Indigenous Crime and Settler Law Palgrave Macmillan Socio-Legal Studies

Series Editor David Cowan, Professor of Law and Policy, University of Bristol, UK

Editorial Board Dame Hazel Genn, Professor of Socio-Legal Studies, University College London, UK Fiona Haines, Associate Professor, School of Social and Political Science, University of , Australia Herbert Kritzer, Professor of Law and Public Policy, University of Minnesota, USA Linda Mulcahy, Professor of Law, London School of Economics and Political Science, UK Carl Stychin, Professor of Law and Social Theory, University of Reading, UK Mariana Valverde, Professor of Criminology, University of Toronto, Canada Sally Wheeler, Professor of Law, Queen’s University Belfast, UK Indigenous Crime and Settler Law White after Empire

Heather Douglas and Mark Finnane © Heather Douglas and Mark Finnane 2012 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2012 978-0-230-31650-8 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their rights to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2012 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-349-33979-2 ISBN 978-1-137-28498-3 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9781137284983

This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 Contents

Table of Cases vii Table of Legislation xii Preface xiv Maps xvii

Introduction: Histories 1

1 ‘Troublesome Friends and Dangerous Enemies’ 13 White and black 16 Custom and jurisdiction 22 ‘Their private broils’ 25 Towards intervention 27 Conclusion 34

2 Amenable to the Law 35 Contesting jurisdiction 37 Consolidating jurisdiction 41 Transforming the subjects of law 51 Witnessing 55 Remnants of jurisdiction 59

3 The Exercise of Jurisdiction 65 Aboriginal suspects and witnesses – the logistics of justice 67 Protection, security and the control of settler violence 71 The meaning of ‘custom’ 78 Conclusion 86

4 A Question of Custom 89 The ordeal of Wongacurra 90 Anthropology and government 93 The limits of intervention 96 The opacity of custom 103 The failure of institutional innovation 108 Absentee justice? 118

5 Equality before the Law 121 Assimilation 122 The law is settled 125

v vi Contents

Patrol officers: failing to charge 129 Criminal responsibility 131 Sentencing 135 Aboriginal people between two worlds 143 Critical shifts 146

6 Towards Formal Recognition 148 Contesting sovereignty 149 The ambivalence towards formal recognition 159 Recognition in the courts 163 Criminal responsibility 163 Procedural matters 167 Evidence of custom 168 Bail and sentencing: considering ‘the Aboriginal way’ 170 The effects of recognition in the courts 180 Conclusion 182

7 ‘Benign Pessimism’: A National Emergency 183 The refusal of formal recognition 185 Multiculturalism and the Racial Discrimination Act 188 Women, harm, legal protection and human rights 193 Violence and its relationship to colonization 204 The Intervention 207 And still the possibility of continued recognition 210

