdamutAN, CApagimbutAN, CApagcasaquitAN, CApalmorAN, CApalsimiAN, CApalsisiAN, CApialoñgAN, CApiacAN, CApirayanAN, CApilitAN, etc. Their way of signifying is to express nouns as verbals of action, and because we do not have the Spanish equivalent word to describe them except as verbal, I will explain by circumlocution; for example, casaulan comes from ma and means passive defeating without being with panga; capañyaulan, active defeating, distinct from pamañyaul, which is not defeating but the action of defeating; this is its way of signifying with all; and it is in this that these abstracts consist and what they say, although perhaps their doing the act is like receiving the act; for example, pamibabata, the act of suffering; capibabatan, suffering, etc.

137 The second mode of these abstracts is constructed with the frequentative adjec tive; they only have what is like the preterite; is placed before, m is changed to c and an is placed at the end; for example, from mapañgañgas, from m apam ialong, from QUECapamialongAN mapagimbut, QUECapagimbutAN; from mapagpalalo, QUECapagpalaloAN; and the same with all the frequentatives which come from verbs, which can be called vice or excess, like many of those belonging to the preceding composition. Its way of signifying is to indicate a given vice or distinct characteristic o f the subject which is in the genitive; for example, ing quecapamialita NA, or ing quepamiyalita NA; because even though all admit queca, some usually eat ca, if it does not change the meaning; and so instead of QUECApanacauan, if one would say QUEpanacauan, it would mean like quelauian, quematayan, etc. Also, they are used without an article; for example, they don’t only say quepañyaria na can Pedro, but also quecapañyaria na; that is, his vice of doing evil; just like talking about the distinct characteristics of the nations which also belong to this composition; they are with or without an article; if they see a Spanish mestizo put on airs, they say cucul ING quecastilana or quecastilana ita; the way we say Galician [gallegada], quecagallegoan; to the Vizcayan who is stubborn, quecavizcainoan, Vizcayan trait [ vizcainad]; and so, quecapañgpanganan, [pampangada], the pride of the Kapampangan (altivez de pampango); quecatagalogan, Tagalog-trait, [tagalada], that is, the cowardice the Tagalogs, (acobardamiento o cortedad de tagalo) or quetagalogan; but not quepangpanganan, because that would be referring to the Kapampangan language, like tegalogan, the Tagalog language. Belonging here, indicating masculine and feminine traits, are quelalaquinan, quebabainan; quedirilan means vice of the tongue; also belonging here are quecapian, characteristics of the noble; quebaban, traits of the timaua\ quepugotan, of the black, etc. And take note that although the above-mentioned past-tense constructions ordinarily point to defective traits, they also point to the distinctive characteristics of a given nation or race, even if they are not bad.

Section 4 CA of Individuation

I will take individuation and unity as interchangeable both because of their connection and also in order to proceed more structurally in this language; and so I will start with the universals or superior degrees, going downward up to the individuals and units. I presuppose the Kapampangan term bagay, which is the widest-ranging genus, which transcends all being; pinduan, although it is not so general, is also one more widest-ranging genus, because it is generally predicated of all the natures of all things; and each one by itself is capinduan, which already individualizes, because if it is predicated of human nature, it distinguishes and

138 differentiates it from any other nature; then it individuates the nations, each one of which is capinduan in relation to the first capinduarv, then it individuates the races as black, white, etc; and the same with all the natures or series of things, which are always predicated of genus and species even though they are accidents [a philo sophical term: that which inheres in something], like and white, and the middle term of the syllogism distinct from the other and is never predicated of the individual. Following these are the immediate genera of each nature; for example, dicut, saguin, palay, etc. which, with this ca or an become species; for example, capalayan, casaguiñgan, caricotan: nano caricotan iyan? To what species of grass does that belong? One will answer; for example, it is the grass of Sta. Maria; and about rice, it is lacatan, for example, etc. About man, you cannot ask to which species he belongs, because there is only one species; but regarding the brute animal, yes; for example, ayop, beast in general, and this is predicated of different genera, which are divided into two genera, mmdiy, flying and reptiles which they call gagapang\ and any of these genera is cayayupan; and each one of its species; for example, carabaos, ravens, is cayayupan; and every individual is also cayayupan, and this is how you will analyze all genera, species and individuals. I will give you another example: bulung, leaf (hoja) in general, even if it is the cutting edge (hoja) of a sword; cabuluñgan, species; for example, nanoya CABULUN GAN Toiyan? what species does that leaf belong? You will answer, for example, bulungyan saguin; cabuluñgan is also the individual; for example, pilan CABULUNGAN iyang darala mo? CABULUNGANya mo, an individual, that is, one. Now you will understand the difference between cabulung and cabuluñgan, because you have seen that this is one leaf or an individual of that given species; to refer to the human nature, you do not use an, because it is only once that he is an individual of the given species, because there is only one species of men; and even if they say nano cata CATAUO-TAUOAN or PANGA TAUO-TAUOl it is like saying: what lowest kind or what being of man is yours? You need little to be a beast; it is therefore constructed, like any other individual, with ca and the root; catauo, one person or individual; and even if they say catauong-catauo, it is the same as catauo, because this language in referring to individuals, repeats the root for emphasis; and even if capalayan, cabayabasan, canasian means a grain, and in spite of this, they usually say capalayan a PALAY, cabayabasan a BAYABAS, canasiam a NASI. To exaggerate,or to say that there is only one species or individual, they do it in two ways. The first is by doubling the first syllable, and the second, the root; for example, one species of palay or one grain, capapalayan or capalay-palayan; only one species, just just one, or only one grain, just just one, cananasian or cananasi-nasian, cariricutan or cariricut-dicutan, cayayasanan or cayayasan- asanan, carurutuñgan or carurutung-dutuñgan; cabubulungan or cabubulung- bulmgam, and the same is true with all the rest of species and individuals; camemetoñgan or cametong-metonganis for the numerals.

139 The following indicate unity and they do not admit an; for example, pun, foot of the tree or of whatever plant, with ca means one; If you add an to it, they will castrate you; but if you double the root, you can very well add : capunpunan or capunpun-punan; and this composition does not indicate unity but superlative, meaning, that which is deeper, the very very first thing of the pun. Among those which follow, none admits any other composition than that of ca; for example, calagay, a thorn; cabulus,a piece of cloth; calublub,one harvest of the [sown field], cabuliga, one square braza [36 square feet]; one refrain or one stanza of a folk song (una consonancia o pie de copla)', casigaro, one cigarette; and the same with patac, balitang, bull, balebay, cauran, calaldao, camasa. These three indi vidualize the time, etc. With roots that express actions or things which are usually seen, ca also individu alizes or expresses unity; for example, calduc from alduc, one gulp; caramput, form damput, a handful; caraclot [sic, does not give the respective root];/ram sanduc, ladle, casanduc, one ladle-full, etc. and of things: catungi, from tungi, catungi, one string; and so catangcas, one bundle; from capit, cacapit, one which is the fifth part of catangcas', cabugong, one bundle which has ten catangcas; cabalisungsung, ask one who chews buyo. With ca and an, in the roots which mostly express artificial things, it indi cates the materials which are enough for that thing, and also unity, for exmple, baro, garment; cabaroan, one, and also the cloth which is enough for one baro\ and so, catapisan, casayan, casalaualan, casalbagan; cabalayanan does not indicate one house, but the materials which are enough for one; cayasinan, the salt which is enough for one cooking; cayaslaman, the vinegar, and also casangcapan a aslam or bauang or lasona, that which is enough for each species of these; and all taken together are casangcapan to be used in one cooking; because casangcapan, is a totilimundi [a whole world]', the pen is also casangcapan, and all that falls within the concepts of the root, is casangcapan, which we needed to touch here and which we therefore did not reserve for the next composition, where it belongs. With ca and an, we also express all that is included in the meaning of the root; for example, cayacotan, a cart and all what is loaded on it; for example, fifty stones; cayapagan, one meal prepared on the table; cayapagan, all the plates and food on one table; cayapagan, those who were together in one table; for example, balang CAYAPAGAN limalang pulu catauo, or CAYAPAGAN la pa ding tauong e mengan, for example; there is yet a second table to serve, dapot ala nan CAYAPAGANquetang canan meluma na, so as not to say ala na. Caloclocan, one sitting, like the confessors, caloclocan, those who heard cofessions in one sitting: carolocan api, one burning of the lime and the cavans which were brought out; catipan a imalan, a very elaborate dress for going out; cacalapan, one-time timber-cutting and the pieces taken from there; cayaatdanan, one carrying and what was carried; for example, gifts and those of every house where the plate was brought, cayatda nano man; casubuan, the one act of making subu, one mouthful,

140 casamolarv, belonging to this pattern are casalucan, the act and the scoop; causucan, one stitch; caralitan, the singing once and the song; catigtigan, the time and the sound; etc. Belonging to this are cayarian, territory of the kingdom and its people; and so cayocoman, like cayarian, and also the time one judges or passes a sentence; capriolan [caprioran],caguinoan, capangpangan, the territory of their province, the people there, each one of them and their language, etc. None of those belonging to this composition of ca which individuates or expresses unity admits a ligature with the numerals, but it is united without it for example; adua casaguiñgan, atlo catauo, apat cayapagan, lima calagay, anam caraclot, pitu cabaroan, adua la cabalayanan, apat cayasinan, etc. All what remains now is the ca and an with the roots of living things aside from what were mentioned; for example, catauoan is not only humanity or the human race, but also characteristics of such species; for example, ing maili or mabalatung QUETA UOAN, to laugh or to err is essential to man or is his specific characteristic. In order to understand that question of the catechism nino tan QUETA UOANA? I don’t find a way out except that of the neutral verb of ma; matatauo, metauo, matauo; and so the indio says: tambe congMETA UO (like tambe cong milliarin tauo). This neutral verb of ma presupposes the material or seed or solidified blood referred to by the neutral verb of ma which comes from the root bitog; and it indicates man made of that material or seed, which it presupposes. And even if they say the same thing about the chicken, that is, they say mebitog about the egg, the liquid thing solidified or became a body; they are correct in saying it this way the same way they say about the solidified blood or seed (if it is how it is formed, you see, I am not a physician), but to say that a chicken is metauo, is incor rect and is transmutational, because strictly speaking that one refers only to man; for example, ing caduangpersonas META UOya quing atianan nuan a Virgen (for my part, I always say: millyarian tauo). Third passive ca and an: ing atianan nuan a Virgen ory nuan a Virgen iyan QUETAUOANA. This passive does not say the place in which , but from where orfrom whom, because the active METAUOya can indo na has the same Spanish translation as MIBAIT ya can indo na; and the passive does not change the meaning of the active, etc. Cayayupan, queyayupan is the species or essence of the brute and its characteristics, like caramulagan, queramulagan is the animality or species of the carabao and also its characteristics, although they are not specific, because it seems that these people did not consider this distinction: and so they refer to a heavy and weak or disabled man as damulagyang mabiyay or CARAMOLAGAN ita; cayasuan, queyasuan, its species and characteristics; they refer to a libidinous person as: aso yang bitasa, malibiya pan aso quing CAYASOANA; cababian, quebabian, its essence and characteristics. Referring to a dirty man or woman, they say: babiya, and about the characteristics of acting like a male pig or female pig, they say: quebabiana. This dirti ness is not applicable to the moral, etc.

141 CHAPTER 11 THE PARTICLE MACA

Section 1 The MACA oí Perfection, inadvertence and Apprehension I will refer to the first as MACA of p.

Others call it the MACA of completing {consumar)', for my part, I could call it the MACA of spending ( consumir ) because I have spent a lot of time on it, having been in fact working on it for the past ten years, and to my limited knowledge, I find the composition more ambiguous and more difficult to understand than any in the entire language, because while it is only one, it admits many and various meanings with the same identical verbs. And so, this one expression, for example, mecasulat co, can mean: I have written, I have completed writing, I have written erroneously, and also I have been able to write. They are four and, if you add the MA CA of distrust, they are five. It is true that the MACA of p communicates its own way of signifying, but not referring to that which is usually explained, namely that it only serves to say the action perfected and finished, because in reality, this is to take the branch for the leaves, and it would make to do the composition not only more difficult, but also impossible to understand; and from this it follows that some take almost no pity on it, because they deny it all the tenses, except the preterite, against what you hear the indios speak all the time; others give it too much, because they allow it even the present, and it is unintelligible that while the thing is being done, it would be called perfected andfinished', to which I will add that in these two modes of discussing, it is not possible to explain how to understand the present, which no one denies to the passive. I therefore say that it is called MACA of perfection because its mode of signifying, although it is found in all the verbs which express action, is not to do but to say what it presupposes the doer to do using the exercise of the verb; it always speaks of a thing in the past, and for this reason it is called MACA oftperfec tion. It is hard to understand the use of this maca and even harder to explain it, because its concept lacks the exact equivalent in Spanish. I will explain it as well as I can; and for this, it is necessary to distinguish the concepts of the verbs; because some express action only, other express the effect of it; for example, magcabayo, to ride a horse; babaril, papana, to shoot without hitting; manintun; to search without finding, etc.; the maca has only one function. When in its mode of signifying, the effect is inseparable from the action, like that of writing from that which is written, that of walking from that which is walked, eating or drinking from what is eaten or drunk, etc.; in that case, it has two functions.

142 The first consists in saying that whatever thing is exercised by the action of a certain verb it stops with having exercised it, and it is more appropriately referred to as agent, or is called agent or exerciser of such action, and for this reason, it is such an infallible consequence as he who runs moves, that he who writes, for example, is macasulat; nun susulat ya, MACASULATya; nun lalacadya, MACALADAD ya; nun mamañgan ya,MAC APANGAN ya; nun miminun ya, MACAINUM ya; nun magcabayo ya, MACAPAGCABAYOya;nun babarilya, MACABARIL ya, etc. When the action of the verb carries the effect, just like from writing comes what is written, that as one goes on writing it is being left behind, or becoming done, or ending as something written; the maca also indicates that the doer is finishing it as done or written, or that he is described or called doer or agent or finisher of such work or effect; for example, when Pedro is whitewashing the wall, both the Tagalog and Kapampangan say that the wall is nominative of the person who receives the action belonging to that passive verbpuputian, because of which they say that the wall is becoming white is becoming whitened; and that from this, it results, according the Kapampangan, that the wall is already ending becoming white, or is already nearing whiteness, which is the neutral verb of ma, and, according to the Tagalog , that thing’s being white is becoming perfected, because the verb ma shows the whiteness more perfectly and more as a done deal, for example, so also, looking at the action or the exercise of the verb, this maca says two things: the first, that as the doer goes whitening, by force of the verb, the thing also ends up being whitened or the one who whitens is described or is called macaputi. And while the verb expresses that the doer is whitening, it is leaving behind, so to speak, that which is whitened or finished or done. Because one cannot do the act of whitening without at the same time ending up with the effect or with the thing whitened, the maca indicates the doer in relation to that which is done, saying that the one who whitens or does or is perfecting the work stops there. In this sense, I will give another example, a clear one although long; for example, you visit your laborers at eight o’clock in the morning, you inspect carefully what they have done; you go back in the after noon, you find the same thing and you tell them: why don’t you work? They answer: We are working. You answer: If you had been working, you would have accom plished more. Take note carefully of what you want to say in Spanish: You would have advanced or you would have done more or you would have improved or you would have been perfecting it or whatever way you want to express this concept, because this is most precisely the way this maca signifies: nun darapat co sa ñgeta, MECARAPATco sa ngeta; and so that you can see clearly that this is not different from the maca o f finishing, like if the officials are at the middle of the work, for example, they need little more to finish it, you would say using this maca; if you had been working, you have would finished, nun darapat co sa ngeta, MECARAPATco sa ngeta; and this is how the indio puts it. Now you will also understand how its present passive signifies; for example, atatalastas co; because, since its present active is MACATALASTASco, I am finish-

143 ing to understand it, I am using the opportunity to take charge, I am completing the act of understanding it, for example; it is clear that its passive, for example, atatalastas co iyan, also means I finish taking advantage, or I am using the opportunity to understand this, etc. To understand this completely, see the use of the passive of pi and an, because both this one and those ones express things in a similar way when presupposing the simple. hi relation to their conjugation, the same thing holds true with both con cepts, except the accent of maca. About the present, if the verb is simple, it is attached to the root, and the maca is pronounced short for the first concept and long for the second, attaching the ca; if it is compound, it is attached to the future; the preterite is like the future; except that in the latter it is meca, also pronounced long, or short, as described above; for example, from sulat, the present and future is MACAsulat, preterite MECAsulaV, from manalastas, present and future MACApanalastas; preterite, MECApanalastas,etc. In both concepts, it has a habitual future, and in both, the maca is pronounced long, and with it, the meaning is either that the doer habitually goes on doing or perfecting a given thing, or that he habitually finishes it completely, or completes it; for example, the Christians are those who know God, ding cristianos ilan MACAQUILALA quingDios. The boy who usually knows his lesson, ing anaca MACABALO quing lecciona; he who usually teaches children, ingMACATURO caring anac; everyday I write a page, MACASULAT con capliego aldao aldao; everytime he finishes one bottle, MAÇAMIN yan meto frasco balang misan, etc. The passive of all the tenses attaches a to the beginning; the present doubles the first syllable in the simple and compound (except some protocompounds.). The preterite and future attach it to the root if it is simple; if it is compound, attach it to the structure of the future; for example, present Asusulat APApagdalita, APIpibata, APApanalastas, etc., preterite and future, Asulat, Apagdalita, APAnalastas, etc. For you to know when to add and when not to add an to the tenses of this composition, here is the rule: when the verb on focus has an in the preterite, you have to put it in all the tenses; and when not, do not put it in any. The habitual future has also its future passive, etc. The above-discussed composition gives rise to the following ways of speaking: insistent beggar gets the alms, ingsalantang miluluat mañyauadMA CAPANYA UAD ya; whatever work you do results in you doing something, ya; he who seeks finds, not because he is infallible (it is also said of a person who goes to fleece and ends up being fleeced himself); ing manintun etc.,with its habitual future. The second way, which often looks strange, also comes from this composition. It is that of merit ya, he shot; MECABARIL ya, he hit the mark. We already said above that MECABARIL ya, for example, is maca of the first concept, which only predicates of the doer the action of completing the act of shooting. In this and in similar verbs, whose effect or end of the action is contingent, it is clear that, when the maca of the second concept is predicated of them, it presupposes the certain effect, which the

144 simple cannot do; because even though, if he hits the mark, for example, with the simple he hits it, since this one only means to shoot, prescinding from whether he hits the mark or not; and so, when it has its effects, it uses this maca, which is always certain, if the speaker does not lie; MECABARIL ya the simple got its effect, or attained its end; and it is in this way that similar expressions must be understood with their passive. An exception to this composition is the preterite MEGAMATE ya, where this maca does not indicate that he finished doing, but that he started to die and did in fact die.

The MACA of Inadvertence

I presume that you are by now familiar with the above concept, that this maca is the consequence of the exercise of the verb, because it results from it and looks at the direct intention of the doer who only intends to do what the verb says, not to finish doing-, it is like prescinding from the intention; and from here it follows that they use it to say that the doer did inadvertently what the verb says, or without intending to, or by mistake, or by accident, or against what he was thinking; and this is what I called earlier MACA of inadvertence-, take note of the examples; and so that you will understand its first concept better, let the model example be the one which you hear every moment, namely, macapulot, mecapulot, he who finds or runs into something, especially if he was not looking for it, and even if he was looking for it; for example, if I lost something and I say that I will reward whoever finds it or runs into it or hits on it, ingmacapulot or macaquit or macasumpung or macatuclas or macadulang, etc. I will continue with the same composition. Macabulad, macabalo or mecabulad,mecabalo; y Pedro iyan MECAPULOT or MECAQUIT, etc; without my thinking of it, I fell into the hands of the thieves, MECABALO or MACABALO, MECASUMPUNG co caretang mapanacao. Be longing to this are MECAYASANcon bulbulan, I ate meat without being aware that it was Friday; I ate without remembering that it was a day of fasting, MECAPANGAN co-, I ate without remembering that I was going to receive communion, MECAINUM co. Instead of picking my hat, I picked yours, and you ask: who took my hat? you will say: ninon MECAYACUA or MECASAGMITnot quiningua nor because these ones do not signify mistake; I will say aeon MECASAGMIT, I took it believing that it was mine. And so in whatever action by chance or by accident, like the one who hits the mark without knowing how to shoot; he who criticizes what is good thinking that it is bad, or the one who gets the opposite of what he was thinking, which is the same concept; for example, I asked you, thinking that you knew, and you did not know, MECACUTANG co alan balo mo; I was thinking that you would count or pay one hundred pesos and you counted or paid four, MECABILANG ca apat la mo or MECABILANG BILANG ca, because these ones admit frequentatives in the present

145 and preterite; like if I was thinking that the door was open or closed, for example, and I find the opposite, MACAYAQUIT-AQUIT co or MECA YA Q UIT-A Q UIT co or MECABUSNGIBUSNGI co, etc. The passives are the ones of the above-mentioned composition, but they are clearer with the frequentative where they are possible; for example, CUTNANG da ca or aturan-turan or asump or adamput-damput or apapalaran or acalman -calman,atagun-tagunan,arapat-dapat, sagmit, atutuc-tutucan, abaril-baril,and from the beggar’s pan, which apply to all apatulusan,etc.

The MACA of Apprehension

With the future of the above-mentioned composition in the second concept, we construct the MACA of apprehension; for example, MACABALBAL ca, you have to end up breaking, or apprehension that you might break it; MACASULAT ca quing e bala, you might write what is beside the point; leave me alone, says the ill-tempered, because otherwise... MACAPALU MACASAGMIT co quecayo, MACAMATE co, MACASUGATco, MACATABA co, MACASIROL co, MACAPANAMPALING co, MACAYAGCAS con e mayap, etc. with its future passive. The MA o f stopping, for example, MABALDOG or MAN ABO ca, you will end up having fallen or you might fall; MASUGATca is correctly told a child who plays with the knife; you might end up wounded or might hurt yourself, etc. The MACA of apprehension is clearer with a peculiar style, for example, MACABALBAL na ca NGETA, I judge that you might break, or MACAPANA CAI, MACABARIL CAI, or MACASUGAT ca POTA or APOG o AMPOG MACAMATE ca, to someone who comes down after having taken a weapon; or MAGCAN MACASUGAT ca, AMPOG or APOG INDA. It is also one of appre hension or magcaninda; it means you might by this or by that, etc.

It might happen that; for example, to someone who gets married without considering it well: Asumisi ca bucas, macadua, you might regret it tomorrow, another day; to someone who puts off doing penance: pota macasisi, you might not be able to repent afterwards; to someone who takes a bath where there are crocodiles: Acunafna] ca ning dapo, you might be grabbed by the crocodile, Amibono, migaga cayo; you might fight; Apotan panacauanan da ca; and also Amacabalbal ca, Amanaboca, etc.

146 Section 2 The MACA Potential and Other Potentials

Its conjugation in the active and passive is that of except that this one in the present only indicates potentiality [possibility as opposed to impossibility] and not actuality; and so it does not have the present of the verb in the active nor in the passive. Its accent is that of the first concept, long; for example, MACASULAT co, I can write; MACASULAT co pota or bucas, MECASULAT co, I was able to write; passive: ATALASTAS co iyan, I can understand this; ATALASTAS co pota, I will be able to understand it afterwards; ATALASTAS co na, I could already understand it, etc. As to whether it admits an or not, follow what was said about MACA o f perfection. It has its future habitual with its passive: for example, MACASULAT or MACAPANULID yan amanun latin, he has the habit of being able to write and translate from Latin; MACABUATyan mabayat, he has the habit of being able to carry heavy things; MACAISIPyan mataluctuc; MACATALASTASyan masulit, etc. Its accent is long, because it is the future habitual of the above-mentioned composition. It has its frequentatives with respect to the things which express relationship with the energy; for example, ABU A T-B UA T co iyan\ API-SALO-SALO co ini, as a ball; APIBARIL-BARIL coya or baril-baril, I can shoot with these ones as easily as I can use a pen. You will notice that the whole time I discuss the maca, I rarely give an example of the active; it is not because it cannot be done, but because the ways of speaking with maca are usually with the articles, which are placed at the end; and to speak in the active and passive, you should observe with it the same thing mentioned about all the rest in the rules given for the use of the active and passive.

