Ideas in American POLICE FOUNDATION Policing March 1999

Policing For People

By Stephen D. Mastrofski

Ever since Americans first because I think that we often formed full-time public police plant our gaze so firmly on the forces, they have busied grand objectives that we themselves improving them. sometimes overlook the little Ideas in American Policing presents Improvements come in all shapes things we can do to improve commentary and insight from and sizes, but reform movements social institutions such as the leading criminologists on issues of interest to scholars, practitioners, are energized by big, ambitious police. and policy makers. The papers goals. Community policing is the I get anxious when people published in this series are from the Police Foundation lecture series of current catchword for reform, talk about the bottom line in the same name. and it too embraces a number of policing because that perspective Some of the research reported in this document was supported by ambitious goals: reducing crime makes it easy to forget that our Grant No. 95-IJ-CX-0071 from the and disorder, calming fears about system of government requires a National Institute of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, U.S. Depart- threats to public safety, reducing balancing among competing and ment of Justice. Points of view in the public’s alienation from social sometimes conflicting goals. To this document are those of the author and do not necessarily institutions once thought to contribute to that balance, I will represent the official position or engender a common sense of focus on the processes of policies of the U.S. Department of Justice or the Police Foundation. purpose. Reformers usually policing, which receive little © 1999 Police Foundation and present these objectives as the reform attention but which Stephen D. Mastrofski. All rights reserved. ultimate end-product or bottom deserve equal billing. These line of what public police are all processes involve the more Stephen D. Mastrofski is a about. As important and mundane aspects of police work, professor in the School of intriguing as these objectives are, what police do when they police Criminal Justice at Michigan they are not my topic. But I for people. I will consider what State University. begin by mentioning them policing for people is, and could be, in terms of service to people. People expect a degree of citizen’s request, by explaining To begin, I identify six predictability in what police do. the denial. G. K. Chesterton characteristics that Americans They want service that is timely observed, “Many a man would associate with “good service” and error-free. McDonald’s rather you heard his story than from their police, adapted from a succeeds not because the cuisine granted his request.” And general characterization of service is superb but because the food is sometimes about all the police quality in the private sector predictable and more-or-less can do is “pick up the pieces” (Parasuraman et al., 1988). I will error-free. When it works well, after some traumatic event. When then turn to some evidence on 911-service is like McDonald’s. It citizens are traumatized, whatever how well American police are is not a five-star restaurant, but it else police might accomplish, it providing these services, and will provides service fast, fulfilling costs little to offer some measure conclude with a reform agenda basic “people-processing” needs of comfort or reassurance. that promotes policing for to deal with problems The public wants people. immediately (Mastrofski and competence—service providers Ritti forthcoming). who can get the job done. When What Policing for People also want responsive you get your car repaired, you service. Americans expect more of expect the mechanic to know People Means their police than mere adherence what he or she is doing. When Attentiveness is the first to bureaucratic rules (Bordua and you call the police to report a element of policing for people. Reiss 1967, 297). They expect theft, deal with a domestic Americans want their service “client-centered” service. This disturbance, or quell a noisy party providers to pay attention to can mean giving clients what they next door, you expect the them. Putting 100,000 more want, but clients themselves often responding officer to know how officers on the street has appeal construe it more broadly. A to deal with the situation. The because it increases the capacity good-faith effort by an officer is public judges police competence of America’s police forces to be often appreciated as much as a primarily in terms of the tangible more attentive. It is now favorable outcome. Citizens are things they can readily observe. fashionable to denigrate delighted, and often surprised, They do not use crime statistics preventive patrol and reactive when their police see a job or other so-called outcome policing, but they remain popular through to completion, checking measures. They watch the officer because Americans want police back later to see how things at work and make judgments who are “around.” What appeals worked out. Police can be about his or her ability to get the to the public about community responsive even when they deny a job done. policing is the promise that outreach programs will increase the public’s access to the police. Neighborhoods fight to keep their community policing officers Police can be responsive even not just because they grow fond of the individuals, but because when they deny a citizen’s their presence demonstrates the department’s commitment to request, by explaining the serve them. Reliability is the second denial. element of policing for people.