Conclusion: 214

Bibliography 222 Index 247 Table of Cases

Anderson (1954) NTJ 240, 143 Anthony (2004) NTSC 5 (unreported, 12 February 2004, Martin CJ), 173, 175, 176 Balir Balir (1959) NTJ 633, 133, 134–5 Bennell v Western Australia (2006) FCA 1243 (unreported, 19 September 2006, Wilcox J), 21 Chambers (1955) NTSC (unreported, 15 December 1955, Kriewaldt J), 128 Charlie (1953) NTJ 205, 138–41 Cherokee Nation v Georgia (1831) 30 US 1, 156 Coe v Commonwealth (1978) 18 ALR 592, 150–1 Coe v Commonwealth (1979) 24 ALR 118, 151, 156 Coe v Commonwealth (1993) 118 ALR 193, 156 Commonwealth v Coe (2000) NSWSC 1243 (unreported, 22 September 2000, Hulme J), 159 Cooper v Stuart (1889) 14 AC 286, 154 Corby (2002) NTSC (unreported, 23 August 2002), 173–4 Davey (1980) 2 A Crim R 254, 166 Daywonga (1955) NTSC (unreported, 14 March 1955, Kriewaldt J), 142 Dowling v North Australian Development Co. Pty Ltd (1960) NTSC (unreported, 28 April 1960, Kriewaldt J), 128 Duffy (1949) 1 All ER 932, 132 Ex Parte Crow Dog, (1883) 109 US 556, 86 Fernando v Balchin (2011) NTSC 10 (unreported, 10 February 2011, Blokland J), 212 Gilmiri (1979) NTSC (unreported, 21 March 1979, Muirhead J), 176 Glass (1993) NSWSC (unreported, 22 January 1993, Sully J), 156 Goodwin (1975) NTSC (unreported, 8 September 1975, Forster J), 172 Hales v Jamilmira (2003) 13 NTLR 183, 199–200 Jabarula v Poore (1989) 96 FLR 34, 166 Jacky (1993) NSWSC (unreported, 10 February 1993, Campbell J), 157 Jadurin (1982) 44 ALR 424, 169–70, 179–80 Jamieson (1965) WASCCA (unreported, 7 April 1965, Wolff CJ), 135–6 Jangala (1956) NTSC (unreported, 1 May 1956, Kriewaldt J), 126, 128 Jemmy (1860) VSC (unreported, Stawell CJ, Barry and Pohlman J J; Argus, 7 September 1860, p. 6), 61–2, 125, 126 Joshua v Thomson (1994) 119 FLR 296, 171 Jungarai (1982) 5 A Crim R 319, 171 Kaotak (1955) Territorial Court of the Northwest Territories (unreported, 16 December 1955, Sissons J), 137

vii viii Table of Cases

Kikkik (1958) Territorial Court of the Northwest Territories (unreported, April 1958, Sissons J), 138 Lalara v Watkinson (2001) NTSC 98 (8 November 2001, Martin CJ), 169 Leo (1958) NTSC (unreported, 2 April 1958, Kriewaldt J), 141 Mabo v Queensland (No 1) (1988) 166 CLR 186, 154 Mabo v Queensland (No 2) (1992) 175 CLR 1, 113, 151, 153, 154–5, 156, 157, 158, 159, 163, 219 MacDonald (1953) NTJ 186, 133 Mamarika v R (1982) 42 ALR 94, 174 Milirrpum v Nabalco (1971) 17 FLR 141, 150 Minor (1992) 79 NTR 1, 171–2, 173, 176, 182 Miyatatawuy (1996) 6 NTLR 44, 168–9, 180 Muddarubba (1956) NTJ 317, 133–4 Mungatopi (1991) 105 FLR 161, 166–7 Munungurr (1994) 4 NTLR 63, 170, 179, 181 Namatjira v Raabe (1958) NTJ 608, 127, 143, 144 Neal v R (1982) 149 CLR 305, 189, 191, 193, 212 Nelson (2003) NTSC 64 (4 June 2003, Mildren J), 176 Pananka (1957) NTJ 453, 142–3 Patipatu (1951) NTJ 18, 133 Peppin (1952) NTSC (unreported, 22 January 1952, Kriewaldt J), 128 Police v Wurramurra (1977) NTCSJ (unreported, 27 July 1977, Pauling SM), 195 R v Alwyn Peter (1981) QSC (unreported, 18 September 1981, Dunn J), 190 R v Anglitchi (1980) NTSC (unreported, 1 December 1980, Muirhead J), 196 R v Ballard [1829] NSWSC 26 (13 June 1829, Forbes CJ), 40 R v Barnes (bail) (1997) 96 A Crim R 593, 173, 175–6 R v Barnes (sentence) (1997) NTSC (unreported, 28 November 1997, Mildren J), 176 R v Barney Maclean (1860) VSC (unreported: Argus, 10 October 1860, p. 5; 11 October 1860, p. 5), 63 R v Ben Ben (1884) WASC (unreported: West Australian, 10 January, 1884, p. 3), 81–2 R v Berida (1990) NTSC 10 (unreported, 5 April 1990, Angel J), 191 R v Bolden [1841] NSWSC (unreported: Pt Phillip Patriot, 6 December 1841, Willis J), 46 R v Bonjon [1841] NSWSC 92 (unreported, 16 September 1841, Willis J; Port Phillip Patriot 20 September 1841), 45, 47, 59, 61, 62 R v Boynjat and Wobut (and others) (1849) Court of Quarter Sessions WA (unreported: Perth Gazette, 7 April 1849), 79–80 R v Charler, Baker and Postman Bill (1865) VSC (unreported: Argus 24 June 1865, p. 6), 63 R v Coberene, WASC (unreported: West Australian, 9 March 1921, p.7) Cons 3473, Case 5104 (no 19 of 1921), WA SRO, 85 Table of Cases ix