SUCAT

It is also potential and is the closest to our Spanish can, he can, etc. The reason is that the maca only indicates the proximate and immediate potentiality [possibility]; and so, about one who does not know how to write, you don’t say he could with maca, because it is a remote possibility, but with this, yes: SUCAT yang sumulat, because with it one indicates the proximate and remote possibility, for example, he who is in jail, SUCATyang lumacad, dapot aliya MACALACAD. In the realm of moral possibility [that is, being licit], although it is more ordi nary to refer to it by using this, it can also be expressed with maca; for example, you tell me if I can do for you something, which is illicit? e ca MACARAPAT queta ulico? Or e mo caya ARAPAT ita uli co? or SUCAT mo cayang daptan ita uli co? It is of course true that we cannot deny that sucat is more appropriate, and even then, and even when maca is used, sucat is more frequent; for example, can

147 one who is fasting eat two ounces licitly without violating the fast? SUCATya cayang MACAPANGANingmagyunal adduang onzas e masirapamagyunal? And the same is true with sentences which do not indicate moral possibility [that is, being licit], but physical; for example, SUCATmo cayang ABUATini? SUCATcang MACASULAT? Can you write?

UPAYA

Substantive nouns: Power (poder), as that which is given in writing, or that of the powerful, or that of the justices and also power (potestad), as the power to absolve, etc.; and so, if denied, it closes the door to any remedy; for example, alan UPAYA; alan PIUPAYAN, there is no power, there is no remedy at all; ala con UPAYANG lumacad, or ala yan UPAYANG cumayap, as hopeless; atin UPAYA nang cumayap; maqui CAYUPAYAN con maniacas casalanan, I have the power to absolve sin.

MALLIARI

It is also potential [that is, it has potent]: it means that what is said can be or it can be done-, for example, if the road is very bad, he will say if he is sent: nun MALLIARI con lumacad; that is, if it can be done or if it can be that I walk; and from this, if I can walk; MALLYARIAN cumayap, he can improve (puede hacerse) or can be made to improve (puede hacer que mejore)-, and from this, he can improve (puede mejorar), etc.

MI andMA

They usually serve as potentials, especially with negatives; for example. MIPANIC co, I can go up; MITIPA co, I can go down; e co MITIPA or MIPANIC or or MIPAMANGAMANO or MIBANGON, etc.; e MARAPAT ita, e MATANGGAL iningpaco, e MARALA ini quing bayat na, etc.

Section 3 The MACA of Nuisance

I cannot find any Spanish word closer to its meaning. It is pronounced fast and the root is doubled; for example, MA CABILANG-BILANGya, theca is long, belongs to the inadvertence; but MACABILANG-BILANGyaining pesos, for example, belongs to this composition; and it means thispeso only serves as a nuisance in the counting, because it has no value, it is fake or is leaden; MA CALARIN-LARINya ining tapis or balay, to repair this dress or house is to spend time uselessly, because they do not have composition; MACARAGDAG DAGDAG or MA CARACAL-DACAL la dening tauo, these people do nothing except to add to the crowd; they are not needed for the case; the same with abiyay, sali, simpan, misali, etc. This composition cannot have a passive.

148 Section 4 The Causal MACA

Its accent is even; it is formed by putting in the nominative the person who is the cause or motive and in the accusative the person or thing in which he causes. It is conjugated in the present by doubling the first syllable of the root or verb to which it is attached; for the future, if it is a compound, it is attached to the future and if it is not, to the root; for the preterite, it is the same, except that the a of ma is changed to e. It is attached to all the roots or compounds, which are capable of being used in relation to causality, and it signifies receiving the action, even though the accusative expresses doing the action. First Point. It is attached to all the roots which when with ma are adjectives or verbs of ma; for example, itang cai iyan MACASASANTING [present, the same spelling as the future], MACASANTING [future, the same spelling as the present], or MECASANTING; MACADURONOT, MACARUNOT or MECARUNOT; MACABABANGIS, MACABANGIS or MECABANGIS queca, etc. Also following this rule and variety, it is attached to the roots of substantive nouns which, when with ma signify abundance; for example, ingpamañgalao, y Pedro yan MACAGUINTO, PILAC or PALAY queca, etc., he will be the cause or motive for you to have gold, silver, etc. Also, following the same rule and variety, it is attached to verbal roots, simple or compound, and with all of them it is the best and surest step to insert pa; both in order to remove ambiguities and in order to express more vividly the causality and influence; for example, ingalac iyan MACAPATUDTUD iyan MACAPABATBAT caco; ing batbat iyan MECAPABIASA quetang anac; ing tacut na quing infiernos iyan MECAPASISI quetang tauo, etc. but bear in mind also that what we say about this maca is also true with the particle ica. I said at the beginning, although the accusative expresses action; for example, iyan MECAPATIPA caco quing tinipa quetang sia, he was the cause why I brought the chair down; ing tacot quing infernos iyan MECASISI caco quing casalanan co; iya naman MECAPIGAGANACA canaco quing camatayan; ican MECAPASULAT caco or MECAPABASA;if it does not say anything else, it means: you were the cause why they included me in the list or they read it to me; if it has an accusative, you will say: you were the cause or you obliged me to write or to read something, etc. Lastly, it is attached to all those which with ca are verbals of either by doubling the first syllable, for example, MACATUTULANG albayan, and so it is hardly distinct from CATULATULANG albayan; or by doubling the root, as in ca; for example, MACATULA-TULANG albayan; and so it is distinct from it in that it expresses causality; for example, CARINE-RINE yang lauan ing tauong lubas means that it is embarassing, that is, TULIDyang carinayan, worthy of being ashamed of; but MA CARIN ERİNE yang aquit ing tauong lubas means that it is shameful to see or it causes shame, or to say it better, that it is embarrassing to see him. And the same with the rest.

149 With the future tense or perhaps with the present tense, although it is rarely used, we form nouns which signify that they are accusatives of what the root says: for example, ining dicut a ini, MACABIYE yan metay, MACABIBIYE ya or MACAPALDANya,this herb is healthy or has the property that causes health, and by extension, brings the dead back to life; ining lasun a ini MACAMATAY, this poison is deadly or causes death; and so macasaquit, macasalon, macapangayan refers to the herb of Saint Mary, which alleviates, etc.

Section 5 The MACA and PACA of TO BE [ESTAR]

This one is also pronounced evenly and it has no variation of tenses; it is attached to the simple roots or to the future, if the verbs are compound. The closest Spanish equivalent of its way of signifying is to be o f the mode which the root or verb says. It is attached principally to those which express being in some state with respect to a ; place for example, it is far, MACARAYOya or ya, it is near ( malapitya it, is near or nearby); MA CALOCLOCya, he is seated; and the same with, thrown, hung, on one’s feet, thrown far, sown, passed and all similar ones, which are innumerable. You now see that its Spanish is like the past participle. When joined to names of places intended for something to be put in, and it is attached to those places, it means to be in such a ; p for example, MACATAPAYANita, that thing is in the jar or jars; and the same with macacaban, macatopocan, macagusi, macabayong, macapidpid, etc. This same Spanish admits others, although they don’t indicate relationship to a place; for example, macasulat, it is written; macayotos, it is commanded; macayugali, it is in character; macapanabilin, entrusted; macatanto, promised, like what is vowed or a child offered to religion; and so MACAPALAMANquing santong Sulat, and all those of this kind; macapalual. They constitute the ff [facere fieri, see chapter 12]. There are some verbs which, with this maca, indicate the doing and the receiving of an action, for example, ing danum MACATABUN or MACASACLAO quing tabun, the water is deposited in the tabun, and also, the active voice, the tabun is holding or depositing the water, etc. All of these and the rest which indicate action when the case which follows the particle is nominative, admit the passive; for example, ASASACLONA or ATATABUNA NA ning tabun ing danum, etc. Given that backdrop, all the sentences which go with this maca can also go with paca, under one of two conditions: either the nominative is plural, or it refers to plurality of places; for example, PA CALOCLOC la, or PACAYANAM, PACASALBAG la; pacatapayan, pacagusi, pacacaban, pacabayon, placed in jars, large jars, or baskets; ingpagcasulat, for example, in the old and new testaments; ing asal a pacayugali, for example, in various towns; ing pacay otos, for example, in various churches, etc.

150 Among these three modes of expressions; for example, MACARAYO PACARAYO la, MIPACARAYO la, as houses, there is this difference: the maca simply says that they are separated; the paca adds each one; the mi is neutral, to stay as it is in that situation; but remember that all of them refer to the place o f which, and not in the mutual relation of each to each; if you want to express this last one, you would say MISICACANDAYOla; and all these three modes can be used generally in all the verbs which express being (estar); but bear in mind that when the nominative case is not plural and the oblique case is , for example, asal a MACAYUGALIquing metong at metong a balayan, in this case, it is no different from asal a PACAUGALI,etc. [About the oblique cases, see chapter 4, section 1, Last Rule, bracketed note.].

Section 6 The MACA and PACA of Intensity

This one has a long accent in ma: maca; it only admits the imperative. It is joined to the roots whose meaning is adequate to express the act with greater or lesser intensity; and in all [verbs] it signifies that the doer does more sincerely, more effectively and more forcefully the acton expressed by the roots; for example, [E]stote viri fortes [Be strong men], MACATAPANG cayo; MACALACAD ca, go on walking; MACAGALING cayo, hurry up; MACAINGATca canaco, take good care of me; MACAGANACA ca; MACAISIP ca, understand it better; MACATUNUD ca, act more maturely; MACABIASA ca, show more interest in knowing; MACAPAGARAL ca; study more diligently; MACAPAMINTO ca quing otos ding pun mo, obey very faithfully what your superiors tell you; etc. MACALALE ca or macalume ca or MACACALALE ca or MACACALUME ca, be very careful, as in order not to break or to let something spill. The last two exaggerate.

PACA

This particle is always passive, and its concept indicates that the doer should do very well what the root expresses; and so icabat me itangpasbul, for example, by the regular passive, only says close that door; but PACACABAT me itang pasbul gives more intensity to the act, and it means close it very well or close it well closed. It retains this form in all the passives, simple or compound, to which it is attached, because it is very general. And although any given sentence of maca in the passive retains its meaning when in the active, for example, PA CAPAMINTUANmo ing otos ningpun no; PACAINGATAN mo co, take good care of me; PACALALAYAN or PA CAL UMEANmo iyang darala mo, bring this with great care and that one; what is certain is that PACAPAGARALAN,pacaisipan, pacagalingan and others of this form which seem to be passive counterparts of the actives of the said maca, are not;

151 because even though there were no such MA CA ofintensity, it would just the same be expressed with this paca. Well, whatever it be, it is not a reason to object to. Its preterite is peca, usually without an; PECAisip, the thing, PECApemintuAN; the person, pecalumay, pecalalay pecacabat, pacarayo, pecasalaing, pecarayo, pecasalaing, etc. I said usually without an, because even though the first and second passives retain it or follow this pattern, the third passive drops an in many sentences in the preterite, and retains it in others. With the roots of the abstracts and with all of those [roots] which refer to an overdone action, it is dropped, likepecasanting, pecasampat, etc. With those which consider simply the endpoint of the action, which always happens whenever one thing is mixed with or is thrown into another, it is dropped (lepierde) [sic, probably meant “it is retained,” le guarda]; for example, PECALARAN mo ing asan, you mixed too many peppers with the fish; PECAEBUNANmo ing caramelo, you mixed too many eggs with the candy; and so PECAlaucan, pecatugtugan, pecayaslaman, pecaasinan, etc., and even with other abstracts if they express a speculative action or looks at the thing merely as an endpoint; for example, etc. I said that this particle is always passive, but this does not prevent it from being restructured, for example, with the transitive mi, and with it, it becomes active; ing Guinutang Dios iyan MIPACASAMPAT; ing Dios a MIPACASAMPAT quing caladua ampón MIPACAULA quea, etc:

PECA

This particle does not change; although, when it is joined with verbs, it is preterite as it means tn the place of or in the midst of, for example, PECAMEBATING mo ya, PECAMETAY mo ya, consider him to be among the dead or lost, or count him among the dead; like ibilang men matay or mebating; PECAMESAMBUTmo neya ingpemaogui mo, consider that they won over you or that you lost the gift you had given to the woman. And the same with pecamesira. It is also attached to nouns; for example, PECAYANAC mo ya, take him as your son, or as a son in place of a son, or count him as a son, as if saying: ibilang men anac. And so ingyoron PECANASI, ing bulong saguin PECAPAPEL; ing cubon PECABALAY; ing asin PECAYASAN, PECASAGUIN, PECASISI, PECATINAPAY, etc.

152 CHAPTER 12 THE PARTICLE PA

Section 1 The PA as FF:

The abbreviation FF stands forfacere facere [to make a doer do something] and facere fieri [to make something be done by a doer]. [Facere facere'. Make Pedro water the plants. Facere : Make the plants be watered by Pedro: See to it that the plants are watered by Pedro.]. This famous composition—and I say this not without a strong basis - transcends all the neighboring languages. In Pampanga, its conjugation is present,/rapa; future pa; preterite pepa, and maybe pe. It is attached to all kinds of simple or compound verb-roots and its accent is long; pa. The role (the concept and soul) of this particle is to express an influence, in the strict sense or in the broad sense, positively or negatively, and even if only metaphorically. In using it, we indicate that the person who does (whether the word is in the nominative because it is active or in the genitive because it is passive) is not the one who has to execute what the verb says, but the one who exerts an influence in such a way that the receiver of the action of influencing is the one who executes what the verb says (whether the word is in the accusative because it is active, or nominative because it is passive) without need of expressly using the term or verb which means to influence, to command, to permit, etc., because pa plays this role. In order to show clearly that all what this pa expresses is influence general and that to be this mode or the other depends only on the verb to which it is attached or the meaning which here and now, the speaker (basing on the context) wants to give, I will give an example for the active and another one for the passive. PABATBATca queya. Here you can say command him to whip mentioning who is to be whipped, and you can say allow yourself to be whipped by him, you omit the influence of resistance, you influence negatively, and you can say ask him that he whip you, as I have heard an old man who, as his penance, usually asked his own children to whip him: PABATcarela; and one can also say he was commanding them. The same is true with the passive; for example, sometimes we hear PAL UAL mo la, sometimes PALU ALAN: and pa is always the same: they differ only in the meaning of what here and now is being talked about. Because the first one means make them leave ( arreales o hazles salir)', the second one can mean command them to leave {mándales salir), and also if they are locked inside let them go out or permit that they go out {dejales salir o permíteles que salgan), etc. This having been said, the influence meant by pa is explained either by to command or to permit or to make someone do, etc.; for example, command Juan

153 that he write that book ,pasulatca can Juan quetang command that bilango [policeman] that he catch that thief, PASUCUL ka quing bilango quetang mapanaco. Here one can inevitably sound ambiguous, because it can be taken to mean command the thief that he catch the bilango. Say it in the passive: PABILANGO me itang mapanaco quing bilango. For the passive, the general and only rule is to see if the nominative of the person who receives the action in the sentence is one who does something (agit) or is one to whom something is done (agitur), because this one means or facere fieri. If it is the first, it should always be the passive of an\ and so you will say: PASULATAN me y Juan quetang libro; PABILANGO AN me ing bilango quetang ; because here Juan and the bilango are ones who do something ), not ones to whom something is done (not aguntur), that is, Juan reads, not ; The bilango catches, not is caught. If it is the second, it should always be the passive of and so, if you put the book and the thief in the nominative, you will say: PABASA me itang libro can Juan; PASUCUL me itang mapanacao quing bilango', because each of them is one to whom something is done (agitur), not one who does something (not agit), that is, the book is read, not the one which reads', the thief is the one who is caught, not the one who catches. Corollary to this rule is: that, when a non-living thing or one that has no action, at least a metaphorical one, is in the nominative, always use the first passive, because it is one to whom something is done (quia agitur), not one which does something (non agit); it is a receiver, not a doer. In the case of living beings, they sometimes use the former, sometimes the latter, not indiscriminately, but observing if in the here and now of the sentence, the living being is considered more as being acted [agatur] than as acting [agat], and in that case, they are considered as non-living, that is, they also fall under the passive of i, which, for this reason, is called facere fieri [to make something be made], to see to it that the one mentioned will be done or that something be done in it. For this reason, when they tell the doer, let them leave, make them leave, they use this passive, PALUAL mo la; because it means make them be thrown out, not make them leave; let something be done to them (agantur) rather than let them do something (agant); it is facere fieri and not facere facere. On the other hand, if you order them simply to leave, it is facere facere, to induce then to leave, and not throw them out; do something to make them do something, potius agant quam agantur. If you understand this rule, you will very rarely or never fail. We will explain this further. At other times, this influence is expressed by to permit, to let, to : PASA UL ca can Pedro, let yourself be defeated by Pedro, do not resist, influence negatively, and the same with the rest. What passive corresponds to it? the one of facere facere, which is the an; PASULATAN me y understoodPedro, queca, because Pedro, which is in the nominative, does (agit), not done (hot agitur), he is the one who defeats, he is not the one who is defeated. [Presumably PASUCUAN was meant here, and not PASULATAN.]

154 In this sense, we hear everyday PASALIAN mocallow me to buy some of your palay; for example, make me make (fac me facere), influence me negatively [sic] into buying; PASACLOANmo con danum, allow me to fetch water form your well; PAYUMAN moco quing gamatmo, allow me to kiss your but if I say allow your hand to be kissed by me, facere ; PAYUMA mong gamat mo canaco. Having this in mind, you should not get surprised to hear them saypatulan, patangisan, palungcutan,etc., because the pa is concerned only with whether the nominative of the person who receives the act of influencing does the act mentioned by the verb, even if he does so only in abroad sense; and this goes to show that he does an act rather than an act is done to him (potius agit quam agitur). Belonging here are PALULUTAN me iyan saguin; patilan, pabengian, pagatpanaponan, etc., all of them ff. passives of an because the action is conceived as coming from the nominative; and the truth is, it is better considered as that which acts (quod agat) than as that which is acted (quod agatur). In the end, what we should do is to move carefully, because there being so many various ways of influencing, it gives rise to varied meanings; for example, PASA UP ca can mean allow yourself to help ( ayudar) as PAIUAD ca is allow yourself to correct {dejate correguir) and ask that they help him (y pedir que le ayunden). In the first sense, you have PASA UPAN mo co, for example, allow me to help ; you in the second, if you say PASAUPAN mo ya, you mean either allow yourself to be helped by him or command him to help. The same is true with paturo, payaraI,etc., but if you open your eyes, you will find the rules and principles to be helpful enough, unless you are slow. It has its frequentatives: papuri-puri, patilip- tilip, palaue-laue, pasilip-silip, patañgal-tañgal, patangdao-tangdao, etc.

Just as by knowing what a man is makes you know what he is not, because by knowing what characteristics he has, you can know that a being that does not have those characteristics is not a man; so also, by knowing the properties of pa o f f f you will know that whatever does not have them is not pa off f Assured by this principle, we come up with the general rule that a PA which carries a meaning other than pure influence is not PA o/FF. Such are the following.

TO SAY

First of all ,pameans to say when it is joined to words indicating decisions: good or bad; for example, pajesus,padios; (and this is usually a cursé),padiablos, paibpa, paindo, paua, payali; from, yata, to doubt, gayata, to express doubt; paimburis, to say more than; patabalo, to say that one does not know; and the same is true when it goes with other words, good or bad. Its passive is the third, based on the general rules: PAJE SUSAN mo y a, PAUANmo co, PEPATABALUANA co, PEPAYALANA

155 cong marinay; pay atan, palasingan, payalian somebody to whom these things are said, etc. It also has its frequentive; for example: palasing-lasiñgan, go on calling someone a drunkard; PALASING-LASINGAN ya canaco, PAYASU-ASU ya, PARARAMULAG ya, PABABIBABIya, The passive is the same: PALASING-LASINGANAco, co, PARARAMULAG AN A co, PAYALAN-ALANA cong dinay; and so paindo-indoan, papanunu-nunuan, parapo-rapoan, etc.

TO ASK

Secondly, when, joined to things which usually pass from hand to hand,pa means to ask for them; for example, palimus,to ask for alms; PASALAPIya, he asks for money; PAGUINTOya, he asks for gold; PABALATya, like a shoemaker, and if he is a child, PABALATca? do you want to be whipped?pagunting, to ask for scissors (pagunting ca? do you want me to cut your hair?), pamayumo, sweet; pay asan, fish;paculumbo, etc. Its passives are the third: but they do not indicate the person from whom one asks, but instead, the person to whom one gives: ca, I will give you gold; PATABACOAN mo co, PABAROAN mo detang lubas; PACHOCOLATIAN mo la; and the same with the rest. They have paguinto- guintaon, payumo-yumoan, to whom one gives a little at a time, etc. Here belong patauad, ask for a discount or forgiveness, patauaran is not from whom one asks, as I already said, but to whom one gives, and its first passive ipatauad, according to the general rules. The opposite is paralampo, where paralampoan is from whom one asks, like pipagdalitan.

TO GIVE

Belonging here are many expressions, which are considered^ though they are not; for example, paean,painum, paimalan, parusa, param, pautang, and similar ones, to which you can addpabalo. Its meaning is to give what the root expresses. Its passives, according to the general rules: first that which or behalf ofwhom; third to whom. Its protocompounds mamamsa, mamaimalan, etc. do not indicate one who commands, (mandador) which is another proof of what was said, but the one who gives (dador): calulu, sayang, cauan, tubo. See the Dictionary. Whoever insists that they belong to ffshows that he does not understand this. Notice that pautang naco, with a long u, means he says that I owe him, without explaining how.

156 Section 2 Alternative Composition of FACERE FACERE REFACERE FIERI

This alternative composition, which in itself is difficult, has been made more unattractive because of the name given to it, namely reff, because they say that facere is doubled, resulting in four facere,unless you say that two times two is not four; and with this who will fail to see the confusion it causes? Furthermore, none of the examples given to prove this belongs to it; because all of them belong to ff, that is, none of them expresses anything but to make somebody do some thing. Examine them, if you care, since you are looking for the truth anyway.

This having been said, I affirm that, in Kapampangan, there is an alternative composition of pa. To understand it, I look at it as a composition of ff. Now, making an alternative composition with another pa does not result in a double composition, that is, there are no two f f but one and a half, which is reff I call it refacere fieri becauses it is clearer and it is commonly used as passive, and ordinarily it expresses only an influence properly so-called, and that is, to command.

