Asian Update

ACKU fl-111 Asian Social Issues Program

@ Asia Society 'iDI3 ACKUIIii~llli~I~R~r 0001 0156 7 Afghanistan's Reform Agenda: Four Perspectives

Sima Samar

Frederick Starr

Marvin G. Weinbaum

Mohammed Ehsan Zia

ACKUMarch 2002

@

A~ ~ a n Social iSSUf.3 Program Asia Soc iety

I The Asia Society is a nonprofit, nonpartisan public education organization dedicated to increasing American understanding of the more than thirty countries broadly defined as the Asia-Pacific region-a region which, for the Asia Society, extends from Iran to Japan, as far north as Central Asia, and as far south as Australia, New Zealand, and the South Pacific.

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The Asian Updates series is published by the Policy and Business Programs division of the Asia Society. The Updates provide incisive background and analysis of newsworthy issues and events in Asia and U.S.-Asia relations for a wide audience of journalists, business executives, policymakers, scholars, and others interested in Asia.

Recent Asian Updates include:

President Bush's Visit to APEC in China: A Changed Agenda After September 11, by Douglas H. Paal (October 2001)

Kim Dae-fung's Engagement Policy and the South-South Conflict in South Korea: Implications for U.s.· Policy, by Byung-Hoon Suh (Summer 200 1)

Political Paralysis: Iran's 2001 Election and the Future ofReform, by Farideh Far hi 0 une 2001)

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The Asia Society is grateful to Citigroup for providing the support to make this &ian Update possible.

The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily represent the views of the Asia Society or its funders, includingACKU Citigroup. Copyright (2001) Asia Society

This Asian Update should not be reproduced in full without the written permission of the Asia Society. Short sec­ tions of the paper-less than one page in total length-may be quoted or cited if the author and the Asia Society are given due credit.

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Editor: Richard Fumosa

ij Layout: Lai Montesca Contents

Foreword ...... 5

Women, Children, and the Future of Education in Afghanistan by Sima Samar ...... ':. 7

Afghanistan: Free Trade and Regional Information by Frederick Starr...... 12

International Assistance for Afghan Reconstruction Gets a Second Chance by Marvin G. Weinbaum ...... ~ . 20

Peace-Building in Afghanistan: A Role for Civil Society by Mohammed Ehsan Zia ...... 26

Further Reading ...... 36

Biographies ...... _ . 39 ACKU

c1t1grouPt Citigroup is proud to be the sponsor of "Americas Crisis: Asia s Perspectives," a multidiscipli­ nary series of policy, business, cultural and educational programs that explore recent world events from a variety of perspectives. ·' '{

Afghanistan

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Uzbekistan

Garagum Desert

T urkrnenistan

-. Mas had Legend

International Boundary Provincial Boundary e National Capitals

""""""""""'""' Rivers

~ Lakes

c:_:~·j Dry Salt Lakes Iran ACKU

s Multan

•Quetta • Miles 0 50 100 :::s I (/,) ~ 5o ~Oo Kilometers

Map compiled by James Grose Copyright 2002 Asia Society Bou ndary representation not endorsed by Asia Society. Provinces: 1. Herat 6. Balkh 11. Badakhshan 16. Laghman 21. Lowgar 26. Ghazni 31. Nimruz 2. Badghis 7. Samangan 12. Parvan 17. Kapisa ·22·. vardak 27. Paktika 32. Farah 3. Faryab 8. Kondoz 13. Nuristan- 18. Kabol 23J. Barl}ayJ-n · 2 8. Zabol 4. Jowzjan 9. Baghlan 14. Konar 19. Khowst 24. Ghower 29. Kandahar 5. Sar-e-Pol 10. Takhar 15. Nangarhar 20. Paktia 25.0ruzgan 30. Helmand

4 Foreword

Even as fighting continues to rage between the rights of women, encouraging trade and U.S. forces and Al Qaeda members in the investments, building political and econom­ last holdouts in Afghanistan, prospects for ic institutions, and strengthening civil soci­ peace no longer seem remote. The country ety. Projects in these areas will help to move has been torn apart by a civil war for over Afghanistan in the direction of long-term twenty-three years that has resulted in an sustainable peace, security and the provision estimated two million deaths, six million of resources for Afghan communities. people displaced, and three million disabled. The costs of war have been further exacer­ The papers in this Update are based on the bated by the policies of the former Taliban, presentations made by the authors at a two­ who created obstacles for the delivery of day symposium, "Building Peace and Civil humanitarian assistance, provided by for­ Society in Afghanistan: Challenges and eign aid groups, by curbing their activities or Opportunities," held in New York on May expelling them from the country for alleged 17 and in Washington, D.C., on May 18, illegal activities. 2001. The symposium, cosponsored by the Asia Society and the Carnegie Council on However, a plan for reconstruction is finally Ethics and International Affairs, was attend­ on the table. In cooperation with interna­ ed by Afghan activists, NGO practitioner~ tional governments, donor groups and and UN and U.S. policymakers working to international organizations, the interim bring about sustainable peace i~ administration in Afghanistan, led by Afghanistan. Participants discussed and Hamid Karzai, chairman of the Afghan explored the immense social costs of the Interim Authority, is devising a coherent conflict and the range of the local, regional strategy for reconstructing society, build­ and international communities' responses: ing a secure state, and ensuring a sound Finally, the symposium considered U.S. and livelihood for the Afghan population. international policy options on Afghanistan There are openings for development that and focused on the mechanisms to support go beyond emergency humanitarian assis­ reconstruction efforts there. tance; investment in the long-term devel­ opment of Afghanistan is not only We are deeply grateful to Ana Cutter at the desirable, but also feasible. Carnegie Council and Meghan O'Sullivan, formerly at The Brookings Institution, who The Asia Society is pleased to present this helped organize the Symposium in May timely Asian Update, "Afghanistan'sACKU Reform 2001 in New York and Washington at their Agenda: Four Perspectives" which addresses respective institutions. On the Asia Society the vision behind the rebuilding process that staff, Rob Radtke, Doris Bacalzo and Julie would engage the international community Yoder played a critical role in shaping this as well as local actors and stakeholders in complex, but important project. We thank Afghanistan. Written in the aftermath of the Barney Rubin and Marvin Weinbaum who events following the September 11th attacks served as advisors to this project. We are and the U.S.'s subsequent war on terrorism grateful to all the panelists and participants in Afghanistan, the authors focus on the at the May 2001 events whose comments essential components of reC.Q _ri,~truction in and interventions formed the basis of the the country, from e~panding . ~-nd securing . idea for .this Update. William Kwiatkowski,

C.~. -~~· ,:· r

5 -•. ' ,, · As ian Update

a doctoral student at NYU, served as a rap­ porteur for the May 2001 events. Hee Chung Kim, Richard Fumosa and Lai Montesca have overseen the editing and design of the Update; James Grose served as the mapmaker.

The project could not have been possible without the generous support of The Ford Foundation, the United States Institute of Peace and Rockefeller Foundation. We express our gratitude to these institutions for backing a project that proposed immediate reconstruction of Afghanistan, when there was little, if any, international commitment to in1prove the lives of ordinary people liv­ ing in the midst of a fractured society.

The Asia Society is grateful to Citigroup, who is the proud sponsor of"Americas Crisis: Asian Perspectives," a multidisciplinary series of poli­ cy, business, cultural and educational pro­ grams that explore recent world events from a variety of perspectives, for providing the underwriting for this publication.

This Asian Update is meant to reflect four proposed visions of the reconstruction process without necessarily implying endorsement by the .A.sia Society or the funders.

Nicholas Platt ShyamaACKU Venkateswar · President Assistant Director Asia Society Asian Social Issues Program Asia Society

6 Women, Children, and the Future of Education in Afghanistan

Sima Samar

Understanding not only the ongms of the a community where people are loyal to their group that attacked the United States on land, and it would be wrong to assume it is a September 11 but also the events that fol­ country made up entirely of warlords and lowed requires understanding the past twen­ ruthless men. ty-three years of Afghan political history. The common people of Afghanistan Afghanistan is a landlocked and severely never exported terrorism, nor did they underdeveloped country in Central Asia. become a nation of murderers or the world's Even before the war with the Soviet Union leading source of illicit drugs and smuggled and the invasion of Russian troops in 1979, goods. It was the commanders who took Afghanistan ranked among the poorest Afghanistan in this direction, all for person­ countries in the world. The majority of the al profit and at the cost of the nation's population is made up of Sunni Muslims; integrity. Moreover, a cruel interpretation of approximately one-fourth are Shiite religious fundamentalism was introduced to Muslims. The population can also be sepa­ the country during these same years of con­ rated along the major ethnic divisions of flict. Fundamentalism was new to the Pashtun, Hazara, Tajik, and Uzbek, with Afghan people, and was imposed on the several other minor ethnicities represented population by neighboring countries as well. Over the past few centuries, involved in the cold war. Pashtuns, who make up 40 percent of the As always, the main losers of the for­ population, have been in political control of eign-backed wars in Afghanistan have been Afghanistan. Even before the invasion of the civilians, mainly women and children, who Soviet Union, the human rights of all have had no part in the hostilities. As one Afghan groups were extremely limited. The faction after another gained power, women situation for women was especially oppres­ saw their homes destroyed, their sons and sive and unequal. daughters killed, their futures ruined, and After the invasion of the Soviet Union their dignity as human beings taken away. and the subsequent ten-year occupation, a Although traditional Afghan customs did state of war, havoc, and destruction became not offer much status to women and chil­ the norm in all of the then twenty-nine dren, the situation became much worse fol­ provinces of the nation. Countries with var­ lowing the Soviet invasion. Arms are usually ious interests in Afghanistan-the oil carried by men, and power as well as justice resources in the North,ACKU territorial influ­ and injustice is exclusively in the control of ence-began to fight a proxy war between men in Afghan society. This situation solidi­ each other for control of Afghanistan and for fied, and even more power was allocated to power over each other. Some emerged as men, who, enjoying this status, victimized winners at the expense of the Afghan people women and children even further in the and the destruction of the country. During name of upholding Afghan culture and tra­ the past two decades the Afghans have been ditions and observing Islamic values. the collective victims of war. Though one The countries that were planning and can bemoan the loss of property and means carrying out the wars in Afghanistan (often of living, the loss of human dignity is even with the excuse of fighting communism) more tragic. Nevertheless, Afghanistan is still supported the creation of religious schools,