——2—— How the average citizen convince one side that the other defines police competence may be is right, we should encourage different from how an discussion and debate, which will An essential experienced and skilled police probably do a great deal to officer defines it. The popular enlighten people of all element of view on these differences is that viewpoints. Further, it may be quality they are a mile wide. Police most productive to consider regard the public as ignorant and domains of police competence service is ill-informed about what that are not commonly expected constitutes good police work, by either the police or the public. having while the more alienated among For example, police skill in the public regard the police as helping crime victims might be proper poorly trained and lacking defined not just in terms of motivation to do what the bringing the offender to justice manners. taxpayers define as good policing. but also helping victims reduce These differences may be the risk of future harm (Herman overstated, and where they do 1998). occur they may do so in An essential element of future when those who enforce unanticipated directions. For quality service is having proper the law do so in a manner that is example, the vast majority of the manners. Studies show that a bad not disrespectful (Mastrofski et al. American public approves of manner is among the most 1996; Paternoster et al. 1997; police striking a citizen who frequent complaints citizens have Tyler 1990). attacks an officer with his fists, about their contacts with police The final element of policing and about two-thirds approve of (Skogan 1994, 33; Walker et al. for people is fairness, particularly a police officer striking a citizen 1996, 102). Studies also show important for public officials who tries to escape custody that the most powerful predictors whose special trust is to apply a (Maguire and Pastore 1997, of citizen satisfaction with the wide range of powers to enforce 132). Very few approve of a police have more to do with how the laws and maintain peace. Tom police officer striking a citizen in police treated the citizen, rather Tyler (1990; 1997) found that response to vulgar comments or than what the police citizens who perceived that they when questioning a murder accomplished (Skogan 1994, 31). were treated fairly by legal suspect. I would not be surprised Social scientists have repeatedly officials, such as the police, also to see a similar distribution of demonstrated that when police reported a stronger inclination to responses if these questions were are nasty to the public, the public obey the law in the future. The put to a national sample of police is more likely to be nasty in factor having the greatest impact officers. retaliation, despite citizens’ on people’s feelings about law Where citizens may differ tendencies to defer to the and legal authority was their most from police in assessing officer’s authority and status perception of a fair procedure, an police competence is in (Reiss 1971, 144; Sykes and impact substantially greater than overestimating officers’ capacities, Clark 1975). Finally, for those that of the citizen’s sense of the both in terms of their legal concerned about reducing crime favorableness or fairness of the authority and their ability to and disorder, a number of studies outcome. Tyler found that the mobilize resources. Where such show that citizens are more likely most important elements of differences do exist, rather than to obey the law and less likely to procedural fairness were people’s merely lament them or try to be disorderly or violent in the trust in the authorities’ motives,