R v Edwards (1981) NTSC (unreported, 16 October 1981, Muirhead J), 196 R v Fernando (1992) 76 A Crim R 58, 191–2, 193 R v Forbes (1980) NTSC (unreported, 29 August 1980, Gallop J), 194 R v Gibson (1974) NTSC (unreported, 19 November 1974, Forster J), 195 R v GJ (2005) 16 NTLR 230, 201–2 R v Gladue (1999) 1 SCR 688, 191 R v Hagen and Tilmouth (1990) NTSC (unreported, 17 July 1990, Kearney J), 196 R v Hanley (1854) NSWSC 9 (unreported, 22 May 1854, Dickinson J), 79 R v Haynes (1884) WASC (unreported, West Australian, 10 January 1884, p. 3), 91 R v Ippeelee (2012) SCC 13, 191 R v Jack and Dick (1826) SCVDL (unreported, 26 May 1826, Pedder CJ; Hobart Town Gazette, 27 May 1826), 49 R v Japardy (1895) QSC (unreported, 18 February 1895, Griffi th CJ; Brisbane Courier, 22 February 1895, p. 3), 86 R v Jungala (1977) NTSC (unreported, 8 February 1977, Muirhead J), 147 R v Kipper Tommy (Aboriginal) (1882) QSC (unreported, Brisbane Courier, 23 February 1882), 83–4 R v KU (and others) (2007) QDC 146 (unreported, 24 October 2007, Bradley J), 194 R v KU (and others, ex parte Attorney General Queensland) (2008) QCA 154 (13 June 2008, de Jersey CJ, McMurdo P and Keane JA), 195 R v Larry (1846) SASC (unreported, South Australian Register, 28 November 1846), 48 R v Lee (1974) NTSC (unreported, 19 November 1974, Forster J), 195 R v Linderoth (1913) NTSC (unreported, Northern Territory Times and Gazette, 25 September 1913, p. 7), 75 R v Lowe [1827] NSWSC 32 (18 May 1827), 42 R v Machekequonabe (1897) 28 OR 309, 86 R v Mangukala (Lazarus) (1974) NTSC (unreported, 18 April 1975, Forster J), 194 R v Murrell and Bummaree (1836) 1 Legge 72; (1836) NSWSC 35, 13–14, 37, 38–41, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 53, 57, 59, 61, 62, 65, 72, 80, 125, 126, 156–7 R v Nadigi Tjapaljari (1969) NTSC 3223 (unreported), 147, 218 R v Narrigal and Yandal (1865) WASC (unreported, Cons 3473, case 176, September 1865, WA SRO), 82–3 R v Neddy Monkey (1861) 1 Wyatt & Webb (Victoria) 40, 62, 106 R v Nundah and others (1913) NTSC (unreported, Northern Territory Times and Gazette, 25 September 1913, p. 7), 75 R v Peter (1860) VSC (unreported, 3 April 1860, Stawell CJ, Barry and Molesworth JJ; Argus, 4 April 1860, p. 5), 59–61, 62, 125, 126 R v Phillips (1922) SASR 276, 105 R v Poulson (2001) 122 A Crim R 388, 173 R v Skinny Jack and others (1964) SASC (unreported, 13 July 1964, Chamberlain J), 136–7 x Table of Cases