7 Asian Update called madrassas, in all the refugee camps. (they preferred their own children to go to Children were taken away from their homes the madrassas). If civilians were interested in and kept as boarders at these schools. As the education of boys and girls, there were Afghan families traditionally have many chil­ few, if any, options. dren and are, oftentimes are unable to feed In 1992, when Dr. Najibullah them, they were ready to give their children Ahmadzai's regime collapsed, all the to these schools to get food. Mujahidin went to Kabul to take part in a In several madrassas, the children government in Islamabad, which did not received military training in addition to their include women or the wide range of ethnic education in an orthodox version of Islamic groups living in Afghanistan. When the theology. The boys (girls were not allowed to Mujahidin took power, the fighting started attend schools) were isolated from their fam­ between various factions; Kabul and the oth­ ilies and kept in seclusion. Unfortunately, er big cities were destroyed in the process. the UN agencies and international N GOs The first "gift" to Afghan women from were not interested in supporting formal the Mujahidin government was the hejab, or education as an alternative to the madrassas; scarves, which were especially oppressive for the emergency situation and the presumed the women who had had the opportunity to respect to Afghan culture and tradition work outside of their houses. Before this allowed the situation to continue. period, half of government jobs were held by No attention was paid exclusively to the women, and 15 percent of doctors were plight of Afghan women. There was no women. There were female members of par­ health care, no educational facilities, not liament and cabinet ministers, and 65 per­ even income-generation programs. And the cent of teachers were women. Moreover, 65 focus exclusively on men. For example, only percent of the students at Kabul University the Mujahidin, along with selected family were women. Women were allowed to work members, could use the available hospital outside of the house, and girls had access to facilities. There were no funds available for education. After 1992, most of the girls' women's projects; even talking about schools were looted and destroyed by fight­ women's health problems was considered ing between different political parties. un-Islamic, putting the person who did so These political factions had no respect under threat. Talking about a project such for human rights and women's rights, and as a hospital for women was considered a violations of both were common by their criminal act. members. Complete anarchy reigned in the It was the same situationACKU in the area of country, and the so-called government cared education. Girls were not allowed to go to more about keeping power than rebuilding the madrassas. Education was also not con­ the government. sidered important for refugees. In Interest in Afghanistan on the part of Afghanistan, the area that was under control Americans and other Western countries soon of the pro-Russian government included faded. The Soviet Union had collapsed, the schools, but the quality of that education cold war was over, and no one cared about was inferior. In areas under control of the Afghanistan. Foreign aid decreased, and Mujahidin, there were no schools at all. The some countries stopped their support to fundamentalist Islamic party in power was .Afghanistan altogether. When the United not interested in educating the children States stopped its aid and the U.S. NGOs

8 Asian Update left the area, the people of Afghanistan were Bamayan, a part of Afghanistan's cultural left under the domination of the political heritage, in March 2001, the international parties made and supported by the United community finally began to take notice. But States and other Western countries. No job still no one took the destruction of a hospi­ opportunities were available, except to join tal in Bamayan seriously; no one paid atten­ one of the political parties, which meant tion when 12,000 homes were burned in fighting to live and to feed the family. The Bamayan; no one saw the denial of health country become the biggest producer of opi­ care to women and their subsequent loss of um in the world, and the killing of citizens health as a form of terrorism. Afghanistan and looting of houses and property became was at a point of no return on September 11. accepted activities for most members of the The rest is history. The cost of providing political parties. international aid when Afghanistan needed In 1994, when the Pakistani govern­ it would have been a lot cheaper than the ment decided to send some goods to price the international community has been Turkmenistan, a convoy of trucks was paying since September 11. The Afghan peo­ stopped by political representatives in ple are paying a high price once again for a Kandahar. One of the parties emerging at crime of which they are not guilty. that time was the Taliban. They fought to Now is the hour for action. The way release the trucks, and to the surprise of no forward requires a plan made for and in one, took power in Kandahar just a few days Afghanistan, with Afghan leadership. Plans later. Their first edicts for the women of for Kosovo or Rwanda are not the pla.t1s Afghanistan were closing the girls' schools needed in Afghanistan. Plans made by peo­ and the public baths for women and forbid­ ple who don't wish to understand ding women to work outside of the house. Afghanistan or listen to the Afghan people When women protested, some were arrested; are doomed to failure. Specifically, there others were beaten, and their husbands were must be a plan for recovering and rebuilding punished for allowing their women to march the lives of Afghan women in order for there in the street. to be true reconstruction in Afghanistan. The Taliban took control of other On December 5, 2001, the formation of Pashtun areas without fighting because the the Afghan Interim Authority (AlA) was people were exhausted from the terror, the announced in Bonn, Germany, as the prod­ looting, and the anarchy. The Taliban took uct of UN -sponsored negotiations between Herat in September 1995, reaching Kabul in the different factions. Two women were September 1996. In spiteACKU of the Taliban's among the thirty cabinet members brutal denial of education, health care, and announced; this author was named deputy the right to work outside the home for prime minister and minister for women's women, the United States and most of the affairs, and General Suhaila Seddiqi was international community did not act upon named minister for public health. the early warning signals. When the Taliban Since this author took office on financed their regime with the sale of opium December 22, there have been many state­ and the invitation to terrorists to use ments of support from the U.S. and other Afghanistan as a training ground, once again governments, as well as the United Nations, action was not taken. wrhen the Taliban fin­ for the restoration of women's rights, but the ished destroying the Buddhist statues of actual resources necessary to make real

9 A s ian Update

improvements in the lives of women have The Women's Ministry should also have a been almost non-existent. One month into Women's Health Department to provide our six-month administration, the Ministry information and services for women's repro­ for Women's Affairs was still without an ductive health. The ministry also must have office. There are very different views about the authority to work with all other min­ the power and the authority that the istries to include women's programs and Women's Mfairs Ministry should be allowed. women in leadership roles in all aspects of Some within the new government may want Mghanistan's reconstruction. to see only a symbolic Women's Affairs But the Ministry for Women's Mfairs 1v1inistry with only a handful of staff, with needs real, not token, funding to make this the goal of pacifYing demands for the rights plan happen. It is estimated that an immedi­ of .i\fghan women without anything mean­ ate $67 million is needed to begin this work ingful occurring. and carry out these programs throughout the Symbolism will not give Mghan women country. The ministry needs at least a suffi­ back their rights; it will not bring education cient staff to start up, with the goal of even­ to girls nor help women make a living so that tually becoming a full-fledged ministry with they can feed themselves and their children. 700-800 staff. It must have offices in all It will not provide desperate women with thirty-two provinces of Afghanistan in order shelter when they have nowhere else to turn, to bring help to women and girls in both nor will it house girl orphans whose lives are urban areas and in villages. at stake and who risk being abducted for Overall, a reconstruction and humani­ purposes of sex trafficking. tarian-aid plan requires attention to the fol­ The Ministry for Women's Affairs needs lowing issues: the same resources as the other ministries; 1. The international community must the Ministry's job is to help more than 50 not withdraw simply because a new govern­ percent of the population who have been the ment is in place. The presence of interna­ most devastated by the past two decades of tional peacekeeping troops is essential to war and oppression. The Ministry for moving toward a peaceful, democratic Women's Affairs must have a Legal Afghanistan in which the rights of women Department to ensure that women's rights are restored. The size of the peacekeeping are in the constitution and in the law, and to force-and it's peacekeeping and disarma­ provide legal services and shelters to protect ment activities-must increase inside Kabul women. The ministry needs an Education and be extended throughout the rest of the Department to provide adultACKU literacy for country. Without security, it will not be pos­ women, computer and English classes, sible to rebuild our country. More women teacher-training courses, and special pro­ must also be included in these peace troops grams for girls who were forced to leave to serve important roles and to provide mod­ school under the Taliban. A Vocational­ els for women's full participation in society. Training Department is needed to provide 2. Massive amounts of financial aid technical training in making handicrafts, must be made available for rebuilding tending livestock, and teaching agricultural Mghanistan. Money is needed immediately techniques and other skills to women, and to enable the new government to be strong especially widows, so that they do not have enough to begin rebuilding. The interna­ to resort to begging to support themselves. tional community must make a long-term