——3—— treating citizens with dignity and about policing for people. Finally, of police are available that respect, a sense of decision-maker researchers and scholars have provide specifics about neutrality, and providing citizens devoted most of their attention performance in policing for with an opportunity to participate to assessing whether community people. Such studies have been in the decision. Studies focusing policing reduces crime, fear of conducted on American police on on police have supported Tyler’s crime, and assorted disorders, an irregular basis in a few research (Mastrofski et al. 1996; but, by comparison, research communities since the 1960s. Paternoster et al. 1997). outlets display very few pieces They are few in number, so the about policing for people. findings should be taken as One might presume that this suggestive, not necessarily How Are We Doing? lack of interest is a reflection of generalizable to all urban police. These six criteria— the high standards to which What follows are some illustrative attentiveness, reliability, police in the United States examples from these data. responsiveness, competence, already perform. Perhaps in I have suggested that when manners, and fairness—illuminate comparison to police of many police comfort citizens, they are the service aspects of policing and other nations, American police being responsive to them. constitute what I have termed perform well. And in recent years Citizens who have been policing for people. These criteria Americans express more traumatized in some way—who are not new, and we pay lip confidence in the police than are injured or ill, assaulted, service to them from time to most other social institutions, emotionally upset, or mentally time, but there is very little in the such as the Supreme Court, ill—may be especially needful of current police reform movement public schools, and churches. comfort and reassurance from the that promotes these ideals and Nonetheless, they note police. Data from the Police that gives them the attention they considerable room for Services Study, conducted in deserve. Virtually all of the improvement (Maguire and 1977 (Caldwell 1978), show that federal dollars supporting Pastore 1997, 117, 119). A 1997 26 percent of citizens who were nationwide collection of data on Gallup survey found that 61 thus traumatized were comforted police performance go to percent of white Americans had by police. The Project on measuring crime, victimization, “quite a lot” or “a great deal” of Policing Neighborhoods and fear of crime. In 1996, confidence in their local police. (POPN), conducted twenty years Congress commissioned a The remainder had only “some” later (Mastrofski et al. 1998), comprehensive evaluation of the or “very little” confidence. Only shows in a different sample of effectiveness of the $3 billion 39 percent of African Americans urban departments that about given out each year by the U.S. had “quite a lot” or “a great 31 percent were comforted. The Department of Justice to prevent deal” of confidence in the police. severity of traumas in both data crime. No such evaluation was So, a substantial portion of the sets had a wide range, suggesting sponsored for the criteria white population sees room for that the intensity of need varied discussed above. Some improvement, and an even larger as well. Nonetheless, there high-visibility police leaders portion of African Americans see appears to be ample opportunity preach the gospel of crime it that way. for increased responsiveness of reduction as the “bottom line” Public opinion surveys do not this sort in urban America. when it comes to figuring out tell us what police are actually Levels of police disrespect who is doing a good job and who doing in their daily interactions toward the public may have is not. It would be valuable if with the public. However, data remained fairly stable over recent they became equally energetic from systematic field observations decades. Data from Reiss’s 1966

——4—— study for the President’s Crime Commission produced an estimate identical to that found in A crude measure of POPN thirty years later. Police showed disrespect to nine percent attentiveness is the amount of of suspects in both studies, disrespect being defined as time officers spend with making belittling remarks, ignoring questions, a loud or citizens. interrupting voice (except emergencies), or obscene gestures. By far the most powerful predictor of police disrespect was a citizen being it all the more difficult to and woman that they should not disrespectful first. But even taking establish the “partnerships” with fight. Then the two adversaries that and many other features of the community that are the blamed each other for starting the participants and the situation hallmark of community policing. the fight and recommenced the into account, police were A final example turns to donnybrook. The two officers substantially more likely to attentiveness. A crude measure of looked at each other, shrugged, disrespect low-income citizens attentiveness is the amount of and left the scene while the man than higher-income ones. The time officers spend with citizens. and woman were still screaming disadvantaged appear to receive a The more time spent, the more and hitting each other. By any disproportionate share of police attentive they can be to that reasonable standard, this is an disrespect. situation. In one of the example of bad police work: I have argued that police can departments studied by POPN, I police declined to maintain order, be responsive even when they examined police contacts with protect individuals, and enforce deny a request: they can explain citizens who were in conflict with the law. There were many why they declined to fulfill it. another. The disputants were at a disputes that were much less POPN data show that citizens stage of at least agitated verbal extreme, where there was only initiated a variety of requests, disagreement. The amount of some unknown potential for such as arresting or controlling time spent with each of these future danger and disorder, where another citizen, personal citizens ranged from 2 minutes to there was no basis for an arrest. assistance, and the filing of an 3.5 hours. The median was 23 Sometimes police just defined official report. More often than minutes. these situations as unworthy of not, the police fulfilled these Consider one of those any further attention. More requests (Parks et al. 1997; situations that took only a often, a cursory warning or casual 1998), but what is interesting is handful of minutes. Two officers referral is all the disputants what happened when the police were dispatched to a domestic received. But people summon denied them. In about one of conflict. They arrived at the police to these situations precisely every four denials, the police home and found a man and a because they want help with their ignored the request entirely or woman engaged in a brawl. The problems. They want to avoid refused to explain why they officers told them to stop, which having to call the police after the denied it. This kind of they did temporarily. The officers situation has become bad enough unresponsiveness undercuts the did not ask what the fight was to warrant an arrest. They want legitimacy of the police, making about; they merely told the man the police to do more than ask a