R v Spencer (1889), SASC (unreported, The Advertiser, 29 July 1890, p. 7, Pater J), 77 R v Tjami (2000) 77 SASR 514, 192 R v Tommy Green (1865) VSC (unreported, Argus, 24 June 1865, p. 6), 63 R v Tuckiar (1934) NTSC (unreported, August 1934, Wells J), 89, 106–7, 115 R v Walker (1988) QDC (unreported, June 1988, Skoien J), 151–3 R v Walker (1989) 2 Qd R 79, 152–3 R v Warretya and others (1861) SASC (unreported, SA Advertiser, 18 May 1861, p. 3), 72 R v Wewar (1842) Court of Quarter Sessions Western Australia (unreported, Inquirer, 12 January 1842), 41–4, 45, 47, 48, 59, 65, 79 R v Willie and Dick (1902) QSC (unreported, Brisbane Courier, 10 June 1902, p. 4; A/19958, QSA), 68 R v Wongacurra [1922] SASR 192, 90–3 R v Wunungmurra (2009) NTSC 24 (unreported, 9 June 2009, Southwood J), 211, 213 R v Yardalgene and Nandingbert (1865) WASC (unreported, Perth Gazette, 14 July 1865, p. 2; Cons 3473, case 177, Sept 1865, WA SRO), 83 Robertson v Flood (1992) 111 FLR 177, 170 Rogers and Murray (1989) 44 A Crim R 301, 182 Rogers v R (1989) 44 A Crim R 301, 189 Russell (1995) 84 A Crim R 386, 192–3 Shoyook and Aiyoot (1966) Territorial Court of the Northwest Territories (unreported, 16 April 1966, Sissons J), 137–8 Stingel (1990) 171 CLR 312, 167 Stott NTSC (1977) (unreported, 24 November 1977, Forster J) Stuart v R (1959) 101 CLR 1, 143, 145–6 Tiger and Captain (1953) NTJ 211, 138–40 Timmy (1959) NTJ 676, 126–7, 128, 131 Tuckiar v R (1934) 52 CLR 335, 107 Wadderwarri (1958) NTJ 516, 126, 141 Walker (1994) NTSC (unreported, 10 February 1994, Martin CJ), 172, 177–8, 179, 180 Walker v (1994) 182 CLR 45, 157, 158, 164 Walker v Speechley (1998) HCA Trans 302 (17 August 1998), 158 Walker v Speechley (1999) HCA Trans 199 (18 June 1999), 158–9 Wally (1951) NTJ 21, 128 Warren, Coombes and Tucker (1996) 88 A Crim R 78, 164–5 Western Australia v Frazer (2009) WASC150 (unreported (sentencing remarks), 2 November 2009, McKechnie J), 212 Western Australia v Jackson (2009) WASC 167 (unreported (sentencing remarks), 16 December 2009, Blaxell J), 212 Table of Cases xi

Wheeler (1959) NTSC (unreported, 13 August 1959, Kriewaldt J), 126, 131–2, 141–2 Williams (1976) SASC (unreported, 14 May 1976, Wells J), 160 Willie (1955) NTSC (unreported, 12 May 1955, Kriewaldt J), 126 Wilson (1995) 81 A Crim R 270, 168 Winmar (1990) WADC (unreported, 17 August 1990, Keall J), 164 Wogala (1951) NTSC (unreported, 14 May 1951, Kriewaldt J), 128 Wurramurra (1977) NTCSJ (unreported, 27 July 1977, Pauling SM), 172 Yulidjirri (1981) NTSC (unreported, 7 September 1981, Forster CJ), `80 Yunipingu (1998) NTSJ (unreported, 20 February 1998), 164 Table of Legislation