10 Asian Update commitment to rebuilding Afghanistan, women in Afghanistan and in the refugee areas which will take many billions of dollars; who are very skilled and are in desperate need resources must be committed toward pro­ of jobs. Employing these women rather than grams to help women and girls, and assis­ relying only on international NGO and UN tance must be conditional on women's staff is necessary to rebuild the country and participation. strengthen the role of women. 3. A made-in-Afghanistan humanitarian 8. Capacity building is not the only aid and reconstruction program must be cre­ issue. Afghans have the capacity to repair ated according to the needs and require­ their infrastructure, to administer an educa­ ments of the people. Equal participation of tion system, and to recreate a health-care sys­ all ethnic groups and both sexes must also be tem. All of the "capacity building" in the assured. world will amount to nothing without real 4. The NGOs and donors must coordi­ money for Afghans, especially Afghan nate their aid to make sure that all areas of women's NGOs, to run the programs need­ the country will benefit. It is not enough to ed to provide a future for Afghan women provide aid, for example, selectively to the and their families. north or to the south. 9. Health care must also be a priority. 5. Education must be the first priority. The people of Afghanistan are exhausted, Girls and boys as well as men and women sick and traumatized. They require immedi­ must have access to all levels of education, ate help to build their own health system. including technical education, particularly Medical clinics, hospitals, and a public for the young people who have known noth­ health service need to be institutionalized to ing but war. Primary, secondary, and post­ take the country forward. secondary education are also important. 10. Women and girls must be given pri­ 6. Respect to culture and religion is ority. Ethnic groups must be given equal important, but must be interpreted accurate­ opportunity. Women and members of ethnic ly, especially as it applies to women. For minorities must be allowed to represent example, the Convention on the Elimination themselves in all decision-making bodies. of All Forms of Discrimination Against The Ministry for Women's Affairs has called Women has written an interpretation of for the loya jirga (grand assembly) to include shari'a law that protects women. Atrocities in 50 percent women. Afghanistan have often been dismissed as cultural or religious when they are, in fact, This ten-point plan may seem costly and neither. It is critical that theACKU backward move­ challenging, but research has shown that a ment on women's rights over the past years country cannot get back on its feet without does not now become institutionalized based these basic needs being met. The world has on the excuse that the restrictions that were learned a costly lesson from Afghanistan. At imposed on women by the Mujahidin and the end of the day, Afghanistan is part of the the Taliban are now a part of Afghan culture. global village, and if one part of the planet is 7. A plan that does not include employ­ sick, the virus will spread. The Afghan peo­ ment opportunities is also doomed to failure. ple, especially Afghan women and girls, Job creation in agriculture as well as all of the deserve peace, health, and prosperity. If infrastructure--roads, communication, con­ September 11 taught us anything, it is that struction-must be considered in the plan. global peace, health, and prosperity is an all­ Moreover, there are many trained Afghan for-one-and-one-for-all requirement.

11 Afghanistan : Free Trade and Regiona l Transformation

Frederick Starr

A .. Marsha ll Plan.. for Afghanistan and level agriculture in the most impoverished Central Asia , or Free Trade? mountain areas of Afghanistan and neigh­ Between October 2001 and February 2002, boring countries are especially meritorious. estimates of the cost of reconstructing After all, the worst poverty, the deepest alien­ Afghanistan grew sixfold, finally topping out ation, the most violent conflicts, and the at $30 billion. Add to this the bill for mas­ most fertile ground for narcotics trafficking sive infusions into the economy of Pakistan. are all to be found in the remote mountains Then include the essential aid to of this region. Until farmers there are able to Afghanistan's immediate neighbors to the return to their land and feed their families north. The grand total for the region is stag­ there will be no peace. gering, surely no less than $50 billion. Acknowledging both the excesses and Judging by the actions of donor countries and the insights of the development profession­ institutions at the Tokyo meeting in January, als, the fact remains that they have largely however, nothing remotely approaching this ignored the one measure that is most likely amount will be forthcoming. to alleviate poverty in Afghanistan: the Why so large a sum? Afghanistan itself reopening of regional transportation and lies in ruins and the countries along its bor­ trade. And not just in Afghanistan. The ders have suffered gravely from a generation opening of long-sealed transport corridors of warfare. But reasons go further. For the will unleash a tremendous infusion of trade international development-assistance field, and investment that will immediately bene­ the 1990s were a golden age. National and fit the whole of Central Asia, as well as international agencies as well as private foun­ Pakistan and eastern Iran. And, unlike the dations poured unprecedented amounts into more grandiose development projects being projects of every description. Thousands of put forward, this one can be achieved at rela­ professionally staffed NGOs sprang up, each tively little cost. The reason is simple: A pro­ seeking to do well by doing good. The many gram to expand regional trade will depend for sophisticated new approaches to develop­ its success not on NGOs and agencies with lit­ ment demanded an arcane new vocabulary, tle or no prior experience in the region, but on the mastery of which separated insiders from market mechanisms whose efficacy in all the outsiders like a password among Freemasons. countries involved has been proven for more This burgeoning entrepreneurialACKU and than two millennia. development community has responded to the crisis in Afghanistan by putting forward The Neglect of Trade as an Instrument the full complement of its "best practices" for Development with little regard for the total cost. On the The modern age is ill-equipped to recognize assumption that all initiatives are equally the economic potential of the trade routes valuable, it has bundled them into a kind of centering on Afghanistan and embraced Marshall Plan. what might be called the "broader Central Many of the specific proposals for Asia." Most available maps marginalize the renewing infrastructure and rebuilding region by showing it as the edge of some­ schools and medical services have real value. thing else rather than an economic and cul­ Those proposals designed to foster village- tural zone in its own right. Broader Central

12 Asian Update

Asia might appear on the far right side of a trade routes of Central Asia, these events will map of the Middle East, the left side of a mark the most fundamental change in the map of South Asia, or on the bottom of a region's fate in the past half-millennium. map of the former Soviet Union. In spite of Overland trade will again flow from India all its name, it is rarely depicted as being central the way to Iran and the Middle East, as well to anything. as to Europe. China and India will be able Alexander of Macedon shared this mis­ to trade with ease, as will the new states of perception. When he invaded Afghanistan he Central Asia and the entire Indian subconti­ believed, thanks to inaccurate briefings from nent. Chinese trade with the Middle East Aristotle, his adviser, that he was literally at will also be facilitated. Remote regions of the end of the earth, with only the World Sea Siberia will have access to the southern port beyond. He soon realized that he had arrived of Karachi, and Russian-Pakistani and instead at the navel, or omphalos, of a vast Russian-Indian commerce can flourish as network of transportation and trade that con­ never before. nected the Middle East with India and China, the West with the East, north with south. Establishing a Free-Trade Zone in the Before long, silk for Roman togas was passing Central Asian Region: Four Prerequisites this way, as were precious metals from the How might this occur? To unleash such a Mediterranean, swift horses, and even musi­ heady possibility, four prerequisites must be cians, all bound for the East, which is why put in place: Marco Polo later passed through Afghanistan (1) Bridges and tunnels must be rebuilt en route to China. Afghanistan was also the and, in some cases, constructed anew. This knot of South-North interaction. Buddhism is a big task but not insurmountable. Several reached China from India by passing first of the most costly and time-consuming engi­ through Afghanistan and Central Asia. neering projects are already in place and Mughals and other invaders of India all passed require only to be rehabilitated. The this way as well. Freedom Bridge linking Afghanistan and The vast trading zone centering on Uzbekistan at Termez and the Salang Tunnel Afghanistan went into eclipse after 1500 further south on the same trunk route fall A.D. Political instability and the rise of sail­ into this category. The product of former ing ships turned the region into a backwater. Soviet aid programs designed to draw Russian and British imperialists further Afghanistan into the Russian orbit, these sol­ weakened the basis of trade by treating the id bluprints can now foster a more equitable area as a buffer zone. TheACKU final blow fell form of regional integration. Another suc­ when Joseph Stalin cut the region in half and cessful example of foreign aid money used to created, on the USSR's southern flank, the construct road infrastructure are the impres­ longest and most closed border on earth. sive bridges along the Karakorum Highway The revolution in Iran, the Red Army's inva­ linking China's Xinjiang region with sion of Afghanistan, and the gradual decay of Islamabad in Pakistan. Pakistan's economy destroyed what little Hundreds of bridges and several tunnels trade still lingered. must be rebuilt if trade is to reopen. The If the fall of the Taliban and the reestab­ effort should begin with the trunk lines but lishment of a stable government in then extend to feeder routes that will facili­ Afghanistan lead to a reopening of the great tate the marketing of farm goods from deep