——5—— few questions or give a casual The principal challenge facing Another approach is to create warning. They want officers to policing for people is new rules requiring that officers spend time with them. This is not organizational, not technical. be kinder, gentler, more attentive, “babysitting”; it is service. Some of the favorite nostrums and so on. In some cases, making I do not propose establishing for improving policing do not or revising rules can be a useful a one-size-fits-all standard for the have good prospects for way to come to grips with the amount of time that officers promoting policing for people. challenges of defining, measuring, should spend with citizens. But When a police force undergoes a and promoting policing for police and police researchers need crisis of confidence about abuse people. Far too often, however, to inquire further into just how of force or unfair treatment, a rules are better at minimizing much time officers spend on usual first step is to bring the civil liability than producing various problems, what they do community into deliberations better policing. Most with that time, and what the about what to do. Occasionally departments already have plenty outcome is. If nothing else, doing this results in some of rules on the books. Los so will help us examine the institutionalized form of Angeles had rules forbidding implications of our priorities. community involvement, such as verbal abuse of citizens, but the Does it make sense for officers to advisory councils or civilian Christopher Commission spend hours completing traffic review boards. These are documented that those rules did accident reports while spending measures that may be essential for not prevent frequent racial and only minutes quelling minor repairing the legitimacy of the ethnic slurs. domestic disturbances? police. But they have limited or What about training? That unknown value for changing their too is a popular but overworked practices (Walker and Kreisel cure for just about anything that An Agenda for Reform 1996, 68) because the most ails the police in America. How might we advance daunting challenges come from Training can be very useful when policing for people? There are within the police departments. trying to give officers new skills, many things that federal agencies Internal accountability is a but it is decidedly ineffective in and professional associations key element in promoting changing officers’ attitudes and could do at the national level, but policing for people, but many of motivations. Much of what passes I will concentrate on local the popular measures to for training today is really an initiatives. Unlike the problems of strengthen it are of dubious attempt at imparting a new belief reducing crime and disorder, the value. A fashionable response is system or a new faith, what biggest obstacles to improving to create or revamp the Michael Buerger has recently policing for people are not organization’s mission statement. termed a “Pentecost” (1998). technical ones. We do not need There may be no harm in this, Much of the content of training lots of new research to determine except that it drains energy from on cultural sensitivity, handling how to be more attentive, more meaningful reforms. domestic violence, and reliable, responsive, competent, Changing the department’s community policing fits this well-mannered, and fair. To be mission statement is like changing description. A few days of sure, we could use more inquiry the name of items on a diner’s indoctrination in the new values on these topics, but the challenge menu. One can assign French espoused in these types of courses is less how to do these things names to blue-plate specials, but will not alter fundamental beliefs than to figure out how to get if the same cooks are slinging the that have been percolating over a police to do them more often. same hash, it is still just a diner. lifetime and beliefs annealed in