Examples

PAYAUS me quing fiscal itang sacristan, command the fiscal [parish coordinator] to call the sacristan. This one belongs to the preceding composition, because the fiscal is commanded only and not the one commanding; he is the one who has to call; but PAPAYAUS me quing fiscal itang sacristan belongs to this alternative composition, because he is commanded to command, he is one being commanded and one commanding', it is not that he will call, but that he will command somebody else to call; and so the genitive of the person who does isfacere', the fiscal is also facere, because he commands, and fieri follows, which is that which he commands', meaning that the sacristan should be called, and this is refacere fieri [to make someone make someone else do something]. Here, you notice carefully that, for this alternative composition, it is necessary to have two persons commanding: one the genitive of the person who does; the other whom the genitive commands, which has to be in the accusative, for each one of which there is a pa respectively; there should also be a person who receives the action, and he is the one in whom the second command is executed: here it is the sacristan; it is also necessary that there be something that someone is commanded to do, and here it is that the fiscal should command, although this is implicit, it is understood; it is not expressed to avoid confusion. It is undeniable in Kapampangan because of these current expressions; for example, PAPABUSNGIning pisamban; PAPASULUT me quing mayordomo itang pasbul lalam balay;

157 PAPANGABATmo deang auang, etc. Understood this way, you can use it wherever there is passive, provided it is strictly ff, like papasucul, papabilang, papasingil. papasugat, papabalo, ect. Preterite: pepapasucul, pepapabilang, pepapasingil, pepapabalo. [It seems there is an erroneously extra pa in each of these four terms.] If you noticed the necessary requirements of this alternative composition, mentioned by everyone, that it has to have two commands, you will conclude very correctly how inconsequential are the examples w'hich they give to prove the principle and rule which they refer to, because none of them is made of two commands; and this error seems to me to have resulted in their belief that the examples have two pa, forgetting that no composition belonging there is strictlyj^ on which this one is based; and since it has no basis, it cannot exist. And if not, I ask: is payaban moya, for example, the same as PASULATAN mo ya l Ofcourse not, because that one means tell him “no it is not ff, the nominative of the persone who receives is not commanded to do; but PASULATAN moya, yes, because he commands him to do the act of writing; for that to becomeffb k t this one, it needs two pa: PAPAYALIAN tell mo, him to say no; now it is f f For it to be an alternative composition, in the present tense, it needs three pa. So that you will not make a mistake at every step in this, do not move away from the common principle that the passive of an with pa off f always indicates to make somebody do ; something and if there is a passive of an with pa which does not indicate to make somebody do something, it is not f f and so it can never have two persons commanding, nor does it belong to the alternative composition. Besides, you will rarely or never find it with a passive of an, but of and with three pa in those verbs. One will not avoid these errors if he does not distinguish between what passive is off f and what is not; for example, if you say that PAIMALANAN mo ya is f f because it means make him dress up, you will be very wrong, because this is not what it means; what it really means is give him a dress; clothe him, help him put his clothes on; like, PAC ANAN mo ya, give him something to eat. If you want to construct these and similar ones according to the rules of this alternative composition, add another pa and use the passive of i; for example, command the procurator to command someone to feed the horses, PAPAPA CANAN mo quing mayordomo detang cabayo; command the zone leader to command someone to give the poor something to wear, PAPAPAIMALANAN mo quing capitan ding mangaluca; and the same goes with all those that can have the first passive: PAPAPABALO me quing mayor ing fiscal. From these, you can construct others; this is certain, although they are rarely used in the preterite, because the indio chokes. Use the root otos if you want to avoid any difficulty. Even if it does not belong to these verbs and even if it has two pa, it does not belong here if there are no two persons commanding, in such a way that one commands the other; for example, you sent that sacristan to follow the priest, PEPATUQUI me ing Pare quing sacristan; the sacristan does not come back and

158 you send another messenger; this one is PEPAPA TUQUI; and it is the same even if you send ten. This one only says that one command is given after another command, and not that one person commanding commands another, and so it is la n d no reff. It has various verbal actions. Starting with simplefffo r example, if I want to say that commanding o f yours or that action o f yours commanding Juan to write, I will insert ma after pa, saying itang PAMASULAT mo cang that is, that influence of yours whereby Juan writes once or twice; and this goes with all similar cases. To indicate that which follows, you have to know that this pa has its protocompound, which is formed like those which begin with m, and it indicates plurality like them, maintaining the connotation of ; for example, pasucul, protocompound mamasucul, one who influences or commands that many should be arrested; verbal pamamasucul, the act of commanding somebody to arrest many. You will notice here that neither its protocompound nor its verbal is mistaken for those protocompounds or verbals of those beginning with b,p,m, where there can be confusion. They are not interchangeable. The protocompound of batbat is mabatbat, and that o f ffis mamabatbat, leaving the root whole; and consequently, neither the verbal, because the first ispamamabatbat, [probably meant to be only with one ma] and that of J f is pamamabatbat, etc. Neither are they interchangeable in the passive, becausepamatbatan, preterite pematbat, is not the same as that of jf,which ispamabatbat, ; nor is this passive, pamabatbat of the protocompound interchangeable with the action of to command someone to whip, which is also pamabatbat, if one bears in mind that the action has no tenses while the protocompound has. The conjugation ofprotocompounds and verbals is the same in the different significations of which is not but the meaning is different, as I said there. See those meanings. Many of them have another verbal, which made me break my head trying to understand, and I pray God not to allow me to make a mistake here. It ispamapa\ for example,. PAMAPAutang, PAMAPAbatbat, PAMAPAsucul, PAMAPArañgal, PAMAPAtoto, PAMAPAbalo, PAMAPAsaup, PAMAPAyurali, PAMAPArusa, PAMAPAlasa, etc., to understand which, you have to know that these protocompounds of pa admit ffequentatives, like the ordinary procompounds; for example, to lend, protocompound mamautang, to lend to many; frequentative, mamamautang, go on lending, preterite memamautang ; passive pamapautang, pemapautang, because there is no other possible way of distinguishing it from those explained earlier. Given this backdrop, the verbal of this frequentative is differentiated only from its passive, in that it is considered as a noun, which has no tenses, just as the verbal pama is differentiated from the passive of the simple protocompound ofpa, which is also pama, as I said; now, if someone becomes poor due to continuously lending, PEMAPA UTANG na ing sablang bandi na, which is preterite, you will say it with the verbal: meluca ya itang tauo uli ning PAMAPAUTANG na quing sablang bandi na. You will philosophize this way with the rest, keeping the rules proper to

159 each one. Finally, just as the verbals are abbreviated, as we said, for example, pañyatang, etc., so here also the simple verbals oí pa are abbreviated; for example, frompamacalolo, pacalolo; and the same with others, although not with all.

Section 3 Other Meanings of the PA

This particle is also used in referring to things of minor importance. First, to indicate a whole year, and it has a future and a preterite; for example, PABANUA PEPABANUA ca carin, you will be or you were there for one year: and sopabulan or padomingo and no more, because to say one whole day they use the adverb patiñgapun, pepatiñgapun, inapon; napon, the whole day yesterday. Following this pattern, if it is already sunset today and I have not yet eaten, I will say: IN APON ngeni e co mengan, the whole day today, I have not eaten. Also: paca,pepaca (looks like paca)joined to some roots which express time indicates that it is delayed long: for example, PACABENGIca carin, you are there until late at night; pacatas yang aldao magmisa ingPari, when the priest says mass, the sun is already up; they say PEPA CASALACANG minuyao to one who arrived late in the day to make bubuyao when the denas are already full; and sopepacalambat, pepacaliuag, etc. Also: with a few roots; for example, tangís, aclis, saua become adjectives which mean an insignificant and needy aspect of the root and is applied only to a child; for example, PATANGISya, he is a cry-baby; PAYACLISya, he is a bawler; PASA UA ya, he is a spoiled brat, nanu ne CAPATANGISAN a anac ini! Or how spoiled this cry-baby is! etc. Also: flowing from pa, although it looks like pay, is that Kapampangan pattern which is equivalent to our Spanish to put oneself or to put something in that which the root says; and also with pati\ for example, PAYALDO ca; PAYAMBON, put yourself in the sun or stay in the drizzle, with its preterite pepa, and it also admits the passive facerefieri, for example, IPAYALDO or IPAYAMBON mitang danum. And sopatingangin, breathe clean or fresh air; patiñgañginan or pepatiñgañginan, the place, like the wharf; and so patiñgoro, near the fire; but patiñguran or pepatiñguranhas no passive. Paintulut, to allow, first that which', third, with whom', paindaton, to rest, paindatonan or pepaindatonan, the place; PAINQUIÑI AN me queni, see if he wants to come here; it has a preterite. Also, it means more or still;for example, atin PA? is there some more? or is there still? Batbatan me PA or itas mo PA, whip him more or still, or lift it further or still; and from here other patterns of speaking follow; for example, daratang co pa, I am still coming; that is, I have just arrived; cuan me PA ita, take that first; muna PANG matay bayo micasala, death rather than sin; to die first, etc: nanu PA? what else? what more? mamón co PA po, I will still say goodbye; or better, I

160 will not yet say goodbye, because with pa he says that his departure is not of the smoke, or his coming back that of sardines; and so you will understand pasangtabi co PA po; lacuan da ca PA po, etc. Also: it means what we refer to as extending until; for example, even the king kissed the hand of that poor man, pepasiuma la quinggamat na, for example, manga PA quing ari. Another: talking of the crime of lese-majeste of the parents, the children and up to the grandchildren share in it, alimo Hang maua ding anac nun e PA naman ding cacayapoa ra. Another: the horse, including the chair, cost me, for example, twenty pesos; or better still, including the chair and everything; manga PA quing sia, etc. Lastly, it is equivalent to our Spanish of comparison, how much less; for example, you cannot lift that small stone how much less that big one? e me abuat iyang batong mainsac, iyang PANG abuat mitang maragul? if you cannot bear the insult, how much less can you bear the eternal torments? nun e mo abatang capalmuran, iya PANG abata mong lasang alan angga? you cannot bear this fire here, how much less that of hell? e mo abata ing api queti sulip, iya PA CASING abata mo ing api quing infiernos? The adverb casi is joined to it, but the force of the expression is in pa. Only by following the pattern can you use the particle to say also the equivalent of our Spanish how much more; for example, if this small stone defeats your strength, how much more will that big one? nunsaul na ca sicanan niyang batong mainsac, ita PA CASING batong maragol a manyaul quing sicanan mo?; nun pasaquita na ca ning capalmuran, iya PA CASING e macapasaquit queca ing lasa alan angga? nun palasa na ca ning api queti sulip, iya PANG palasa queca ing api quing infernos? etc. With the adverb cano placed before the said particle, we also express either of the two Spanish expressions, namely, how much more, how much less, but it must also indicate always the basis for comparing one with the other. If those bases are placed to express diminution, it expresses how much less, if to exagger ate, how much more; for example, this road is not dangerous, how much less if you are with many people, alan pangañiban queang daralanan, CANO PA T dacalang tauongyabe mo; this road is dangerous, how much more, passing by alone, manganib iyang daralanan CANO PA T ala can yabayl Another: for example, I complain about Pedro, because he does not like to lend me even though we are friends, how much more considering that I had lent him, CANO PA T ibat co nengpepautangan, etc.

161 CHAPTER 13 THE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES AND OTHER PARTICLES RELATED TO THEM

Section 1 [Erroneously labeled “3” by the original] Anti, Tinti, Maguin, Mala, Tela

This language does not have comparative nouns like [the Latin] melior [better], etc. They are formed with the positives, which are adjectives; for example, Pedro is better than you, MAYAP ya queca y Pedro; you are worse than he, MARAUACA queya; you are more learned than I, BIASA ca caco, and the same with the rest; however, for greater emphasis, they usually add the particle pa to all of them; for example, Pedro is braver than Pablo, y Pedro MATAPANG ya PA can Pablo. You already know that in Latin the comparatives are also formed by the positives and the adverb more ( plus or magis). The same is true with Kapampangan, using these adverbs lalo and lacuas;for example,y can Pablo or LALO yang matapang y Pedro can Pablo, Pedro is braver than Pablo, and the same with the rest.

a nti

The simple comparatives, that is, those which do not mean an excess, but equality or similarity, need more explanation. Starting with an absolute comparison, for example, he is big like you, etc., it is formed with the adverb anti, which means like,which is comparing. Its rule is to put what is compared in the nominative, the one to whom he is compared in the accusative, or nominative, inserting the adverb mo between anti and the nominative; for example, he is big like you, maragul yang ANTI queca or ANTI MO ica; you are brave like him, matapang cang ANTI queya or ANTI MO iya; Pedro is holy like Juan, banal ya Pedrong ANTI can Juan or ANTI MO y Juan; love your neighbor as yourself; caluguran ANTI MO queca or ANTI MO ica. When the comparison is made using any of the adjectives of ma, which are composed of the abstracts which express qualities and not passions; for example, beauty, bravery, fewness, greatness, etc, they are not only formed the way explained here and using the particle ca of equality; but also, by starting with anti and changing the m of the adjective to c, using the abstract; for example, he is brave like you, ANTIA queca CATAPANG, or ANTIA que CATAPANG or catapañgan or tepangan, etc., because to say he is brave like you means the same as to say the bravery is like you; and the same with the rest.

162 TINTI

When the subject or the nominative, which is compared, is plural, they use the adverb tinti instead of anti] for example Pedro and Pablo are big like you, Pedro ilang Pablo TINTI la queca pangaragoi, those posts are like these ones, detang asias a deta TINTI la queni] these inkstands are like those ones, dening paltintan a deni TINTI la carean. With this one, you never place in the nomina tive that to which something is compared, as with anti.

MAGUIN

Comparisons indicating depth, for example, it is as cold as hail. That one is not said as well said with anti as it is with the particle maguin (of which we will speak in the next chapter); for example, leave it until it becomes as cold as hail, manggan MAGUIN lipatya] its preterite is meguin; for example, white like snow, meguin ubod; sweet like honey, meguin pulot, and so meguin atdo, meguin tiban, meguin baya, meguin pantis, etc.

MALA

When the comparison is of the shape or features, it is not as well said with anti as it is with the particle mala-, for example, they refer to the shoulder blade as MALA bagsay, it has a shape like that of the oar; of the stomach, MALA tulud bangcal; of the ankle, MALA bulacus] of a certain big earthenware jar, MALA tapayan\ of a certain crocodile with a shape of a knife, MALA palang; of the seeds of hard guavas, MALA yabbias-, of the soft ones, MALA nasi', you are big like a baral [?], MALA yatcan ca] when the sun is like a tiquin[?] high in the west, MALA ; in the east, MALAyatcan ya quing aslaga na\ MALA tacday, heavy like an arm of that wood, or the arms of those trunks of the guavas.

TELA

When the comparative like expresses a very remote similarity, they use the particle tela] for example, like a city, like gentlemen, like horses, they celebrated something like a fiesta, etc.: TELAtauo, like a man, like an appearance of him, TELA banua, like the sky, that is the sky as a bell tent TELA macanano man] TELA bundoc, mountainlike hump on the road, etc.

163 Section 2 The Superlatives

In the particle ca of the abstracts, we placed the most elegant and most appropriate superlatives which consist in doubling the root of the abstract, regarding some cases, and, regarding others, in expressing the negation of the defective verb with the ca of coequal, for example, ing Guinu tang Dios iyan CACAYAP CAYAPAN AALANG CACAYAP or CABAÑAL CABANAL CASAMPATSAMPATANA ALAN or CASAMPAT CATULAD or CAYALINBA UA or CADUA or CALUPA, most beautiful, no one like him. You already know that in Latin the superlatives are formed with the positive and the adverbs very or most (valde or plurim ); also in this language, with their corresponding adverbs; for example, he is most handsome; MASAQUIT yan masampat or masampat yan BINA, or masampat yan E MUNANO or masampat yan BINANG BINA, or MASAMPATyan MASA Q UITA MASA QUITor masampat yan masampat; MASAQUIT a BINAN masampat or masaquit e munano or masampat yan dili na; and this is true with the rest.

164 CHAPTER 14 VARIOUS PARTICLES

Section 1 MAGUIN

Its present is maguin, the ma with a somewhat long accent; its future maguin, pronounced fast, preterite meguin, verbal pamaguin. To form the passive, change m to p; it admits the first, the ; motive the third, the object. It is attached to the roots of nouns and verbs, as you will see in the examples. Its way of signifying consists in saying that the subject or nominative becomes or is converted into that which is ex pressed by the noun or verb to which it is attached; but such a conversion is never true, but figurative or assumed, as if saying, for example, I wish that this copper inkstand would be changed into gold, nun MAGUINguintoya sa i n i n g from here flow the comparatives that we mentioned; for example, of the one who has a high fever, we say he has become a live coal, M MEGUIN calang ya, he has become a live coal or a stove; you now see that this conversion is only metaphorical. Following this pattern, we say: MAGUIN tauo ya\ and to exaggerate, MAGUIGUIN tauo, it acts as if it were a man; e ca sa MAGUIGUIN matunud anac, predatory animal with no hair, do not act as if you were an adult; and so, MAGUIN masican, MAGUIN biasa, MAGUIN matapang; MAGUIN mua ya, he appears angry without being so; MAGUINe bisa, it is understood that bago alan buri nang aliua, like a maiden who says she does not like to get married, or the physician the tip, or the Mexican, chocolate. It is formed with maca, as said by Sio. I MECA PAGUIN bato quing caladua mo, that thing has turned your soul into stone, meaning, it has made it like it in hardness. Its passives, as I already said, the first, the motive; for example, nano PAGUIN or PEGUIN matapang mol Third, the object', for example, e mo co PAGUIN matapang nan; e mu co PAGUIN moan or PAGUIN tauo nan (notice the n), do not make me believe that you are brave; do not pretend that you are angry; that you are a man. It is also formed with mag : magmaguin it; is the MAG o f intent or resolve', for example, MAGMAGUIN banal ya, MAGMAGUIN matula ya, MAGMAGUIN malungcutya. This last one is like the heir who cries, and the first one like someone who has a lot to hide. The passives are the same: emo e mo co PAGMAGUIN MALUNGCUTAN, do not purposely make me believe that you are sad, do not pretend to me that you are sad, because, for example, I know that you are con tented like Easter; and the same with the rest.

165 Section 2 PAY

This particle has an intransitive meaning. Present and future preterite pepay. Its mode of signifying is ultro facere [to do something freely], that is, to do as one pleases or as one feels like, of one’s own accord; for example, he who becomes voluntarily poor; paybaba or paycumbaba, he who humbles himself at heart; and also he who bows or stoops voluntarily. Of Christ our Lord who offered himself to the torturers, quia ipse voluit [because he willed PEPAYBATBATya,PEPAYLASA ya, PEPAYMURA, etc., and one can also say without doubt, PEPAYMATEya, he died of his own free will, etc. And even if this particle is applied to one who is in despair, PEPAYMATEya, PEPAYBATINGya, PEPAYPULID ya, he killed himself, he threw himself over a cliff because he willed it, and he had this bad choice, what is the problem in saying that about Christ, because he willed it or had the good, the very good desire to do so? Because many barbarians threw themselves into the flames, PEPAYTANGAB la, we could say that St. Polonia threw herself into the fire, PEPAYTANGAB ya, etc. Belonging here are some [verbs] of movement, like payturo, paycay, payparalaya, payparoba, paypañgolo. These four are the four parts of the world: that is, to go towards the east or west, etc. Paytas, to ascend, go up.

Section 3 SI and PASI

This particle si is the same as the Latin unusquisque [everyone] and the Spanish cada uno [each one]; with the difference that this one always means plural and the noun to which it is attached is doubled [sic; the examples he gives do not tally with the rule he gives]; for example, sibabalayan, every town; sicacatauo, each person; sipipinduan, each kind, siisipisip, sicacayarian, every kingdom, sicacayocoman, each municipality, etc. It is formed with mi: for example, MISIBABALAYAN la dening mangapia, these prominent figures belong to different towns respectively; MISIPIPINDUANla dening bilusan a imalan, these pieces are different from one another; mil[l]e hominum species; velle suum cuique est [there are so many kinds of people, and so each one differs from others in what he wants]; MISISIPINDUAN la ding tauo inya MISISIBURIANla ngan. This composition has passives, but no tenses; for example, SIBUBUR1ANda ing pamañapat da, each one wants to do things his own way; masulit SIBIBIASNAN, ali PISISICNANGAN, meaning, one who understands prefers dexterity to force; ing mabayat SISISICNANGAN, what is heavy is for the one who has strength; ing pamañapat quing quecaldan, ali SILULUCSUAN, that is, to work for the common good, no one should throw his body out, etc.

166 PASI

This is formed by the above-mentioned si and the particle pa of influence, and becomes pasi; preterite PEpasi or PEsi; verbal it is always active and refers distributively to all and each one by itself; for example, work, all and each one of you, PASIDAPATcayo-, whip, each and every one, PASIBATBATcayo; omnes vos fugam capietis in hac node i[all of you will flee tonight], PASITACAS co ñgan ñgening beñgi; PESITACAS la; and so, PASISICLAUD cayo; pasipulay, pasipañgadi, etc. Together with the vicenales [words indicating the number of times] and the particle tolo, it expresses the number of times the action is done; for example, PASITOLO MISAN cong mañyiclaud, all of you, kneel down, each one once; PASITOLO CALADUA cong matbat quea, all of you, whip him, each one two times; and the same with the rest. Magpasimola, migpasimola, be the first to do; for example, MAGPASIMOLA cang dapat, be the first one to begin, so that oth ers will follow you; magpasiona, , migpasio to go ahead, like a captain or guide; also, it is said of one who goes ahead and confesses his fault to the supe rior before anybody reports him.

Section 4 PAL

This particle is joined to nouns and verbs, and with it, we make adjectives that indicate that the subject has what the root expresses as a habit or a vice; for example, palsumpa,one who swears habitually; paltangis, one who cries habitually; paltacas, one who escapes habitually; palinum, drunkard; palpaninum, a heavy drinker; palpaquiamanu, quarrelsome; palpicasala, sinner; and it is attached to the MI of company, for example, palpiyamanu, quarrelsome group; palpigaga, naggers, like married spouses, who do not love each other; and so,palpitua, arguing partners, but it has to be one against the other; palpacaili, one who laughs often, etc. If you want to exaggerate, place ma ofabundance before the combination, for example, mapalpaquisabi; mapalpaquiamano; mapalpaquitua, etc.; all have ca and an of characteristic; for example, capalpaquisabian; quepalpaquisabian; for example, nano neta; QUEPALPAQUIYAMANUANa tauo iyanl you translate that yourself in Spanish; paltudturan, one who sleeps often; paltungduan, one who is habitually sleepy like an old man during the sermon; palñgeungan, a cat which meows very often; palcaungan, a dog which barks very often; palsumbuñgan, a habitual accuser, as a boy in school. Now you see that these frequentatives, which express passion or passivity rather than action or activity, admit an if it is no longer the future of the third passive. [Passion is the process of receiving the action. Action is the process of doing.]

167 When this particle is attached to nouns expressing things which have a place destined for them, and an is attached to the end, or to say it better, when you put it in the future tense of the third passive, they become nouns of place where those things are put; for example, from asin, paliasinan, salt cruet vinegar cruet; palsingsiñgan, ring finger; paltintan, inkstand; and so palcarañgan, paliabiasan; palbebeuan is aplace which they roof over and where they grind rice.

Section 5 TALA

This particle is most appropriate to form nouns of occupation, especially when that which the subject is dealing with is not his own, but that of the one whom he serves, as a page, a chaplain, a slave, a laborer or a servant, like a shepherd who does not watch his own sheep, but those of his master. This composition is formed with tala and the verb which indicates that thing; bear in mind that, even if it carries the Spanish de [English like shepherd the sheep, etc., the sheep, etc. must always be in the accusative. If the verb to which it is attached is simple, all what one has to do is attach the particle ( talacumit , keeper) and say of what (caring cambing, of goats), in the accusative, because the genitive of these is infallibly that of the boss whom one serves in them, for example, ingangeles a TALACUMIT NING Guiño tang Dios CARING caladua ding tauo; so that, if you want to put a word in the genitive, it has to be the master, then the verb with its case or the compound; for example, stevedore, talapagdala. This having been said, remember that all the nouns of office or verbs that express them can be formed into this composition; for example, talapagmisa, as the chaplain, talapanimona, as a page; talatauli, as a servant; talasungco, as a bilango, and in short, if you keep the meaning of each term, this rule is totally universal; for example, talapañgan, idler; talasulat, talapanorot, talasuyo, and all their relatives. Attached to nouns, like those referring to weapons, it means to carry them; for example, talabaril, talatandus, talasundang, etc., and also talalibro, talapaluca, talapingan. All of these become verbs with mag: magtalabaril, etc. If you insert ca between tala and the root, it indicates propensity, inclination, ease; and, well, you will give the Spanish equivalent to each of them, because it is imposible to give them in one stroke; for example, talacaranup, often hungry, like a tuberculosis patient, talacao, often thirsty, like a tubercular; talacasalun, sickly; and the same pattern, talacarunut, talacatagco, talacarinay, talacalisya, talacamura, talacatalusad, talacasumbal, talacasumpung, talacamusing, talacapalid, talacalilo, talacagaga, talacasudsuran (take note of that n), talacalasing, talacalili, etc.

168 Section 6 MELA

This particle indicates a coordination or conspiracy of many to do what is expressed by the root to which it is attached; the root is always doubled, and the subject in favor o for against whom has to be in the nominative, and the doers in the accusative; for example, MELASASABIya caring malda, he is the talk of the town; MELAPUPURI ca caring tauo, everybody praises you; MELAMAMA TA ya, many people admire him. Following this pattern, melayayamanu, melacocucu, melasusungco, melasusugo, melapapangan, melainum, melacacalacal, melasasagmit, melalauay, melagagagtal, melagagaga, melapapangusap, etc. Its origin is mala, if you want the future. Section 7 SANG

This particle indicates total equality or similarity of the things in that which the root expresses; and it always goes with the MI of company, and therefore with another doer. When the roots to which they are attached can be verbs, they admit the second passive; for example, these two statues are the same in beauty, MISANGSAMPATla dening aduang larauan; PISANSAMPATno ning maestro, the master made them equally beautiful; MISANGCABA cata, you and I have the same height. You already know that, with the MI ofcompany, if there are more than two, it is doubled; for example, MISASANG ibpa la ngan detang sablang anac, all of these boys are the children of one father, etc. You already know also that the companions of this are joined with ca; for example, misang CALAPAD, things that have in the same breadth; misang CALUPA, of the same face. Misang buri, those who like the same thing, and those who get married against the will of their parents, does not admit ca, but, yes, micasanglub and micasang metung. To refer to the relationship of only one to another, drop mi; for example, CASANG indo moya, he is like you as regards the mother, that is, he is your brother in the womb, you are of the same mother; and so casanglapad; casangdacal; casanglub, etc. They also admit maqui, like the rest o f company; for example, MAQUISANGMANA ya quecami, he has an equal share of our inheritance and the first passive, IPAQUISANMANA me quecami, make him share our inherit ance, etc.; IPAQUISANCABA or IPAQUISANLAPAD me ini, etc.

169 Section 8 NGAN

This is always attached to the end; it comes after a noun or a pronoun or a verb, and it means all of it or all of them in all cases; for example, iquengan, all of us; icongan or icayongan, ilangan or ilanangan, all of them; mimin ngan, all is consumed; miminangan, like chocolate; pahuas noNGAN, all, for example, were traitors; micasala NONGAN ding tauo,omnes peccaverunt [all have sinned]; TANGAN', iya nasa.

