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Sequencing Ancient and Modern Genomes Revista de Bioarqueología "ARCHAEOBIOS" http://www.arqueobios.org ISSN 1996-5214, Setiembre 2008 SEQUENCING ANCIENT AND MODERN GENOMES Gabriel Dorado1, Víctor Vásquez2, Isabel Rey3, Fernando Luque4, Inmaculada Jiménez5, Arturo Morales6, Manuel Gálvez7, Jesús Sáiz8, Adela Sánchez8, Pilar Hernández9 1Author for correspondence, Dep. Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Campus Rabanales C6-1-E17, Universidad de Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba (Spain), eMail: <[email protected]>; 2Centro de Investigaciones Arqueobiológicas y Paleoecológicas Andinas, ARQUEOBIOS, Apartado Postal 595, Trujillo (Peru); 3Colección de Tejidos y ADN, Museo Natural de Ciencias Naturales, 28006 Madrid; 4Servicio Sanidad Exterior, Dependencia de Sanidad, Subdelegación del Gobierno en Huelva, C/. Sanlúcar de Barrameda 7, 21001 Huelva; 5I.E.S. Abyla, Polígono Virgen de África, s/n, 51001 Ceuta; 6Dep Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, 28049 Cantoblanco (Madrid); 7Dep. Radiología y Medicina Física, Unidad de Física Médica, Facultad de Medicina, Avda. Menéndez Pidal s/n, Universidad de Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba; 8Dep. Farmacología, Toxicología y Medicina Legal y Forense, Facultad de Medicina, Avda. Menéndez Pidal, s/n, Universidad de Córdoba, 14071 Córdoba; 9Instituto de Agricultura Sostenible (IAS), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Alameda del Obispo s/n, 14080 Córdoba The first generation of DNA sequencing Currently, the Sanger method is still used in most methodologies started in 1975 with the “plus and laboratories around the world. Yet, such minus” method of Sanger and Coulson, which technology is not particularly suitable for required cloning of each read start, for production archaeological samples, hindered by small and of single-stranded DNA. In 1977, Maxam and degraded DNA. That is why the first generation Gilbert publish the “DNA sequencing by chemical of DNA sequencing was not successful enough degradation” methodology. It was based on the to sequence ancient DNA (aDNA) genomes. Yet, chemical modification and subsequent cleavage this scenario has changed with the development of DNA, and became the sequencing method of of the second generation sequencing platforms. choice, since it allowed to use purified DNA The second generation (also called “next- directly, without cloning. The same year, Sanger generation) platforms of DNA sequencing arrived published “DNA sequencing by enzymatic three years ago, increasing the effectiveness of synthesis”; a new method which set a new mark DNA sequencing by several orders of magnitude for the following 30 years (Sanger et al, 1977, (Bonetta, 2006); thus, generating reading of 1992; Wikipedia, 2008a). gigabases (Gb) in a single experiment. Four The Sanger method allowed reading 25 second-generation platforms have been bases (b) and later on 80 b, using dideoxy commercialized so far: terminators. The method was further optimized using fluorescent dideoxynucleotide dyes instead 1) The 454 Instrument (454 Life Sciences), based of toxic compounds and radioisotopes, on emulsion, sequencing-by-synthesis (SBS) and automated detection, increased throughput and pyrosequencing. It was released in 2005 accuracy, allowing reads of 1,000 b, to which we (Margulies, 2005), purchased by Roche have significantly contributed (Lario et al, 1997). Diagnostics in 2007 and sold as the “Genome These breakthroughs represented a fascinating Sequencer 20 System” and the “Genome revolution, allowing to decipher genes initially, Sequencer FLX System” (Roche Applied and eventually even full genomes (Schuster, Sciences) <https://www.roche-applied- 2008), albeit at a very high cost for the latter. science.com/sis/sequencing/index.jsp>. The 454 1 Vol 2, ISSN 1996-5214 | Setiembre 2008 | ARCHAEOBIOS http://www.arqueobios.org technology started reading 100 b, then 250 b much cheaper manual instrumentation with after 16 months, and now more than 400 b radioisotopes or fluorescent dyes. (Schuster, 2008). As a practical example of these advancements, the first sequencing of the first 2) The multiplex polony sequencing protocol human (Homo sapiens) genome required (Shendure, 2005) is similar to the previous one, hundreds of machines operating 24 hours a day yet much cheaper, using off-the-shelf for 13 years, at a cost of over $300 million. The instrumentation and reagents. Shotgun genomic project began in 1990, releasing a working draft libraries are amplified on microbeads by emulsion of the genome in 2000, and a more complete one PCR. Then they are used as templates for in 2003, with further analysis still being published sequencing by fluorescent nonamer ligation (HGP, 2008; HUGO, 2008; Wikipedia, 2008b). reactions on a microscope slide, generating