——6—— the work environment of the records rely upon the officer’s There are many other aspects to police. account of what happened, the treatment that need to be Training officers to police for officer’s reports are likely to avoid recorded. people is not a waste of time, but information that discredits him or Suppose instead that the we should be careful about what her. This, of course, is the police department had a more kind of training we provide. problem with any self-report extensive checklist of activities Officers are far more receptive to system used to evaluate the relevant to a given type of training that tells them what to performance of the reporter. incident. This would not get do than to training that tells We might push a bit further around the problem of officers them what to believe. here and recognize that sometimes misrepresenting what Departments must still persuade self-report records can also serve happened, but it would serve as a officers to use and develop the as guides and reminders that constant guide and reminder of skills imparted by the training, actually reinforce the decision options about policing but that is best done by showing organization’s objectives about for people that the organization them how it will accomplish policing for people. In a recent wants the officer to consider. things they already care about. book, Richard Ericson and Kevin And, whatever the officer reports, Trainees are more likely to give Haggerty (1997) show how it provides a much stronger new methods a try if trainers can report forms “walk” officers record to hold the officer demonstrate that their job will be through such incidents as taking accountable for decisions made. easier—such as less resistance and a theft or burglary report. These Thus the kind of “medical chart” a lower likelihood of a repeat call reports structure what officers that Lawrence Sherman (1998) to this address. Police officers are look for in these investigations, proposed for tracking the rightfully skeptical of new and they structure what they do. treatment of crime victims in his methods, so it pays to have Unfortunately, American “evidence-based policing” model techniques that have actually police organizations remain could be extended to the much been tested and shown to work. virtually blind about what their broader array of citizens who Training will also be more police do in response to incidents come into contact with the credible if highly respected that are not classified as a crime police. officers try the new techniques or a traffic accident. At best, the This checklist information and are given an opportunity to department learns from its could be incorporated into a testify and show their colleagues computer-aided-dispatch records form of documentation that that they work. something about the time, facilitates both internal and The most promising ways to location, and nature of the external oversight of the police. improve internal accountability complaint or problem. What the Reiss (1971, 204) suggested that that would promote policing for officer did remains a cipher unless police routinely provide citizens people were proposed by Albert an arrest was made, a citation was an official “receipt” to document Reiss nearly three decades ago issued, or a crime report was virtually all substantive contacts (1971, 201). They have not been filed. An officer who quells a with the public. Such a receipt widely implemented, but they noise disturbance or a domestic could include key particulars of deserve a try. One system of dispute without a citation or the contact: the citizen’s name, accountability to which Reiss paid arrest merely calls in “all-clear” or date, location, reason for the attention is the department’s “warning given.” This is like a contact, and actions taken by the record-keeping system. He noted hospital that documents only police. The receipt would also that because most department surgery and drug prescriptions. provide the citizen with the

——7—— control number the department 12) recently noted the need for versa (Parks et al. 1998, 2–41), will use to track this information routine, independent auditing of so one way to produce a more and whom to contact with police departments’ crime data. civil police is to get citizens not questions or concerns about it. In Many years ago, Reiss (1971, to disrespect them. Police could most departments, citizens are 195) suggested that an auditing contribute by learning more routinely provided such bureau independent of the police about what makes citizens behave information only if they are agency could help both the police in ways that invite police issued a traffic citation or are and the community obtain an behaviors that are ill-mannered, involved in a traffic accident. The accurate, comprehensive picture inattentive, and unresponsive. receipt makes the officer readily of how the police treat the Auditing agencies should not accountable to the citizen, since public. It would supplement, not be creatures of government. the citizen may dispute supplant, the police department’s They, like business auditing firms, immediately any information that own information-gathering about should be autonomous, staffed seems incorrect. It also provides policing for people, and it would with professionals whose sole task the department with a means to serve as a check on the is to provide information and track such contacts, much as comprehensiveness and accuracy make disinterested judgments departments use prenumbered of police data. about the quality of police data, traffic citations. Extending this idea, an and to provide independent data Even if police agencies independent auditor would also on how well departments are improve their own systems of be a good way to learn more policing for people. These could record keeping and data about how the public treats the be both profit and not-for-profit gathering, policing for people police. The most powerful corporations, staffed with social also requires meaningful external determinant of how the police scientists expert in the field. oversight. To overcome the behave toward citizens is how the Auditing firms should be certified limitations of collecting data on citizens themselves treat the by an appropriate national their own performance, private police. Citizens are more inclined professional association. sector corporations are required to disrespect the police than vice Services that auditing firms to use external auditors to certify could perform for police agencies the accuracy of their performance include random checks of claims. Police agencies should do department records about the same when it comes to police-citizen contacts to make policing for people. Most . . . policing sure that receipts for citizen departments publish statistics on contacts were being entered. complaints filed against officers. for people Auditors could draw a sample of The information on complaint receipts from department archives and investigation records has also requires and also conduct “backward obvious relevance for many records checks” from a sample of aspects of policing for people, but meaningful citizens who reported having inevitably the complaint review contact with the police. In and processing system is suspect external addition to checking the accuracy unless there is continuous, of these records, the auditors unbiased, and independent oversight. could obtain additional oversight of this information information from the citizens (Walker 1998). Sherman (1998, about their perspective on the