Last Section

Section 9 PANGA

This one has important roles. The first is to express the passive aspect of the verbal correlative to the active aspect in all the transitive verbs; for example, ing pamamatbat quing anac, the action of whipping the child. The passive aspect is ingpangabatbat NA, always in the genitive; ing PANG ABAT quing pas bul, the action ing PANGACABATning pasbul;pangatandus, pangacabat, pangatabac, pangapaluca, etc. An exemption is pangagli, which is always verbal active, the act of conceiving, and so it requires an accusative for the thing conceived, and this is the reason why to say the Conception o f Our Lady, we say the action ofSaint Anne conceiving Our Lady, ing PANGA GLI NANG Santa Ana CANG nuana a Virgen With all the roots which become neutral verbs of ma, it also indicates passivity or passion [the process of receiving the action] prescinding from actitvity or action [the process of doing the action], for example, mesirayang bangca. The process of receiving the action, ingPANGASIRA and so, pangarunut, pangabuloc, pangabilog, PANGATUBO ning bulan; PANGACATIor PANGATIning danum; PANGASLAG, PANGALBUG ning aldo; pangatula, pangaluncot, etc. With the roots of immanent acts [that is, acts with no direct objects], using this panga is the same as using the verbal active; for example, ing PANG ATALI co means the same as ing PAMITALI or PAMANALI co; ing PAMANGATNGA co is the same as PANGAYATNGA co; pamanyatang or ppamanipa or pangatipa; although this last one can also be a passivity. With all of them, it also means the way or the point or as soon as. The way: for example, masampatyaPANGATABASining bangca, this banca is well cut; macanano ingpangasira na? in what way or how was it destroyed? But bear in mind that this mode can also indicate the cause: what was the cause of its destruction? Another: nanong PANGARACSA na? It can mean how did it fall? that is, who was the cause? and also, how was its fall? asking the way he fell, that is, if hefellfeetfirst or headfirst. If he gives the reason why he fell, he will say:

170 uling mitaquidya, because he stumbled; if he indicates the manner he will say, for example, macatalindiquingya, sidewise or on his side; and the same with the rest; and you will add to the verbal active its correlative, this concept of cause or motive, because, although we said that it indicates the way; for example, macanano ing PAMAMATBATna? we do not ask with the nano, NANO ing PAMAMATBATna? what was the cause of his action of whipping? To indicate the time or the point in , you must pronounce panga fast; for example: PANGABUSNGI ning pasbul, the pronunciation even, means, as we have said, the passive opening o f the door, but pronounced fast, it means as soon as, for example, PANGABUSNGI ning pasbul, patayan mo ya; and so, PANGATIningdanum, maco ta na; and this pattern applies to the rest. When it is attached to substantive nouns like God, angel, man, soul, horse, wood and stone,etc., this particle expresses the essence of that thing, for example, pangadlos, the essence of God; pangayangel, the essence of angel; pangacaladua, the essence of soul; pangatauo, the essence of man; pangadamulag, the essence of carabao; pangabato, pangadutung, pangaguintu, pangapilac, etc.; and so pangaarcangel, pangaserafin, pangacastila, pangaholandes, pangaindio, pangapugot, etc. With pangatauo, they don’t refer only to the essence of man, but also to his quality or nobility, as we hear again and again: maragul a PANGATAUO; and no more. Although when I once asked someone nanong PANGATAUO mol meaning what is your status? he answered: lam exempted [from paying taxes]. In place ofpangadlos, they also say cadiosan. The abstract forms of qualities, like whiteness, blackness, ugliness, beauty, goodness, wickedness, etc. do not admit panga to refer to those things because, although they admit panga, it is in order to express the state of receiving the action or the change of the genitive in what the root says; for example, tulid, straightness and the material admit panga: pangatulid; but it refers to either the mode, for example, how I straightened the rod by turning it, for example, towards the opposite of where it was formerly bent; or it refers to the change of the situation; for example, PANGABUCUT na quetang cay, PANGATULID na mua ngeni, and the same with the rest. We now go to the concept of tulid. If you are entitled to something, like a material thing, you have catuliran [the right to that something]. This concept does not admit panga. But if you talk of essence, if you want to refer to that which makes tulid what it is, then you can use panga; pangacatuliran, the essence of rectitude or of justice. I do not know of any other abstract which admits panga in this group.

171 CHAPTER 15 THE ADVERBS

Section 1 Adverbs of Place

Like us, these natives mark the boundaries of lands and point out the areas in relation to the four parts of the world: parolayeast; paroba, west; pangolo, north; mauli, south; and when they use these words in answering any of the interrogative adverbs, for example, where is it? they do so with neither an infix nor an article: nu caring ing sarolan mo? where is your rice paddy? ox MAULI, etc. This having been presupposed, the first interrogative adverb of place is where? This is expressed with two adverb phrases, which are o carin or no : for ex ample, where is Pedro? Oya CARIN or NO ya CARINy Pedro? You notice that the pronoun is inserted between them. I do not know where he is; tabalo non Oya CARIN {the non is added). NON Oya CARINy cai? and also NON Oya minay? They are two ways of saying where might Dick be or where must Dick have gone? An alternative pattern uses mag and mi; for example, if you come to my convent and I ask you nu ca MAGSILID? or nu ca MAGCARIN? in what room will you stay or be? (this is also the way to ask in what room do you live); anywhere, no man carin, or wherever you assign me, nu mo co man icarin or IPAGCARIN or nu co man MICARIN; ing sano man PICARINAN mo canaco, etc. If the answer uses the adverbs of place queni, queti, queyan, queta, the rule requires the use of the particles ni, ti, ta; if specific names are mentioned, use neither an article nor an infix; for example, they are in Bacolor, carin ya Bacolod or tiyo Bacolod; the same with these: balay, sulip, lalam, babao, banua; if with the appellatives because they are specific, say it with quing; for example, or tiyo QUING dayat, etc. and this rule goes with all adverbs. When the question is not about the place, but about the thing or the person you miss, you do not say o or no carin; instead, you follow the pattern illustrated by the examples, for example, I miss the box which I left on the table; I will tell the boy: NUN TAYO or NUN TE itang polvosanl Where are the other boys? TALO or NUN TO deang anac? Bear in mind that it is better to start with the abbreviations and finish with those which are not. When the question carries or includes what the Span ish would say already, we use na, ne, no; for example, NON ta NANG canauan mo na capila na? where now is that enjoyment or the good life, which you had just a few days ago? where now is that beauty of yours? nunta NEtang leguan mo? where now are your aides? nun taNO ding talasuyo mol to finalize: nun taNAya? nun ta nun taNAyo? Nun taNAlo? To where. This is used like the previous one, but without the carin; for example,

172 where are you going? O ca umay? or nu c umay? payque la Betis, they will go to Betis; or ume co sulip or queni sulip or ume co quin dayat or carin quing dayat, etc. From where? For example, where have you been? O ca ibat? or nu ca ibat? IBAT co balay or quing balayan. This ibat admits a passive of place in this case; for example, from what town did you come? ingsanong balayan a IB ATAN mo. I came from Manila, ibat co Manila or carin passive: Menila; caring Menilang IB ATAN co or ing cuidad Menilang IBAT co, etc. Through where, for example, where did he pass? Oya dinalan? or NO ya dinalan? I passed by Guagua, dinalan co Uaua or carin Uaua or quing dayat or carin quing dayat or queti or queta\ or dinalan co cari Pedro, I passed by the house of Pedro and his family; bucas dumalan ca can Juan, tomorrow you pass by where Juan is; or dalanan mu co, pass by wherever I will be. Up to where. This is expressed with either of the two adverbs and the verb pay turo or marap or payarap, for example, towards; for example, to what direction did he go? nuya PEPAYTURO or MIN ARAP or PEPAYARAFl With its passives: ingsang PEPAINTURUNA or INARAPANA or PEPAIARAPANA?The answer uses different adverbs depending on the place referred to: for example, towards there, TANGAN or NANGAN carin', towards the east, TANGON or NANGON paralaya; towards here, NANGAN or TANGAN queni or queti', towards the right, NANGON or TANGON uanan; or caili, towards the left; or QUING gulut, towards the back; or QUING arap, towards the front; or QUING dayat, towards the rice paddy, etc.

Section 2 Adverbs of Time

To begin with, here are some of the above-mentioned adverbs, which are also meant to indicate or point out the time. These are: queti, queni, quean, queta, carin. The first one indicates the time, in which we are, for example, QUETING aldao a iti, on this day; for example, Saturday; QUETING domingong iti, this week in which we are; QUETING bulan a iti, QUETING banuang iti, in this month, which is September, and in this year, which is the year thirty-six. [1736].

QUENI

Referring to when, they say QUENING aldao a ini, which does not mean on this present day, but on the same day, for example, on the twenty sixth of such month, the galleon leaves; now on this same day, the bells will ring, QUENING aldao a ini, etc.; this is how you should understand queni, as distinct from QUETING aldao a iti.

173 QUEAN

To refer to a future time, when something has to be done, they use queni and queyan; for example, next Monday, QUENI ox QUEYAN ; and the same with the week, the month, the year; for example, QUENI ox QUEYANG banuang arapan; QUENI or QUEANG next balictaon, year; QUENI or QUEYANG banua, ten years hence, etc.; QUENI or QUEYANG mucomya ing ; QUENI or QUEYANG mate ca, etc. The queyan is also used to refer to a time, which has been mentioned earlier; for example, you talked ofTuesday. etc. QUEYANG aldao a iyan, on this same day; and the same with the rest.

QUETA

It means at that time, referred to when you are narrating; for example, QUETANG cayi, in illo tempore [at that time]; QUETANG cañgeñgeanan, in ancient times; QUETANG aldao a ita or QUETANG bulan a ita, etc. Hence, it also means them, for example, carin co QUETA', I was there them, and in this, it alternates with carin, for example, QUETANG aldao a ita mecao; CARIN pin QUETA depat a ita',also, without queta; for example, QUENING Lunes or QUEYANG Lunes or QUENING datangya; CARIN me amanuan or CARIN co macao, then you will scold him, then I will go, etc.

INYANG

It means when in the preterite: INYANG datangya, when he came; INYANG quetia, when he was here; INYANG mateya indu co, when my mother died; INYANG cayi, at that time; INYANG macañyanya, when he was in that condition; INYANG mañgari na queta, etc.

NON

When in the future; for example, NON datangya, when he comes (they usually say cun datangya); this same expression is conditional, because nun is also if, NUN datangya, if he comes; and this is what it means in these expressions, NUN wari, if by chance; NUN wari man, and even if given the case; NUN wari pa man sa, and even if we would consider it to be the case; NUN cai is used to make a distinction, as when you say: if it is this or it is that; NUN nanong daptan, NUN quing canaco, first, when one does not know what is to be done', second, if it is by me or that which is my part, etc. And although in these expressions micasala ca pota, etc., imolat morin ing mata mo\ NON e mo pota aquit matalastas, sisian mong casalanam, non e ca pota mauili, etc. if it is the conditional, even then, it firmly affirms that the thing mentioned and not another will happen.

174 POTA

Afterwards', for example: POTANG gatpanapon or POTANG abac, after wards in the afternoon, afterwards in the morning; POTA uaring maualaya, is a colloquial expression with which they usually answer when asked about someone; it means, as if he were going to disappear afterwards; POTA ngeta mayap naya, soon afterwards he will already become all right I think; POTA man aari sang atiyo datang nang ala, this they say when the one whom they have called many times does not come; as if saying: as if although he comes, he would bring us all that we lack. Also: POTANG e ta isipan caring daratang, when we do not need it nor we think of it, then it comes; that is, then we remember it; POTANG caying eta ore te panintunan picasalibad ta or taya, when a person is not looking for it or is not looking for him, he finds it, etc. More was said about this in the maca.

NGETA, NANDIN

They mean a short time back, earlier, and they usually go together; for example, ibat ya NGETA NANDIN queti, he left here a while ago, or mine ya queti, he came here. Also: nandinpota; this should have happened earlier, it is late afterwards; NANDING dinatang ya or NGETANG dinatang ya, bino na co, a short time back, when he came, he beat me. Also: NGETA pa uari, as if it were now, for example, I remember things I did when I was a child; also, NGETA mo man maguinabo says one who is determined to do something and they are holding him back; that is, even if everything turns into ashes; we say: even if we lose more than all. Also: NGETA pa uari dapat na? as if it had been only now that he did it. Also, it goes with all the tenses and is affirmative; for example, non mine co carin, mete na co sa NGETA, if I had gone there, I undoubtedly would have died; paqui pota e ca maquiramdam, lumasa na ca NGETA, since you don’t listen to what I tell you, you will undoubtedly pay for it.

NGENI, NGENINAN. Now.

Now. Ngeni. ngeni, now, right now; NGENING gatpanapun, now, in the afternoon. Also: it indicates the time here and now or the when of the present; for example, NGENING mañyumpa ca or NGENING susumpa ca, at the time of cursing or swearing, etc. Aso: given a preceding clause, it means: and consider ing, etc., NGENI’Tpigaganacan co, etc.

PAYNAUANDIT and SAMANTA. For a short while from this moment.

175 Samanta means while, taking advantage of the occasion; for example, SAMANTANG ala luluban tayang bale ra, while he is not home, let us enter his house; and to understand it, it is better that the other sentence precede samanta, because this one presupposes an opportunity and one takes advantage of it; for example, manggan ala lo bale ra, PAQUISAMANTALANAN tamo; that absence is the occasion; dum tempus habemus, oPPeretnuS bon UM [should be oPeremuR bonO, deponent, subjunctive, followed by dative], {while we have time, us do good), dapatan dapat a mayap, SAMANTANG maquipanaun; take advantage of the time, ingpanaun PAQUISAMANTALANAN. Samanta and samantala and its passive belong to the same concept.

ÇAPILAN? When?

Preterite and future; for example, ÇAPILAN ca dinatang or datangl CAPILANG aldo? CAPILANG bulan?ÇAPILANbanua? what day? what month? what year? quing bulan a Mayo, etc. ÇAPILAN UARI? For example, you say: if I don’t repent, I will be condemned. I answer: ÇAPILAN uari, of course. You complained too much about someone who punished Pedro, and since I approve of his action, I answer you: ÇAPILAN uari, he did not exceed, the man deserved it, etc. Also: ÇAPILANya pang lalaqui? when is the heart? [when will this woman’s heart throb for a man?] ÇAPILAN ca pa sumisi? when will you repent? ÇAPILAN pa, nun e ngeni? When do you think? Right now, of course! Also: it is equivalent to the Spanish why? and this pattern is often used; for example, ÇAPILAN e ne patauaran ning Dios ing tauong sisisi? why would God not forgive someone who repents? ÇAPILAN e anti carin ? why will it not be like that?

PAQUI

For example, PAQUI dinatang ya or datang, when he arrives, preterite and future; PAQUIcai, after that one; PAQUIgalang migulut cacaliñguan mo na, fear that when you go, you will forget; PAQUI uari tinatañgis ca e na ca mamayad? do you think, by crying, you will be excused from paying? PAQUIpota cacañian ca, mabatbat ca; PAQUI balang biñie co sinira mo e ra na ca dianan, since you destroy everything that I give you, I will not give you anything anymore. Also: it means being; for example. PAQUI indio ya sağan ya, being an indio, he is weak (flojo); PAQUI capanpangan ya, magmatapangya, being a Kapampangan, he is brave (valiente);paqui tagalogya nun e talaralit, talateracya; being a Tagalog, if he is not fond of singing {cantarín), he is fond of dancing (danzarín).

PABLASA

If you interchange the first and second clauses of these examples and use the adverb [sic] sablasa or pablasa,the respective compound sentences will mean the

176 same. Sablasa and patlasa connote congruence and logical consequence. For example, sagan ya PABLASANG indio ya;talateracya PABLASANG matapang ya PABLASANG castilaya; palyinumya, he is a drunkard, PABLASANG tudesco [because he is a German]; maratnaya, he is modest [modesto], PABLASANG banal ya, because he is holy; vidimus glorian eius [we saw his glory], etc., aquilata ta nang cacamal-camalanang Guiño tamo, PABLASANG anac neng bugtung ning Dios Ibpa, as the only-begotten, etc. See the enumeration of time.

Section 3 Asking and Answering Inta, Uli ( gut) [guttural]

Why? INTANG depat mo itinan? Why did you do this? The immediate answer is with the adverb uli, which means because, affirming; for example, because they ordered me, ULING inutus da caco. Inta is addressed to someone who distrusts, INTA e casi malugud ing Guinutang Dios? INTA caya?, one asks doubting, why would it be so? why will it have been?, the answer that could be given is: ULI INTA caya ñgeti; INTA caya sa; INTA uari; the first refers to a someone who is contented with a certain person whom he did not expect to do such a thing; as someone who says; he might have a reason. INTA caya ngetil Why would he do that? The second is: why would it be this? For example, what have they done to me? INTA caya sang depat da caquita? The third one says, for example, to the one whom they leave alone to do the work of the group: INTA uari or uari sa bucod co ini? Why will it be this? Is the advantage and the well-being only mine?

INTATA

It is formed with ta, which is also for asking; and one asks this way does so not in order to know, but in order to ascertain with the two questions; for example, you do not like to give me money to do business for the two of us, and I ask you: INTA ? Why? In spite of my being trustworthy. INTATA ? Why? If aside from this, you will have the advantage of earning etc. And the same pattern for casi, etc.

INTA(pp.)

It means: get out o f here, move out, give place', INTA lisia ca. INTA na, the mother tells the child who wants to sit on her lap: move over, etc.

CAYA (gut)

With it, one asks about something one is doubting of, for example, nino CAYA ita? Who might that one be? Balu mo CAYA ingpañgutang? The usual answer, and

177 which also causes anger, although without reason, because it is an expression of the language which to them is all right, even if a son says it to his father, or the timawa to the local chieftain, is: intapong ali co ? why not, Sir? Why would I not know it? It also means the disjunctive or, for example, you or Pedro; ica CAYA o y Pedro CAYA, either you or Pedro.

CASI

First, the one who asks a question using this affirms the opposite; for example, numquid iniquitas apud Deum? there iniquity in God?] tin CASIN cabucuta ningDios? Another: do you by chance love your neighbor, if you do not help him in his needs? caluguran me CASING para moug tauo, nun e me lingunan quing capagcasaquitana? Can you by chance assure us that you will arrive tomor row? sucat mo CASING bitasan quing micabucasan ca? It is also used for giving reason or excuse; for example, why have you done this? inutus da co CASI inya depat co; why do you serve a Chinese? maluca co CASIpo; why does he cry? gagagan me CASI; if you quarrel with him; buri mo casi can be that of being or that of asking; for example, is it possible that you like that? Buri mo CASI ta? For example, he gets married to a black woman: a buri me CASI iyang pugot? atañguanan co CASI po quea.

UALA

It is also used for asking, but implying surprise; for example, have you arrived so promptly? miras na capin UALA ? if you see someone wearing mourning dress yesterday and today wearing a gala dress, na capin UALA quea! and are you that lucky? what novelty is this? tica UALA queti? you are here? etc.

BAQUET

It is also used for asking, but as a reprimand or confrontation; for example, BAQUET tica, e ra ca tiburan? But why are you here? did I not send you? baquet e ca maminto? baquet e ca pa mamayad, etc.

AYO

It means and so? either drawing a conclusion or conscienticizing a culprit, for example, if this happens with green wood, ayo\ what will happen with the dry?; did I not warn you? he answers: yes. Ayo?, meaning: well, why did you not watch out? In this sense, it is a good practice to add BAQUET, AYO, BAQUETe mo iniñgat? Supposing you call me, AYO,nanutang buri mo? Also: to frighten you, I tell you that I will report you to the teacher: yea? you answer disappointedly or shamelessly. Ayo? and so what? what is the big deal?

178 GALANG

It is also used in asking, but expressing doubt, as when the apostles asked: nunquid ego sum, Domine? is it I, Lord? aco GALANG po ita Guinu co? Another: I might be the one the police is looking for, aco GALANG buriran dang dacpan! magca GALANG ica! or you might be the one; and without asking: mandilo ca GALANG, I doubt whether if you will take a bath; payañgin ca GALANG, they tell a sick person; inya GALANG mua ca uli na nita? Would it be that you are mad because of that? he answers: would I have gotten mad because of that, not because of this? Iñya GALANG sa mua co uli na nita’t, e uli na nini? Also; iñya GALANG sa pepautañgan co ya, uling macapamayad ya says one who cannot collect: I lent him because I trusted he was going to pay promptly. Another: I did not call you in order that you would leave me, but in order that you would accompany me. A better style: I called you in order that you would accompany me, and not in order that you would leave me, inya GALANG sa inaus da ca, ba mo con lacuan at alin ba mo con yabayan ? [Could it not have been that I called you so that you would leave me and not so that you would accompany me?] With the same, one answers giving an excuse, for example, ali GALANG sa ing e co matacad; ali GALANG sa ing misalunan co; ali GALANG sa ing matua co, there was no other reason for my leaving you than that I was sick, I could not walk and my old age, etc; ali GALANG sa ican lacuas maquibalo queta, no one knows better than you do, to the one who pretends not to have heard the news. Also: it is used when, after having seen everything, we compare one with another, weighing the differences: for example, seeing the abundance of rice here, and remembering how expensive it is in our land, we say: caring GALANG quecami alagangguinto, it costs silver peso (the indio says gold). On the other hand if we now go to Spain, seeing how expensive rice is, we will remember the Philippines and will say: caring GALANG Filipinas e la alagang saga, they give it almost for nothing. And this is so, whatever way, time, place, kind with which you relate the topic where this comparison is made; for example, now there are so many wars; during my time, says the old man, we enjoyed an Octavian peace, queta GALANG minuna pauang alan piamanuan, etc. OorNO

These two adverbs of place are also interrogative; for example, Oyanti or yanti casampat or caragul; how beautiful or big is it? and also: No ta eyanti carin? why will it not be that way? NO yanti catas or calalam? how tall? how deep? etc.

NANAN

It also asks: NANAN ngeta?or NANAN casi?what can you do? if God wanted it that way? NANANta? what must a person do? or what must someone do? NANAN mo co ala co pangpamayad?, etc.

179 NANO

What thing? NANO pa? what else? NANO po? NANO sa? better if they were eggs, what did you think they had to be? Nano pata, this is, there is no more, it is finished. NANO ngeni? what day is today? like those who will hang (colgar) [sic, probably meant comulgar, to receive communion] and even if simply: NANO cano? What does he say or what do they say? asking, for example, someone who reads or understands them; NANO caya ngeta pasari ta? what would a person do in such case? The balang can be in any of the tenses; NANUBALANG? NANANU BALANG? NUMANUya ta BALANG queyan? What can happen to him there? NINANOya BALANG? what thing happened, whatever it be? etc. and also to the root NANO BALANG co caya? or NANO que BALANG? what does he have to do with me? what do I care about him? NANO queta balang? NANO que uari BALANG? Quid mihi et illi? [What does it have to do with me and with him?] what do I have to do with him? he is not my father, he is not my uncle, he is not my relative, etc. When formed with ma and the adverb uari, it means to request, for example, MANANO UARI po mutus ca, please let me know what you want me to do; MAN ANO UARI po mangan ca, please eat.

NANANTA

It is used to answer, giving the reason. For example, how can Christ, being one person, have two natures? NANAN TANG Dios ya ampón tauoya, the reason is that he is God and man. Another: why did all men have to be burdened with too much work? NANANTANG me uala ñgan quing manang casalanan, the reason is that they contracted the original sin; to say only because of original sin, answer using uli: ULIning casalanan a mana ra.

YNYA

It means, therefore, or on account o f this; for example, YNYA e co sinimba uling maquisaquit co; YNYA pepailasa ya, ba na catang quinabus, he suffered for this, to liberate us; and so since YNYA means two things, namely, on account o f and this,to show what this is, there has always to be a second sentence.

YNYAPIN

For this very reason; for example, because you do not know it, that is pre cisely why I am informing you, YNYAPIN pabaluan da ca; YNYAPIN ya ta, for this very reason maybe; for example, YNYAPIN yata minea queti, maybe that is precisely why he came here; YNYAPIN yata mimuaya, I believe, this precisely is why he got mad, etc.

180 YNYATAor YNYA, NGETAor QUETA This is used to indicate that this or that action is a sign of something, etc.; for example, there are explosions in Manila at a late , hour we say: this is a sign o f something new, YNYATA or YNYA NGETA or YNYA QUETA merila [Menila] tinpiglauan. Another: whenever someone, for example, eats fruit, he contracts fever; he was already all right, and later we see him with fever, we say: it is a sign that he atefruits, INYATA or NGETA or INYA QUETA malagnatya meñganya bunga, etc.

YNYA UARI

YNYA UARI ñga co, uling, bala cong tutu ita, I said it because I thought it was certain {cierto)', YNYA UARlliguran can biyay ningDios, ba can micasala? is this perchance the reason why God gave you life, so that you will sin? better: the end God had for giving you life, was it for you to commit sin? because the concept of refers to the end; YNYA UARI ormayap YNYA mayap mine ca queti, that is: you came just at the right moment for the end which we intended, because you, for example, can resolve our doubt. To a thief: INYA MAYAP tineng capanibalan, justice came at the right moment to deliver us from this thief, etc.