13 Asian Update

in the hinterland. While large international types of potential hijackers must all be con­ construction firms might undertake the pro­ strained: (a) Existing warlords and local jects, these ventures could be carried out at criminal groups have already found it expe­ far less cost by firms from the new states of dient to hijack some of the few trucks that Central Asia and other neighboring coun­ are venturing across Afghanistan's roads, tries. Several have the necessary experience stealing their content, and holding drivers at seismic and high altitude construction. for ransom; (b) new professional mafias will It is worth noting that even during the quickly arise and begin to function on a period of Taliban rule in Aghanistan that regional basis. These already exist along several neighbors showed interest in expand­ some of the highways of Pakistan and India's ing overland trade across that country to Rajasthan, as well as in former Soviet Central South Asia (China's Karakorum Highway Asia. It is likely that these mafias will seize has already been mentioned). With financial the opportunity to extend their reach as soon assistance from the United Arab Emirates, as it is possible to do so; (c) underpaid and Iran was on the verge of reconstructing unsupervised government officials, as well as bridges along the Mashad-Herat-Kabul rogue military units, can all too easily highway when the September 11 attacks in become part of the problem. New York City and Washington, D.C., Truckers everywhere know that there is occurred. Impelled by similar logic, the safety in numbers, and that real security will Minister of Foreign Affairs, Abdulaziz come only when traffic is greatly expanded. Komilov of Uzbekistan declared two years To reach that level, it will be important to ago that "the key to Central Asia is increase the likelihood that attacks will be Afghanistan," and began exploring the possi­ reported and that road security becomes a bilities of opening the trunk roads that regional rather than a purely national issue. would make it possible for Uzbekistan to This can be achieved through the establish­ trade with Pakistan via Afghanistan. ment of well-paid and coordinated patrols Further stages of several new routes along the highways, the opening of regional should be constructed as well. Thus, a road consulates, and by coordinating all reporting that directly links the northern areas of and action through some kind of bilateral or Pakistan with the Badakhshan region of multinational entities. It is worth noting that Afghanistan and Tajikistan would create an Turkmenistan maintained what were in effect opening to the region's poorest mountain ter­ two consulates in Afghanistan throughout the ritories. In this case, much of the preliminary Taliban years, and Uzbekistan has already route analyses are already in ACKUhand, thanks to opened a consulate in Mazar-e-Sharif to han­ the work of a Pakistani commission formed dle trade issues as they arise. by Benazir Bhutto to foster trade across (3) Effective and uncorruptible national Afghanistan to the new states to the north. agencies must be established to collect tariffs However, the number of such possible new and imposts at border crossings, which will roads is small, because nearly all of the be far more difficult to achieve than it may region's key arteries have existed for centuries. seem. When the Islamist forces of the United (2) Basic security must be established Tajik Opposition joined the government at along these routes. Truckers must be free the end of the civil war there, one of their from the constant fear of hijacking to get few demands was for control over the their rigs from one place to another. Three Customs Ministry. They correctly saw this

14 Asian Update as a means of self-enrichment, not only by Central Asian Cooperation Organization, siphoning off fees, but also by extorting pay­ the Shanghai Six, or even the long moribund ments from shippers and by taking bribes Economic Cooperation Organization. from drug traffickers. Soon the ministry's However, a new interministerial entity parking lot in Dushanbe was filled with would probably be more effective and could expensive, imported automobiles. be established with support and assistance One of the areas in which foreign assis­ from international donors. tance would be most useful is in the creation or upgrading of customs agencies through­ Trade Initiatives: What Is Not Required out the region. Because customs duties are These, then, are the four prerequisites for likely to be one of the single largest sources reopening regional trade in Central Asia. of income for the poorer governments in the Although they are not simple, it is worth not­ region, the stakes are high. Only with inter­ ing what is not included on this list. For exam­ national help will the various states, and par­ ple, the issue of road surfaces. This is certainly ticularly Afghanistan, be able to manage the important; at some point roads must be necessary incentives and threats of punish­ checked and rebuilt. But broader Central Asia ment in such a way as to produce effective already boasts tens of thousands of hardy customs collection. truckers who are accustomed to getting their Even the existence of professionally rigs over the most gruesome terrain, as long as staffed customs agencies in the participating the main bridges and tunnels are open. It countries will not assure the easy flow of would be a waste of time and money for inter­ trade throughout the region. Unless the national donors to create a system of Afghan states involved are willing to extend prefer­ or Central Asian autobahns when so much less ential transit fees for regional transport and is required to get traffic moving. to coordinate those fees with one another, Nor do donors need concern themselves the new transport web will prove stillborn. with any of the infrastructure besides bridges Uzbekistan recognized this when its cabinet and tunnels. Gas stations, repair facilities, and of ministers recently voted to establish favor­ all other necessary services will arise on their able rates for commercial cargo being own, as has already occurred wherever traffic shipped to and from neighboring countries. has expanded. The roads west from Herat into But their resulting rates are still high and will Iran, from Quetta in Pakistan to Kandahar, remain so, until all respective countries come from Dushanbe east to Badakhshan, or the to realize that the only way they can maxi­ entire Khyber Pass, may all be extremely prim­ mize income is by loweringACKU levies and itive, but they do not lack in essential services, increasing volume. This realization will not thanks to private entrepreneurs. come easily nor will it come unilaterally, for each country will view low rates on its bor­ Further Prospects in Transport and Regional der as a gift to its neighbor's treasury. Commerce Some kind of international consultative The opening of key roads will revive trade body will be needed, a regional agency where and expand security. Equally important, it information concerning customs policies can will create conditions under which other be exchanged and, over time, coordinated. forms of international transport and com­ This could be accomplished through one of merce will become attractive. The first to the existing entities, the newly refashioned follow will be the railroads, which in most

15 As i an Update cases geographically parallel the highways. Now this prospect is coming into view. It is Although a basic railroad network will still inconceivable that Indian and Pakistani need large investments, this network is investors will not find opportunities in the already in place and can be revived and lands to the North, as Chinese investors have expanded once general conditions improve. already done. Hard on the heels of railroads should be the structures necessary for the transport of Benefits and Costs of Trade energy throughout the region. Even during What is the likely economic value of all trade the period ofTaliban rule in Afghanistan, the and investment that will result from the revival government of China was exploring the pos­ of land transportation and trucking through sibility of reviving the old Unocal-Bridas the broader region of Central Asia? Even project to construct a gas pipeline from though the Bhutto-era commission in Turkmenistan to Multan in Pakistan and, Pakistan attempted to estimate the amount, potentially, to India. Several groups are con­ any figure would be merely a guess. What is sidering how to revive that project and even known for sure is that the opening of regional to expand it to include an oil pipeline. If this land-transportation systems will help Central project does happen it will lay to rest fanci­ Asia, including Afghanistan, overcome an eco­ ful Indian schemes for building an underwa­ nomic isolation that has only deepened. ter pipeline from Iran to Gujarat or a During these years nearly all trade from the mountain pipeline from Turkmenistan dear ancient centers of Central Asia was inefficient­ across Tajikistan and into India via Xinjiang. ly channeled northward through Russia. Still another important source of future Though it is true that Afghanistan shipped regional commerce is hydroelectric energy. fruits and vegetables to Russia before 1979, T his field should become an important the reciprocal, balanced, and many-sided magnet for long-term international invest­ exchange of goods and products that is the ments. Uzbekistan has already revived the hallmark of a healthy trading system did not sale of electricity from gas-driven plants to exist. Nor did it exist among any other border northern Afghanistan, along with gas and in the region, be it Pakistan-Afghanistan, Iran­ ·heating oil. The hydroelectric potential of Afghanistan, India-Pakistan, China-Tajikistan, Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan ranks dose to the Kyrgyzstan-China, and so on. top worldwide. Its development awaited The result was an economic isolation secure access to markets, especially those in that even now imposes a kind of "distance Afghanistan and Pakistan. Because these tariff" on all goods and products entering or upland countries lack gas andACKU oil, their abil­ leaving the region. ity to sell hydroelectric power may be the For Afghanistan and all its neighbors to key to their ability to purchase urgently the north, the key to overcoming this isola­ needed hydrocarbon fuels. tion will be easy access to the port of Energy is not the only sector likely to Karachi. Most world centers of wealth are attract outside investment. Prominent ocean ports, or are at least closely linked or Indian manufacturers touring Kazakhstan situated near them. Just as the Indus River and Uzbekistan in 1997 stated that they valley was the "switch-point" for trade and would move immediately to develop activi­ cultural contact as early as the Harappa cul­ ties in former Soviet Central Asia "as soon as ture, it will again become so, with Karachi as we can get trucks up there from Bombay." its link with the sea. China recognized this

