Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context The COVID-19 pandemic has set major challenges for the tourism industry at both global and local scales. Central to our understanding of changes arising from and responses to the pandemic is the role of destinations and their various stakeholders and communities. The range of cases in this edited collection will provide useful insights into the strategies that destination management organisations develop in reaction to the effects of the pandemic and beyond.

Professor C. Michael Hall Department of Management, Marketing and Entrepreneurship, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand

Tourism is critical for travellers’ happiness and for their life balance and mental health. It is also pivotal for the livelihood of so many communities around the world. At a time when the world is still striving to develop resources and references to face the pandemic, this book is a timely strategy offering destination management solutions post pandemic. The book draws from case studies and success stories from a variety of destinations in Europe, America, Asia, Africa, Indonesia and islands. Readers will gain knowledge from best practice around the world to restart the tourism activity and improve crisis management and resilience.

Professor Dimitrios Buhalis Director eTourism Research Lab Bournemouth University Business School

Tourism is a fact of life, ingrained in the socio-cultural fabrics of the global village we call home. Soon after COVID-19 checks out,tourism checks in. Based on lessons learned during the pandemic grip,this timely tome – powered with international case studies and laden with innovative strategies – favors collaborative community-based strategies for its restart.

Prof. Jafar Jafari Professor Emeritus, University of Wisconsin-Stout, USA Professor Catedratico, University of Algarve, Portugal

I highly recommend this important book for professionals, academics and DMOs because of its insight into the issues and challenges facing tourist destinations during and after the COVID- 19 pandemic and for what it contains to reveal emerging trends and suggest new administrative solutions in order to develop the adaptive capabilities of tourism destinations during the current and post- pandemic phase.

Prof. Dr. Said El Batouty UN Economic Commission for Europe Geneva, Switzerland A very comprehensive, timely and relevant piece of work on destination management. Few such good books exist on destination management. This is a masterpiece written by experienced tourism professionals, scholars and researchers from Asia, Europe, North America, Africa and the Pacific Islands. Published at a time when the novel corona virus has ravaged most destinations worldwide and brought the once robust tourism industry almost to a standstill, it provides insights on how various destinations can build capacity and resilience to deal with the present and future pandemics. A must read by researchers, scholars and students of tourism in general and destination management in particular. Also an essential reference for policy makers and other industry actors.

Prof. Evaristus M. Irandu, PhD, Professor of Travel, Tourism and Economic Geography, University of Nairobi, Kenya

Tourism is considered to be a resilient phenomenon, so there is much hope for a good recovery after this pandemic period is over. Resilience, however, is not a property that always spontaneously emerges out of nowhere but needs certain specific grounds. Among these are, without doubt, the capacity to address problems and a good amount of creative and innovative ideas. To do that, as known, we need a wealth of suggestions and examples. Here is where this book helps. It offers a wide spectrum of possibilities presenting both cases and models from all over the world and from diverse environments. Last but not least, the book also includes some discussions on how to better educate the future generation of practitioners and managers. An issue often little considered, but of fundamental importance.

Rodolfo Baggio, PhD FRGS, Master in Economics and Tourism and Dondena Center for Research on Social Dynamics and Public Policy Bocconi University – Milan, Italy Tourism Security-Safety and Post Conflict Destinations

Series editors: Maximiliano E. Korstanje and Hugues Seraphin

Since the turn of the century, the international rules surrounding security and safety have significantly changed, specifically within the tourism industry. In the age of globalization, terrorism and conflict have moved beyond individual high- profile targets; instead, tourists, travellers and journalists are at risk. In response to this shift, the series invites authors and scholars to contribute to the conver- sation surrounding tourism security and post-conflict destinations. The series features monographs and edited collections to create a critical platform which not only explores the dichotomies of tourism from the theory of mobilities but also provides an insightful guide for policy makers, specialists and social scientists interested in the future of tourism in a society where uncertain- ness, anxiety and fear prevail. Tourism Security-Safety and Post Conflict Destinations explores research approaches and perspectives from a wide range of ideological backgrounds to discuss topics such as:

• Studies related to comparative cross-cultural perceptions of risk and threat • Natural and human-caused disasters • Post-disaster recovery strategies in tourism and hospitality • Terror movies and tourism • Aviation safety and security • Crime and security issues in tourism and hospitality • Political instability, terrorism and tourism • Thana-tourism • War on terror and Muslim-tourism • The effects of global warming on tourism destinations • Innovative quantitative/qualitative methods for the study of risk and security issues in tourism and hospitality • Virus outbreaks and tourism mobility • Disasters, trauma and tourism • Apocalyptic theories and tourism as a form of entertainment

Volumes in this series: Tourism, Terrorism and Security Edited by Maximiliano E. Korstanje and Hugues Seraphin

International Case Studies in the Management of Disasters Edited by Dr Babu George and Dr Qamaruddin Mahar

Tourism Safety and Security for the Caribbean (Forthcoming) By Andrew Spencer and Peter E. Tarlow

Overtourism as Destination Risk: Impacts and Solutions (Forthcoming) Edited by Anukrati Sharma and Azizul Hassan Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context: Global Issues and Destination Management Solutions

EDITED BY VANESSA GB GOWREESUNKAR Anant National University, India

SHEM WAMBUGU MAINGI Kenyatta University, Kenya

HIRAN ROY Fairleigh Dickinson University, Canada

And

ROBERTO MICERA National Research Council of Italy Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean, Italy

United Kingdom – North America – Japan – India – Malaysia – China Emerald Publishing Limited Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley BD16 1WA, UK

First edition 2021

Copyright © 2021 Emerald Publishing Limited

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No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying issued in the UK by The Copyright Licensing Agency and in the USA by The Copyright Clearance Center. Any opinions expressed in the chapters are those of the authors. Whilst Emerald makes every effort to ensure the quality and accuracy of its content, Emerald makes no representation implied or otherwise, as to the chapters’ suitability and application and disclaims any warranties, express or implied, to their use.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN: 978-1-80071-512-7 (Print) ISBN: 978-1-80071-511-0 (Online) ISBN: 978-1-80071-513-4 (Epub) Dedicated to all tourism entrepreneurs and employees in difficulty; to all tourism heroes who struggled hard during the pandemic and are still struggling for a livelihood; to all COVID Center Doctors and Nurses who risk their lives every day; and more importantly, to our families who unconditionally supported us in the realization of this book project.

–Vanessa, Shem, Hiran and Roberto Book Editors This page intentionally left blank Contents

List of Figures xiii

List of Tables xv

List of Abbreviations xvii

About the Contributors xxiii

List of Contributors xxxi

Foreword xxxv

Preface xxxix

Acknowledgement xliii

Introduction: Destination Management Solutions Post Pandemic: A Need of the Hour! 1 Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar, Shem Wambugu Maingi, Hiran Roy and Roberto Micera

Part 1: Destination Management Post Pandemic

Chapter 1 The Recovery Tactics of the Tourism Industry Amid COVID-19 Pandemic Conditions in the Baltic States 11 Agita Livina, Galina Bukovska, Ilgvars Abols and Gavinolla Mahender Reddy

Chapter 2 Destination Management Solution Post COVID-19: Best Practice from Bali – A World Cultural Tourism Destination 25 I Nengah Subadra x Contents

Chapter 3 Heritage Tourism and COVID-19: Turning the Crisis into Opportunity within the Egyptian Context 37 Islam Elgammal and Hassan Refaat

Chapter 4 COVID-19 Pandemic and the Accommodation Sector in Sardinia, Italy: Impacts and Response Actions 49 Giacomo Del Chiappa

Part 2: Disaster Management Post Pandemic

Chapter 5 Tourism Disaster Preparedness Post-COVID-19 Pandemic: The Example of Argentina 69 Maximiliano E. Korstanje

Chapter 6 Tourist Safety and Security Post COVID-19: Global Perspectives 85 Crispin Dale, Neil Robinson and Faisal Sheikh

Chapter 7 Uganda Tourism Sector COVID-19 Response, Recovery and Sustainability Strategies: Lessons from Previous Virus Disease Outbreaks 99 Mugizi Francis, Ayorekire Jim and Obua Joseph