——8—— the inherent incentive of police and citizens to misrepresent their If we want our police to serve recollections. Besides, the purpose of these audits ought not us right, then we are obliged to be rooting out individual wrongdoing and ineptness, but to illuminate, articulate, and rather identifying overall patterns in performance (Reiss 1971, continuously reinforce what it 195). The goal is to improve policy and thereby improve means to police for people. performance generally. Auditing agencies should periodically issue reports that provide the police and the public with a variety of readings on the quality of service they received. It more than just drug use. department’s performance on the would also be beneficial to Juveniles and “street people” also various dimensions of policing for debrief officers about a sample of constitute groups that may in people. The reports should also their contacts with the public. some jurisdictions be special illuminate the challenges and Doing so would enable the targets of police attention. As opportunities presented by the auditors to provide the police well, auditors may help the public to the officers who must with valuable information about community learn a great deal police them. Just as when crime emerging patterns of potential about the policing of these special statistics are periodically reported problems in and opportunities for populations by sampling them. in the press, the publication of police-citizen interactions. The auditing firm should the auditor’s report would be the Auditors might also target guarantee confidentiality to all of occasion for public discussion of certain groups of citizens for the people it interviews. how the police—and the public— special attention. One such group Information on individuals should are doing in quest of policing for is arrestees, whose legal status not be available to anyone but people. places special responsibilities on the auditing firm. The firm must the police for the protection of be able to maintain its Conclusion their person and rights. Arrests confidentiality guarantee even in are, of course, among the most the face of management’s I have suggested that we are risky situations for police injury. requests and the courts’ desire for in a time when aspirations about Auditors should learn as much as inside information in a given case. what the police might become possible about what happened, There are already formal are running high. I have argued even from the citizen’s mechanisms available to obtain that we should take advantage of perspective (Garner et al. 1996). that information for disciplinary these times to promote a style of The National Institute of Justice’s and legal purposes in individual policing that gives the people ADAM system for drug use cases. There is no point in the what they want. Adlai Stevenson monitoring debriefs arrestees at auditor merely replicating that once noted, “Your public servants the booking facility. It is a clear process. The confidentiality serve you right.” If we want our demonstration of the feasibility of guarantee increases the accuracy police to serve us right, then we this approach to learn about of the information by reducing are obliged to illuminate,

——9—— articulate, and continuously References Research and Practice, reinforce what it means to police November 8 in Arlington, for people. In an earlier era, Bordua, David J., and Albert J. Virginia. Jimmy Walker, mayor of New Reiss, Jr. 1967. Law Maguire, Kathleen, and Ann L. York, defined a reformer as “a enforcement. In The uses of Pastore. 1997. Sourcebook of guy who rides through the sewer sociology, edited by Paul F. criminal justice statistics 1996. in a glass-bottomed boat.” Lazarsfeld, William H. Sewell, Washington, DC: Bureau of Contemporary skeptics may also and Harold L. Wilensky. New Justice Statistics. construe policing for people as York: Basic Books. Mastrofski, Stephen D., and naive, far removed from the Buerger, Michael. 1998. Police R. Richard Ritti. Forth- needs of crime-plagued American training as a Pentecost: Using coming. Making sense of communities. They may argue tools singularly ill-suited to community policing: A that, more than anything, the the purpose of reform. Police theory-based analysis. Police public wants safe streets and Quarterly 1, no. 1:27–63. Practice and Research: An homes, not kinder, gentler, more Caldwell, Eddie. 1978. Patrol International Journal. service-oriented officers. “Law observation: The patrol _____, Jeffrey B. Snipes, and and order” and “crime control” encounter, patrol narrative, Anne E. Supina. 1996. have been at the top of the police and general shift information Compliance on demand: The reform mandate for the last thirty forms. Police Services Study public’s response to specific years, but during that time very Methods Report Mr-2. police requests. Journal of few police chiefs have lost their Bloomington, Indiana: Research in Crime and jobs because crime rose. Chiefs Workshop in Political Theory Delinquency 33: 269–305. are far more likely to lose their and Policy Analysis, Indiana _____, Roger B. Parks, Albert J. jobs, and police agencies more University. Reiss, Jr., Robert E. Worden, likely to damage their Ericson, Richard, and Kevin Christina DeJong, Jeffrey B. reputations, when they fail to Haggerty. 1997. Policing the Snipes, and William Terrill. police for people. That is a very risk society. Toronto: 1998. Systematic observation practical reason for top University of Toronto Press. of public police: Applying field administrators around the nation Garner, Joel, John Buchanan, research methods to policy to lead the way to improve their Tom Schade, and John issues. Washington, DC: agencies’ capacity to police for Hepburn. 1996. National Institute of Justice. people. Understanding the use of Parasuraman, A., V. A. Zeithaml, Bertrand Russell said, “All force by and against the and L. L. Berry. 1988. movements go too far.” The police. Research in Brief. “SERVQUAL: A current menu of popular police Washington, DC: National multiple-item scale for reforms does not go far enough. Institute of Justice. measuring consumer The reforms I have supported Herman, Susan. 1998. Remarks perceptions of service quality. here are not new ideas. They presented at the panel, Journal of Retailing 64., no. have been around for decades Community Policing: A View 1:12–40. and have great merit, but they from the Field. National Parks, Roger B., Stephen D. remain untested by police. Now Conference on Community Mastrofski, Albert J. Reiss, is the time to try them. Policing, What Works: Jr., Robert E. Worden,