16 Asian Update

truth when it recently committed itself to broader region of Central Asia, they are fully help in the construction of new port facilities matched by the huge gains in world security west of Karachi. that will flow from these changes. Indeed, it Though the full economic impact of is hard to imagine any other practical and renewed trade in Central Asia can only be simple steps anywhere that would bring guessed, we can speak more confidently of about greater geopolitical benefits for all. the social effects. Free trade will create mar­ There are ten different areas in which kets, which will then create jobs. The cost to these improvements will be quickly felt: remote mountaineers of seeds, livestock, (1) The revival of regional trade will do equipment, and other necessities will more than any other single measure to decline. Farmers in the Ferghana Valley and rebuild the Afghan economy, generate state further north in Kazakhstan will be able to income, and enable the government to pro­ market their products in India, as they did vide security and basic human services to its four centuries ago in Mughal times. Trade people. This in turn will undercut the will generate governmental income from tax­ appeal of extremist and criminal activities. es and tariffs, which will help support securi­ And it will do so in a way that reinforces ty forces, basic human services, and Afghanistan's need to maintain cordial rela­ education. As all this comes to pass, those tions with all its neighbors. conditions that have given rise to a culture of (2) Trade with Afghanistan and the violence, religious fanaticism, and narco­ broader region of Central Asia, as well as business across the region will begin to fade. with India and Iran, will stimulate the flag­ These benefits will not come without a ging economy of Pakistan. The port of price. Everywhere on earth trucking and Karachi will become a regional hub and overland trade offer tempting opportunities Pakistani businesses will be able to exploit for corruption, especially in the sphere of new opportunities in every direction. tariff and tax collection. Smuggling, too, has (3) Indians will not choose to remain always been a huge enterprise in the broader aloof from this opportunity, even if the price region of Central Asia and remains so today. is improved relations with Pakistan. Until the establishment of freer trade and Although this will not in itself resolve the lower tariffs, smuggling will, doubtlesstly conflict over Kashmir, it will improve the cli­ continue, and with it will come the criminal mate in which the parties address that thorny gangs that feed on it. Hijacking will thrive problem. until national and international controls are (4) Through regionwide trade to the strengthened. Even moreACKU ominous is the northeast and east, Iran will reclaim its tradi­ further spread of AIDS, which is proliferat­ tional vocation as a pragmatic trading state. ing along the highways and trade routes of This will tip today's fragile balance between Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent, mullahs and merchants in favor of the latter, thanks to widespread prostitution and intra­ hastening positive political change in that venous drug use. country. It will also cause Iran to look eastward and will distance it from the messy and seem­ Geopolitical Benefits of Expanded Trade in ingly intractable problems of the Arab world. the Broader Region of Central Asia (5) By renewing trade with their old-age However great the economic and social ben­ partners to the south and southeast and by efits of renewed regional trade across the gaining direct access to the nearby port of

17 Asian Update

Karachi, the new states of Central Asia will well. All this will cut the ground from under become economically more viable and sus­ those in the Russian military and intelligence tainable. Although regionwide trade will services who feel that they must somehow benefit all five of these states, the impover­ regain a deciding voice in Central Asian ished mountain countries of Tajikistan and affairs. The waning of neo-imperial senti­ Kyrgyzstan will see the biggest gains as they ment will in turn enhance the prospects for acquire the ability to market their most valu­ more open public life in Russia. able product, hydroelectric power. (1 0) The establishment of stable and (6) Trade will encourage all the Central prosperous regimes m neighboring Asian leaders and their governments to work Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and with, rather than against, each other because Tajikistan, and the fading of radical Islamist these economic benefits can be reaped only currents there will address China's major when harmonious and productive relations security objective, namely, that these coun­ prevail among the regional states. tries not become transmission points for (7) In the five new states, as in destabilizing movements within Turkic and Afghanistan, Pakistan and Iran, trade and Muslim Xinjiang. While this will not resolve investment will favor the formation of an the question of Xinjiang autonomy (any independent middle class and undercut the more than it will resolve the analogous issue appeal of radical Islamist movements. As the in Kashmir), it will at least improve the cli­ new governments gain in confidence they mate in which it can be considered. will be able to tolerate greater openness and participation by members of the public. America's Decisive Role in Building This will in turn strengthen their identity as a New Central Asia moderate Islamic societies ruled by secular Reviewing this list, it is clear that the estab­ states. As such, they will present an alterna­ lishment of free trade throughout the broad­ tive model of modern development to the er region of Central Asia promises benefits entire Muslim world. for all and liabilities for none. This is a pol­ (8) Through the opening of trade rela­ icy that is not directed against the interests of tions with their natural partners to the south any state in the region. On the contrary, it is and access to the port of Karachi, the new a policy that promotes the long-term objec­ states of Central Asia will shed their one­ tives of all the states and their peoples. sided dependence on Russia and reduce that The regional transformation described country's ability to control their overall des­ above will take place on its own, without any tinies. Stated differently, freeACKU trade will do major push from any quarter. Supporting this for these countries what multiple pipelines claim is the fact that the changes in question will do for the oil-producing countries of the are neither new nor revolutionary. Rather, Caspian basin. they will bring about the reestablishment of (9) The growth of stability 1n certain relationships that proved their value Afghanistan and the broader region of over the course of several thousand years. The Central Asia will address what Russia has, for first steps along these lines are already visible, a decade, identified as its number one secu­ lending further credibility to this argument. rity concern. Free trade with the south all At the same time, the region in question the way to Pakistan and India will stimulate poses unique dangers. No other area on the the flagging economies of the Urals region as planet is surrounded by four, possibly five, Asian Update nuclear powers and a sixth power, Turkey, a to consider the needs of trade and invest­ NATO member. Nowhere else do the tec­ ment throughout the region of which tonic plates of several great civilizations and Afghanistan is the center. The limited pur­ economic zones grind so directly against one pose of this conference should be to address another. So while the opening of freer trade the four prerequisites enumerated above. In may somehow be in the natural order of taking this step, the United States would things, the risks of the process going awry are declare at the outset that it seeks no further enormous. And were that to happen, it role for itself in this matter. However, the would put at risk not one but several of the United States must stand ready to provide relationships on which world security is financial assistance to put in place the four grounded. prerequisites, or to lead an effort to raise the Therefore, however distant the United necessary money from other countries and States may be from this region, it cannot be donors. In comparison with the price tag on indifferent to any conflicts that arise because a Marshall Plan for Afghanistan and all of they would inevitably involve major powers Central Asia, the cost of this important ini­ with which it maintains vital relationships. tiative will be modest. And it is far more It necessarily behooves America to do what it likely to work. can to bring about the transformation described above. To fail to do so would be to throw away all the potential good that can flow from its Afghan intervention. But there is another, and yet more deci­ sive reason for the United States to assume a firm position of leadership in this matter. We have argued that every country in the region has reason to support the reestablish­ ment of the historic trade and culture zone of Central Asia. Yet, at the same time, if any one of the regional powers or even any sub­ grouping of them were to seek to assume leadership in this process, it would arouse understandable anxieties among the others. The most basic truth regarding this emerg­ ing region is that no singleACKU power or pair of powers can provide the security umbrella that the region as a whole so urgently needs. Unilateral action by any one or group of the participants, even if it is in the name of a common good, would be seen as an attempt to gain unilateral advantage at the expense of the others. For this reason, the president of the United States should convene an interna­ tional conference to be held in Washington

19 International Assistance for Afghan Reconstruction Gets a Second Chance

Marvin G. Weinbaum

A virtual international consensus exists the victorious Mujahidin, and then against around the propositiOn that unless the emergent Taliban movement. Afghanistan embarks on the road toward Rehabilitation and reconstruction were put early reconstruction, both economic and on the backburner by a post-communist political, the circumstances that produced regime unable to pacify the country or warlordism and the Taliban, and promoted extend its writ far beyond the capital. terrorism and drug cultivation, are likely to Prospective foreign benefactors lost interest reappear. Many inside and outside in aiding a recovery. Any lingering feeling Afghanistan remain deeply concerned that that the West was indebted to the Afghans the international community will retreat for a resistance in the 1980s that helped top­ from its commitments of assistance once ple the Soviet Union disappeared with the m ilitary objectives are realized and the recov­ factional in-fighting. Nor was the advent of ery process confronts the inevitable impedi­ the Taliban, a regime dedicated to fighting ments. Those who are skeptical point to the and enforcing their religious edicts, any loss of interest in Afghanistan following the more conducive to beginning a rebuilding withdrawal of the Soviet military in 1989 process. The Taliban created obstacles that and the fall of the Afghan communist regime constantly tested the patience of organiza­ in 1992. tions providing assistance, even for those There are some obvious similarities attempting to deliver humanitarian aid. between then and now. A decade ago, the Though generous offers of international collapse of the communist regime had also development aid remained on the table, they left behind an autocratic regime trying to were contingent on the attainment of a imposed its rigid, partly alien value system. cease-fire and a political compromise by war­ Opposition political figures, analagous to ring parties. today's Afghan Interim Authority (AlA), An alternative approach to assistance who had stubbornly persisted against great during Taliban rule might have sought to odds, promised a new kind of leadership. capitalize on popular demand for programs The country was fired up with the expecta­ by a population desperate to rebuild their tion that a new governing arrangement lives. A strategy concerning reconstruction­ would be more representative of the coun­ that sought to bypass the Taliban could try's people and its traditions.ACKU Afghans in probably have marginalized this regime by this era also looked hopefully to outside establishing its irrelevance. In time, this pol­ assistance to embark on a long-awaited icy might have led to an erosion of followers national recovery. International agencies and in an essentially shallow movement. Leaders bilateral donor countries appeared to be in Kandahar correctly feared that they were gearing up to resurrect the country after vulnerable to any force that might be better years of destructive warfare. able to meet the basic needs of the people. Afghanistan in the 1990s regressed into But in order to succeed, such a strategy further civil war, first among the militias of would have required a convincingly strong

The views expressed here are those of the author and do not necessari ly represent those of any government agency.