Chapter 8 Tourism Resilience in the Context of Tourism Destination Management in Post-COVID-19 Bangladesh 113 Masudur Rahman, Abureza M. Muzareba, Sanjida Amin, Anisur R. Faroque and Mohammad Osman Gani

Part 3: Local Communities and Destination Recovery Post Pandemic

Chapter 9 Exploring Impacts of a Health Crisis on Emotional Solidarity and Support for Tourism: Case of Mauritius 129 Chaya Hurnath and Kiran Dookhony-Ramphul

Chapter 10 Residents as Destination Influencers during COVID-19 147 Eduardo Villena-Alarcon´ and Lidia Caballero-Galeote Contents xi

Chapter 11 Contributions and Challenges of Civil Society Organizations in Tourism in Kenya 161 Jane Wamaitha Munene

Chapter 12 Gender Disparities in Employability in the Tourism Sector Post-COVID-19 Pandemic: Case of South Africa 173 Juliet Chipumuro, Radu Mihailescu and Azzurra Rinaldi

Part 4: Marketing and Promotion of Destinations Post Pandemic

Chapter 13 Effect of Perceived Risk on Tourists’ Behavioural Intentions Post COVID-19 in Turkey 187 Mehmet Ismail˙ Yagc˘ ı, Umit¨ Dogrul,˘ Lina Ozt¨ urk¨ and Avni Can Yagc˘ ı

Chapter 14 Enhancing Cultural Heritage at the Time of the COVID-19 Outbreak: An Overview of the ICT Strategies Adopted by Museums in the Campania Region of Italy 201 L Varriale, T Volpe and V Noviello

Chapter 15 Sport Events and Tourism for the Sustainable Local Development Post COVID 219 Carmen Bizzarri and Paolo Giuntarelli

Part 5: Sustaining Tourism Post Pandemic

Chapter 16 Challenges in Developing Sustainable Tourism Post COVID-19 Pandemic 233 Rinzing Lama and Alka Rai

Chapter 17 Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Social Sustainability in Tourism: A Study of Uttarakhand State of India 245 Neha Mishra and Anindya Mishra

Chapter 18 Redefining Sustainability in the Conservation and Promotion of the Cultural Heritage Tourism Product in Kenya 257 Ephraim W Wahome and Joan J W Gathungu xii Contents

Chapter 19 Does Your Post-COVID-19 Travel Dream Talk about Sustainability? Insights from Potential Tourists in India 273 Indu, Bindu and Kuldeep Singh

Part 6: Tourism Education Post Pandemic

Chapter 20 Resilience Adaptations in Tourism Education for the Post-COVID-19 Era – A Study of India 291 Bosipoina Golla Suneeth, Simran Kashyap, Gavinolla Mahender Reddy and Vikrant Kaushal

Chapter 21 Reviving Tourism in India Post COVID-19 Pandemic: Role of Tourism Education and Training 303 Vikas Gupta and Garima Sahu

Chapter 22 Adopt, Adapt or Perish: Re-building Support Systems for Travel and Tourism Education in COVID-19 Educational Crisis 315 Nazeerah Sheik Abbass, Faraknaaz Essmallgee and Pravina Cooshna-Gunputh

Conclusion: Rebuilding Tourism Post Pandemic: Some Reflections on Destination Management Solutions! 329 Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar, Shem Wambugu Maingi, Hiran Roy and Roberto Micera

Index 335 List of Figures

Figure 1.1. Respondents by the Type of Tourism Organisation. 17 Figure 1.2. Is Loan of ALTUM Seen as Support Mechanism? 18 Figure 1.3. Necessity of Separate Grant for Innovation and Competitiveness. 18 Figure 1.4. Opening of the Borders and Closing of Restrictions for Public Events. 19 Figure 4.1. By How Many Units Will Hiring Be Reduced This Season? 55 Figure 7.1. Recovery Model for Tourism Industry. 103 Figure 7.2. Adaptation of Uganda’s Tourism Industry to Disease Outbreaks and Post-COVID-19 Recovery Scenarios. 106 Figure 8.1. Integrative Framework. 120 Figure 12.1. Percentage Education Level of Respondents. 178 Figure 14.1. Methodological Scheme. 206 Figure 15.1. The Activation of Local Development Determined by the Creative Industry and Sport Events. 224 Figure 18.1. International Visitors to Kenya 2010–2019. 259 Figure 18.2. SWOT Analysis of CHTP in Kenya. 266 Figure 19.1. Potential Tourists’ Post-COVID-19 Travel Plans. 280 Figure 19.2. Potential Tourists’ Travel Purpose and Destination Priority. 280 Figure 19.3. Indians’ Perception Regarding Post-COVID-19 Tourism. 281 Figure 22.1. Traditional versus Online Spaces for Travel and Tourism Education. 317 xiv List of Figures

Figure 22.2. Kurt Lewin Change Model: Three-stage Change Process. 318 Figure 22.3. Kubler-Ross 5-stage Change Curve. 319 Figure 22.4. Ecosystem for Conducive Teaching and Learning Environment. 321 List of Tables

Table 1.1. Description of Three Baltic Countries. 14 Table 1.2. Overview of Main Crossing Points. 15 Table 1.3. Overview of COVID-19 Cases in All Three Baltic States. 16 Table 4.1. As a Consequence of the COVID-19 Outbreak How Many Booking Cancellations (%) Have You Received in Your Accommodation in the Following Months? 54 Table 4.2. Thinking about the Effect That the COVID-19 Outbreak Will Have in the Future, What is the Reduction (%) of Bookings You Expect to Experience in the Following Months? 55 Table 4.3. Response Actions in Sales: The Accommodation Providers’ Views. 56 Table 4.4. Response Actions to Be Undertaken by the Institutions: The Accommodation Providers’ Views. 57 Table 4.5. Respondents Views about Interventions. 59 Table 7.1. Strategies and Actions for Managing Disease Outbreaks. 105 Table 7.2. Future Tourism Research Areas. 108 Table 8.1. Types of Resilience. 117 Table 9.1. Category and Number of Informants. 134 Table 10.1. Vive Andalucia’s Followers. 151 Table 10.2. Updates with More Reactions on Facebook. 152 Table 10.3. Most Relevant Posts on Instagram. 153 Table 10.4. Most Important Posts on Twitter. 153 Table 10.5. Residents’ Posts. 154 Table 10.6. Residents’ Posts with More Engagement on Twitter. 155 xvi List of Tables

Table 12.1. Differences in Perception between Genders on Job Prospects and Job Security. 179 Table 12.2. Gender Responses Regarding Factors Influencing Employment Opportunities in Hospitality in South Africa. 180 Table 13.1. Variables, Scale Items, and Descriptive Statistics. 192 Table 13.2. Perceived Risk Scale Exploratory Factor Analysis. 194 Table 13.3. Goodness-of-Fit Index. 195 Table 13.4. Reliability and Validity Analysis Results. 196 Table 13.5. T-test Results for the Hypotheses. 196 Table 14 1. Sampling: Overview of 72 Museums Located in the Campania Region. 208 Table 15.1. International Sport Events in 2016 and Tourism Movement Generated. 221 Table 19.1. Demographic Profile. 279 Table 19.2. Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) Value. 281 Table 19.3. Potential Tourists’ Sustainable Behavior Intentions Post-COVID-19. 282 List of Abbreviations

AI Artificial Intelligence ALTUM Latvian Development Finance Institution ARCA Museum of Contemporary Religious Art AUTO Association of Uganda Tour Operators BBC British Broadcasting Corporation BI Behavioural Intention BSA Bali Statistic Agency CAGR Compound Annual Growth Rate CAMPFIRE the Communal Areas Program for the Indigenous Resources CBT Community-based Tourism CDC Centre for Disease Control and Prevention CFA Confirmatory Factor Analysis CHTP Cultural Heritage Tourism Product CIE Cambridge International Examination COMCEC Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation COS Cost Risk CSB Central Statistics Bureau of Latvia DACH Germany (D), Austria (A) and Switzerland (CH) DMO Destination Management Organization EFA Exploratory Factor analysis EQU Equipment Risk ESD Education of Sustainable Development EST Emotional Solidarity Theory ETC European Travel Commission xviii List of Abbreviations