YNYA SA (short: SA)

First, it is regular; for example, YNYA SA depat co quea, ba ya san misip, the end which I had in doing that to him is for him to repent. Second, it is used to express affectionate complaints, like what Saint Anthony the abbot did to Christ, iñya sa Jesus co licúan mo co! how was it possible that you left me, my Jesus! YNYA SA anti nabqueyang ing amanu mo caco; yñya sa e mo ne pecacalalay bitbat, says the mother to the father who overspanked the son, etc.

INTASAorINTACAYASA

They mean the same, but they ask, for example, INTA CAYA SANG e na ca melugudlugud? says the same mother; for example, why did you not pity him? INTA SA e mo co dianan, why did you not give me? it is all about that is complaining affectionately because of the humble tone of the particle sa.

Section 4 DOUBT AND AFFIRMATION

YAIA

For example, y Pedro YATA, I think it is Pedro, I do not affirm it; atlo la YATA, I doubt if they are three, etc.; eyata is to infer: according to this.

181 NGETI

For example: is the priest in the room? I think so, NGETI; tiyo NGETI Menila; nuyang da NGETI carin iiang ana co? says the mother whose son does not show up. {Nun misan) [sic]

NUN MISAN

It is also about guessing: NUN MISAN tiyo Baculud, he must be in Bacolor, I guess. Also: to say sometimes with reason, at other times with no reason, NUN misan maqui sangcan, NUN MISAN, ala; it is equivalent to the Latin pattern: modo vult, modo non vult, sometimes he wants, sometimes, he does not; NUN MISAN bisa ya, NUN MISAN ali ya; like ñganangbisaya, ñganangaliya; ñganang mitonton co, nganang alico, sometimes I hit the mark, at other times, I don’t.

AFFIRMING TOTO

Toto nang toto, catutuan a toto, catutua nang catutuan, all of them affirm seriously; so much so that they are taken as oath. When they do not presuppose what they affirm, but they foresee it, they put it in the negative; for example, CATUTUAN nun e ra ca balbalan a buntoc, truly, if I don’t break your head.

TABANG (A)

TABANG non e ra ca balbalan a buntuc; first cousin of the preceding. Also: TABANG biro man, nun biro biro co, I certainly am not kidding; and also TABANG nun e mataba, they say about a very fat pig; it affirms and seems to deny; TABANG nan lapasan mong otos ning Dios, mipala ca, be sure that if you violate God’s commandments, you will NOT be happy [ ca literally means “you will be happy.”].

PALA

It affirms, but after someone comes to know what he did not know; for example, I presume that you know, and I ask you and I find out that you don’t, I will say: e mo PALA ngeni balo, bala co sang balo mo, surely you don’t know and I thought you did. Another: magdalaya PALANsundang ingPare, you understand what I mean; very often, it goes with ngeni; for example, cata PALA NGENI, I say this when I realize that we have lost our way; what Alexander said when he found out that he had been wounded, tauo co PALA NGENI, now I know for certain that I am a man and not a son of Jupiter. Also joimed to it is ini PIN PALA ngeni, etc.

182 PIN

First of all, it is affirmative; for example, oua PIN yes, of course; PIN iyan, that certainly is he; he is Pedro himself, y PIN, PIN carin', it has the concept of itself, same: anti na PIN itang sinabi co queca, it is the very same thing that I told you. Also: maco ta na PIN ngeni, presupposing that you are saying it again. Also: when the adverb naman is inserted, it means to complete or to do once and for all what was begun; for example, you have not finished what you are doing and you want to leave it; I tell you: finish it once and for all, balausan mu NA PIN MAN or ilud mu NA PIN MAN. There are two who have not yet confessed, and you are about to stand up; yarian mu NA PIN MAN, finish with them once and for all. Also, an opening clause: abalo mu NA PIN MAN, now that you already know, etc.; but if it is placed at the end, for example, listen, therefore, so that you will know once and for all, nun sinabi ra na queca abalo mo NA PIN MAN, since you want to go, go once and for all, mena ca PIN MAN, ica na pin man, to someone asking who will do it.

It affirms, limiting; for example, danum MO, water and nothing more;ya na MO, nothing else is offered or it is all what is offered; MONG sisi, chicks, nothing more; metungya MO, one only; this is like ali ca pa MO, paburian mo pa MO; daptan mo pa MO, etc. Also, with a long accent, it is an abbreviation of moa, and it means also. See the copulatives.

DIN

It also affirms and it is about limiting; for example, iya mo RIN. You will also hear iya mo PIN. The first means he is, he always [he is still the one]; the second, he himself only, [he is the only one], and so din looks at the action, looks at the subject: din is equivalent to our Spanish siempre [still]; for example, antia RIN carin, it is always like that; [it is still that way] antia PIN carin, it is really that way; anti mo PINqueta, like that very same one; anti mo it is always like that one; mate ca RIN, you will have to die eventually; mate ca PIN, certainly you have to die; sumisi ca RIN, you will eventually have to repent always; nun e ca mamangan dumanup ca RIN, if you don’t eat, you have to get hungry of course, etc.

NANDING or ANDING or NARING or ARING

They serve to affirm; for example, NANDING e ra ca balo, as if I did not know you; that is, I know you well; NANDING e que pepabaluan, as if I had not informed him; that is, I have informed him, etc.

183 NANO MAN or AGUIAMAN CASI

They also affirm. The first one means are right or it is so, but, etc. For example, it is good to lend Pedro, so that the next time he will lend you. Answer: That is right, certainly, but I have little money, NANO MAN CASI, etc.; you can start a business to earn money, that’s right, but you will encounter many dangers, NAMO MAN CASI,dapot, etc. The second one means even if it is so; for example, you are a prominent person, and you serve a Chinese mestizo? I answer: even if is is so, what must a man do? AGUIA MAN CASI numano yang tauo? This one agrees with the point but says that in spite o f this, etc.; for example, why do you want to borrow when you have no money to pay? He answers: AGUIAMAN CASIpoy, paymateya casing tauo? in spite of this, will you allow a man to die?

C APAL A PA. ÇAPILAN UARI.

It affirms, meaning o f course; for example, he who is not a prominent person is a timaua; CAPALA PA, o f : course it always refers to a true and clear statement: it is a Tagalog word and it is used by the Kapampangans, although they have their own idiomatic expression for it, namely, capilan uari.

Section 5 PRESUPPOSING

AMPAT

Presupposing that; for example, AMPAT bitasang mate yang tauo danuna nangpamagcaliñgat, na, knowing full well that a man has to die, he must watch for it promptly; AMPATmaquiisip ca, mi gaganaca ca; AMPATe mo balo nun capilan, since you presumably understand, be considerate; since you presumably do not know when it will be; AMPATume ca carin malaus ca careta, etc. It goes well with mo. AMPAT MON cabalu mo di Pedro nun meca carin, palugud ca carela, since you presumably know Pedro and his family, etc. AMPAT MON matanda ca luñgub ca quingpagaralan, etc. And placed after: for example, magcapilit ca aldo bengi, ba can alan guli quingpañgamate mo, AMPATe MO balu nun capilan, etc.

IYAMOA

Since, inasmuch as; for example, IYA MO biasapaturo ca, since you do not know, ask someone to teach you; IYA MO A't biasa ca ituro mo deang anac mo, etc.

184 BAQUET

Baquet at, baquet sa, baquet sa 't. The first two mean over and above that or aside from that, for example, not only did he cuckold him, he also mauled him, BAQUET or BAQUET AT pepaliuasana ya peluca ne pa; and so, BAQUET or BAQUET AT e ca susulat, mialung ca pa; BAQUET or BAQUET AT e ca magyunal, masan ca pa naman bulbulan; BAQUET or BAQUET AT palpaquitua ya pa, he is not only stupid, he is also stubborn, etc. BAQUET might mean therefore; for example, I conclude saying: and so, certainly, he would not do such a thing, BAQUET pin mon e na sucat daptan ita, etc. Baquet sa expresses a reproach in the form of a comparison; for example criticizing a person’s ingratitude and disloyalty to God, by alluding to a dog’s loyalty to his master; BAQUET SA ingaso, BAQUET SA ingayop, BAQUET ing, etc; this is how the weakness of the indio is expressed: e ca sa batoc at BAQUET SA ing panas dasñganang a ya na, do not be in a hurry, because we see the ant finally arrive wherever it wants to go; etc. Do not confuse this with that of to agree (convenir) or to take charge (hacer cargos) BAQUET SA mapanigla ca, etc.; BAQUET s a ’t e ca biasa megaral ca pa sana, BAQUET SA T e ca sinulat dinapat ca san aliua. You already understand it.

Section 6 Except

First, it is pa with subali; for example, whip everybody except Pedro, batbatan mo ngan PASUBALI can Pedro; ory Pedro mon PASUBALIAN mo, Pedro is the only one you should leave out; ory Pedro mo ing e me batbatan, the only one you should not whip is Pedro; or nun ey Pedro alan e mo batbatan, except Pedro, there is no one whom you will not whip., etc.

SUBALI, SUBALI PA, SUBALI SA, SUBAT SA

All of them are but, because their meaning is that a person has the intention of doing something and he refrains or he does not carry it out or he does the opposite because a but enters the picture; for example, I want to do business, but I drop the plan, because I foresee the dangers of the sea, bisa cong migcalacal, SUBALI mar alas ing catagcuan quing dayat malat. Another: I want to ask Pedto about something and I drop my plan, because I find out that he has not studied, balu mo caya ining icutangco queca? SUBALIeca magaral canini. Another: listen, let me share this information with you, niyo talastasan mo ininan, SUBALI ox SUBALI PA e mayap abalo mo or e mayap queca, etc. Belonging to this pattern are the but of murmurers: for example, you are praising Juan and a murmurer comments: SUBALI sang e matas a lub, SUBAT SAN

185 e malaram\ that is, except that or not considering that or aside from the fact that or i f he were not [haughty], deceitful, because with sa, it should be in the subjunctive; without sa, it affirms absolutely; for example, I want to make him a custodian, SUBALImacapanacaoya,but no, because he is a thief, etc. and also in the case, for example, where they want to make me travel and I excuse myself and I say: SUBALI SAN or SUBA T SAN e co marapat, SUBALI SAN or SUBA T SAN aliining dapat co, if it were not, or but I have something else to do, etc

DAPOT

It also indicates making an exception; for example, DAPOT tauo ya; DAPOT banal ya, all men, all saints, with no exception, etc. are universal distributive propositions, which do not admit of an exception: DAPOT tauoya bisa yang canauan, every man desires rest, etc.

ARING

It is the brother of naring or nanding, and all mean the same thing and so one can use any of them; this was forgotten in the words of affirmation, but once you know those, you also know this. I will give one example: NANDING or or ARING nun manabo ca quing infiernos, sap mo co, to say to someone who refuses to accept correction, as if,if you were you to go to hell, I would have to go with you', he affirms that he alone will go to hell, etc.

Section 7 SAYING THE OPPOSITE

DAPOT

But: this is well known. I will give you other Spanish equivalents: e.g. ding tauong alan tacut quing Dios e regagauan magcanong infiernos, DAPOT or mo SAN dasñgan dang buri ra, people who do not fear God do not care about the pains of hell ju st so as, as long as, provided they get what they want. Another meaning: for example, DAPOT tauoya, every man or once he is a man, was already mentioned in the preceding section.

BAGCUS

It says the contrary: quinimo, on the contrary; for example, esucat macasira queca, BAGCUS pin macapaldan, on the contrary, but rather, it will do you good. Another way of putting it: ali mo ing e macasira queca, nun e pa naman macapaldan, etc.

186 BAGO or BAYO

They also express the opposite of something, although in : for example, he says he cannot pay me when in fact he has what it takes, e na co cano ahayaranan, BAGO or BAYO tin pamayad na. Another:n/a yang sicanan, BAYO or BAGO maragolya catauan, etc.

AGAVA

It expresses the opposite. See irony.

BISTA, MAN, AGUIAN

They all mean although ( man is always placed at the end); for example, although she is ugly, he likes her, BISTA or BISTA MAN at or AGUIA MAN manauang ya lupa, calugurane ya. Another: calili na co ning Dios, e co MAN catuliran, BISTA MAN at or AGUIAMAN eco etc.

IMBURIS

Even if, for example, IMBURIS patay an da co, dapot dasngan cong buri co; patayan da co MAN: AGUIANpatayan da co, dapot dasngan cong buri co, even if they kill me or although they kill me, as long as I do what I like. Although materially they say the same thing, formally they are very different concepts. Take note: the first one wants to do what he likes, and he despises life; this one says imburis\ the others embrace death: and that is their difference.

ALANGALANG

Why should', for example, ALANG ALANG aeon sumut says the offended party; and among the indios, the older one: why should I humble myself before him; ALANG ALANG lacuan queng asaua co, uling etc.; why should I leave my wife just for this thing or for that; ALANGALANG biasa ca caco says the teacher to his pupil, it would be beyond reason or contrary to reason or unreasonable to think that you know more than I do. Another: ALANG ALANG mapia ca caco, says the father to his son; the precise meaning is is beneath reason, it fails to reach the ambit of reason, etc.

TULA

This would be too much, this is too much, there is no need fo r this; for example, when Christ said: I will go myself to cure him, someone could answer,

187 TULANG ita Guinu co, that is too much, Lord, there is no need to go to that extent, your word is enough, etc.; this is its precise meaning when the indio says: TULA casi ta? what is the need for this when there are other ways and easier ones, etc.

BALANG

It is not onlyquilibet [whoever] for; example, BALANG bisa; capulo, decimus quisque [every tenth]; BALANG na, sea que fuere (whatever it would be); BALANG buri mo, whatever you would like; e ra ca BALANG cucutngan, intang maquibat ca? you are not the one they are asking, etc; e co BALANG catuliran, inasmuch as I am not worthy of whichever thing etc. It is also equivalent to bago or bayo;for example, e na co cano abayaranan, BAGO or BAYO tinpamayad na; e na co cano abayaranan, maquipamayad ya BALANG; and so, BAGO mar aguí ya catauan, maqui catauanya BALANG; here the word balang is equiva lent to the Spanish siendo [being], and the concept of ser [to be]. Also, it is equivalent to the Spanish ninguno [no one], although it is expressed by the Spanish pues que [are you telling me]; for example, BALANG dalağa maquipantoc? that is, no maiden fights; but we say: are you telling me that even maidens fight? according to this pattern, BALANG magaral maquialong? Are you telling me that those who are studying spend the time playing? BALANG magyunal masan yan bulbulan? you mean to say that those who fast eat meat also?

Section 8 Approximating

BIDSO

Almost; BIDSO co sa metay quing pangabaldug co, I almost died or I nearly met my death; BIDSU na co sa miliarin capitán, I almost became or I lacked little to have become a captain, etc.

BAGUIA, L AL AT

Hardly; for example, he hardlyreaches up to my chin or miyalas quing baba co; hardly has he answered me, when he left, BAGUIA or LALATya mecapaquibat caco meco naya; hardly reaches the lectern, BAGUIA ya miyayabat, etc.; quing BAGUIANG e magcacabira, for which it hardly has any importance; BAGUIA na abubuat ing bids na, he can hardly raise his feet, etc.

188 LASA. Almost

And usually it goes with man; for example, e mangamanu MAN LASA, he almost does not speak; e pa mitipa M ANLASA he almost does not leave the house. Also: epa mitipa MANLASA ing banque na maili naya, the dead man has almost not been brought down and the heir is already laughing. And so, baguia na co LASA apaquibatan, e mitngaman a lupa LASA quing datna na, etc.

MAGUN

It is also about approximating: MAGUN icabat me iyangpasbul, close the door a bit; maguntuliran moya, straighten it a bit; magun e bisa; he somehow tends not to like it; MAGUNbisaya, he somehow tends to like it, etc.

MABNO

This expresses an approximation of resentment; for example, MABNO cong matdas a salu quing casbu ning lubco, my chest feels like exploding in anger, MABNO cong numano, I feel like something is going to happen to me, etc.

Section 9 Requesting and Desiring

UARI, SA, SANA, NA

They all express a request and are always placed after; for example, ngamu na UARI or SA, SANA; do this for the life of you; and even clearer in magdalita ca UARI, etc. The na was discussed in the section about pronouns: di NApo or din mu NA co po queang polvos mo, please give me some of your powder, etc.; manano UARIpo has also been discussed as expressing a request.

NANAN

It has already been said that it means what else remains to be done? NANAN mo pa iyan? What else do you expect to do about this? that is, there is nothing else to do; and so NANAN pa iyan? is there nothing else to be done here? NANAN pa l what else needs to be done? that is, nothing else. NANAN pa ta? what else do you expect to ask or do? It is finished and complete. All these circumlocations are neces sary to be able to understand how these inidicate desire, which we, for our part, express as I wish; for example, NANANpan balo mo ing balo nang Pedro? what else would you desire to know if you already knew what Pedro knows? and from this, I wish you knew what Pedro knows! NANAN pa tan y Pedro? what else can one

189 expect of Pedro? He is a whole man; and from this, NANANpa tan y Pedrong malyarin capitan; and so, NANAN pa sa or NANAN pa ta sa or NANAN pa ta sa na, etc. I wish that. See the following section.

Section 10 Interjections and Ironies

In all languages, these forms express the sentiments of the soul and they are more difficult, if not impossible, to translate. I will explain them to the extent that I can.

AUO

It is an interjection which expresses a reaction to the occurrence of the opposite of what one is expecting; e.g., you are borrowing from me at a time when I am looking for someone who will lend me; I will answer you: AUO aco na pa sa ngeta, oh! If I could find someone who would give me in the first place: Another: you are asking me if Juan is a good student, I know that he does nothing but play and that knows practically nothing, I will say: A UO e na ngetipaninapan man, oh dear me! don’t even dream of it, etc.

ACAYA

It is composed of a and caya and serves as an interjection. ACAYA e na pin querauac\ My! I hope that what he considered beneficial to him did not do him ill, but good. Now that it has been touched, please know that it is also used when what happens is the opposite of what one is thinking, and it is the same concept, but without inteij ection and with some kind of irony, for example, you anxiously wait for the servant to come back from where you sent him; I know that he did not go or that he is playing hookey, I tell you sarcastically: acaya! that is, grab his tail. Another: to a person who says that he will not miss the target while we know that he usually hits the spike once and a hundred times the horseshoe: acaya! e me , you have it as certainly as you have a fart [sic, Spanish: pedo; Kapampangan: atut] on your hand, etc.

SALAMAT

It expresses gratitude; for example, SALAMATpo quing lugud mo, and to congratulate: salamatpo quing ati ca.

It is a greeting: BA manano ca? says the person who greets a relative or a friend whom he has not seen for a long time; BA po, Maria', also: BA, ; for

190 example, iquityo nangmatalastas; hail, Christians, you have already seen it clearly, etc. Also, it is a supplication: BA! Dios a Guinu co! Also, ba, did I not tell you? like if I forewarned him that he might fall and he fell.

AROY

An expression of someone who complains, like of pain or of sorrow: AROY, inda! Ouch, mommy! Ay is an inteijection of someone who is calling: AY! Babaying mamulangAY!; AY, tauoy; here it is a suffix and a prefix. Ha addresses a person of whom somebody laments: e.g. HA!Tauong bulag a nun balu mo sang carasngan mo!

ANONDA

Over whom somebody grieves: ANONDA calulu na co! Oh! how unlucky I am! Following this are ninda! nonda! nanda! nibpa! nobpa! nabpa! attaching the third person pronoun; also attached there are the primitive pronouns and they are suffixed, for example, calulu NACONDA or NACOBPA! etc.; and take note that many times, all what remain are nda, bpa, and these are joined to the preceding vowel; for example, UNDA ngeti casampat! Oh, how beautiful it will be!

CANONDA SA and CANO NGETA

They express a desire with anxiety. Angatsa, feeling of what was done or omitted; angat sa, it would be better, etc.

SEE, DEE, TAYI, AIS, PEE CA, EE, NE

They are all interjections of ridicule, scorn or hatred: so that you can see how they are used in practice, carefully study the following, which is all about mortal sin. AY! caladua COY! micasala na ca; eyata pisali mo nang banua; marauac nan dangpamamisali! NE! asali mo neng infiernos; masamac NABPA mong pamanyali! Pepagulutan me palay Jesus at iyan inarapan mo y Satanas! mapala casing pamicalibay! SEE! eyata palay Satanas ing panginuan! TAYI! PEE CA !I Jesus iyan pagulutan! DEE! nano sana? nano nan dang cabulagan ? AY! nano tang casulatan ing queca! nano NABPA mong cababan-baban ning tauong cristianos! NE! non e ca magbalic at misubli lub a caladua co, maroloc capin pug quing infernos mangga quing mangga HA capamisana ning cay alan palad! HA! ANONDA! calulu na co! angat sa ngetan mete yang tauo macalilibo bayo ya micasala! abalo na CANONDA sa ing carasnganapog uli ning casalanan! aquit na CANO NGETA! asubucana CANO NGETA sa na! bayo ya micasala: non micasala

191 ya pota quing Dios a Ibpa nang malugud a alan angga? ali na ya; dapot antiman carin buri naco naman patauaran. HA! sinta na’t lugud nan Jesus a alan capara! maliari la CANO NGETAsang ulung alan licat ding mata co, maguin dayatmalat sa ing dayang sumibul panangis co quing capaliuasan co! nun uarin e mo co po lingonan patauaran. AROY! NONDA NGETI casaquit ing lasa’t saquit a ipasari ra pog caco ding diablos! Do not let the language absorb all your attention and prevent your heart from being engrossed in the meaning. Concerning ne, bear in mind that, when it does not imply scorn, it is an abbreviation of the adverb ane, which means do you understand? In other expressions, we don’t see the ironies that clearly, because they depend more on the tone than on the words; for example, nun uari man guineas nang anti queta; maragul cong toto tacut, laughing at his threats. Another: one says: palsintan cong bina ing ala cal I sorely feel your absence; and one who does not believe it answers: with sarcasm, capilan uari iniapin inda iyayat cai! EE! E YATA! balo co pin moa, palsintan mo cong bina; e mo abatang e mo co aquit; AY! etc. I presume the taro and sono.

192 CHAPTER 16 THE COPULATIVES, THE DISJUNCTIVES AND THE LIGATURES

Section 1 The Copulatives

To join the parts of a sentence, use the conjunction ampón or manga, which mean and, but bear in mind that when they are many, they alternate; for example, ding angeles MANGA ding tronos AMPON ding principados MANGA ding serafines AMPON ding querubines, etc. About the union of nouns and pronouns, we have already said something when we treated them. Pad in this language is like the Latin simul, una, pariter [at the same time, one, ]; for example, sombrero PATI capilla PATI escapulario PATI tocod, etc.; this pad also means the same as paqui, after. The Latin quoque [also] is moa; for example, you whipped; ego quoque [I also],acó moa; it usually goes with naman; for example: you were whipped, I also, aco NAMAN MOA; but bear in mind that, very many times, this adverb is inserted here, maintaining the same meaning, but then they don’t say moa but mo accented long. You will constantly find this in Sio and the Memorial; so that you can find out, consider these examples: macalma naconda sa nun muli co MO sa banua; nanu nanda MO sa ing tula co? non sambutan co MO sa ding salang co anti mo caring minyambut. Another: pablasang mepagala ding santos, inyapin MO miablasan lan capainauana alan angga, etc. Naman is almost the same as quoque: tu quoque, Pater, ora pro me [also: you also Father, pray fo r me], ica NAMAN, Pare, panalangin mo co man. This naman adequately belongs to all the primitive pronouns, maintaining the meaning of also; for example: God loves everybody, and so he also loves me, calugurana NA CO MAN, calugurana NACA MAN; calugurana NEMAN; calugurana NA QUE MAN; calugurana NO MAN; calugurana NA CO MAN; and the same goes with any sentence belonging to this pattern; for example: you went to Manila, mineNA CO MAN, mine NE MAN; mine NO MAN, mine NA QUE MAN, etc. The conjunction at is usually like ampón, and whenever the word to whose ending it is attached ends with a vowel, the a is dropped; for example, caladua’t catauan; but ordinarily, it should be used between things which express a relationship between them, either as complementaries or as opposites; for example, mainsacAT maragul, caladua’t catauan, mayap AT marauac (and also mayap marauac) marimla’t mapali etc. It usually has another function which is not as a conjunction, but more as an infix and it has a flavour {sainete) that is an I don't know what; for example, in prayer. Era picudta ding tauo T ding angeles man. Another: for example, even if there are

193 medicines, if a person dislikes them, if he does not want to avail himself of them, non ing tauo T eya bisa. Also: it is a causal conjunción and it then means because-, for example, e na dela queti ing dase na’te na pabitasang bina ing malacuan ya queti, he did not bring his mat because he was not sure if he would stay here. They also use at in a sentence where the second part is left unsaid, leaving the surprised listener guessing what the rest is or what the obstacle is; for example, co carin I at... had to go there, but...; ita ninan AT...-, and so it is a connection between what is said and what is the unsaid continuation, and usually implying an opposition.