20 Asian Update commitment of resources by the internation­ dement activities may strengthen transition­ al community and nations' willingness to al political institutions by providing direc­ bear with the possibility that it might initial­ tion and purpose. Moreover, investment in ly be seen as rewarding the Taliban. human and physical capital can be the polit­ The military collapse of the Taliban has ical tool that induces cooperation among cleared the way for what is generally con­ political actors. Control over the resources of ceded to be an unrivaled opportunity to reconstruction furnishes blatant rewards to revive the Afghan state and society. The win over those reluctant or resistant. Bonn agreement ofNovember 2001 charted Material incentive is a critical element in a political reconstruction through an inter­ inducing regional and local "strongmen" to im administration, transitional government, keep security and to feel a stake in the pro­ national elections, and loya jirga, (grand jects under way in their areas of control. An assembly). Afghanistan with energies devoted primarily Without an international presence at to its rebuilding can, in time, transform Bonn that offered encouragement and political realities, creating the political space applied pressures, the accord probably would in which new political figures and interests not have taken place. The accord gave testi­ can emerge. mony to a new level of international engage­ Because reconstruction is intimately tied ment for at least the immediate future. with governance, little or no progress is pos­ Subsequent meetings among "' donor coun­ sible in delivering short and long-term tries and international creditors have given development programs without a reasonably additional indication that a credible and sub­ secure environment. Aside from policing, stantial commitment of assistance is in the the rule of law requires a rejuvenated judi­ offing. The reconstruction process is _not cial system that, as in the past, was both expected to proceed smoothly due to domes­ codified and sharia-based. These practices tic and foreign detractors who are deter­ will additionally give the assurances needed mined to try to undermine or exploit it. But to encourage private-sector investment. in early 2002, at least, the prospects look rea­ Above all, sustained development demands sonably bright for expanding emergency that all Afghans be full participating part­ relief and for progress in coordinating long­ ners in identifying the priorities for recon­ range programs of reconstruction. struction, particularly at the community Although this essay is mainly about the level. For decisions to be realized, a system rebuilding of the Afghan economy and phys­ of representation is required that not only ical infrastructure, an underlyingACKU theme here allows people to gain confidence in their is that Afghan political and economic recon­ leaders but also to see earlier evidence of the struction mutually reinforce each other. fruits of their participation. Though both concerns need not proceed at the same pace, a serious lag in one will even­ Governance and Administration tually jeopardize the other. Plainly, humani­ Afghanistan for the foreseeable future will be tarian relief cannot wait for political issues to a weak state. As history has instructed, Kabul be resolved, and longer-term rehabilitation should not try to exert intrusive rule. The and reconstruction may have to be set in fate of the communist regime in 1978-79 motion before permanent political institu­ reminds us what happens when Afghan tions are in place. Rehabilitation and reset·- rulers try forcefully to penetrate the society

21 Asian Update

with their ideologies. There is wide agree­ come. Where they exist, it may also be possible ment, then, that programs must be funded at to work mainly with shuras (local councils). the provincial and district levels. A decen­ Some siphoning off of recovery aid can be tralized distribution of resources offers the tolerated and, to a degree, controlled. There is best chance for maximum impact on the a price to pay for gaining the cooperation of largest number of people, giving the most local commanders and others. But it must promise that projects will meet real needs have a material basis. Most need a stake in the identified in the community. As much as reconstruction process if it is to go forward. It possible, the effort must work through local may also be possible to coopt these individuals institutions where they exist, and induce by allowing them to become part of the eco­ their formation, where they do not. nomic planning of their areas. The hope is that Dispersing assistance directly to the local lev­ they will conclude that their influence and el will obviate the need for a large, central­ political clout, not to mention opportunities ized aid bureaucracy in Kabul, itself a recipe for personal gain, are better served with eco­ for serious corruption and mismanagement. nomic development that also enriches their Nevertheless, even with the dispersal of communities. Strong popular demand for political power, a viable central government recovery in the countryside may work best to must exist for reconstruction to go forward, deter locally powerful figures from concentrat­ even if that center exercises only limited ing solely on smuggling or drug trafficking. authority. Ideally, national institutions are Over time, many traditional authority and best positioned to provide oversight and military figures may not be able to compete for coordination to projects. The involvement of development resources. A new social and finance, foreign affairs, revenue, and customs political order could emerge and bring to the ministries may be indispensable. The former fore leaders better equipped to manage the king and a loya jirga can be useful in provid­ reconstruction. ing legitimacy by giving externally funded The delivery of services and completion programs an Afghan stamp of approval. of development projects require some demo­ Furthermore, aid agencies and the creditor bilization of militias and efforts to disarm community, not to mention other states, are the population. For some time, it may be accustomed to working with central govern­ impossible to confiscate any but heavy ments. At a minimum, international and weapons. While multinational troops will Afghan state actors need some national enti­ initially provide protection for leaders and ty and officials to hold responsible.ACKU some relief operations, they must also assist Admittedly, reconstruction channeled early on in the recruiting and training of an locally provides valuable patronage, enhanc­ urban police, a force of gendarmes assigned ing the power of local leaders. Those with outside the cities, and eventually the absorp­ access to funds and the ability to use them tion of anti-Taliban fighters into a national will acquire influence that carries beyond the army. Gendarmes and the army can partici­ reconstruction process. To the fullest extent pate in public works projects and de-mining possible, efforts should be made to keep operations. In the short term, they can help these influentials from diverting the with food-delivery assistance and over the resources. Assistance channeled through long term be trained with development­ experienced NGOs can minimize that out- related skills that they can apply as civilians.

22 Asian Update

Programs from abroad, all of whom should be encour­ The price tag will be high because much of aged to return no faster than they can be safe­ the rebuilding must start from scratch. ly and effectively absorbed. The first priority Recovery will absorb between $1 and $1.5 concerning refugees is to feed the returnees billion yearly, and will require from five to and provide some shelter. Women must be tar­ ten years of outside direct assistance. After geted for health, education, and employment, meeting emergency humanitarian needs, the as well as efforts to ensure that resources get to emphasis is expected to be on those pro­ remote areas, including the central highlands. grams that are income-generating, and are (See Mghanistan's Minister of Women's focused initially on the country's infrastruc­ Affairs, Sima Samar's essay in this Update.) ture. Programs must be fast-dispersing, and, Because many refugee families have spent a where possible, labor-intensive. As already generation in camps, separated from their noted, community-level development pro­ land, those returning to agricultural pursuits jects seem best designed to maximize returns may not have basic farming skills and may on the investment. need assistance to survive. Land-tenure dis­ Planners hope for a more or less seamless putes are inevitable, and mechanisms of adju­ transition from humanitarian relief to rehabil­ dication are needed. itation and reconstruction. Many programs The Mghan disapora is expected to make with longer-term goals can be incorporated a contribution to reconstruction. Many of into those designed to meet immediate basic those returning from Iran will have strong needs. The rebuilding of the road system skills in the construction industry, and large must receive the highest attention among numbers from Pakistan are experienced in reconstruction goals. Housing, water, and entrepreneurial activities. Those better-educat­ electricity must also be of priorities. ed Mghans who have settled in Europe and Agriculture will obviously be important to the United States can bring back special skills create employment, and a counter-narcotics and financial resources, but only a relatively strategy will try to discourage poppy growing small proportion are expected to return for any through crop substitution. Rebuilding the but short periods. The most immediately country's irrigation systems and providing available pool of talent for reconstruction as access to credit for farmers are indispensable, well as administrative roles resides in the many as is de-mining if agricultural projects are to dedicated and skilled Afghans who have go forward. In time the rebuilding of schools worked with NGOs, most of which are for­ and hospitals must also be on the agenda, as eign-sponsored. There are at least a thousand well as small industry, eventually.ACKU By also individuals who can be enlisted in a reasonably focusing on civic education and support for short time. civil society, people ordinarily will be able to participate in the political discourse and be The International Role employed to aid in decision-making, setting The funding of programs will come from priorities for reconstruction. bilateral contributions from donor countries, No programs can be successful if they do multinational grants, and the international not allow the large majority of refugees to financial agencies. No recovery program car­ return to their home areas. Aside from the ries a good prognosis without some assur­ internally displaced persons, there is the ances of long-term commitment by the daunting problem of repatriation of refugees major donors toward a fund that is large