EU European Union EY Ernst Young FAITH Federation of Associations in Indian Tourism & Hospitality FFSAI Food Safety and Standards Authority of India FHRAI Federation of Hotel & Restaurant Associations of India FTA Foreign tourist arrival GDP Gross Domestic Product GFI Goodness of Fit Indices GIS Geographical Information System GPFI Global Partnership for Financial Inclusion GSTCD the Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria for Destinations H1N1 Influenza A virus subtype HSP Health Sector Professionals IAGTO International Association of Golf Tour Operators IATA International Air Transport Association ICT Instituto Costarricense De Turosmo IGF Italian Golf Federation ILO International Labour Organization IMF International Monetary Fund ISTAT The National Institute for Statistics ITC International Trade Centre KEBS Kenya National Bureau of Standards KMO Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy KPMG Klynveld Peat Marwick Goerdeler KTB Kenya Tourism Board KWS Kenya Wildlife Services LGA Ladies Golf Association LI Local inhabitant M Mean MAMT The Peace Museum List of Abbreviations xix

MANN Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Napoli MeMus Museum and Historical Archive of the San Carlo Theatre MERS Middle East Respiratory Syndrome MES Mauritius Examinations Syndicate MFPED Uganda’s Minister of Finance, Planning and Economic Development MIBACT Ministry of Cultural Heritage and Activities of Italy MICE Meetings, Incentives, Conferencing and Exhibitions MIE Mauritius Institute of Education MOE Ministry of Education and Human Resources of Mauritius MSME Micro, Small and Medium Enterprise MTWA Ministry of Tourism, Wildlife and Antiquities NDP South Africa National Development Planning commission NGO Non-Governmental Organization NITHM National Institute of Tourism and Hospitality Management NMK National Museums of Kenya NPI Non-pharmaceutical Intervention OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development OEEC Organization for European Economic Co-operation OTAs Online Travel Agents PATA Pacific Asia Travel Association PCP Risk perception PCR Polymerase Chain Reaction PER Performance Risk PGA Professional Golfers Association PHY Physical Risk PPE Personal Protective Equipment PSEA Private Secondary Education Authority PSY Psychological Risk xx List of Abbreviations

REVPAR Revenue Per Available Room RoK Republic of Kenya RSA Rapid Situation Analysis RTU Representative of Tourism Trade Union SARS Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome SARS-COv2 Coronavirus SD Standard Deviation SDG Sustainable Development Goal SET Social Exchange Theory SME Small Medium-sized Enterprise SOC Social Risk SOP Standard Operating Procedure T&T Travel and Tourism TDK Tourist Destination Kenya TGA Turkey Tourism Promotion and Development Agency TIR Tourism Industry Representative TP Tourism Professional TUIK Turkish Statistical Institute UDB Uganda Development Bank UHOA Uganda Hotel Owners Association UK United Kingdom UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees UNWTO United Nations World Tourism Organization UTA Uganda Tourism Association UTB Uganda Tourism Board UWA Uganda Wildlife Authority UWEC Uganda Wildlife Conservation and Education Centre VUAS Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences List of Abbreviations xxi

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development WHO World Health Organization WoM Word of Mouth WTO World Tourism Organization WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council This page intentionally left blank About the Contributors

Nazeerah Sheik Abbass, PhD, lectures at the Mauritius Institute of Education in the Business Education Department. She holds a PhD in Regional Cooperation and Trade. She holds 12 years of experience in the field of teacher education in economics, accounting, business and travel and tourism subjects. Ilgvars Abols, PhD, is Director of tourism studies and Coordinator of interna- tional students at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. He has several publications to his credit including CABI. Sanjida Amin is currently serving as Lecturer of marketing at Bangladesh Uni- versity of Professionals. Sanjida completed her Master of Business Administration (MBA) in the Department of Marketing at University of Dhaka. Her research interests include ecological awareness and behaviour, sustainable consumption and sustainable service management particularly in marketing, tourism and hospitality. Bindu is Research Scholar (SRF) at IHTM, MD University, Rohtak, India. She is conducting research on online travel reviews. She completed her postgraduation in Tourism Management from IHTM. Her research interests include online reviews, social media, sustainable tourism and ecotourism. Carmen Bizzarri, PhD, is qualified as Associate Professor in Economic Geogra- phy. She currently teaches as Assistant Professor in Environmental Policies, Sustainable Tourism and Didactic of Geography courses at European University of Rome. Galina Bukovska, PhD is a Board Member for Latvia Convention Bureau and guest Lecturer at Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia. Lidia Caballero-Galeote, is a PhD candidate in the Department of Tourism at the Universidad de Malaga.´ Her fields of research are communication, airport management and tourism. Juliet Chipumuro, Stenden South Africa, holds a PhD in Management from Rhodes University, a Master’s in Business Administration, a Bachelor of Tech- nology, Education Management and a Diploma in Education. She has published a number of articles on Emotional Intelligence in Hospitality and Tourism, Leadership, Sustainable Tourism and others. xxiv About the Contributors

Pravina Cooshna-Gunputh lectures at the Mauritius Institute of Education (MIE, Mauritius) in the Business Education Department. She holds a BA (Economics) and MA (Economics) from SavitriBai Phule, Pune University, India. She also holds a Diploma in Aviation, Hospitality and Travel Management from the Institute of Commercial Management, UK. Crispin Dale, PhD, is Course Leader for the Tourism Management degree at the University of Wolverhampton. He has taught tourism management at under- graduate and postgraduate levels for a number of years. Crispin has published widely in books and peer-reviewed journals. His most recent research has focused on business development and recovery for tourism and hospitality enterprises. Giacomo Del Chiappa, PhD, is Associate Professor of Marketing at the Depart- ment of Economics and Business, University of Sassari (Italy). He is Senior Research Fellow at the School of Tourism and Hospitality of University of Johannesburg. He is Managing Editor of the European Journal of Tourism Research. Umit¨ Dogrul˘ , PhD, received his doctorate degrees from Mersin University Insti- tute of Social Sciences in 2015. Since 2015, he has been working in Mersin University Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Department of Business Administration and teaches various courses in undergraduate, graduate and doctoral programs. Kiran Dookhony-Ramphul lectures at the University of Mauritius. Her research interests are in sustainable tourism and entrepreneurship. Islam Elgammal, PhD, is currently Professor in the Business Administration Department at the University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Her research interests include tourism marketing, triple bottom line, sustainable tourism, sustainable heritage management and green events. Faraknaaz Essmallgee is presently a full-time Educator in Travel and Tourism in a mixed specialized secondary school for Grades 12–13. She has specialized herself in the teaching of Travel and Tourism at the Higher School Certificate level and is also currently a part-time Lecturer for Travel and Tourism at the Mauritius Institute of Education. Anisur R. Faroque, PhD, is Post-doctoral researcher (Assistant Professor) at LUT University, Finland. His research interests are in the areas of international busi- ness and entrepreneurship. Mugizi Francis, PhD, is a Lecturer and Researcher in Tourism in the Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University. His research interests include tourism development with a focus on community-based tourism in Uganda’s protected areas, destination management and community-based tourism enterprises. About the Contributors xxv