Aboriginals Ordinance 1919 (NT), 123 Aboriginals Ordinance (No 2) 1937 (NT), 105 Aborigines Act 1934 (SA), 119 Australian Institute of Multicultural Affairs Act 1979 (Cth), 190 Coast Islands Declaratory Act 1985 (Qld), 154 Constitution Act 1899 (Qld), 152 Constitution of Australia, 89, 95, 147 s. 122, 123 Crimes Act 1914 (Cth), 37, 208 s. 15AB, 202 s. 16A, 202 Crimes Amendment (Bail and Sentencing) Act 2006 (Cth), 202 Crimes and Other Legislation Amendment Act 2006 (Cth), s. 10(2)(m) Criminal Code Act 1984 (NT) s. 129(1)(a), 200 s. 129(1)(b), 200 Criminal Law Amendment Ordinance 1939 (NT), s. 8, 129, 131 Criminal Procedure Ordinance 1933 (NT), 138 Evidence Ordinance 1939 (No 2) (NT), s. 9A, 127 Judiciary Act 1903 (Cth), 158 Juries Ordinance 1955 (NT), 138 Imperial Act 1843, 58 Laws Repeal and Adopting Ordinance 1921 (NT), 112 Legislative Standards Act 1992 (Qld), 167 s. 4, 167 s. 7, 167 Native Administration Act 1936 (WA), 117 Northern Territory National Emergency Response Act 2007 (Cth), 183, 208, 210 s. 91, 211 Oaths Act 1876 (Qld), 83 Police and Police Offences Ordinance 1954 (NT), 128 Queensland Coast Islands Declaratory Act 1985 (Qld), 154 Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cth), 148, 154, 171, 184, 188 Sentencing Act (NT) s. 5(2)(f), 167 s. 5(2)(s), 167 s. 104A, 198

xii Table of Legislation xiii

Sorcery Act 1971 (Papua New Guinea), 216 UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 3, 198, 201 UN International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, 147 Welfare Ordinance 1953 (NT), 123, 128, 144, 148 s. 14, 123–4

Preface

This book explores the history of Indigenous/settler relations through the lens of criminal law’s relationship with Indigenous people. Many socio-legal and historical studies have focused on inter-racial offences, from which are read the racialized character of legal regimes. By contrast, we argue that there has been too little attention in legal, socio-legal, criminological and histor- ical work to the phenomena of inter se violence. This absence has limited the understanding of the law in modern states. In this text, we break from this approach and examine the foundations of criminal law’s response to the victimization of one Indigenous person by another (inter se crime). Our study asks how the criminal law deals with inter se violence. Bringing together our expertise and interest in law and history, we explore the policing, prosecution and punishment of Indigenous violence in Australia over the past 200 years. Through this study, we demonstrate how criminal law is consistently framed as the key test of sovereignty, whatever the challenges faced in effecting its jurisdiction. Indigenous Crime and Settler Law draws on a wealth of archival and legal case material to contribute to a better appreciation of the historical depth and legal complexity posed by the co-existence of multiple socio-cultural formations in one territorial space. Here, we use Australia as a case study to explore the way sovereignty and jurisdiction work in post-colonial states. Hence, this book is also about the legacy of empire and the impact of colonization on law in the modern state, themes which echo throughout contemporary socio-legal scholarship. Ultimately, we show that, against the changing background of settler encounters with Australian Indigenous peoples, the question of Indigenous amenability to imported British crim- inal law in Australia was not resolved in the nineteenth century and remains surprisingly open. We conclude that settlers and Indigenous peoples still live in the shadow of empire, struggling to reach an understanding of each other, a condition that resonates in post-colonial communities throughout the world. A text such as this one cannot be written without the assistance of many people. We want to thank the archivists and librarians who have assisted in fi nding many archival treasures; special thanks to Frieda Evans at the Northern Territory Supreme Court library, Lyall Kupke at the Lutheran Archives in South Australia, Francoise Barr and Katherine Goodwin at the Northern Territory Archives Service, as well as staff at the Library, the National Library of Australia, the Library of the Australian Institute of