23 Asian Update

enough to be credible and also demonstrates sometimes useful to encourage domestic international confidence in those who have cooperation, international development assumed power in Afghanistan. Many argue agencies and N GOs are not as comfortable for a single trust fund for development aid. as bilateral aid donors with using aid as a To have multiple funds is to invite duplica­ political weapon. tion and waste and, potentially, competition Regional states will, of course, be tempt­ from various countries for influence. A single ed to continue to pursue their commercial fund does not have to detract from efforts to and national interests in Afghanistan, and inaugurate quick-dispersing, high-impact geopolitics will not disappear in the postcon­ programs aimed at the community level. flict period. However, for all neighboring International conferences of potential countries, political stability in Afghanistan is donors have already begun to focus on the currently preferable to the civil turmoil of mechanisms and organization of reconstruc­ the recent past. For the short term at least, tion activities. these neighbors seem content to support Many argue that the UN is a necessary Afghan recovery and accept assurances that catalyst for reconstruction, ideally within a governments in Kabul will not be unfriend­ unified UN structure such as the United ly. No neighboring country has territorial Nations Development Programme (UNDP). designs on Afghanistan that aim at absorbing The UN would take the lead in attracting those with crossborder ethnic and religious donor countries and supervising the larger affinities, though they are likely to defend effort. A UN -named reconstruction czar the right of minorities to be treated equi­ could provide visibility and ensure better tably. All the same, regional states may try to coordination of programs. (At this date this steer reconstruction on behalf of ethnic or has not occurred, though Lakhdar Brahimi sectarian interest groups. has a good assistant and the AlA has named Afghans have no problem with foreign Ashraf Ghani for this task). The World Bank assistance; they have always welcomed those and regional banks also expect to be brought who have come to assist them, and know the into the planning and financing, especially difference between those who seek to help over the long run. Many NGOs, accustomed and those have come to dominate them. to coordinating with UN agencies, already Often, outsiders who have stressed Afghan have in-country experience and will be dele­ independence and xenophobia as barriers gated responsibilities for the delivery of assis­ have exaggerated these features to excuse tance. National aid organizations, with their their unwillingness to make a commitment experiences in large-scale ACKUengineering pro­ to fund aid programs. jects, may be indispensable for major con­ struction projects such as roads, bridges, and Conclusion power systems. The idea of having individual International assistance is indispensable to countries "adopt" a ministry for providing Afghanistan if it is to avoid falling back technical assistance has its advocates. toward the anarchy of a warlord system. Although there is a history of linking min­ Though the initial focus must be on meeting istries and programs with particular donor humanitarian needs, only a sustained inter­ countries, the concern is that a bilateral national commitment on several dimensions approach may fragment the new govern­ of reconstruction offers any hope for politi­ ment. On the other hand, if assistance is cal stability and real improvement in the

24 ;\sian Update lives of the Afghan people. Furthermore, Even with the promised contributions of without progress in the country's rehabilita­ bilateral and multilateral international tion, Afghanistan seems likely to become donors and the dedicated activities of UN once again a source of threat to its neighbors agencies and NGOs, the principal responsi­ and to raise global concerns over terrorism bility for rebuilding will fall to the Afghans and drug production and trafficking. themselves. Afghan reconstruction will fail Some will contend that law and order to meet its aims if a reasonably inclusive, must be largely restored before a full-scale responsible political system does not emerge reconstruction effort can get underway. along with economic improvements. The Pockets of resistance to the interim govern­ post-Taliban period is bound to leave many ment, from remnants of both the Taliban disappointed with the degree of political and regime and the disaffected elements that social integration attained, and the quality of fought them, are likely to be present for civic activity and popular participation. Yet, some time. Certainly, projects that cannot be there must be some progress in these areas if given protection will be discouraged or aban­ the economic and human benefits of recov­ doned, and the full benefits never realized. ery are to be widely felt. The country's lead­ But serious delays in commencing programs ers will have to intelligently manage will undermine the country's new rulers and contentious issues arising from a foreign raise doubts about the international commit­ dependency, unsettled social mores, and eth­ ment. It may, therefore, be necessary to push nic sensitivities for the reconstruction ahead with reconstruction under less than process to stay on track. The Afghans and ideal conditions as the best means of creating the international community have received new political stakes and a constituency dedi­ another chance to accomplish what escaped cated to building the institutions of respon­ them a decade ago. As of early 2002, they sible government. By stimulating legitimate are off to a good, albeit slow start. economic activity, a strong counterforce can be created to check or transform the coun­ try's political rogues. A reviving economy stands a good chance of displacing those who view the spoils of war as their preferred option. The reconstruction of Afghanistan can have regional economic implications. Realization of a healthier ACKUeconomic life can energize trade region-wide. An Afghanistan that will be subsidized for many years from international sources should become a mar­ ket for many of the goods and services avail­ able in the region. With roads improved and secure, commerce can move freely across the land and, of course, there can be a revisiting of the idea that the country could serve as a site of gas and oil pipelines, to the benefit of all parties.

25 Peace-Building in Afghanistan: A Role for Civil Society

Mohammed Ehsan Zia

I like to believe that people, in the long run, are Civil Society Building as the "totality of inter­ going to do more to promote peace than our mediate associational (public) realm between governments. the state and its citizens." This realm is pop­ -President Dwight D. Eisenhower ulated by organizations that are separate on British television (1959) from the state, but enjoy autonomy in rela­ tion to the state. Introduction Civil society is now recognized as an The Bonn agreement of November 2001, important and legitimate actor in the realm which was reached between warlords and of peace-building and democratization, political elites, provides a framework for along with the government and the private building peace in Afghanistan; it must be sector. Strong civil-society institutions, inter­ maintained and implemented in its entirety. acting with the state, can create innovative The agreement also provides for civic partic­ solutions to complex social and economic ipation in the process of peace-building and problems. A vibrant and diverse civil society recovery. Practical steps, however, are needed can also provide an atmosphere of accessibil­ to ensure the realization of a lasting peace for ity so that poor and marginalized people are Afghans, and the subsequent development of able to participate in their own social, eco­ their country. nomic, cultural, and political development. What does "civil society" mean in the The strengths of civil-society organiza­ Afghan context, and who are the actors and tions largely depend on their respective con­ stakeholders that need to be involved in the stituencies. If these organizations are formed process? Civil society in the context of voluntarily by citizens outside the govern­ Afghanistan is a vague concept, because the ment, chances are that such organizations country has never had democracy and democ­ will gain strength, become vibrant and inclu­ ratic institutions. Peace is a process that requires sive, and will survive the political turmoil a social foundation capable of maintaining itself that may occur. through permanent self-nurturance. In totalitarian societies, Saunders argues The first section of this essay centers on in A Public Process, most organizations are the development of peace as it pertains to a spawned and controlled by a single domi­ civil society. The second section analyzes the nant, quasi-official political party. When questions: How can civilACKU society in totalitarian rule collapses, those organiza­ Afghanistan best be strengthened for peace­ tions are dismissed, and in some cases, the building? And what role can the internation­ initial vacuum is filled by armed groups al community play to encourage peace vying for control. within Afghanistan? The last section presents During communist rule (1978-92), context-specific strategies for peace-building. Afghanistan witnessed a large number of civic organizations that were established I. Civil Society mainly by the government in order to serve Civil society in its modern conception pri­ the interests of the regimes rather than to marily refers to citizenship and social rela­ promote or protect any social value. With tions between people and state, and has been the collapse of the regime, these organiza­ defined by Kees Biekart in his Politics of tions have also disappeared. T he exposure of

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Afghans to the outside world has created a Shuras were established locally without assis- new set of civil-society organizations that . tance, while elsewhere aid organizations participate in the delivery of humanitarian were instrumental in the establishment of aid and rehabilitation efforts. Javwed Ludin the Shuras to ensure local participation in argues, however, that most of these efforts do their programs. not begin at a grassroots level and are indis­ Although the establishment of other tinguishable from other foreign NGOs work­ civil society organizations with more formal ing in Afghanistan. At present, the majority of structures will take time, for example, trade Afghan NGOs more easily identifY with inter­ unions, women's groups, teachers' associa­ national organizations than with Afghan soci­ tions, youth groups, farmers' associations, ety. This is because a majority of these existing structures such as N GOs and, most organizations have been established by those important, the Shura should be mobilized in exile; their organizational growth and insti­ and their capacities strengthened to ensure tutional development have been hampered by Afghan ownership of reconstruction and insufficient funding and the lack of a secure peace-building. national environment. However, Afghan However, a word of caution: the Shura is NGOs, along with other international actors, entirely a male forum and runs the risk of have played an important role in the delivery isolating the female population, which can of humanitarian assistance and will continue play an even more significant role in the to actively take part in the recovery process. process of peace-building. Concerted efforts are required for the creation of space and Shuras opportunities so that women's organizations Afghanistan is also witnessing the emergence can begin to flourish and participate in the of social institutions at the community level, process of peace-building and development. which, according to Sima Wali, President of Refugee Women in Develpment, is largely II. Capacity-Building due to the collapse of state institutions in the At present, there is a growing recognition of last twenty-two years. In some areas these the dire need for capacity-building at all lev­ social institutions, known as Shuras, have els. Given the social, political, and economic provided services within their communities. devastation and, in particular, the collapse of The word Shura has Qura' nic/Arabic origins state institutions, capacity-building is an and means "deliberation." The term was enormous task popularized by the Mujahidin political par­ The term "capacity development" was ties during the Soviet occupationACKU and per­ only recently introduced into development tained to military operations inside jargon. One peace scholar sees the term as Afghanistan; since then the word has been broadly used, stating that it may "encompass commonly used. The traditional function of any outside intervention or input aimed at the Shura is to resolve internal and external increasing the organizational or technical conflicts and to take care of communal capacity of an NGO" for better implementa­ chores. But the absence of state institutions tion of its programs. Along the same lines, as well as with the need for local representa­ another sees capacity development as tion in aid agencies, have led the Shura to "strengthening people's capacity to deter­ become increasingly involved in the imple­ mine their own values and priorities, and to mentation of aid programs. In some areas, organise themselves to act on these."