Mohammad Osman Gani is a doctoral student at Graduate School of Humanities and Social Sciences, Hiroshima University, Japan. He has completed his MSc from Hiroshima University. He also works as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business Administration in Marketing at Bangladesh University of Professionals. Joan J. W. Gathungu is a Lecturer in the Business Administration Department, Kenya Utalii College. Joan is a researcher in the area of tourism marketing. She has a keen interest in brand strategy and its impact on destination competitiveness and is awaiting her PhD graduation having met all the requirements requisite. Paolo Giuntarelli is Manager of Lazio Italian region and teaches Sociology of Local Development in the course of Tourism Sciences from the Department of History, Heritage, Education and Society of University of Rome “Tor Vergata”. Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar, PhD, has been appointed as Associate Professor at the Anant National University in Ahmedabad, India. She was previously serving as Head of Department for Tourism at the University of Africa in Nigeria. Vanessa is an editorial board member of several scientific journals and has a number of publications in international peer-refereed journals. Dr Vanessa also assumes the role of National Coordinator for WAELE (Women Advancement for Economic and Leadership Empowerment), an international organisation which caters for the cause of women, widows and young girls. She assumes the role of Deputy Chair for the Tourism, Infrastructure and Energy cluster of African Union Economic and Social Council (ECOSOCC). Vikas Gupta, PhD, is an alumnus of Amity University, Uttar Pradesh, India, and holds a PhD in Hospitality. He has a rich experience of teaching for more than 13 years in both India and abroad. He also has a very good research background with publications in national and international journals. Chaya Hurnath is serving as lecturer at the University of Mauritius and her research interests are in stakeholders’ conflicts and cultural and heritage tourism. Indu is a Research Scholar (SRF) at IHTM, MD University, Rohtak, India. She is an awardee of Gold Medal in Master’s Degree in Tourism Management. Her research areas of interest are online travel communities, social media and sus- tainable tourism. Ayorekire Jim, PhD, is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Forestry, Biodi- versity and Tourism, Makerere University. His research interests include tourism planning and policy, natural resource based tourism and national and regional analysis of tourism. Obua Joseph, PhD, is Professor in the Department of Forestry, Biodiversity and Tourism, Makerere University. He has vast experience in teaching and research in tropical forestry and tourism. His research experience and interests include assessment of forestry-tourism nexus. xxvi About the Contributors

Simran Kashyap is the Co-Founder and Vice-President of the Confederation of Tourism Students, India. Her research interest includes responsible tourism policy and practices, and sustainable tourism. Email: [email protected] Vikrant Kaushal, PhD, is Assistant Professor at the Indian Institute of Man- agement Sirmaur, India. His research interest includes tourism education, destination branding and sustainable development. Mr. Vikrant has published several papers on tourism and branding in reputed journals of Sage, Elsevier and Emerald. Maximiliano E. Korstanje, PhD, is editor in chief of the International Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism (UP Argentina) and Editor in Chief Emeritus of International Journal of Cyber Warfare and Terrorism (IGI-Global US). He has a vast experience in editorial projects working as advisory member of Elsevier, Routledge, Springer, IGI global and Cambridge Scholar publishing. Rinzing Lama has a PhD in Tourism and is a faculty at the Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, India. He has 14 years of teaching and research experience. He authored a book titled Community Based Tourism Development and authored an edited book titled Tourism for Developing Econo- mies: The Path Unexplored. Agita Livina, PhD, is Professor at the Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences and Director of the Research Institute, Latvia. She has published several papers on sustainable tourism planning and management in CABI, Routledge, Emerald and Channel View Publications, etc. ORCiD: 0000-0003-2804-9132 Shem Wambugu Maingi, PhD, is a Lecturer in the School of Hospitality, Tourism and Leisure studies at Kenyatta University in Kenya. He is also an expert member of the International Scientific Committee on Cultural Tourism of ICO- MOS (ICTC). Currently, he is pursuing research on cultural ecosystems services and tourism post COVID within heritage sites in Kenya. Roberto Micera, PhD, has been a Researcher of the National Research Council of Italy (CNR) since 2011, and is currently at the Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (ISMed). He has National Qualification for the role of Associate Professor in Management (13/B2) and he has a PhD in Business Administration. He has been scientific coordinator for the CNR of tourism research projects and he is on the team of numerous international and national research activities on the management and organization of innovation in tourism enterprises and destina- tions (smart tourism destination). Radu Mihailescu is senior Tutor and Researcher at NHL-Stenden University of Applied Sciences, The Netherlands. Radu Mihailescu has degrees in Business Management and Economics. He has published a number of articles with regard to Wine and Tourism Economics, Resource Economics and Airline Economics. He is also the author of a book on Charter Airline Economics and a book chapter on Wine Tourism Development. About the Contributors xxvii

Neha Mishra is pursuing her PhD in Sociology from the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India. Her broader area of research is social sustainability, tourism and risk analysis. Anindya Mishra, PhD, is a Full Professor of Sociology at the Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, India. His research interests include social gerontology, sociology of health and sociology of work. Jane Wamaitha Munene, PhD, is a development practitioner and an academic in Public Administration. She has extensive experience in the civil society sector and has worked with various organizations in Kenya. She is also well versed with community engagement processes including facilitation and trainer of trainers. She has research interests with a focus on community governance, public administration, leadership and participation. Abureza M. Muzareba, PhD, serves as Associate Professor in the Department of Marketing at University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. He has industry experience with a prestigious international bank, and research experience with USAID, IFPRI, the University of Sheffield, UK Cabinet Office, O2, Barnsley City Council, England, Seba Limited and Care Bangladesh. I Nengah Subadra, PhD, is Principal Lecturer and the Dean of Faculty of Tourism, University of Triatma Mulya (formerly: Tourism Institute of Triatma Jaya), Bali, Indonesia. His research interests include cultural tourism, local and tourist behaviours, community-based tourism and disaster mitigation in tourism. Valentina Noviello is research fellow at National Research Council (CNR), Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (ISMed), and is a PhD student at the University of Barcelona, Spain, whose research interest includes cultural heritage in the Euro-Mediterranean context. Lina Ozt¨ urk¨ , PhD, graduated from the Department of Public Administration at Anadolu University in 2009 and pursued her graduate degree on Business Administration at Mersin University (MBA, 2014; Ph.D. 2019). She has pub- lished studies on consumer behaviour, pricing, tourism and neuromarketing. Masudur Rahman, PhD, serves as a Professor in the Department of Marketing at University of Dhaka, Bangladesh. He has more than 21 years of experience in teaching, research and consulting services in different business development and marketing issues. He has published many articles in different peer-reviewed national and international journals. Alka Rai has qualified the University Grant Commission-National Eligibility Test in 2018 in Tourism Administration and Management. She is teaching as a guest faculty at Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith and Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi. She has 5 years of industry experience in tour operation. She has completed her Masters in Tourism Administration and Post-graduate Diploma in Tourism and Leisure. xxviii About the Contributors

Gavinolla Mahender Reddy is Assistant Professor in National Institute of Tourism and Hospitality Management, India, and guest Lecturer in the Vidzeme Uni- versity of Applied Sciences, Latvia. He is a PhD student who is focusing on sustainability issues in tourism. He has published several papers related to sus- tainable tourism and wildlife tourism in Sage, Routledge and Emerald. ORCiD: 0000-0002-3476-3132. Hassan Refaat, PhD, is currently a Lecturer at the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels Management – Luxor University. He is Researcher at Farouk ElBaz Center of Sustainability and Future Studies at the British University in Egypt (BUE), El Sherouk City, Cairo. Graduated from the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels Management-Fayoum University (Egypt), he has a master’s degree in Tourism Guidance and a PhD from Fayoum University (Egypt). He also worked as a Tourism and Heritage Consultant at United Nations Development Program (UNDP). Azzurra Rinaldi is the Head of the Degree Course in Tourism Economics at the University of Rome Unitelma Sapienza (where she also teaches Tourism Eco- nomics). She has published many articles on the Tourism industry and the gender gap and is also the author of a book on Tourism Economics. Neil Robinson, PhD, lectures at Salford University Business School and has research interests in dark tourism and heritage, in particular the commodification and promotion of sites associated with death and disaster and the use of dark tourism as a methodological tool for the investigation of cold case files. Hiran Roy, PhD, is a Lecturer of International School of Hospitality, Sports, and Tourism Management at Fairleigh Dickinson University, Vancouver, Canada. He holds a PhD in Management from University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand. Prior to joining academia, he worked extensively (over 26 years) with the hospitality business industry as an Executive Chef in different continents. Garima Sahu is a research scholar at Amity University and holds a postgraduate diploma in Management and a bachelor’s degree in Computer Applications. She has rich and extensive industry experience of more than 8 years in both India and abroad with renowned names such as Unilever, Australia, Maruti Suzuki, India Ltd, etc. Faisal Sheikh is an economics graduate and a Chartered Certified Accountant. He has worked for Big 4 firms focussing on NGO and public sector accounting and auditing. Faisal is currently an award-winning Lecturer at Salford Business School where he specialises in teaching financial reporting. Kuldeep Singh is a research scholar (SRF) at IHTM, MD University, India. He is conducting research on service quality and tourist behavior. He completed his PGDM in Tourism and Travel from IITTM, Gwalior. He is passionate about academic areas of service quality management, tourist satisfaction, rural tourism and ecotourism. About the Contributors xxix