Section 2 The Disjunctives

The first one is caya; for example, malacuan ca queti, muli ca CAYA, either you stay here or you go; the fiscal or the sacristan, ing fiscal ing mayor CAYA. This is the Latin aut[either-or]; aut Petrus aut Paulus [either Pedro or Pablo]. The sive [either-or] is man; for example, sive Moisés sive Aaron [either Moses or Aaron], Moisés MAN, y Aaron MAN. This is its first concept, but it is also used without being too explicit; for example, sive vellit sive non [either he likes or not], bisa ya MAN, e MAN bisa; vellit, nollit, whether he likes it or not; because it is equivalent to quamvis (even if); quamvis nollit [even if he does not like], e MAN bisa, etc. The adversative structure it is not this but that is ali pin iti, NON Epin ita; alia Pedro, NU NEyJuan; aliuayJuan, NUN it is not Pedro BUT Juan [sic]. We have another if not, and here is how it goes; for example, (if not only for you, I would kill him); NUN E SA ica, patay an coya; or NUN E SA uli mo or uli ning ica pete co ya, etc.

Section 3 The Ligatures

There are three ligatures. The first one is a. With it, we usually connect words ending in a consonant or a diphthong; for example, masanting A tauo; balay A mainsac; the same goes with these although it is a relative [“pronoun”]: ing banal A maniti, ing balay A manabo, dayat A laon, caqueuanA malapad, danum A malat, bondoc A mayagta, canan A lutu

194 NG

The second is ng. With this one, we usually connect words ending in a vowel; for example, tauoNG banal, babayiNG marauac, mapiaNG mamimutmut and the same goes with the following even though they are relative: for example, ingdalagaNG magcalago, ing tauoNG macasalanan sumisi ya. Also: It is a general rule that, when you double a word in order to exagger ate, you should always place this infix; for example, dacal moNG dacal, ditac moNG ditac, tauo naNG tauo, sabi naNG sabi, mialuNG nang mialung, guigote naNG guigote, etc.

The third one is n ( hie opus, hie labor) [here is the work, here is the labor]. This alone requires one long chapter, because it changes according to the variety of the combinations of words. I will say a few things which, together with what you can find elsewhere in this Grammar [en el Arte], will enlighten you considerably. When the word which is joined to a preceding one is totally indeterminate, and it is not a verb nor its modification, we use this infix; for example, mitipa caNsia; sali caNbabi, cuma caNdanum, and this is so even if, by inserting an adverb, the infix is transposed; for example, mitipa ca saNsia; cuma ca uariNdanum, etc.; and from this will flow like branches from the trunk the explanations which I will give. I said if it is not a verb, because if it is, we should use the second; for example, magaral caNG masa; muli caNG malagaua; bitbat deNG pisaquit; bitbat yeNG pirangan; penaco roNG guisan; bildog noNG etc., and also even if it is transposed, as I said; for example, magaral ca uariNG masa; malagaua ca piNG muli, etc. I said or modification, because it also requires ng to be the link; for example, maco caNG dapal; muli caNG malagaua; daptan moNG mayap; talican meNG masican; muli caNG malagua; and so, mecaNG mirapal queni; or transposed: meca queniNG mirapal; but if what is inserted is not a pronoun, and instead, the mode is near the verb, it is not like that; for example, ing sumuyuN mayap. Under this rule, we have sabia, which is always attached to n indicating its vagueness, that is, it does not specify: for example, sablaN angeles; sablaN tauo, etc.; and the adverb masaquit, which, when following a vowel, is attached to n; for example, nune ca sumisiN masaquit; sinta moN masaquit; tumulaN masaquit; caloloN masaquit; siglaN masaquit, and also the adverb lalo: laloN maragul, laloN masanting, laloN e manayon, etc. For the same reason, the adverb ala ordinarily follows this pattern; alaN tauo, alaN biasa, etc. I said ordinarily, because if it is in some way specific, it follows the second; for example, ala coNG toto queti, frankly, I was not here then.

195 Also falling under this rule are the cardinal numbers, from ten, if they end in a vowel: laloNmetung,labiNadua, mecatloNmetung, etc. But since we might never end if we give rules for all cases, take note of the following examples: When the interrogatives refer to a totally indefinite thing (but one has to examine well if something is indefinite), they are also linked with for example: ninu taN menacao? ninoN quiningua? ninoN mengan canita?\ who is that shameless person? (here there is a specification after the infix), nino itaNG tampalasan a itainl insa ing mayap quetal or inisaN mayap what pen? ingsaNpluma] ingsa uariNGpluma?; nino ta y Manuel nino taN Manuel quecayol; nino taNG tauo carela, among those figures, for example, who is the man? ninu taN tauong e matay?, who is the man who will not die? If a word ending in nis followed by another word, g is added: nanu pa man, be that as it may; but nanu pa maNG casaquitan, etc. even if it is not expressed; for example, nanu pa maNG dumpa quing tauo, etc.; ding salanta banquet atyayauad la papaquit dapanamaNGsaquitda\ ifyou change the meaning, you change the infix; for example, nananpaNlalucongbalunanPedrol I wish I knew what Pedro knows! nananPANG cabaluanang mangamanong castilal what else does he lack if he knows, etc. Well, one has to be careful, because, in spite of what I have said, the second and the third are used interchangeably more or less frequently. Sometimes if we don’t pronounce or spell something as it should be, they say our sentences are very ugly. To give rules for all these is most difficult and most complex, because the word- combinations are innumerable.

196 CHAPTER 17 THE NUMERALS

I have not given these before because they have a variety of compositions which cannot be understood without first understanding the syntax of the verbs. They are divided into cardinal, distributive, vicenal, etc.

Section 1 The Cardinal Numbers

Those which among these are called digits are; 1, isa; adua; 3, atlo; 4, apat; 5, lima; 6, anam; 7,pito; 8 ,ualo;siam; 10, apolo. These are the numeral roots from where all the composites flow; but bear in mind that isa, 1 and apolo, 10 , are used only in counting; on the other hand when individualizing, they say metong to mean one and apolo to mean ten; for example, one woman, metong A babayi; ten men, apoloNG lalaqui; and here you now presumably notice that the numerals are linked to the nouns they number with the ligatures a or ng. See the chapter on the ligatures. Numbers 11 to 19. Place labing before the above-mentioned digits: labin metong, 11 (not labin isa), labin adua, 12; until labin siam, 19; flan] siam, they are nineteen, etc. [The brackets enclosing lan are in the original Spanish], Now, counting further, know that apolo is ten: dinalan, 100; libo, 1000; lacsa, 10,000; cata-cata is when you count and count and count, without anything definite; it means innumerable. But bear in mind that dinalan means one hundred, round number; if it is more than that, one hundred is dalan. When you count by tens, place digits before polo and you will have aduangpolo,20, until you reach siam a polo,90; dinalan, 100; and if you count by the hundreds, do the same thing with dalan and you will have aduang dalan, 200; limang dalan, 500; until you reach siam a dalan, 900; libo, 1000. Do the same thing to count by the thousands and tens of thousands until you reach lacsa 100,000; aduang 200,000;lacsa 300,000, etc. What is more difficult is to count in between the tens, the hundreds, etc. For the tens, the more common way at present is to place the particle meca before the ten that follows, not before the past where you are, and then add the digit; link this with n to the ten if it ends in a vowel, and without that link if it ends in a consonant; for example, 21; the ten that follows is atlongpolo; drop the polo and place meca before it and you will have mecatlon metongmúx\you reach mecatlong siam, 29. I wanttosay31; the ten that follows is apat apolo 40; now, I drop the apolo and place meca before, and I say mecapat metong, 31; mecapat adua, 32; mecapat ualo, 38, etc. Now, I want to say 91. The ten that follows is dinalan, 100; so, with meca, mecarinalan metong, mecarinalan adua, 92, etc. However, they also do it the Spanish way: 21 adduang

197 polo ampón metong; 53, limangpolo ampón atlo; 99, siam a polo ampón siam, etc. To count between hundreds, thousands, hundred thousands, etc., they use two particles, lalo, lauit, which mean more or over, they place them before the hundred or the thousand, and they add the digits in between, either using the conjunction ampón or not; for example, 101, LALON dalan or LAUIT dalan metong; 111, LALON dalan labing metong; 183, LAUIT dalan ampón mecasiam atlo [sic], etc. For the thousands: 2020, LAUIT or LALON aduang libo aduangpolo; 1500, LAUIT libo limang dalan or libo ampón limang dalan or LALON libo limang dalan; 1851, LAUIT libo, ualong dalan mecanam metong, o LAUIT libo ’t ualong dalan ampón mecanam metong [sic]. This year 1736, iting banuang LAUIT ’t pitong dalan ampón mecapat anam [sic]. The digits between tens of thousands follow the same pattern: 20,063, LALON aduangpolong libo't mecapitong atlo; 30,904, LAUIT atlongpolong libo siam a dalan ampón apat, etc. Bear in mind that they count the digits in between the thousands the same way they count the digits in between tens, as described earlier: For example, 387,000 [sic, presumably meant 38,700], mecapat ualong libo pitongdalan; 67,853, mecapitong pitong libo ualong dalan ampón mecanam atlo, etc. The same is done with lacsa 100,000 [see footnote]; for example, 100,042, lauit lacsa’t mecalimang adua; 200,324, lalon aduang lacsa’t atlong dalan, ampón mecatlong apat; 425,000, lauit apat a lacsa’t mecatlong limang libo; [sic, presum ably meant 934,257], lalon siam a lacsa’t mecapat apat a libo at aduang dalan ampón mecanam pito, etc. Practice will teach you and will make this easier for you. When they do not specify the number, but indicate just more or less, they do it the way we do: twenty something, forty something, mecatlong polo, [sic] mecalimang polo [sic], leaving one in doubt of the digit in between; and the same goes with all the rest, like two hundred something, mecatlong dalan; mecapat apolong libo, etc, but this is rarely used. To avoid getting mixed up, say aduang polo nung pilan, aduang dalan nun pilan, apat a polo’t nun pilan or nun pilan polo non pilan; atlong polong libo İ nun pilan or nun pilan dalan at nun pilan, etc.

PICOS. Digits in between Round Numbers.

You have to know that these people count things differently from us when involving digits in between round numbers, where the things counted include something big and something small, something intact and something defective, for example: while we say ( two men and one woman), they say three men becoming, two, the third one being a woman, MECATLONG babayi; two women and one man mecatlong lalaqui; two men and one boy, mecatlong anac, and so, MECADUANG ebon damolag, one old carabao and one young; two big frying pans and one small mecatlo lang cauali; maqui estribo con MECADUANG balbal, I have one footrest in good condition and one broken; maquipingan yang MECATLONG sullao,

198 he has two plates and one bowl; mecalabi lang limang bulag pilay or matlac means that they are fifteen, including five blind or lame; it does not say whether they are men or beasts, because that is understood; otherwise, one has to say it explicitly. When they belong to different kinds, it is always made explicit; for example, I have two horses and one carabao, maqui CAB AYO con mecatlong DAMULAG; I have five pigs and one dog, maqui BABI con mecanam ASO. Use this pattern to make other examples.

PROTOCOMPOUNDS

They admit protocompounds; they follow the pattern of mangadua, meaning to second; for example, if you drank once, MANGADUA CA, you second it or drink a second time. First passive that ; which third to whom or the thing ; for example: PENGADUAN cong serulan ing muía co; PANGADUAN meng painuman yPedro. Also, it applies to a case where there are two which the action reaches; for example, cutngan me y , Pedro ask Pedro; now, secondly, ask Juan, MANGADUA cang cutang. First passive: yJuan PENGADUAN mo cang Pedro; third: pangaduan me Pedro can Juan.More clearly: a philandering married man, MANGADUA yan ; babayi the one who is not his wife, first passive and his wife, third passive. This pattern is followed by others when applicable, namely, when the digits begin with a vowel.

MA Neuter

Also, they admit the neuter verb of ma, and it indicates that the nominative has reached this or that number indicated by the digit; for example, metong is one; MAMETONG ing lub da, they have one feeling; adua, two; MEYADUA pin ing lub na, he has mixed feelings; nun atlo lang caluguran mo, MIATLO naman mo ing lub mo. How many come for confession? If you answer in the past tense, for example, MEYADUA la, MEANAM la or MESIAM, they are two, six or nine; they, for their part, answer they have already reached two, six or nine; and included here are the compounds; for example, MAPIPITO no caya catauo ding dinatang magcompesaP. MALALABI no ngeting metong, they seem to be eleven; MALINLA. no ngeting polo, fifty. Preterite: MESIAM nong polo, ninety; merinalan, one hundred, etc.

CAandAN

Also, they become superlatives (although it is the third passive of They are seldom used; for example, CAMEMETONGAN or CAMEMETONG- METONGAN ya ing Guinu tang Dios, or CAYAYATLO ATLO AN yang Perso nas. These two are common, etc.

199 C A and AN without the Preterite

This composition indicates an addition or adjustment to the number mentioned; for example, if you are giving me six reales for one book,I will tell you: make them seven, adjust the price to seven, CAPITOANla. Preterite: QUEPITO mo la, and also catloan, queatlo; casiam, quesiam; capoloan, queplo; calabian metong, quelabing metong, etc.

PA of Saying

If you attach ca to the beginning of these digits and an to the end, because it is in the third passive, it will indicate that you are saying or asking fo r what the digit expresses, for example, how much do they say this horse costs? or how much do they ask for this horse? PAMAGCANUAN de iyan cabayo? He answers: PACADUAN, PACATLUAN, PACAPATAN, PACASLAMAN dengpesos, they say that it costs or that their asking price is two, three, four, nine pesos, or PACALABINENG anam or siam a pesos.

If you remove an from this composition, it becomes facere fieri [make them become]; for example, here are two logs; they are not enough: PACATLO mo la or PACAPAT, PAÇALIMA, PACAPITO, etc.; and it has a preterite: PEPACATLO mo PEPACALIMA, la; PEPACANAM co la, etc.

Section 2 The Ordinal Numbers

The above-mentioned digits, when joined to the individualizing ca, become or dinals, meaning that they indicate an order, as first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc; mona or cauonan, cadua, catlo, capat, calima, etc., and so capolo, calabin metong , carinalan, one hundredth; caduangdalan, two hundredth; calibo, one thousandth, etc. For the digits in between, add the digit for example, twenty fifth camecatlong lima', one hundred fourth, camecaduang dalan apat, or ing mecaduang dalan apat. If you want to say every fifth, every tenth, etc.,place balang before; for example, BALANG calima batbatanya; decimus quisque [every tenth], BALANG capolo, etc. Verbs are formed and conjugated like those beginning with c, and they indicate belonging to the place in a sequence expressed by the ordinal; for example, take the second place or put yourself in the second place, CUMADUA I am already taking the third place, CUMACATLO co;y PedroQUINAPOLOya, Pedro took the tenth place; or the third passive; for example, cumadua ca queya or CADUAN moya;

200 cumatlo ca carela or CATLOAN mo la; and so, capatan, caliman, casiam, ete. Go first, ahead o f him or o f them, UNAN mo ya or PANIMONAN mo la, etc. They are also active: for example, who put you in the fourth place or the fourth? ninon QUINAPAT quecal I will put you in the fifth, aeon CALIMA queca. Its passive is the first; past que\ for example, icapito mey Juan; QUELIMA co neya, I already put him in the fifth. Exemption: ONA,YONAor IPAONA moya, put him in the first, etc. Bear in mind that the same ordinal also expreses how many times; for example, cauunan, the first and the first time; cadua, the second and the second time; and the same with the rest; for example, icatlongpamange mo carin, your third trip there; ini ing cadua pamanigtig this is the second instrumental presentation, or the second time they play the music; the third encounter, he defeated him, quing catlo sinaul na ya, etc. To say “another reason” is, for example, metong queta; if there is another, say cadua queta; to express continuation, for example, also, if another reason is added, say capinduannaman; to simply repeat the verb, for example, say it with naman: panabilin co NAMAN, etc.

Section 3 The Distributives

These ones have two patterns, and they are: tunggal-tunggal, active, one by one. Passive, which is the third, to each one one, for example, TUNGGAL TUNGGA lang lalacad, they walk one by one; TUNGGAL-TUNGGALANAN mon tinapay, give one bread to each one, or TIYON-TIYONAN mo la: they also appear in the second passive, which consists only of a nominative of the person who receives the action and of the verb; for example, dening anggang mengaso TUNGGAL- TUNGGALAN la or TIYON-TIYONAN lang usa, to each one of all these hunters corresponds one deer; and from this, each one of them all has one deer. Now you will understand TUNGGAL-TUNGGALAN la or TIYON-TIYONAN lan angeles ding sablang tauo, for every person there is an angel; and from here, each person has a guardian angel; tidua-tidua lang magmain, they take a walk two by two. For the passive, you must see if those among whom something is distributed or to whom something corresponds exceed the distributive number; for example, here, if they are more than two; because if they are not, the root is not doubled: TEDUANAN mon dalandan, give two Seville oranges to each of these two. If they are more, TIDUAN- TIDUANANmon dalandan, give two Seville oranges to all, that is, to each one of them, whatever be their number. And so, if you talk to each person, you will not say: TUNGGAL-TUNGGALAN or TIYON-TIYONAN lan Angeles; but balang catauo TUNGGALAN or TIYONAN lan Angeles, etc. They admit mi with an. When the Spanish is, for example, three, four orfive take a walk, do not use tia because this one does not correspond to this Spanish; but to the three by three,four by four, etc. Going back to the distribution of things, you have to know that, the digits in

201 between tens from twenty above are expressed in two ways. The first is the way it sounds: for example, give 21 to each person, tidua-tidua polo ampón metong. The second is: mecadoan lang metong. And so, titlo-titlo lang polo ampón adua, mecacapatan lan adua; to say, for example, assign to them two and a half cavans, four and a half chicken, say TIDUA-TIDUANAN lan caban ambón CAPITNGA; TIAPAT-APATAN lang sisi ampón CAP PINGAN or mecacatatloan lang capitngan caban; mecacaliman lan capitngan sisi, etc. When these two patterns have a doer which either puts them three by three, for example, for the first pattern, or distributes them to so many, for the second pattern; the first one is formed with the transitive mi and its passive, which is the third passive, retaining the pi,although it is also formed with the simple passive; but this one cannot be used as preterite; for example, who will place them four by four? ninotan M I T I A P A T A P A T cardal I will put them five by five, aeon MITIALIMA- LIMA; PITITLO-TITLO mo la or ITITLO-TITLO, place them three by three; PISIAM-SIAM co nala,I already placed them nine by nine; PILABI-LABI cong ADUA; you will place them twenty two by twenty-two, ican MITIDUA-TIDUA polo ampón adua or aeon MIBILING mecacatlon adua. There is no other pattern, etc. Bear in mind that the above mentioned active goes with the two patterns, because ninon MITLAPOLO-POLO carelal For example, does not only mean who placed them ten by tenl but also who gave ten to each onel and the same with the rest; but the passive is different, because this second pattern requires the third passive; for example, PITIAPOLO-POLO mo la first passive means place them ten by ten, PITIAPOLO-POLO AN mo la, means distribute them, ten to each one, etc. With the above-mentioned transitive mibut with a different conjugation; it means to separate or to divide something into as many parts as that expressed by the number mentioned: ninon MITLO caretang salapil Who will make three parts or who will divide that money into three parts? Etc. To form the present of those which begin with a vowel (except apolo), attach to the beginning of the vowel the same consonant as that which follows it; for example, from adua, atlo, the present is miradua, mitatlo, and this is also the preterite, but the mi is long. For the future, change the first vowel to i:miduan, mitlo. Among those which do not begin with a vowel and which re followed by apolo, the conjugation is regular; the passive, second, because it is that o f MI of company; for example, I am dividing this wood into two, aeon MIRADUA queuing dutong. Passive; PIRADUAN que dening dutong. Preterite: piradua; future:piduan; ican MILIMA canita, you will divide it into five. Preterite: I already divided it into seven, PIPITO co naya: PIPOLO coya, into ten, etc.

MI of Company

When we use MI o f company, with the same rule and variation, we indicate that those which the number indicates agree or conspire to do one and the same thing or to go against or in favor of somebody, for example, MIPAPAT la quetang dapat,

202 the four do that as one; PIPAPATAN detang dapat or de ing PITATLOAN or PITATLO ra co, the three of them are or were in favor of or against me, etc.

Section 4 How Many Times? And What Proportion?

They are called vicenales because with them we express the number of times (veces) an act is done. And because they also express by how many times one thing exceeds another, they are called proporcionales. That having been said, to ask how many times an act is performed or by how many times one thing exceeds another, say: macapipilanl how many times? This maca is formed this way: attach to those which begin with a vowel the same consonant which follows it, for example, from atlo mactatlo; from apat, macapapat (except the number adua to which I is attached); if you double the first syllable of those which do not begin with a vowel (except apolo which follows the consonants), you indicate how many times in the future; for example, I will read two times or three or four or five or ten, masa co MACALADUA or MACATATLO or MACAPAPAT or MACALILIMA or MACAPOPOLO, etc. To form the preterite, all you have to do is change maca to meca; for example, I cursed two times miñyumpa co MECALADUA or MECANANAM or MECAPUPULO, etc.; and so, twelve times, mecalalabing adua; eleven times, mecalabing metong; nineteen times, mecalabing siam; twenty times, mecaladuang polo; twenty one times, mecaladuan polo ampón metong; mecatlongpolo, thirty times mecalimangpolo ampón apat, fifty four times; mecadirinalan, one hundred times; mecalilibo, one thousand times, etc. Five hundred nine [sic, presumably meant five hundred twenty nine] times, macalilimang dalan ampón mecatlong siam, etc. Occasionally, one comes across this composition in the passive; for example, strike him two times, bonoan men macaladua; passive: PACALADUAN meng bonoan; PECAPAPATANA CO pinyumpan, etc. Just take note of it. With the above-mentioned composition, we indicate proportions. To say, for example, he exceeds him four times is the same as saying he is four times bigger than he; for example, MACAPAPATpinyumpana co mecapat, macapatya maragol queya; he eats five times more than I, MACALILIMA masican mangan canaco. They call this multiple proportion; and so this is six times longer than that, ini macaba ya MACANANAM canita, and this is true with whatever quantity, etc. The proportion which they call submultiple is expressed with the ordinals and the particle si because it is nothing else than if you are, for example, six times taller than he, take away the sixth, and you will say that you are the sixth part o f his height; for example, MACAPAPAT ca maragol caco, you are four times taller than I. The same is true with SICAPAT na co ning dagul mo, I am fourth part of your height; MACAUAUALO ya malapad ini canita or SICAUALO ne nita ini or ning

203 lapad na nini, etc. The above-mentioned maca and its passive can correctly say: God pays one hundred for one, MACARIDINALANE yayablasan ing PACARINALANE ablasan ing metong; and so, ovem reddes quadruplum [you will give back the sheep four times], MACAPAPAT ne bay aran ing cambing or PACAPAPATA ne bayaran [The Latin reddes is in the second person, but Bergafio puts the Kapampangan ne, which is in the third person. It should have been reddet, third person; t, not s. Possibly also, the ne was a typographical error and was meant to be me, which is in the second person. In that case, the Latin would be correct as it stands.]. The reason is that the indio does not say he will pay one hundred for one, but he will pay one hundred times for one, etc. Bearing in mind the above-mentioned variation of the digits explained under maca, if you place pasi before the submultiple composition, you indicate that each one performs an act as many times as what the number says, because pasi (as we said in its place) is distributive; for example, you all, whip him two times each of you, PASICALADUA or PASICATATLO co matbat quea, or PASICALADUA or PASICATATLO ye batbatan; a clearer and more often used pattern inserts the particle tolo, which is also distributive; for example, PASITOLO caladuaye batbatan, let him be whipped two times by each one of you; PESITOLO calilima co pinyumpan, I cursed them five times, that is, five times each one; or TOLO calilima co pinyumpan, the same; PASIMISAN or TOLOMISAN or PASITOLO MISAN all of you, kneel down, one time each. Regarding macapilan, which we said at the beginning means how many times, bear in mind that they also use it to convey what we say what is taking him so long or what makes it hard for him: MACAPIPILAN ita or MACAPIPILAN uarita, etc.; and about one who is fond of talking that way, because he finds no difficulty in anything, they say e mi bubuyuO, he is a guy for whom everything is easy and he does nothing, etc.

Section 5 Monetary Denomiations

The biggest monetary denomination of these people and which is their point of reference in counting their money is toston, which they call salaping metong. With the particle si and an ordinal number, they get the eighth part of it, which they call sicaualo, because one toston has eight parts. We call it half real of silver, ( real de plata).

[Translator’s Paraphrase: The word salapi means either money in general or toston in particular. A toston is divided into four parts, each of them called sicapat. Sicapat in Spanish is real. Asicapat is divided into two parts, each of them called sicaualo.]