The task was in fact compared in time and cost to millions of 26-bp reads (Porreca et al, 2008), so the Apollo project, that placed a man on the any laboratory can deploy it. Moon. Later on, the diploid genome from both chromosomes of a single person (J. Craig 3) The Genome Analyzer System (Solexa) Venter) was read by whole-genome shotgun combined SBS chemistry with terminators and sequencing, requiring 10 years and $70 million, cluster technology. The company was acquired using the optimized Sanger technology (Levy et by Illumina in 2007, delivering the “Genome al, 2007). Instead, the Watson genome was Analyzer Sequencing System” sequenced in just two months for $1 million using <http://www.illumina.com/pages.ilmn?ID=204>. the 454 Life Sciences machine (Chi, 2008; Such technology generates tenfold more reads Wheeler et al, 2008). Another inspiring example than the 454 one, but with only 35 b or less in is the sequencing of the platypus length. (Ornithorhynchus anatinus) genome, revealing unique signatures of evolution, with genes that 4) The SOLiD System (Applied Biosystems) uses appear in reptiles, or birds and other mammals. a ligation-based chemistry (Chi, 2008) and was This fascinating mixture of features in the released in 2007 genome of the ornithorhynchus provides many <http://solid.appliedbiosystems.com>. clues about the role and evolution of the genomes of mammals (Warren et al, 2008). The second generation DNA sequencing Since the Sanger approach is prohibitively platforms differ from traditional sequencing expensive for nuclear DNA (nuDNA) projects, methods in two ways. First, rather than many laboratories now rely solely on the second sequencing a few individual DNA clones (eg., 96 generation sequencing data, combining the sequencing templates on a contemporary Sanger advantages of relatively long reads of the 454 capillary sequencer), hundreds of thousands system with the low operating costs of Solexa or (454 system), thousands to millions (polony SOLiD systems, or implementing the polony protocol), or even tens of millions (Solexa and protocol. SOLiD) of DNA molecules are sequenced in The third generation (also called “next- parallel, using much smaller reaction volumes next-generation”) of DNA sequencing has just (Schuster, 2008). Second, the sequences arrived this year, with revolutionary single- obtained are much shorter (25-50 nucleotides for molecule chemistries: the polony, Solexa and SOLiD technologies, and 200-400 nucleotides for the 454 system) than 1) The HeliScope Single Molecule Sequencer those generated by traditional sequencing from Helicos BioSciences (Graveley, 2008), although the cost of such <http://www.helicosbio.com> has been released instruments is much higher (about $500,000) this year. It allows accurate reads of 25 to 45 than those using the Sanger chemistry ($10,000 bases for thousands of millions (billions) of to $100,000), which can be also carried out on strands on a single run now (producing over 2 Gb ARCHAEOBIOS |Setiembre 2008 | ISSN 1996-5214, Vol 2 2 http://www.arqueobios.org of sequence data per day), and up to one billion accomplished. First, the amount of DNA typically bases per hour in the future obtained from such old samples like the <http://www.helicosbio.com/Portals/0/Videos/tSM Neanderthal is less than 5%, when compared to S-How_It_Works.flv>. That is because it uses modern samples. In other words, the aDNA “true Single Molecule Sequencing” (tSMS), genome projects require 20 times more reading single DNA strands (Blow, 2008; Harris, sequencing than a modern DNA genome project. 2008). Second, the aDNA is usually broken and chemically altered (damaged). Last but not least, 2) VisiGen Biotechnologies the aDNA is often contaminated with modern <http://visigenbio.com> has not been released DNA, which is particularly relevant for human yet, promising massively parallel arrays DNA. Overcoming these serious obstacles on (microarrays) of nanomachines, with a aDNA genomic projects may require multiple-fold sequencing rate of one Mb/sec/machine (over 86 coverage of a given region and resequencing, as Gb of sequence data per day) well as using the new emulsion PCR (emPCR) <http://visigenbio.com/flash/stream/visigen_movi and sequencing platforms (Blow et al, 2008). Yet, e_6mb.swf>, reading also single molecules. the reward is exciting, allowing sequencing the genomes and thus analyzing at the molecular These advancements will reduce the level the flora and fauna of at least the last current sequencing price from one to two orders 100,000 years (Schuster, 2008). of magnitude, thus allowing the development of Additionally, besides the de novo “personal genomics”: to sequence the entire assemblies of genomes, it is now economically human genome of any person in less than one sound to resequence genomes from different day,
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