Bosipoina Golla Suneeth is the Founder and President of the Confederation of Tourism Students, India. His research interests include tourism education, sus- tainable tourism and niche tourism. Email: [email protected] Luisa Varriale, PhD, is Associate Professor of Organization Theory and HRM at the Department of Sport Sciences and Wellbeing, Parthenope University, Naples (Italy), whose research interests include learning process, knowledge sharing and creation, event management and sustainability issues. Eduardo Villena-Alarcon´ , PhD, is Lecturer in Organizational Communication at the University of Malaga. He graduated in journalism and public relations. He has published research about tourism and cultural communication in social net- works, the tourist functionality of the communication management or hotels communication strategy. Tiziana Volpe, PhD, is Senior Researcher at National Research Council (CNR), Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (ISMed), whose main research interests include technological and organizational innovation and technology transfer in agro-food sector, tourism, logistic and value chain. Ephraim W. Wahome, PhD, is Associate Professor in the Department of History and Archaeology, University of Nairobi. He is currently involved in the ‘Building Shared Futures Project’ on the conservation and documentation of historic Nairobi funded by Bristol University. His current areas of interest include conservation, heritage and cultural tourism. Avni Can Yagc˘ ı completed his undergraduate education in Istanbul University Faculty of Business Administration in 2019. He currently continues his master’s program in Mersin University Institute of Social Sciences and works at Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences Department of Business Administration as a research assistant. Mehmet I.˙ Yagc˘ ı, PhD, graduated from the Department of Management at Middle East Technical University in 1988. He started his academic career at Loyola University–New Orleans. He has published studies on marketing com- munications, marketing theory, service quality, tourism, international marketing, pricing and branding. He currently continues his academic career at Mersin University. This page intentionally left blank List of Contributors

Nazeerah Sheik Abbass Mauritius Institute of Education, Mauritius Ilgvars Abols Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia Sanjida Amin Bangladesh University of Professionals, Bangladesh Bindu Maharshi Dayanand University, India Carmen Bizzarri European University of Rome, Italy Galina Bukovska Latvia Convention Bureau, Latvia Lidia Caballero-Galeote University of Malaga,´ Spain Juliet Chipumuro NHL-Stenden University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Pravina Cooshna- Gunputh Mauritius Institute of Education, Mauritius Crispin Dale University of Wolverhampton, UK Giacomo Del Chiappa University of Sassari, Italy Umit¨ Dogrul˘ Mersin University, Turkey Kiran Dookhony- Ramphul University of Mauritius, Mauritius Islam Elgammal University of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia Faraknaaz Essmallgee Mauritius Institute of Education, Mauritius Anisur R. Faroque LUT University, Finland Mugizi Francis Makerere University, Uganda Mohammad Osman Gani Bangladesh University of Professionals, Bangladesh Joan J.W. Gathungu Kenya Utalii College, Kenya Paolo Giuntarelli University of Rome Tor Vergata, Italy Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar Anant National University, India xxxii List of Contributors

Vikas Gupta Amity University, India Chaya Hurnath University of Mauritius, Mauritius Indu Maharshi Dayanand University, India Ayorekire Jim Makerere University, Uganda Obua Joseph Makerere University, Uganda Simran Kashyap The Confederation of Tourism Students, India Vikrant Kaushal Indian Institute of Management Sirmaur (IIM Sirmaur), Himachal Pradesh, India Maximiliano E. Korstanje University of Palermo, Argentina Rinzing Lama Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, India Agita Livina Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia Shem Wambugu Maingi Kenyatta University, Kenya Roberto Micera National Research Council of Italy, Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (CNR ISMed), Italy Radu Mihailescu NHL-Stenden University of Applied Sciences, Netherlands Neha Mishra Indian Institute of Technology, India Anindya Mishra Indian Institute of Technology, India Abureza M. Muzareba University of Dhaka, Dhaka, Bangladesh I Nengah Subadra University of Triatma Mulya, Bali-Indonesia Valentina Noviello National Research Council of Italy, Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (CNR ISMed), Italy Lina Ozt¨ urk¨ Mersin University, Turkey Masudur Rahman University of Dhaka, Bangladesh Alka Rai Banaras Hindu University, India Gavinolla Mahender National Institute of Tourism and Hospitality Reddy Management (NITHM), Hyderabad, India; Vidzeme University of Applied Sciences, Latvia Hassan Refaat Luxor University, Egypt Azzurra Rinaldi University of Rome Unitelma Sapienza, Italy List of Contributors xxxiii

Neil Robinson Salford University Business School, UK Hiran Roy Fairleigh Dickinson University, Canada Garima Sahu Amity University, India Faisal Sheikh Salford University Business School, UK Kuldeep Singh Maharshi Dayanand University, India Bosipoina Golla Suneeth The Confederation of Tourism Students, India Luisa Varriale University of Naples “Parthenope”, Italy Eduardo Villena-Alarcon´ University of Malaga,´ Spain Tiziana Volpe National Research Council of Italy, Institute for Studies on the Mediterranean (CNR ISMed), Italy Ephraim W. Wahome University of Nairobi, Kenya Jane Wamaitha Munene Youth Ventures Initiatives (YOVI), Kenya Mehmet Ismail˙ Yagc˘ ı Mersin University, Turkey Avni Can Yagc˘ ı Mersin University, Turkey This page intentionally left blank Foreword

COVID-19 and Tourism: A Difficult Relation? One of the frightening aspects of COVID-19, without any doubt, lies in the fact the virus interrogates further on the omnipotence of Western civilization and its technocratic character. To put the same in other terms, in a hyper-technological and mobile world, COVID-19 disseminates rapidly everywhere forcing the gov- ernments to close their airspaces, borders and public life as never before. As McLuhan (2014) puts it, technology amplifies part of our senses, becoming part of our bodies and sensibilities, and when this happens, it melts with us in a new hybridized self. For this case, and probably like in 9/11, the same transport means that allowed the expansion of the West were the carriers of “an invisible enemy”. The virus, which was originated in Wuhan, China, replicated in weeks all over the globe, affecting the economies of the Global North and South, the commerce and of course the tourism industry (Higgins-Desbiolles, 2020; Zheng, Goh, & Wen, 2020). In the midst of this mayhem, theorists launched to debate the opportunities open in a post COVID-19 context, for example in reversing the pollution to the atmosphere or in placating negative effects of climate change (Carr, 2020; Crossley, 2020; Gossling,¨ Scott & Hall 2020) while others focused on the importance to adopt multidisciplinary methodologies to understand paradoxi- cally tourism in a world without tourists (Korstanje, 2020; Wen, Wang, Kozak, Liu, & Hou, 2020). Whatever the case may be, the pandemic changes the phi- losophy of business as well as the modes of human relationship in what scientists dubbed “the new normal” (He & Harris, 2020). To some extent, COVID-19 confronts with our long-established anxieties and uncertainties showing how our fundamental liberties and rights can be suddenly suppressed to protect the public health. At the time of writing this foreword I have been kindly invited by Vanessa, I wish to bring some reflections on the future of tourism and tourism research in the years to come. A couple of decades ago, Adrian Franklin (2007) called attention to the problems and limitations of tourist-centricity, which means the obsession of tourism researchers to interview tourists as the only source of valid information. While tourist-centricity occupied a central position in the configu- ration of the economic-centered paradigm as well as the managerial perspective, other agents and voices were relegated to a peripheral position. What seems to be more important, tourism research revolved around a strong dependency on tourists, likely forgetting other methods – and cosmologies. Today, it is hard to imagine how applied research continues in a world without tourism. This suggests xxxvi Foreword that big problems need a big solution. Still, it is important not to lose sight of the fact post-pandemic management and marketing play a leading role in the configuration of a new epoch, I named as post-pandemic tourism (Korstanje, 2020). Having said this, Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar, Shem Maingi, Hiran Roy, and Roberto Micera offer a more than an interesting book, entitled Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context to expand our current understanding and courses of actions to follow in the years to come. The book centers efforts in providing some practical insights on possible solutions (emerging trends) for mitigating the financial losses the industry is facing. As discussed, the economic-based paradigm centralized and crystallized classic destination man- agement which was characterized by the predominance of visitor’s experiences without mentioning competition and the relation with other stakeholders, but now the concept sets the pace to a new tourism management model. The question whether Destination Management Organization (classic DMO model) has some limitations to resolve the quandaries left by COVID-19 pandemic, no less true is that we need emerging empirical knowledge to formulate an all-pervading corpus based on real study cases from all the world. This point posits editors in a great dilemma simply because of the strict lockdown imposed to the applied research but the task is worth the efforts. Chapters accepted in the present editorial project, which in my viewpoint will surely pass the test of time, are high-quality texts written by experts from the four corners of the planet. Last but not least, editors struggle to organize different methodologies to review the existing literature, as well as advancing in the connection of best practices with the function of man- agement to create more resilient destinations in a post–COVID-19 landscape. I and Professor Hugues Seraphin are happy to welcome this fascinating project to our book series Tourism Security-Safety and Post Conflict Destinations, which is published regularly by Emerald Publishing.