—— 10 —— William Terrill, Christina justice on spouse assault. Law _____. 1997. Procedural fairness DeJong, and Jeffrey B. and Society Review 31, no. and compliance with the law. Snipes. 1997. Indianapolis 1:163–204. Swiss Journal of Economics project on policing Reiss, Albert J., Jr. 1971. The and Statistics 133:219–240. neighborhoods: A study of the police and the public. New Walker, Samuel. 1998. Achieving police and the community. Haven: Yale University Press. police accountability. Research Report to the Indianapolis Sherman, Lawrence W. 1998. Brief. Occasional Paper Series. Police Department and the Evidence-based policing. No. 3. New York: The Center National Institute of Justice. Ideas in American Policing on Crime, Communities and Bloomington, Indiana: series. Washington, D.C.: Culture. Indiana University. Police Foundation. _____, Cassia Spohn, and Miriam _____, Meghan Stroshine, and Skogan, Wesley G. 1994. DeLone. 1996. The color of Robin Shepard. 1998. St. Contacts between police and justice: Race, ethnicity, and Petersburg project on policing public: Findings from the 1992 crime in America. Belmont, neighborhoods: A study of the British Crime Survey. London: CA: Wadsworth. police and the community. Her Majesty’s Stationary _____ and Betsy Wright Kreisel. Report to the St. Petersburg Office. 1996. Varieties of citizen Police Department and the Sykes, Richard E., and John P. review: The implications of National Institute of Justice. Clark. 1975. A theory of organizational features of Bloomington, Indiana: deference exchange in complaint review procedures Indiana University. police-civilian encounters. for accountability of the Paternoster, Raymond, Robert American Journal of Sociology police. American Journal of Brame, Ronet Bachman, and 81:584–600. Police 15, no. 3:65–88. Lawrence W. Sherman. 1997. Tyler, Tom. 1990. Why people Do fair procedures matter? obey the law. New Haven: Yale The effect of procedural University Press.

—— 11 —— ABOUT THE POLICE FOUNDATION The Police Foundation is a private, independent, not-for-profit organization dedicated to supporting innovation and improvement in policing through its research, technical assistance, and communi- cations programs. Established in 1970, the foundation has conducted seminal research in police behavior, policy, and procedure, and works to transfer to local agencies the best new information about practices for dealing effectively with a range of important police operational and admin- istrative concerns. Motivating all of the foundation’s efforts is the goal of efficient, humane policing that operates within the framework of democratic principles and the highest ideals of the nation.

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