xiv Preface xv

Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Studies, the New South Wales State Records, Western Australia State Records Offi ce, the Queensland State Archives, the Public Record Offi ce of Victoria and the State Records of South Australia. Heather appreciated the warm welcome at Griffi th University and space to enjoy a productive period of study leave in 2009; special thanks to Paul Mazerolle, Bill MacNeil, Brad Sherman and Robin Fitzgerald. Jo Sampford, Martin Cozier and Jim McNicol provided insightful research assistance at various points in the project. Many others have provided advice, source material, support and encouragement in this endeavour including Thalia Anthony, John Chesterman and Nanette Rogers. Heather also thanks her wonderful family, Paul Barclay, Zac, Felix and Bella, for their support and love. Mark’s research has been supported by the Australian Research Council (ARC) (DP0771492) and by the School of Humanities and the ARC Centre of Excellence in Policing and Security at Griffi th University. For their invaluable research assistance in a number of archives, he is indebted to John Myrtle and Jonathan Richards; for her collaboration on an article related to research reported in Chapter 4, he thanks Fiona Paisley; and for their constant inspir- ation in discussing and writing about contemporary conditions in Central Australia through the pages of the Alice Springs News he thanks Kieran Finnane and Erwin Chlanda. Mark’s debts owed to the loving support of his family, above all to Maureen, remain incalculable. The convenors and participants at two important workshops held during the period in which this book was written and discussed provided invalu- able stimulus and encouragement to the undertaking – namely the 2009 Prato conference on ‘Transpositions of Empire’, organised by Shaunnagh Dorsett and Ian Hunter, and the workshop ‘Between Indigenous and Settler Governance’, organised by Lisa Ford and Tim Rowse at the University of Western Sydney in 2011. We note that in this book when we use ‘Aborigines’ we refer to the Indigenous peoples of the Australian continent and Tasmania; when we use ‘Indigenous peoples’ we refer to those people including those of the Torres Strait Islands; when we use ‘indigenous peoples’ we refer to the generic status of such people in international context whatever their geographic location. In discussion of individual persons (e.g. in criminal cases), we have speci- fi ed tribal, language or group affi liations where those persons so identifi ed or were identifi ed by others in the course of criminal justice proceedings. Those affi liations were rarely acknowledged in police and court records or news- paper reports of cases before the 1950s, with most defendants being described as ‘Aboriginal’ or ‘native’. Neither author is an Indigenous Australian and we are conscious that other kinds of history have been and will be written about many of the episodes xvi Preface and outcomes reported here, some of them well known, others obscure. Each of us has had another kind of involvement that formed a background to the research represented in this book – in Heather’s case, working at the Central Australian Aboriginal Legal Service; in Mark’s case, engagement in the forma- tive years of the Queensland Prisoners’ Legal Service and research for the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody.

Heather Douglas and Mark Finnane April 2012 Murray Island Cape York

Weipa DARWIN Aurukun Port Stewart Cooktown Daintree River

Auvergne Cairns Yarrabah Station Tully Ingham Palm Island KIMBERLEY Northern Townsville AREA Territory

Queensland Gladstone/ Port Curtis Western Australia

Ernabella BRISBANE Stradbroke Island

Moree South Australia Walgett Myall Creek Nundroo Maree New South PERTH York Ceduna Carnac Island Fremantle Wales Rottnest Island Murray Kapunda River Windsor SYDNEY Porongorup ADELAIDE CANBERRA King George’s Sound Murray River Victoria Australian MELBOURNE Capital Territory

Tasmania Map 1 Australia HOBART Melville Island

Milingimbi Oenpelli Nhulunbuy Cape Melville Maningrida DARWIN

Daly ARNHEM River LAND

Katherine Groote Numbulwar Eylandt Wadeye Yarralin

Victoria River Downs

Wave Hill

Lajumanu

Ti Tree

Yuendumu

Papunya Nyrippi Alice Springs Hermannsburg Tempe Downs Areyonga

Map 2 Northern Territory