Maximiliano E. Korstanje, PhD University of Palermo, Argentina

References Carr, A. (2020). COVID-19, indigenous peoples and tourism: A view from New Zealand. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 491–502. doi:10.1080/14616688.2020.1768433 Crossley, E.´ (2020). Ecological grief generates desire for environmental healing in tourism after COVID-19. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 536–546. Franklin, A. (2007). The problem with tourism theory. In I. Altejevic, A. Pritchard, & M. N. Abingdon (Eds.), The critical turn in tourism studies (pp. 153–170). Abingdon; New York, NY: Routledge. Gossling,¨ S., Scott, D., & Hall, C. M. (2020). Pandemics, tourism and global change: A rapid assessment of COVID-19. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 29(1), 1–20. doi: 10.1080/09669582.2020.1758708 He, H., & Harris, L. (2020). The impact of covid-19 pandemic on corporate social responsibility and marketing philosophy. Journal of Business Research. doi: 10.1016/j.jbusres.2020.05.030 Foreword xxxvii

Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2020). Socialising tourism for social and ecological justice after COVID-19. Tourism Geographies, 22(3), 610–623. doi:10.1080/14616688.2020. 1757748 Korstanje, M. E. (2020). Passage from the tourist gaze to the wicked gaze. A case study on COVID19 with special reference to Argentina. In B. George, & Q. Din Mahar (Eds.), International case studies in the management of disasters: Natural and manmade calamities and pandemics. Bingley: Emerald Publishing. McLuhan, M. (2014). Media research: Technology, art and communication. Abingdon: Routledge. Wen, J., Wang, W., Kozak, M., Liu, X., & Hou, H. (2020). Many brains are better than one: The importance of interdisciplinary studies on COVID-19 in and beyond tourism. Tourism Recreation Research, 46(1), 1–4. doi:10.1080/02508281.2020. 1761120 Zheng, Y., Goh, E., & Wen, J. (2020). The effects of misleading media reports about COVID-19 on Chinese tourists’ mental health: A perspective article. Anatolia, 31(2), 337–340. This page intentionally left blank Preface

Pandemics and epidemics have always existed since the dawn of time and they did ravage humanity and economies throughout their existence. Yet none devastated the tourism industry the way the COVID-19 pandemic did. With 58,764,574 reported cases and 1,390,852 deaths (24 November 2020; Worldometer) at the time of writing, the COVID-19 not only paralyzed the global tourism industry but also panicked its stakeholders. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organisation, the industry may incur approximately $1 trillion losses and threaten more than 100 million jobs worldwide (UNWTO Policy Brief, 25 August 2020) if the current situation continues. This concern is also echoed in the words of the International Air Transport Association CEO:

….Nowhere is this more visible than in the rows of airplanes parked at airports with nowhere to go. A thriving industry, connecting the world with 4.5 billion passenger journeys and transporting 60 million tons of freight a year, has been brought to a shuddering halt. (Travelbiznews.com, 12 June 2020)

Following such a depressing picture of the world economy, the tourism community could not remain insensitive for too long. As a result, tourism des- tinations were anxiously looking for guidelines, textbooks and research publica- tions that offer management solutions, given that they were not prepared to face pandemics. Destinations were getting substantially affected and major market players in the tourist value chain (airlines, hotels, travel trade, cruise lines, tourism businesses) either minimized or completely stopped their production for an undefined period of time, resulting in the sudden and total cut-off of their revenue streams. Guided by the United Nations World Tourism Organizations (UNWTO) and the World Health Organizations (WHO), destinations started deliberations via series of webinars and online meetings in order to come up with survival solutions. Following several months of lockdown, destinations finally made their decisions to gradually open up their economies, but in phased mode. As travel has restarted in some parts of the world, it is still unclear how the pandemic will further affect the industry due to its unknown evolution and unpredictable impacts on the tourism supply chain. For instance, countries like France, the United Kingdom and Turkey had to go back to lockdown after opening up their xl Preface economies for a few months. At a time when the world is still striving to develop resources and references to cope with the pandemic, the book Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context: Global Issues and Destination Man- agement Solutions comes as a timely strategy. To survive the pandemic, it is crucial to explore new management strategies based on prevailing trends and come up with solutions that may convert the industry’s setback into a comeback. Post- COVID-19 tourism will be about survival, revival and renewal, and the critical success factors of tourism will be visibility and marketability enabled by technol- ogy. The content of this book shows that the success of a post-pandemic tourism industry lies in collaboration and discussion among stakeholders and on how destinations can learn from lessons of the pandemic and explore new opportunities offered by the new normal. Published at a time when the novel coronavirus is still ravaging, this book intends to serve as a practical guide and give insights on how various destinations can develop coping capacity and build resilience to deal with pandemics. The book offers a synthesis of its impacts and implications on several tourism destinations and thereafter proposes solutions based on case studies and success stories. The book has a user-friendly pedagogic structure. It draws from a collection of research notes and best practice derived from various destinations in Europe, America, Asia, Africa, Indonesia and islands. The case studies presented provide a fast and reliable diagnosis and they provide a richness to readership in devel- oping understanding of destinations from different geographical contexts. The solutions proposed will be adaptive in nature and may be translated into practice, with models and guidelines. A huge debt of gratitude is owed to authors listed in the references; their findings and observations have enriched this book, each in their own way. We are grateful to some of our critical friends, in particular Prof Jafar Jafari, for his valuable comments. We also express our appreciation to the Emerald Team for their foresight in recognising the value of our book and for their professionalism in bringing it to fruition. As the main editor, I wish to acknowledge my co-editors, Shem, Hiran and Roberto for their unflinching support and dedication. Their patience and unreserved understanding made this book journey an enriching one. Undoubtedly when the war against the coronavirus will be over, the tourism community will find a changed industry and we will be pondering over the next normal. This book will therefore remind future generations of this pandemic and of the tough moments encountered by the tourism industry. Nonetheless, perceived differently, a good crisis is never wasted (Winston Churchill). While some commentators are already speculating on the next normal (that is, what will travel be like after the corona virus), with some unrealistic perspectives already proven wrong, the general belief is that tourism will rebound as it has, from previous crises. Editors, contributors and well-wishers of this book believe that the industry will recover if the appropriate destination management solutions are applied. Tourism is a fact of life, ingrained in the sociocultural fabrics of the global village. Soon after COVID-19 checks out, tourism will hopefully check in. Based on lessons learned during the pandemic grip, this timely tome – powered with international case studies and laden with innovative strategies – favors Preface xli collaborative community-based strategies for its restart. The words of the CEO of Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) are encouraging:

We can only hope that COVID-19 pandemic is brought under absolute control quickly and effectively, enabling the global travel and tourism industry to get back on its feet, re-employ the millions of people who lost their positions and create even more employment opportunities both directly and for the upstream and downstream sectors that rely on it. (Travelbiznews.com,12June2020)

Travel may never be the same again, but the ‘new normal’ will probably inspire destination managers to rethink the future of tourism based on three important elements, namely, precaution, medication and education. Hopefully, destination management solutions proposed in this book will stimulate the interest of both tourism and non-tourism stakeholders. As editors, we are united by a belief that this book will provide relief to tourism destinations, as they gradually enter the ‘next normal’. In adversity, we found opportunity and altogether as a terrific team, we are glad to offer readership a memorable gift produced during the lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic. With the following inspiring words, editors of this book wish you all a pleasant reading:

Wear your mask...Wear your gloves! Do not fear...Travel the globe!