204 As you know, a toston is made up of four reales, and so, if they want to say one real, they express it as a fourth part of a toston, sicapat. A real has twelve parts, and they call each one of them barilla [Spelled BARYA in Kapampangan. See page 2 of the original Spanish text]. A barrilla has two parts, and they call each of them cunding. One fourth ( cuartillo ) is referred to by them as calatio. Two reales (dos reales de plata) constitute one hinting', three reales, atlong bajagui. When they do not use the term one toston, they use only the word salapi, which, even if it means money in general, is used by them to mean toston.

[Translator’s Note: Bergaño can be understood here better if the reader makes a diagram while reading.]

Given that established way, when they want to say five reales, they say mecaduan sicapat, that is, out of two tostons [mecadua], get one real (real is presupposed here by the use of meca, preterite). Six reales, mecaduang hinting. Out of two tostons, retain the first toston and get one hinting (that is, two reals) from the second toston. Four reals (from the first toston) and two reals (from the second toston) equals six reals. Seven reales, mecaduan atlong bajagui. [One toston (that is, four reales) plus one atlong bajagui (that is, three reales) equals seven reales] Eight reales, This is how they continue. The particle meca is joined to the digit number atlo, because two tostones are already left behind; and so, for example, mecatlongsicapat, sicaualo, mean three tostons (where the speaker says three but meaning two), plus one and a half real [taken from the third toston, discarding the rest of it; and so, two tostons (four reales plus four reales) plus one and a half real] equals nine and a half reales. Continuing further, for example, mecalimang hinting, eighteen reales, mecatlong adduang salapi,twenty two tostons, that is, eleven pesos, etc. To continue, you should assume that all the above-mentioned monetary denomi nations have their own protocompound based on their first letter; for example, from salapi manyalapi; from cunding, mañgunding, etc. and this protocompound should be understood according to its respective specification: if the nominative is the money; for example, MANYALAPI la deti means that they are tostons; MANYICAUALO la, they are halves, etc. If we apply this to the goods being exchanged, the number indicates that every measurement or yard costs as much as that number; e.g. MAMARILLAS ingpati; MANGUNDING inggatang, every ganta costs one ba rilla; every chupa costs one cunding, etc. If the nominative is a person, it indicates, in the first place, that the subject deals with, or expects in return, only that expressed by the protocompound; for example, MANYALAPIya, only in exchange for money or only for the sake of money or is interested only in money, as a bad judge or a bad lawyer, who does nothing but spend money; its passive, third, the goods fo r which or the person o f whom, etc.

205 Secondly, it is an indication that the nominative is or was entitled to as much as what the protocompound expresses; for example, MANYICAPAT each one is entitled to one real, etc. This pattern also presupposes the computations explained earlier; for example, mecaduan sicapat does not only mean reales, but also each one is entitled to five reales-, and if the object is in the nominative, it indicates that it costs that much or that it was bought or sold that much, etc. This having been said, if you want to ask how much a given object is, or to put it better, how much does each one cost, use this particle which is distributive, together with the root or verb magcano; for example, how much does the rice cost? TIA MAGCANO ingpalay? that is, each cavan? two reales, maminting-, how much does a chupa of vinegar cost? TIA MAGCANONG gatang quing One barilla, mamarillas, etc. To ask in the passive, say TIAMAGCANON how many did they give to each? Or how many times did they whip each one of the boys? So, whenever the question is distributive, that is the pattern to follow; and since the answer should con form to the question, the answer should use the distributives, which are the protocompounds; namely it is worth so much, it costs that much, he is entitled to that much, etc. When the question is not distributive, but is wholesale, so to speak, meaning not what is each worth nor how is each one valued, but how much is for example, how much is this horse? only magcano is used: MAGCANO ya iyang MAGCANO ing palayl MAGCANO ing It has its neuter verb o f ma, mamagcano, memagcano, up to what price; for example, if they are transporting palay, MAMAGCANO yang palayl up to what price does this palay reach? or how much is it? memagnol up to where did the price reach? that is, how many cavans did everything amount tol And with the same, you can say, for example, how is this horse of yours valued or was valued? Meapu ten pesos, etc.

PA of Saying

This magcano is not the only one which admits this pa; for example, PAMAGCANOAN or PEPAMAGCANOAN da ita, how much do they say or did they say; but also all the protocompounds referring to money; for example, PAPAMESOSAN da ya, they say one peso; and so, papamintingan, papangundingan, etc. To speak in the plural, distributively, use the same tia with the adverb pilan; for example, how many gantas did they give as opal TIA PILANG pati ing pamanupa ral three gantas, each event titlongpati or tiaualo, eight each event. If you want to ask for example, how much did you give to each of the oarsmen? you should say it in the preterite: tiamagcanoan lal because it is not plural; but if you ask how many cuartillos did you give to each? TIAPILANAN lang calatiol because pilan has its passive and neuter verb of ma\ mapilan, etc.

206 Transitive Mi

When the sentence is transitive, it is appropriate to join the M I Transitive with its MI passive and the second passive ofcompany, for example, how much did you give to the oarsmen or to each oarsman? PITIAMAGCANO mo ding One real. You answer with the protocompounds of the money, distributively, for example, I gave them one real each, PIPANYICAPAT co give one cuartillo to each of these poor people, PIPANGALANTIOAN mo deang ; I already gave them one sicaualo each, PIPANICAUALO co na la, and that way with the rest. Lastly, although we already said that when this particle goes with pa and the digits with ca and an at the end, it indicates the asking price; for example, PACAUALOAN dengpesos, they say or they ask eight pesos; I will give you three idiomatic expressions which were not mentioned there; for example, they ask five reales, PACACADUANAN deng sicapat (like mecaduang sicapat): and so, PACACADUANAN deng hinting, PACACADUANAN and no more. But bear in mind that this just-mentioned pattern, for example, PACALABIAN deng siam a pesos, PACATADUANAN deng polong pesos, is not applicable to the digits in-between from twenty up; instead, it is PACACADUANAN deng polong pesos ampón metong, and the same is true with the other tens, likepacatloan, pacapatan, etc.

Section 6 Identifying Portions of Time

Year, banua. To number them simply, just use the cardinals: aduan banua, two years; ATLU, APAT, LIMANG banua, etc. This year, ITING banua [The context of this section does not justify that particle di, which is probably an erroneous typographical superfluity.]. And to be more specific, ITING banuang ITI. To refer to the past years: last year, banuang metong (notice that banua loses the last a and this happens to it sometimes, although it is not a real diphthong): For the rest, they use the numerals that describe the “some” part, adding na at the end; for example, banuang SICADUANA, two years ago, banuang SICATLONA, three years ago and they hardly pass beyond that. To say five years ago, six years ago, they use the ordinals more. So, quetangCALIMANG banua, five years ago etc.; to refer to the subsequent years, next year, they usually say: quening balictaon (which is a Tagalog word), or quening banuang ARAPAN; two years from now, quening CADUANG banua; three years from now, queting CATLONG banua, always using the ordinals. This month, itingbulan; but bulan means moon and month, just as banua means heaven and year. So, for preceding and subsequent months, they use the ordinals, with the respective adverbs; as you see, last month is rendered quening bulan a

207 GUILUTAN; next month, queuing bulan aARAPAN; two months ago, ADUANANG bulan\ three months from now, queuing CATLONG bulan, etc. The all-encompass ing terms both for years and for months are guilutan, past, and arapan, the coming: quing capat a ARAPAN banuang or DATANG, four years from now; the same with bulan: queuing calimang bulan a ARAPAN or quing CALIMANG bulan, five months from now; quingcapitong banuang GUILUTAN orcapitong banuang, seven years ago. Aldao means sun or day: ingALDAO ngeni, this day; for the preceding ones, yesterday, napon\ for the rest, use he ordinals with na before and another na after; for example, NAcadwaNa the day before yesterday, and they hardly go beyond that; and so they say quetang CAPAT a aldao, quetang CALIMANG aldao', four days ago, five days ago, the same way as the years and months; for the days that follow, tomorrow bucas; for the rest, they attach ma to ordinal numbers; for example, MAcadua, the day after tomorrow; MAcatlo, three days from now, etc.; and afterwards, they say queuing CALIMANG aldao, five days from now, queuing CAPITONG aldao, seven days from now, etc. Bucas macadua, tomorrow and the next day; nacapilana is a few days ago. The time in the morning is abac or cayabacan; high noon, ogtong aldao or ogto yang aldao or caogtoa ning aldao-, the afternoon, gatpanapon; sisilim, at nightfall (although the Kapampangans did not know the measurements of the hours, they nevertheless differentiated the time sufficiently well); galing aldao MABABO, near daybreak; but galin aldao MALALAM, much earlier than daybreak; muclat súmala, day break; malayatcan yan aldao, when the sun is around ten degrees over the east or west; it is a meticulous thing and any old woman will tell you many more measurements of time. Bengi, night; tonight, NGENING bengi, meaning, that which follows this day, last night, meaning, that which came before today is NAbengi\ but NAPON SA bengi is that which came before yesterday; NACADUANANSA bengi, that which came before the day before yesterday; and this way, going backwards, etc. For the subsequent ones: BUCAS bengi, the night that follows tomorrow; MACADUAN bengi, that which follows the day after tomorrow; cabucas is the whole night; quebucas is the whole night in the past; CAPITNGAN bengi, media noche, midnight; cabucasan, the morning that follows cabucas, etc. As regards questions concerning time, if you ask how many, do it with the cardinals; for example, PILANG banual PILAN PILAN that is, how many years, etc. The answers: if past ,peone year; [one day], [sic, the original Spanish is bracketed], pepatingapun, or the whole day, inapon is shorter, and so on; if future, drop the pe. In other cases, use the cardinals: ADUANG banua, two years, etc. If you ask when, be it past or future, do it with pilan combined with ca, following the pattern of the ordinals: ÇAPILAN ca me carini Answer: queuing CADUANG bulan-, when will you go there? two months from now; capilan ca

208 dinatangl when did you arrive? quetang CATLONG bulan, three months ago; guilutan and arapan, to be more precise; about days: nacadua na, the day before yesterday; future: macado, otro dia despues de la mañana, the day after tomorrow [ sic, should be de aqui a tres dias, three days from now]. Our every year is banua-banua; every month, balang bulan or bulan-bulan magsocorro, etc; everyday, balang aldao or aldao-aldao, bengi-bengi or balang bengv, some day, balang aldao;for example, BALANG ALDO a aganaca mu cu rin, you will always remember me someday; those which do not admit the said pattern use the adverb dat or indat; for example, DAT Viernes; INDAT Domingo, etc., every Friday, every Sunday, etc. To say happens every two days, use mipa, attach it to the beginning of the cardinals; for example, MIPACADUA ya malalagnat, he contracts fever every two days; mipacatlo, every three days; this pattern is true with the rest; from year to year, every year, mipamanua; every month, mipamulan, mipanumingo, etc. See the adverbs of time.

209 CHAPTER 18 ACCENTS, PRONUNCIATION, REDUPLICATION AND OTHER IMPORTANT CONSIDERATIONS

Section 1 Accents and Pronunciation

Many times, a consonant at the middle of a word is pronounced not by being joined to the vowel that follows but by being joined to the preceding letter and then cutting what follows; for example, caladua, bunyi, as if they were spelled calad-dua, bun-ñyv, and among these cortadillos [clipped words that is, words having this clipped syllable] are: quic-cuan, sad-dya, bag-gya, lac-cuay, ming-gua, etc. The same is true with words having two consonants together, like lag-pac, ag-cas, bag-say, tac-sil, sac-si and all similar to them, which are not few. This is very important, because if you do not do it this way, you might send the wrong message or change the meaning of the words; for example, quic-cuan, the aborted fetus; quicuan, one whose nails are cut by another person, etc. Also, it happens many times that the meaning of a word changes depending on whether you pronounce it with a long or short accent: lúpa (pp), face, lupa (acute), a grass that causes; gayac, one’s appearance in public, gáyac (pp), drag the dress; bácal (pp), iron, bacál (acute), provisions; pp), written, acute), crazy. There are three principal accents: some words are accented at the last syllable; for example, law (acute), oil to make candle; others at the second to the last [sic, the original Spanish is penúltima]', for example: lubás (acute), naked; tacáp (acute), cover, well, in short, all accents which are on the last or second to the last syllable as found in the Dictionary where they have this label (acute): which means acute or short, in contrast to the other one, marked (pp): and this accent appears in two ways: one is like the Spanish, as in para (pp) the same, and it is pronounced like the para in Spanish. The other is acute and guttural in the last, leaving it fall (pp), like lasa, taste; about this last one, there is nothing similar to it in Latin nor in Spanish, [this is the maragsa accent of modem Tagalog, with the mark pakupyâ or wedge]. Outside of this, when the word has three syllables, it usually has one more accent before the second to the last; for example, talícalá, talínduá, salímpapaó, salúreráy, talípapá, etc. The acute accent also appears in two ways: one is acute and not guttural, as in lauit, the tip of a branch or a dangerous ending; litán, latáng, licit, api, fire which is pronounced fast (corridillo) the other is acute and guttural, for example, saya, liveliness or happiness; siri, sita, sira,tinga, weight of half a tael; and the same with innumerable others, which have no equivalent at all in either Spanish or Latin; and so, it is hard to pronounce them, if not impossible. It is very important to see the difference among these accents, because otherwise, it might happen many times that you intend to say bread and you end

210 up saying apple [peras, pears, in the original Spanish], Let us give examples of some roots, each one of which has all the above-mentioned accents with the corresponding resultant meanings; for example,

Sala (neither guttural nor acute), fault or sin Sala (pp. guttural and not acute), light or brightness, like that of the sun Salá (acute and not guttural), bamboo interwoven like grill Salá (acute and not guttural), criticize, like a defect Salá (pp., neither guttural nor acute), physical error, to fail, to err Salá (acute and guttural), a woman’s act of conceiving before magli Lasa ( guttural and not acute), taste Lasa ( pp neither guttural nor acute), punishment or torment Lasa (pp. guttural and not acute), bamboo to be made an arrow Lasá (pp, neither guttural nor acute), adverb which means almost or hardly Bala ( pp. guttural and not acute), he who is in charge of something Balâ (acute and not guttural), to get the wrong meaning Bala (pp. neither guttural nor acute), to ask an advance payment for the harvest Balâ ( guttural and not acute), threaten with words Baba ( acute and not guttural), carry on one’s shoulders Babá (guttural and acute), to go down, to humble oneself Babá (guttural), the chin, not the beard

You might find it strange that this language has words which have many accents and that any change of the accent changes the meaning of the same word. But in order that you will not think that it is completely new, consider the word rey, do not look at the letters with which it is spelled, but the variety of the pronunciation and the respective meaning. First, rei,the genitive of reus [culprit]; second rey, the genitive of rex[sic, the genitive of rex is not rey but regis, meaning “ of the king;” he probably meant the dative regí, “to the king,” with the g pronounced as the Tagalog h]; third rei, res [the thing], rei [of the thing]; fourth, past tense, rei [I laughed]. Concerning the gutturals and their pronunciation, this is how it is done: stop a little in the second to the last syllable and let your throat stop there, and this is what is meant by guttural. And bear in mind that when it becomes a verb, and more so in the passive, the accent is changed, for example from sala (guttural and not acute), light or brightness, it becomes, for example, SALÁN me iyangsulú (acute or short), brighten that light; from lasa (neither guttural nor acute), lasan (acute or short), to suffer, like a punishment or the torment. On the other hand, the acute is pronounced as if you are throwing it out hurriedly, corridillo, and it is used among passive (pp.); for example, from salá( acute), to criticize; sasalan, preterite (pp.); from babá (acute), to

211 carry; the passive is bábaban, preterite beba (pp), that which is carried. Bear in mind also that the gutturals must necessarily end in a vowel and it is only in this syllable that they are guttural, because there are no gutturals in the second to the last nor on the third to the last, nor in those which end in a consonant, because those which end in a consonant are the ones which tally with those which are not gutturals. And in order to know which are and which are not, there is no other rule than the practice; although if you talk of a brief action, the accent must also be brief, guttural or not guttural. And to be able to pronounce this right, you must necessarily leam it from the indios themselves; and to be able to speak correctly and perfectly, I think it is necessary for [the gift] to descend from the Father of lights ( a Patre luminum).

Section 2 Reduplications

Reduplication is very frequent in this language. In many places, I explained the patterns to you; you must now be familiar with what I said about the compo sitions and about the adjectives of ma. What I will just say here is that, if the simple have two syllables, they are doubled; if three, the second is doubled; and that, when the consonant which comes after the first vowel is followed by another vowel, if this is not a, add a; for example, b the; i which comes after / is not <3; and so, add it, and it becomes balabalictad; : here, there is nothing to add: double it and you get balabalatong, etc. This having been said, in order to save time and space, take this general rule: when the root is repeated or its meaning is lessened or the action is downsized, for example, macuyad, repeat the root and you get macuyad-cuyad, somewhat short; mapait-pait, somewhat bitter; mabuluc-buluc, somewhat rotten; matamad- tamad, somewhat lazy; mabayat-bayat, somewhat heavy, etc., and the same applies to those which mean to finally become something somehow, for example, malanat-lanat, malanta-lanta, to finally wither somehow, like leaves; and so also, mabucut-bucut, marunut-dunut, malaui-laui, mabanal-banal, etc. See the frequentatives of ma. And I say the same thing about the simple verbs, like abut-abut, to hardly reach; sulat-sulat, to go into detail; main-main, to take little steps; lacad-lacad, almost the same; pulapulayi, to run a bit; balabalatong, slight mistakes, as in answering questions; tala talusad, sliding a bit; and the same with those express ing actions which can happen more or less, and they are very many. If you put them in the passive, you get the same point; for example, abut-abutan, that which you hardly reach; dagdag-dagdagan, add a little; culang-culangan, take a little; and this is the pattern for the rest. If aside from doubling the root, you reduplicate the first syllable, the meaning is do it again and again; for example, quiling-quiling, to tilt, quiquiling-quiling.

212 keep on doing it some more; and so, sisingil-sin susungco-sungco;yayaus-yaus,; etc. Make other compositions based on these, and it is not hard to do it, and you can construct their passives according to the general mies. There are idiomatic expressions that use this downplaying pattern; for example, I find my habit spread on the floor and I ask: why is this here? You answer: quine co nengquinay, I placed it here without thinking; and this pattern is followed in: inogse co neng inogsay,depot co neng depat, iincu neng tidtud ne [should be na) neng tidtud, lintang na neng lintang, menic na yang menic, sible na nang siblay, pinipi na nang pinipi, penic na neng penic, meco nayang mecao, that is that he did the act imperfectly, carelessly, thoughtlessly, inadvertently; but this is applicable only when pronouns are inserted in the repetitions as shown by the examples and not when they are simply reduplicated without the pronouns.

Section 3 The Abbreviated Forms

The most common ones are those which admit some roots that end with a consonant; Their last vowel is a. There is no rule to determine which are the ones that admit them, because we see the same ones among the same number of vowels and consonants. Some roots admit the abbreviated forms, and others don’t Only this can be considered as the rule: namely, that the wots which have two consonants after the second to the last vowel never admit any abbreviated ; while those which admit them do so in the second passive or in the composition of those which end in an, like the abstract forms with ca and an, etc. I will now give you a very good list of the roots, which admit the abbreviated forms; you add those, which are not here.

LIST

ROOT MEANING ABBREVIATED COMPLETE FORM WORD abal to weave ablan abalan atad to carry atdan ataran buyot difficult buyotnan buyotanan bulad to speak buldan bularan bugal a vulgar word buglan bugalan culapad acidity culapdan culaparan of the stomach cutang to ask cutngan cutangan dacap to arrest dacpan dacapan dapat to do daptan dapatan

213 dacal many dadan dacalan gatal itch gatlan gatalan yama pleasure yanman yamanan laman contents lamnan lamanan lubas to disrobe lubsan lubasan lucas to untie lucsan lucasan îucad to scrape up lucdan lucaran uban white hair ubnan ubanan patad to cut patdan pataran sulad to spin suldan sularanan sugat to wound sugtan sugatan tulad to imitate tuldan tularanan tangab to ignite tangban tangaban the firewood tacap to cover tacpan tacapan

However, some roots are not so strict regarding abbreviation that they cannot perhaps be without them, like sugatan, tularan, ataran. And you must have noticed that almost all of them end with a consonant, except included here is biasa, one who has acabiasnan wisdom; and in the composition of an, many of those ending in ngdrop the second to the last syllable; in the third passive of anan, they drop the second to the last, but they can also retain it. For example,usefulness; paquinabangan or paquinabangnan; along, to play, alonganan or alongnan; salobong, to meet halfway, salobongan, salobongnan or The compound forms of all of these with mi, pa and other particles still retain the abbreviated form in the second passive or composition. I already gave you libay, to exchange; tibay, strength, which have the abbreviated forms, Libyan for libayan; tib-byan for tibay an and lauay, lauan for lauayan, etc.

Section 4 Configuration and Suppressions of Letters

This section intends to shed light on a peculiar aspect of Kapampangan words to prevent this peculiarity from beclouding the minds of beginners. In this language, it is very common to clip some letters, for example, canaquita, istead of canaco ita; tuleta, instead of tula ita', iyeni, instead ocalmaneta, instead of calma na ita; caluguran MENG Dios, instead of ME ING Dios; mipaldan YANG caladua co, instead of IYAING; ing totita, instead of toto ita (here they clip two, and in the following examples also) marauac at sinira mo, instead of marauac cat etc; NGARING santos, instead of NGARA DING; NGANING profeta, instead of NGANA NING. You must have noticed that they clip two letters when the second to

214 the last of the preceding word is distinct only in number from the first letter of the subsequent word. They also usually clip the a of the second passive; for example, instead of lauan\ con, instead of coan, etc; and what is more, maybe they clip n; for example: non ingPANAYAT cayap alan angga, instead of nun ing PANAYAN, etc. None of what has been said up to here in this present section is precise; it is, instead, abbrevia tion and elegant style. Regarding the transposition of letters, for example, libutan, calibudtan; moasid, moasdan\ dicta, dictan, etc. I refer you to the Dictionary.

Last Section

Section 5 How to Translate

I have no doubt that you will miss [a discussion on] poetry here, but I assure you that, although there are people who dislike poetry more that I do, the poetry of Pampanga leaves me quite unsatisfied {mefastidia tanto), because the rhythm of their verses appears to me more like prose than true assonance and consonance, and so I omit it here. Instead, I will give you, although briefly, some pointers on how to translate well if you know the language. Saint Jerome reduces to only one all the rules which a good translator must follow, and I assure you, from the very start, that you will be a good translator if you do not deviate from it. He says: et haec regula boni interpretis ut idioma alterius linguae suae linguae exprimatproprietate [and this is the rule for a good translator, namely, that what the other language says in its own style, he must express in his own language according to its style]. Everything that will be said here will be derived from this. It means that, when we translate something into Kapampangan, be it Hebrew or Latin or Spanish, we must observe two things: first, the Kapampangan version must give the right meaning; second, the said meaning must be expressed the indio way. Let me explain. You want to translate that idiomatic expression of the Hebrew: Filius mortis est homo ille [That man is a son of death]. If you say anac ne ning camatayan itang your tauo, translation is wrong and you are violating the rule. The reason is that in Kapampangan, you call son of death someone who deserves death, and this way of expressing it is not the Kapampangan way, but the Hebrew. The correct idiomatic expression in the Kapampangan language is mañga-tuliranyang matay itang tauong ita. Now, yes, you are translating correctly and you are following the rule, because this Kapampangan sentence means the same as est mortis [he is a son of death], and, besides you re using an idiomatic expression of the indios. Also, if you want to translate this Latin sentence: Non intres in judicium cum servo tuo, Domine [do not enter into judgment with your servant, Lord] and you use

215 the words lungub andpamanucum, etc. you are confusing the meaning and you are violating the rule from one language to another, because this expression is the Latin way, and not the Kapampangan. If you want to translate word for word one language to another, your translation will be caldera, calderae, and you will make an idiot of yourself and the devil understands you.

[Note of the Translator: Caldera is a Spanish word meaning “teapot.” If you want to say “of the teapot,” it will be de la caldera, the Spanish way. Porta is a Latin word meaning “door.” If you want to say “of the door,” you just add e and it becomes portae, the Latin way Bergaño shows how ridiculous it is to treat a Spanish word the Latin way.]

Ex alia in aliam linguam expressa ad verbum translatio sensum operis et velut laeto gramme sata strangulat. [A word-for-word translation destroys the meaning of the phrases the way you destroy the golden wheat in the paddy], says Saint Jerome.