Vanessa, Shem, Hiran, Roberto This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgement

The book Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context: Global Issues and Destination Management Solutions would not have seen the light of day without the continued and committed effort of some special people. The book idea was conceived, developed and proposed during the lockdown period of the COVID-19 pandemic. A textbook like this one can never be a one-person effort, but is the result of some creative minds. We wish to offer our gratitude to all those creative minds behind: the contributors, the reviewers, the Emerald team and all those who indirectly accompanied us during this wonderful journey. We are grateful to Prof. Jafar Jafari, professor Emeritus of University of Wisconsin-Stout, for his precious suggestions and recommendations. We grate- fully acknowledge the endorsements of the following eminent personalities of the tourism community:

• Prof. Michael Hall, University of Canterbury, New Zealand • Prof. Dimitrios Buhalis, Bournemouth University, UK • Prof. Rodolfo Baggio, Bocconi University, Italy • Prof. Dr. Said El Batouty, UN Economic Commission for Europe, Switzerland • Prof. Evaristus M.Irandu, University of Nairobi, Kenya

It is a matter of pride to have the support of the above professors, who are models and references to the tourism academic community worldwide. Last, but not the least, we wish to acknowledge the unstinting support of our families, especially that the book was written during a period when the world was painting a depressing picture of tourism. In adversity, we found opportunity and altogether as a terrific team, we are glad to offer readership a memorable gift produced during the lockdown of the COVID-19 pandemic. Vanessa, Shem, Hiran, Roberto Book Editors This page intentionally left blank Introduction: Destination Management Solutions Post Pandemic: A Need of the Hour! Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar, Shem Wambugu Maingi, Hiran Roy and Roberto Micera

Year 2020 has marked the history of travel and tourism, and destinations would certainly remember the striking lessons of COVID-19 for a very long time. With $1 trillion losses in world economies and more than 100 million jobs threatened (United Nations Policy Brief, 2020), the pandemic has not only disrupted the global tourism industry but also ravaged the livelihood of so many. This obser- vation is also reflected in the study of Carbone (2020) who illustrates a worrying scenario, particularly from the socio-economical point of view; in many devel- oping and least-developed countries, tourism is a major source of employment and foreign exchange earnings; tourism provides an opportunity to enter the job market and serves as a first entry point into work especially for women, youth, migrant workers and rural population. The survival of businesses throughout the tourism ecosystem is at risk, and it is critical to minimize job losses and support recovery. Destinations that rely heavily on international visitors, and business and events tourism are particularly affected, with coastal, regional and rural areas faring better than city destinations. As a result, flexible management solutions are needed to enable the tourism economy to continue operating alongside the virus and at the same time it is important to take steps to learn from the crisis, which has revealed gaps in government and industry preparedness and coping capacity post pandemic. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), if the current restrictions to international travel continue through to the end of 2020, the impact will be devastating, with as many as 174 million jobs lost globally (UNWTO Policy Brief, 2020). Considering that tourism is one of the largest industries in the world, employing 319 million people, this situation warrants some urgent actions related to destination management post pandemic. Traditionally, destinations management approaches have been centred on ‘a system approach’ to visitor experiences and attractions (Gowreesunkar, Naqvi, & Seraphin, 2018; Mills & Morrison, 2002); stakeholder collaborations within the

Tourism Destination Management in a Post-Pandemic Context, 1–7 Copyright © 2021 by Emerald Publishing Limited All rights of reproduction in any form reserved doi:10.1108/978-1-80071-511-020211002 2 Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar et al. destination (Ammirato, Felicetti, & Gala, 2014); competitiveness models (Ritchie & Crouch, 2003); image building and branding (Maximiliano, Seraphin, & Gowreesunkar, 2020; Seraphin & Gowreesunkar, 2017) and host community approach (Gowreesunkar, Seraphin, & Teare, 2019) inter alia. The effective management of destinations usually demand a coordinated effort from stake- holders involved, and in this unusual case of the pandemic, the management goes beyond mere collaboration and coordination. Current research on global tourism destinations have underscored the importance of interdisciplinary approaches towards managing destination in times of crisis and disasters (Faisal, Albrecht, & Coetzee, 2020; Mercedes, Basurto-Cedeno, & Pennington-Gray, 2020). Accord- ing to Ratten (2020) an inter-disciplinary approach as compared with the systems approach has proved to be more adaptable and effective in enabling businesses to adapt their business models in response to the disruptive changes caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The tourism industry is obviously facing some of the most visible struggles and within the space of months, the framing of the global tourism system moved from overtourism to non-tourism (Gossling,¨ Scott, & Hall, 2021). The COVID-19 outbreak is a new phenomenon and knowledge on its impacts, implications and ultimately solutions are yet to be developed. As a result, there is a critical need to integrate the different information landscapes and disciplines towards finding solutions for destinations post pandemics. Destination manage- ment in the post-pandemic context demands innovative approaches, as the understanding of the pandemic’s impacts on tourism is prime to devise adaptive strategies. Therein lies the contribution of this book. In an attempt to bring its humble contribution to the global effort of rebuilding tourism following the COVID-19 pandemic, this book proposes relevant case studies from various countries while obviously taking support from existing theories on destination management. The methodology is inspired from Yin (2012) who posits that case study method is particularly suitable for developing theories, and this is the need of the day for tourism research in a post-pandemic context. The proposed case studies provide a fast and reliable diagnosis and offer a richness to readership in developing understanding of destinations from different geographical contexts. The objective is to propose adaptive management solutions that might help in developing coping capacities and building resilience in a post-pandemic context; the goal being to convert setbacks of tourism destinations into a comeback. The uniqueness of this book is that it adds another ‘P’ in the history of destination management, that is ‘Pandemic’; unlike other books that have so far addressed destination management issues based on traditional ‘P’ mixes of performance, product development, pricing, people, promotion and process, the novelty of this book is that it draws from this new ‘P’ and expands the existing body of knowledge on destination management. Contributors of this book provide balanced integration of academic research and practical applications in destina- tion management post pandemics. They come from a range of global regions and provide adequate coverage of the chosen themes. This implies that destination managers from any part of the world may benefit from it as the book will cover different types of destinations (island destinations, land-lock destinations, culture and heritage destinations, city destinations, among others). The chapters Introduction: Destination Management Solutions Post Pandemic 3 altogether serve as a trusted source of reference to both tourism and non-tourism stakeholders. The book volume is structured into six key thematic areas that present the major topical focus of the book. These key thematic areas and sub-themes as indicated within our initial call for chapters evolved around the following parts and sub-parts. The first part ‘Destination Management Post Pandemic’ collects studies and research focused on feasible destination management strategies and actions implemented and to relaunch tourism after the crisis. This is reflected in the study of Agita Livina, Galina Bukovska, and Mahender Reddy who investigate tourism management in the Baltic States following the pandemic. The team emphasizes the need to initiate a sharing of objectives and actions among the various territorial stakeholders in order to restart effectively and efficiently. Particular attention is paid to cultural tourist destinations, both in the work of Nengah Subadra, Sekolah Tinggi Pariwisata and Triatma Jaya (Destination management techniques post COVID-19: best practice from Bali – a world cultural tourism destination), and in that of Hassan Refaat and Islam Elgammal (Heritage tourism – how to turn the crisis into opportunity). In the first one, the solutions adopted in Bali to increase security and mitigate the risk of the epidemic within the cultural sites of the island are deepened; the second one offers, an in-depth study on Egypt, which highlights how adapting cultural sites to the new health and safety regulations and, at the same time, focussing on destination marketing strategies, based on the use of technology and the enhancement of local authenticity, can become a starting point to recovery of the COVID-19 crisis. The first part of the book ends with the contribution of Giacomo Del Chiappa (COVID-19 and the accommodation sector in Sardinia, Italy: impacts and response actions), focused on the impacts generated by the pandemic in the accommoda- tion sector of an island destination. The research proposes a set of possible responses to the crisis realized by tourism stakeholders and in which macro-based interventions related to financial, fiscal, health, social, transport, destination management and marketing aspects of the destination are proposed. The second part of the book, ‘Disaster Management Post Pandemic’,is dedicated to actions to counter the disaster caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The research carried out by Korstanje Maximiliano (Tourism disaster prepared- ness Post COVID-19 Pandemic: the example of Argentina) focuses on the perspective of tourism staff in order to understand fears and hopes of human resources of tourism and, in such a dramatic situation, propose sustainable pol- icies to mitigate the negative effects of the pandemic. Crispin Dale and Neil Robinson (Tourist Safety and Security Post COVID-19) propose an in-depth analysis of safety and security measures useful to address this health crisis, highlighting the difficulties in implementing these same measures, due to the complexity of the tourism product. The theme of resilience, understood as the ability of tourism to face and overcome a traumatic event, is recalled by Mugizi Francis, Ayorekire Jim and Obua Joseph (Effect of COVID-19 Pandemic on Uganda’s Tourism and Hospitality Sector: Preparedness, Recovery and Resilience) who highlighted the importance of including in the tourism planning of a 4 Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar et al. destination actions to counteract possible disasters. This was confirmed by the case of Uganda, a destination that has implemented a series of strategies to revitalize tourism, based on past experiences of epidemic crisis management (Ebola and Marburg). Masudur Rahman, Abureza M Muzareba, Sanjida Amin, Anisur R. Faroque and Mohammad Osman Gani (Looking Backward to Look into Forward: Tourism Resilience in the Context of Tourism Destination Management in Post COVID-19) also write about resilience. The authors provide an integrated interpretation of resilience at all levels – governmental, organizational, social and individual – proposing policy guidelines for key stakeholders when implementing initiatives to revive the tourism sector in Bangladesh and for all developing countries. Contributions focused on the role of the local community to revitalize desti- nation tourism have been brought together in part four ‘Local Communities and Destination Recovery Post Pandemic’. Starting from the theories on Social Exchange and Emotional Solidarity, Chaya Hurnath and Kiran Dookhony- Ramphul (Exploring community’s emotional solidarity for tourism during a crisis: Case of Mauritius) analyze impacts of a health crisis on destination com- munities of Mauritius, showing the need to create conditions for the safety of the population and tourists and on the other hand transmit reassuring messages necessary to make them understand that the problem is being addressed. Con- firming the strategic role of the community in activating positive word of mouth, the work of Villena Alarcon,´ Eduardo and Caballero-Galeote, Lidia (Residents as destination influencers) shows how the residents of Andalusia are playing a decisive role in dealing with the consequences of the pandemic, helping to increase the tourist attraction of the area. Jane Munene’s research (Contributions and challenges of civil society organizations in tourism in Kenya) describes the contribution of civil society groups and organizations involved in Kenyan tourism, including provisions of unique experiences for tourists as well as chal- lenges experienced including poor road network, to post-pandemic recovery. The chapter of Juliet Chipumuro, Radu Mihailescu, Azzurra Rinaldi, Bill Rowson (Post-COVID-19 crisis and the gender gap in tourism: what is going to happen in South Africa?) is dedicated to gender policies in South Africa. It researches the challenges that women, implanted in the South African hospitality industry, will have to face the situation of professional uncertainty and fear for their future work generated by the pandemic crisis. The fourth part, ‘Marketing and Promotion of Destinations Post Pandemic’, includes contributions focused on possible strategies, policies and marketing actions that can be implemented to revitalize tourist destinations. Lina Ozt¨ urk,¨ Mehmet Ismail˙ Yagc˘ ı and Avni Can Yagc˘ ı describe the effects of the pandemic on risk perception and purchasing behaviour of tourists in Turkey (Effect of perceived risk on tourist behavioral intentions post COVID-19: The case of Turkey). The study shows that those who intend to plan a post-pandemic vaca- tion have lower psychological, equipment and cost, performance, social and physical risk perceptions regarding COVID-19 than those who do not have a vacation plan. In some cases, the limitations imposed by the virus have, moreover, Introduction: Destination Management Solutions Post Pandemic 5 led tourism players to modify their offers by proposing solutions that can equally guarantee users to live unique experiences. This is the case of the museum sites of Campania, described by Luisa Varriale, Tiziana Volpe and Valentina Noviello (Enhancing cultural heritage in times of the COVID-19 outbreak: A portrait of campania region museum experiential strategies through ITCs.), where the effec- tive use of digital technologies it was possible to enjoy the cultural heritage even if at a distance. The contribution of Carmen Bizzarri and Paolo Giuntarelli (Sport events and tourism for the sustainable local development post-COVID-19) is dedicated to the role of sports events in the tourism and territorial marketing. Starting from the impact that the pandemic has generated on the events, the research shows how the system of tourist offer to be prepared for the realization of specific sporting events, such as golf competitions, can be perfectly in line with the needs of the new tourist and support the sustainable recovery of some destinations. ‘Sustaining Tourism Post Pandemic’ is the title of the fifth part in which are collected studies on how much the pandemic has affected sustainability, as in its triple bottom line economic, environmental and social meaning, and contribu- tions on the possible trajectories to be undertaken to reach the so-called ‘New Normal’. Rinzing Lama and Alka Rai (Challenges in Developing Sustainable Tourism Post COVID-19 Pandemic) propose an in-depth study on the impacts of tourism, with particular reference to the city of Varanasi, India, and the need to provide sustainable tourism planning in which local people, environment princi- ples and small-scale tourism businesses play a key role. An analysis of the social impacts of the pandemic crisis is contained in the work of Neha Mishra and Anindya. J. Mishra (Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic on Social Sustainability in Tourism: Issues Involved and the Possibilities Ahead). The research illustrates the case of a region in the Himalayas, India, where the government is implementing a series of actions to restore social sustainability in tourism. In the African conti- nent, the study by Ephraim Wahome and Joan Gathungu (Redefining Sustain- ability in the Conservation and Promotion of the Cultural Heritage Tourism Product in Kenya) shows how some destinations can focus their recovery on the use of resources not yet fully exploited. This is the case of the Kenyan destination known for beach tourism, which, however, has enormous potential to develop alternative forms of tourism such as ecotourism, cultural tourism, MICE and cruise tourism. With specific reference to cultural heritage, it would be possible to start development strategies useful to address the critical issues generated by COVID-19. Finally, Indu, Bindu and Kuldeep Singh (Does your post-COVID-19 travel dream talk about sustainability: insight from potential tourists in India) focus on the travel intentions of potential Indian tourists. The study shows that a new pattern of behaviour is being embraced for short trips with family and friends and the focus is on environmental conservation, sustainability and discovery of nat- ural sites. The last part entitled ‘Tourism Education Post Pandemic’ is dedicated to the implications of the pandemic on the way training and education are dispensed in training institutions and universities. Vikranth Kaushal, Bosipoina Golla Suneeth, Simran Kashyap, Mahender Reddy (COVID-19 Pandemic and Resilience in 6 Vanessa GB Gowreesunkar et al.

Tourism Education in India: Lesson for the Learners) propose an analysis of the academic practices in tourism education with a specific focus for incorporating resilient adaptation strategies. According to this approach, if resilience practices can be transferred into the tourism education system, in the future it will be easier to adopt disaster prevention, mitigation and vulnerability reduction policies in destinations. Starting from a critical review of all the directives, guidelines and measures imposed by the World Health Organization (WHO), on safety and hygiene concerning COVID-19 within the different sub-sectors of the entire tourism industry (Accommodation, Airlines and Attractions), Vikas Gupta and Garima Sahu (Reviving tourism in India post COVID-19 pandemic: role of education and training) have provided some indications on the new training needs of the sector, with particular reference to the hotel industry.The topic of Support Systems for Travel and Tourism Education is addressed by Sheik Abbass Nazeerah, Ess- mallgee, Faraknaaz and Cooshna, Pravina (Adopt, Adapt or Perish: Re-Building Support Systems for Travel and Tourism Education in COVID-19). The authors examining the existing support systems available to educators and students for the implementation of travel and tourism education stressed the need for post- COVID-19 reinforcement to ensure access, equity, equality, gender equality protection, quality and continuity.

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