The Kapampangan sentence equivalent to that Latin is: eme sapu paquiisipan ining alipan mo. See how it has the same meaning without need of restricting yourself to translate word for word, which is what a good translator must do, as Horace says: “For you to be a faithful translator, see to it that you don’t do it word for word.” Do not be stuck with the counting of words, but rather, explore their meanings very carefully. Words are meant to be understood, not to be counted, Cicero said. See how well we translate Latin proverbs to Spanish without us getting restricted by the Latin words. We translate the meaning and express it using the style peculiar to the Castilian tongue; for example, In silvam ne ligna/eras [do not bring wood to the forest], do not bring iron to Vizcaya or water to the sea; Annosa non capitur laqueo [you don’t catch an old fox with a noose], a perro viejo no hay tus tus, etc. [to an old dog, there is no “come baby, jump, jump,” etc.]. See also this expression of ours: ve por vida tuya [see for your life’s sake?]. The Kapampangan translation is ngamona uari, and there is no mention of vida [life], etc., because this is our idiomatic expression, and not the indio’s. And the same with the rest. According to Saint Jerome, when the word which precisely corresponds to the original does not sound nice, it is not against the rule to choose another word that sounds better, provided you don’t change the meaning. [Translator: Bergaño now quotes Jerome’s Latin original of that sentence.] It is not against the rule either to add particles or adverbs, etc., that will make it sound beautiful. I will not give any example of this, because the entire Sio is full of them. Consult it. Two things usually restrain a translator. One is to see in the Castilian language or in Latin or in the Sacred Scriptures figures of speech and imageries and an obliga tion to God to translate everything, without bearing in mind that every language has its own elegant styles which sound revolting to others, as St. Thomas wrote: Quae

216 pulchre in una lingua dicuntur, non sonantpulchre in alia [what sounds beautiful in one language does not sound beautiful in another.]. This is aside from the fact that, very many times, to omit them does not adversely affect the meaning; and if they are doctrines like those of the Scriptures, either explain them, starting with the word alimbaua, or focus on their symbolic meaning, etc. The other is that here we find many things which there are no words to refer to, because those things do not exist in this land; for example, eagle, bear, lamb, etc. We should use the Spanish words in these cases and we should not discard them saying that the indios would not understand them anyway, because many times these things elicit sublime concepts in the indios by the mere fact that they do not know what they are. Listen to Pliny: Nam certe nescio quid magni concipit animus cum haec inusitata verba vel proferí vel audit. [For certainly I do not know what sublime things my mind conceives when I pronounce or hear these almost unheard-of words.] How many words do we read in the Scriptures which move us to devotion and yet we do not understand them? But do not let this discourage you from searching for words to describe things which are not found here; words which will make it possible for you to explain the doctrines effectively. I say this because I have seen a translation in which the topic was vine and vine branches, and since there are no vineyards here, they ignored the countryside lands, as if, for this purpose, you would not be able to explain well enough using ta n a m a n or pon or sanga, etc. Lastly, when the doctrine is judged to be opportune, do not say: what is the use of translating it, if the indio would not understand it anyway? Go translate it just the same. After all, the translator has no obligation to make it easy. For all you know, some indio might find it uplifting and understand it. Qui potest capere, capiat [He who can take it, let him take it.].

[Translator’s Note: Although Bergaño says that the translator is not obliged to make the translation easy to understand, it is always possible to make it easy to understand. Dont you think so?].

DEO VERO, TRINO ET UNO, JESUQUE DEO ET HOMINI EJUSQUE VIRGINIMATRI LAUS ET GLORIA IN SAECULA. AMEN.

TO THE TRUE GOD, THREE IN ONE AND TO JESUS, GOD AND MAN AND TO HIS VIRGIN MOTHER PRAISE AND GLORY FOREVER. AMEN.

[Translator’s Note: Page 225 of the original ends here. Page 226 is blank]

217 PROLOGUE TO THE READER

According to our loving Father Saint Augustine, there are two stumbling blocks to studying something: short process and long process. Laborant hominess in discendo brevia non valent intelligere, etprolixia, non amant legere. [In their attempt at learning something, people cannot understand if it is short, and they don’t like reading if it is long.] [Notice the play of words: intelligere, to understand, and legere, to read.] Even writers find themselves in danger of capsizing between Scylla and Charybdis, because if they allow their pen to go on and on and on, they find themselves getting bored, and if they decide to be brief, their words will fail to enlighten, because they will stay in the shadow, in the darkness. As Horace affirmed: Obscurus fio dum brevis esse laboro. [I become hard to understand when I try to be brief.].

As I think of this brevity, I also think of avoiding the other extreme of being too long. I know that it is in this land, more than in any other, that there is need of avoiding it at all cost, but remembering that there are many zealous ministers who do not hesitate to work and to exercise their calling, I felt inspired to write the Grammar anew (me anime a escrivir el Arte de nuevo). And I worked indescribably hard to make it stay in the middle, where it will neither be long and consequently boring, nor short and conse quently vague.

If, in spite of this, my friend-reader, I fail to give you satisfaction, I hope I will be exonerated in view of my having composed it in the midst of so many duties to fulfil and of continuous headaches.

[page xx] I pray God that my shortcomings will be made up for by your zeal and your effort in studying this as it is your obligation, and I assure you that even if you may have too retentive a memory and even if you keep your ears open, you will not progress without the help of the Grammar.

“And so, Saint Paul was sad, ” exclaimed Sain Jerome. Why was the apostle sad? Quia divinorum eloquiorum sensuum Majestatem digno non poerat Graeci eloquii explicare sermone. [Because he could not explain the sublime message of the divine words with the corresponding beautiful style of the Greek language.] Why so? Did Saint Paul not have the gift of the Greek language together with the other languages? No doubt about it, says the Angelic Doctor [Saint Thomas Aquinas], and he certainly knew it well enough, but he did not have the elegant style which the human art teaches: Paulus et alii apostoli fuerunt instructi divinitus linguis omnium gentium, quantum requirebatur ad fidei doctrinam, sed quantum ad quaedam quae super adduntur humana Arte adornatum, el elegantiam locutionis, apostolus erat instructus in propria lingua, non

XXXIX autem in aliena. [Paul and the other apostles were taught by the Lord the languages of all nations, in so far as the doctrine of the faith required it, but as regards those th in gs which are added by human art, and the elegance of speech, the apostle knew those of his own language, but not those of others].

Could it not have been that, although he knew the language well, he was also sad, considering the inadequacy of the human art to transmit the sublime and profound messages? The Great Doctor answers again: He did feel sad. Tristatur quia organum per quod Christo caneret non habebat. [He was sad because he did not have a musical instrument with which to sing to Christ.]

A nd will there be som eone w ho does not have the gift o f tongues and who speaks the language only by using notes and by looking at the accents and who, nevertheless, talks about and explains these lofty and sublime doctrines unhesitatingly? What a blind and nonsensical delight! We all think that we already know a lot and that there is no need— that we are not obliged— to work more and more so as to learn the language, as if it could be learned just like that, effortlessly. Take note of the hard time Saint Jerome had with Hebrew: Quid ibi laboris insumpserim, quid sustinuerim dif[f]icultatis, quoties desperaverim, quoties cessaverim, et rursus incaeperim, testis est conscientiae, tam mea, qui passus sum, quam eorum qui mecum duxerunt vitam. [How much effort I exerted, how many difficulties I encountered, how often I despaired, how often I stopped, only to start again: to all of these I have as my witnesses our conciences, both mine (remembering how I suffered in this endeavor) and those of the people who lived with me.].

[page xxi] Let so great a model move you to work. Let the precious reward which you hope for move you to study. Let the strict obligation of your position move you. And, lastly, allow yourself to be moved by Charity— to distribute the Bread to so many poor people— and with Charity, you will find everything easy; and without it, you will find studying the language to be an unbearable burden, and, even if you know it and you speak like an angel, silinguis hominum loquar et angelorum [if I speak in the tongues of mortals and of angels], you will not be an organ, but a cowbell or a clapper, charitatem autem non habeam, factussum velut aes sonans aut cymbalum tiniens [but if I do not have love, I am a noisy gong or a clanging cymbal.] [I Cor. 13:1].

xl PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS

In order that you will not be confused by the different ways Kapampangans pro nounce their letters, I want to give you beforehand some necessary observations. And starting from the letter d, you have to know that this language does not have the r as hard as that in rayo, carro, nor will you ever hear it. Neither does it have the r as soft as in caro, orar; and even if you hear it pronounced that way occasionally, you should bear in mind that it is not r, but d, which has two sounds, because at times it is pronounced as d, at other times as r, depending on the place where it is spoken. So that you will know when to pronounce it d and w hen r, take these rules.

First

If it is the first letter of a word and is not preceded by a vowel of another word, it is d; if it is between two vowels only, it is r. Consider this word , aunt or stepmother, w hich is pronounced dara and, you will see the point about one and the other; the same way that we pronounce r hard if it is the first letter, and otherwise soft, in Latin and Spanish, as in raro, rara vez. I said if it is not preceded by a vowel o f another word, because if it is preceded by one, even if it is the first letter, it is r;for example, dinay, sham e, marinay, to have it. A lso I said if it is between two vowels only, as in dara, sari, because if it is followed by more than one, you have to look, and it will fall under the second rule.

Second

Given a word where a vowel with a long accent either comes before or comes after d; if the former, it is d; for example, sadia, adua, caladua; if the latter, pronounce it r; for example, saria, lario. It is correct to pronounce d in pañgadyi and its compounds, because the first y that follows it is a consonant; and this has nothing to do with spelling words with dd; for example, addua caladdua, etc.

Third

The third rule is that, if what comes ahead or after is a consonant, it is pronounced d; for example, damdam, atdo.

Fourth

W hen it is the last letter, like lugud, malimadmad, etc., in the mouth of the natives it is between d and r;but you will be mistaken only a bit if you pronounce it r, like matulid.

xli The e and the i are also one letter in this language; that is why sometimes you hear e, sometimes i;pronounce it the way that sounds better, because this is the rule, as long as (if it is the first letter) you pronounce it very rarely as because if there are seven w hich begin w ith e, they are not m ore. The same is true with the o and the u, which are also one; sometimes you hear o, som etim es u; but take note that the consonant u is never attached to the vowel that follows, but it is always liquid, like uaua. The consonant yis attached to the vowels, as in yotos, yumina, except to the i, as in pulayi, to run; balayi, fellow parent-in-law; bayi, ark, etc.; but even if it is not attached, it is pronounced long, because it really has two yi. [This language] does not have // like ours; for example, caballo, but y, ; and although we write mallas, mallari, we have to pronounce and write them as malyas, malyari, and we would not make two hard ll, but one which is attached somehow to they; if you strictly follow the Kapampangan writing, this is not even what corresponds to it, but maliyas, and I also say that we should not w rite yñapinnor but this is the way it is written with the Kapampangan characters. Neither does it have the hard ña ño, as in niñniño, but ñya, where also they is attached, as in mañyaus, mañyauad; listen to how the indio pronouncesywyop/h and you will see how certainly correct is what I am saying. C oncerning the two ggwhich this language has, I needed to reflect for a long time, because it has g like that o f manga and ng nasal, and this was difficult to understand; but if you spell the first one with two gg, like mangga, until, and the second one with g, like mañga, conjunction and, there is no difficulty. If you speak and write a lot, open your eyes and you will see how the following words differ in meaning and pronunciation: bañga versus bangga, tiñga versus tingga. The diphthongs of this language are two: one is ai, as in balai; the other is ao, as in galao, dalao, lacao. Regarding them, bear in mind first of all that their two vowels are considered as one syllable; secondly, that the said syllable, as far as ligatures are concerned, is a consonant; and so, they say balay a maragul, and not balayng maragub, although they say babayng masampat, because it is not a diphthong. The third thing that you should take note of is that when they are inserted, the two vowels are not pronounced distinctly, but are mixed, like pamanlacao. You w ill not say pamanlaco mo, but pamanlacao mo;nor balay mo, but bale mo; and so in the ay the e is heard more than the a, as in palay, pale mo; and in ao, the o is heard more, like in galao, pamañgalo mo. It is difficult for us to pronounce these diphthongs, but this doctrine is indubitable.

Some people are too preoccupied with pinpointing the distinction between those which are diphthongs and those which are not but seem to be such; for example, balay, diph thong, versus balayi, which is not, etc. Do not think of a difficulty where there is none; because either you hear them or you see them. If you see them, you being certain that the two vowels of the first diphthong do not adhere toy, and those of the second do not adhere

xlii to u, they are distinguished at first sight; because the diphthong is spelled with only two letters, like balay, lacao; and that which is not, with three letters, like balayi, cauo. The distinction is not less clear if you hear them. Listen to how the indio pro nounces balay , diphthong, and balayi , which is not; dalao, diphthong, and dalauo, which is not; and you will clearly get the distinction however deaf you are; because those which are diphthongs are pronounced short; those which are not, long. Look at the last part of the Grammar. Lastly, take note that you will encounter the term m ot many times in the Grammar, and it is another way of saying simple word, “naked” of all compositions; for example, sulat is called root because it is not yet part of a composition, and from it comes as many branches as the compositions it admits, although in itself, in its simplicity, it means writing, something written, but although it does not mean anything, it is called a root; like this word can is called a root, from which proceed many verbs, active and passive, although in itself it is neither used nor it has a meaning.

xliii CONTENTS

P reface to this Third Edition ...... xxi D edication ...... xxiii Perm issions and A pprovals ...... xxiv P rologue to the R e a d e r ...... xxxix P relim inary O bservations ...... xli

C hapter 1 The D eclensions o f N o u n s ...... 1 Section 1 P roper N ouns ...... 1 Section 2 A ppellatives ...... 3 Section 3 Primitive Pronouns ...... 4 The Use of YA, NA, NE, NO Section 4 Demonstrative Pronouns ...... 12 Section 5 Interrogative Pronouns ...... 13 Section 6 O ther U ses o f the A rtic le s ...... 15

C hapter 2 The Substantive Verb ...... 18 Section 1 The Concept of To Be (Ser) ...... 18 Section 2 The Concept of To Be (Estar) NI, Tl, T A ...... 18 Section 3 The Concept of To Have (Haber) or To H ave (T e n e r)...... 23

Chapter 3 The Simple Verb and Its Conjugations...... 25 Section 1 Conjugation and Variation of Tenses ...... 26 Section 2 The Regular Conjugation of the Active Voice ...... 34 Section 3 The Regular Passives and their Form ation ...... 41 Section 4 The Irregular Third [sic. Three?] Passives...... 43

C hapter4 The U se o f the A ctive and the P a s s iv e ...... 46 Section 1 When to Speak in the Active and W hen in the P a s s iv e ...... 46 Section 2 The Use of the Three Passives First, the Passive of I ...... 53 Section 3 The Second Passive o f A N ...... 57 Section 4 The Third Passive of ANAN AN, ANAN, ANANAN Compared ...... 59 Section 5 Notes on Which Passive Admits W hich K ind o f V e rb s ...... 65

vii Chapter 5 The Protocompounds Section 1 Their Variation ...... 67 Section 2 T heir M eaning ...... 70 Section 3 Various Protocom pounds ...... 74 Section 4 T heir F re q u e n ta tiv e s...... 75

Chapter 6 The Particle MAG Section 1 Its C onjugation and Som e U s e s ...... 77 M AG: To M ake V e rb s ...... 77 M AG: To Use ...... 78 MAG: Reflexive ...... 79 M AG: I n te n t...... 79 MAG: To Put Oneself...... 80 MAG: To Pass B y ...... 80 MAG: To Become ...... 81 M AG: To Do ...... 81 M AG: In te n sific a tio n ...... 81 MAG: To Make Oneself Appear Like ...... 82 Section 2 MAG of Fiction and Appearance ...... 82 F requentatives ...... 83

Chapter 7 The Particle MI and its Formation Section 1 T ransitive M I ...... 85 Section 2 Passives o f PI and A N Its N o u n s ...... 87 Section 3 MI Neutral and MI with AN By chance: MIPA, MICAPA, MIPACA ...... 92 M I w ith A N ...... 95 A N and its N o u n s ...... 96 Section 4 The Active MI and the Frequentatives...... 98 MI: In te n sific a tio n ...... 99 MI: To M ake Fun o f ...... 99 MI: Thwarted Action ...... 100 M I: D esire ...... 100 MI: Frequentatives ...... 100 Section 5 MI: Reflexive ...... 101 MI: To Acquire ...... 102 MI: Correlation ...... 102 Section 6 MI: Company ...... 103 Section 7 MI: Alternation ...... 105 MI: Competition ...... 106 Section 8 Verbal and Nominal M ICA ...... 107 Section 9 M ICA: N ovelty/Plurals ...... 109 viii C h ap ter8 The P article M A Q U I ...... 112 Section 1 MAQUI: To Introduce Oneself...... 112 Section 2 M AQU I: To Try t o ...... 115 Section 3 M AQUI: To C o m p le te ...... 115 Section 4 MAQUI: To Have/To O w n ...... 116

C hapter 9 The Particle M A ...... 117 Section 1 Neutral Verbs of MA and their Formation...... 117 MA: Plurals ...... 121 MA: Feasibility ...... 122 Section 2 M A o f A bundance...... 122 Section 3 The MA of Adjectives and their Abstracts and Frequentatives...... 124 MA: Frequentatives ...... 125 Section 4 M A o f Evaluation/Passive o f I C A ...... 126

Chapter 10 The Particle C A ...... 130 Section 1 CA: C om panion and C o e q u a l...... 130 Section 2 CA o f Just Finished and Verbals o f B IL IS ...... 132 Section 3 CA o f The A bstracts ...... 136 Section 4 CA o f In d iv id u atio n ...... 138

C hapter 11 The Particle M A C A ...... 142 Section 1 The MACA of Perfection, Inadvertence and Apprehension ...... 142 Section 2 The MACA of Potentiality and other Potentials...... 147 Section 3 The MACA of Nuisance ...... 148 Section 4 The Causal M A C A ...... 149 Section 5 The MACA and PACA of To Be [Estar]...... 150 Section 6 The M A CA and PACA o f In te n sity ...... 151 The Particle PECA ...... 152

C hapter 12 The Particle P A ...... 153 Section 1 The PA as FF ...... 153 PA: To S a y ...... 155 PA: To Ask and To G ive ...... 156 Section 2 Alternative Composition o f Facere Facere (R efacere F ie r i) ...... 157 Section 3 O ther M eanings o f the P A ...... 160 Chapter 13 The Comparatives and Superlatives and other Particles R elated to T h e m ...... 162 Section 1 A N TI, TIN TI, M A G U IN , M A LA , T E L A ...... 162 Section 2 The S u p e rla tiv e s ...... 164

C hapter 14 V arious P a rtic le s ...... 165 Section 1 M A G U IN ...... 165 Section 2 P A Y ...... 166 Section 3 SI and P A S I ...... 166 Section 4 P A L ...... 167 Section 5 TA LA ...... 168 Section 6 M E L A ...... 169 Section 7 SA N G ...... 169 Section 8 N G A N ...... 170 Section 9 P A N G A ...... 170

C hapter 15 The A dverbs ...... 172 Section 1 A dverbs o f Place ...... 172 Section 2 Adverbs of Time ...... 173 Section 3 Asking and Answering ...... 177 Section 4 D oubt and A ffirm a tio n ...... 181 Section 5 P re s u p p o s in g ...... 184 Section 6 E x c e p t...... 185 Section 7 Saying the O p p o s ite ...... 186 Section 8 Approximating ...... 188 Section 9 R equesting and D e s irin g ...... 189 Section 10 Interjections and Ir o n ie s ...... 190

Chapter 16 The Copulatives, The Disjunctives and The Ligatures ...... 193 Section 1 The Copulatives ...... 193 Section 2 The D isjunctives ...... 194 Section 3 The Ligatures ...... 194

C hapter 17 The N um erals ...... 197 Section 1 The Cardinal Numbers ...... 197 Section 2 The O rdinal N um bers ...... 200 Section 3 The D istributives ...... 201 Section 4 How Many Times? And What Proportions?...... 203 Section 5 Monetary Denominations...... 204 Section 6 Identifying Portions o f T im e ...... 207

x Chapter 18 Accents, Pronunciation, Reduplication and Other Important Considerations...... 210 Section 1 Accents and Pronunciation ...... 210 Section 2 R eduplications ...... 212 Section 3 The Abbreviated Forms ...... 213 Section 4 Configuration and Suppression of Letters ...... 214 Section 5 How to Translate ...... 215

S.D.H. et G. [Soli Deo Honor et Gloria] [To God alone be the honor and glory]

[Translator’s Note: This Table of Contents is the last part of the original Spanish. It is on pages 227-231.] TRANSLATOR’S NOTES

1. A basic feature of Bergaño’s Arte is the Latin declension. It goes like this:

Nominative: the case of the Subject PETRUS Genitive: the case of the Possessor PETRI Dative: the case of the Indirect Object the to-or-for case PETRO Accusative: the case of the Direct Object PETRUM Ablative: the by/with/from case PETRO Vocative: the case of the Person Addressed PETRE

The way each of these cases is used in a sentence is as follows:

Nominative Case: Pedro bought a book. Petrus emit librum. Genitive Case: I saw the book of Pedro. Ego vidi librum Petri. Dative Case: I gave the book to Pedro. Ego dedi librum Petro. Accusative Case: I saw Pedro. Ego vidi Petrum. Ablative Case: I was seen by Pedro. Ego visus sum a Petro. Vocative Case: Come here, Pedro. Veni hue, Petre.

The Kapampangan equivalent is the following:

Nominative: Sinali yang libru Y PEDRU. Genitive: Ikit ke ing libru NANG PEDRU. Dative: Binie ke ing libru CANG PEDRU. Accusative: Ikit ke Y PEDRU. Ablative: IkitNAkuNG PEDRU. Vocative: Mekeni, PEDRU. or PEDRO, mekeni.

Now, notice the difference between the declension that corresponds to the above and the declension given by Bergaño in Chapter 1:

Declension A Declension B Based on the Above: Bergaño’s Chapter 1

Nominative: Y PEDRU Y PEDRO Genitive: NANG PEDRU NAN PEDRO Dative: CANG PEDRU CAN PEDRO Accusative: Y PEDRU* CAN PEDRO* Ablative: NANG PEDRU* CAN PEDRO* Vocative: PEDRU or PEDRO PEDRO

They differ in the accusative* and in the ablative*. However, that difference did not adversely affect the clarity and accuracy of Beragaño’s explanations.

2. Before reading Chapter 3, where Bergaño begins to explain the difference between the active voice and the passive voice, it will be helpful to read and understand the following paragraph taken from Chapter 4.

“I suppose that you have not yet forgotten that the first sentence of the active is made up of the nominative o f the person who does, the verb and the accusative o f the person who receives the action. The same is true in Kapampangan; and that the first sentence of the passive is made up of the nominative of the person who receives the action, the verb and the ablative o f the person who does. Change the ablative to genitive and try doing that in this language. You will find here many examples of one and the other.”

What he meant was this:

Active: Pedro (nominative) saw (verb) the servant (accusative). Petrus (nominative) vidit (verb) servum (accusative)

Passive: The servant (nominative) was seen (verb) by Pedro (ablative). Servus (nominative) visus est (verb) a Petro (ablative)

Change the ablative to genitive and try doing that in this language.

What Bergaño meant here, albeit implicitly, were the four steps that follow.

Step 1. CAN PEDRO (ablative) ikit alipan. Step 2. NAN PEDRO (genitive) ikit alipan. Step 3. Ikit NAN PEDRO ing alipan. Step 4. Ikit NENG PEDRO ing alipan.

According to declension B, there was a change from CAN (ablative) to NAN (genitive). According to declension A, there was no need of changing, because the ablative and the genitive were the same (NAN).

The Spanish priest who were studying Kapampangan had to go through these four steps because they were using the Latin grammar to learn it. But for the native Kapampangan themselves, all that was needed was to be breastfed, as babies, by their mothers who then gave them the language mixed in their milk (the amanung sisuan). And then they would simply say, effortlessly: Ikit neng Pedro ing alipan. xiv 3. In several portions of this book, Bergaño employs philosophical terms and alludes to philosophical concepts. I do not find the need to mention them here, because those who are familiar with philosophy will easily recognize them in the text. As for those who are not familiar with philosophy, I endeavored to translate (and sometimes annotate) the said passages in such a way that these readers would find them as easy to understand as those which are not philosophical.

4. Before doing this translation, I gave myself the following guidelines: (a) Convey exactly what Bergaño wanted to convey; (b) Express it in impeccable English; (c) Make it easy for the reader to understand.

The first two happen to be the same as the rules given by Bergaño in the last section of the book (as I discovered when I reached that part). The third is mine, as opposed to his opinion expressed there.

5. The many brackets that appear in the text have the same function as the usual endnotes. Enclosed in them are annotations. Also, the page-numbers of the Spanish original.

The following are italicized: (a) Kapampangan texts; (b) English or Spanish words when required by the context; and (c) Latin terms and sentences. An English translation always accompanies the Latin. Finally, the bold-face type is used to highlight important words or passages.

FR. EDILBERTO V. SANTOS

December 16,2006 Angeles City