27 Asian Update

For peace-building, capacity develop­ recovery programs has, in a number of cases, ment has to be defined along the same lines, been instrumental in transforming a poten­ because in any context it should enable men tially violent conflict into a joint venture. and women to organize and to bring about positive changes in their lives. Capacity development should therefore "stimulate self-confidence of a community, and faith and its ability to recognise its potential" to Reconciliation through achieve social justice, security, and construc­ Development Interventions tive transformation of conflict. Capacity development for peace-build­ The Khas Urozgan district is located ing has to be part and parcel of social, eco­ in southwest Afghanistan and has a nornic, and political recovery rather than an mixed population of Pashtuns ( 65 isolated activity. It must be a response to the percent) and Hazaras (35 percent). social and institutional devastations of war. At During the war a local dispute resulted the social level, capacity development should in armed conflict with many losses deal with attitudinal change in order to over­ of life and property on both sides. come fear and distrust; facilitate a safe space for social interaction and mutual cooperation; The Afghan Development Association and create a capacity for peaceful resolution of (ADA) was separately approached by conflict. At the institutional level, capacity the Shuras of both communities for the development should underpin existing insti­ reconstruction of an irrigation canal. tutions and create new ones capable of build­ The ADA, being aware of the relation­ ing peace and fostering development, social ships of the communities, responded justice, and human rights. positively and made a deliberate choice The first step should be the encourage­ to use the opportunity and help people ment of the creation of a representative overcome their differences. A tripartite Shura that could symbolize the needs and agreement between the ADA and the aspiration of the entire community. Such a two Shuras was signed concerning the feature would signify the community's -joint use of canal; cohesion, solidarity, and trust of the popula­ -contribution of the communities tion. Yet the Shura must have sufficient toward the project; authority to maintain unity withinACKU the com­ -safety of the project labor and munity and to mobilize people for the com­ ADA staff members; mon good. -joint supervision and monitoring. The second step is to put the Shura into the delivery position, that is, to involve them When the actual work started, fear in the implementation of aid programs (see and mistrust were replaced by a sense box). Such a step also enhances the Shura's of interdependence and cooperation authority to demand compliance with and as communication between the respect for social norms and values from the communities was gradually restored. local population as well as to prompt their participation in and contribution to recovery Source: ADA Annual Report 1998 programs. Active involvement of the Shura in

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The third step is to develop the capaci­ agement skills. Apart from a few NGOs, ties of local Shuras, in managerial issues, there is general unfamiliarity with the con­ development, leadership, conflict resolution, cepts of peace and peace-building in the aid and problem-solving. As discussed above, system working in Afghanistan. This is capacity development in a village context because of political conditionalities of aid should be more than a one-time event. and lack of investment in human resources Training must be complemented by actions development in Afghanistan, on the one that help the trainee put new learning into hand, and the notions of peace, peace-build­ practice. The problem-solving workshop is ing, and conflict resolution, on the other an appropriate tool for capacity development hand, have only been recently added in the in the context of peace-building. The work­ humanitarian jargon. Particularly, the how shop does not solely focus on content transfer, of peace-building in the humanitarian con­ but it initiates a process through which par­ text is not yet well articulated by the litera­ ticipants are given the opportunity to work on ture, nor are there shining examples from real problems affecting their lives. To ensure a other similar situations. positive impact, trainees at the initial stages For a sustained peace, as well as for should work together with the Shura mem­ development and reconstruction, to flourish, bers on resolving local conflicts and continue the capacities of not only the public sector to support them in the long run. but also that of aid agencies (including the It is important to remember the role of UN and NGOs) and civil society at large village mullahs in Afghan society. Because of must be strengthened. International partici­ their position, they are able to influence posi­ pants can play an active role in this endeav­ tive outcomes at the community level, pro­ or. They can not only provide funding for vided they are involved in the process of capacity-building, but can also train and recovery and peace-building. The recent expe­ provide accompaniment to the internal rience of the capacity-building efforts of the actors on effective management of recovery Cooperation for Peace and Unity (CPAU), an programs and promotion of internationally Afghan NGO, is indicative of the fact that accepted norms of social justice, human mullahs have been instrumental in the dis­ rights, and democracy. Another major con­ semination of acquired knowledge and skills tribution that international actors can make on village-level peace-building and have to strengthen civil society is to facilitate actively participated in constructive resolution exposure visits of Afghans to the regional of conflicts facing these communities. countries that have undergone postwar tran­ The prerequisites for ACKUcapacity-building sitions. One area that is least developed in for the Shura are the existence of institution­ Afghanistan and needs higher attention is al competence for peace-building and the advocacy, which is crucial for the strength of promotion of participatory development, civil society. social justice, and human rights within the The conclusion of the Bonn agreement operational agency. has in fact stimulated the emergence of The reality in Afghanistan in regard to numerous Afghan organizations and associa­ the presence of competent NGOs is, unfor­ tions formed voluntarily outside the realm of tunately, not very promising. Many aid orga­ government. Such organizations are in dire nizations suffer from a lack of institutional need of support for capacity-building and competence and developmental and man- institutional development to become viable

29 Asian Update civil-society organizations. One strategy for Conceptual Definition capacity-building of these new civil society What Is 11 Peace 11 ? organizations might be to have operational A working definition of "peace" is: the exis­ NGOs enter into joint ventures with the new tence of workable relationships, active associ­ civil society organizations to enhance their ations, and planned cooperation among job-training skills. These organizations also persons and groups for achieving greater qualify for direct funding that can help them aims such as justice, security, and construc­ gain experience and grow institutionally. tive transformation of conflict. The current practice of most donors The word "peace" is commonly known putting their money into big NGOs should, at as the "absence of war," but peace scholars the very least, be questioned. This trend has almost have always defined the "absence of greatly diminished the space available for small war" as "negative peace," a condition in which organizations, which are more genuine in both the potential and means ofviolence exist in the nature and mandate than the large N GOs. society and continue to block the positive The best way to address the pressing development of a disenfranchised population. nee:d for capacity-building on a long-term In contrast, scholars who stress the need for basis in Afghanistan is to establish an institu­ "positive peace" do not offer a unified descrip­ tion capable of providing training, consultan­ tion of the term, which involves more than the cy, and accompaniment in the fields of absence of war. This essay focuses on defini­ management, development, social justice, tions of a "positive peace." human rights, leadership, peace-building, con­ Adam Curle describes "positive peace" flict resolution, and financial management. as a relationship that on a personal scale means friendship, and as an understanding Ill. Toward an Effective Strategy for sufficiently strong to overcome any differ­ Peace-Building ences that might occur on a larger scale. Peace-building strategies should be Peaceful relationships would imply active informed by both the context of conflict association, planned cooperation, and intelli­ and the understanding of the notions of gent effort to forestall or resolve potential con­ peace and peace-building. Conflict in flicts. Along the same lines, James O 'Connell Afghanistan is characterized by the disinte­ refers to "positive peace" as free cooperation gration of state institutions; the manipula­ among persons and groups for aims that tion of political power; militarized politics; include security, justice, and freedom. devastation of social and economic spheres; Peace articulates the need for building and a prevailing culture of violence.ACKU A theo­ the associations in civil society, by which retical understanding of the notions of peace people and groups are able to actively relate and peace-building that pertain to current and cooperate with each other. Conventional conditions of life in Afghanistan can help political settlements often fail to heal historic shape an effective strategy for dealing with wounds. However, the refocusing of misper­ these conditions. ceptions can transform enemy stereotypes into human beings and revitalize shared interests. This can be achieved through a sus­ tained process of peace-building based on the participation of all segments of society.

30 Asian Update

What Is .. Peace-Building .. ? stitute a solid foundation for peace in society. "Peace-building" is a concept widely debated Based on definitions presented above in peace literature and is often broadly used and on the Islamic perspective, a workable to include a wide range of activities aimed at definition of peace-building is as follows: building peace. There is general agreement a building and strengthening ofsocial> polit­ among scholars of peace research on the ulti­ ical, and economic structures for constructive mate goal of peace-building. However, transformation of conflict and the promo­ owing to different theoretical understand­ tion of social values such as benevolence, ings of peace, no unified definition of peace­ compassion> cooperation> and justice among building can be made. This essay only persons and groups. presents definitions that are in line with the worlcing definitions of peace discussed above Community-based Peace-Building and that can realistically inform the practice. Parallel to political negotiations, communi­ -Peace-building is defined by Jonathan ty-based peace-building is an alternative that Goodhand and David Hulme as the "pro­ has to be considered. The community-based motion of institutional and socioeconomic approach is primarily concerned with strength­ measures, at the local or national level, to ening the role of local people and their institu­ address the underlying cause of conflict." tions or, in other words, promoting -John Paul Lederach suggests that sociocultural resources for peace. Humanitarian peace-building be understood as "a compre­ organizations need to incorporate the creation hensive term that encompasses the full array and strengthening of sociocultural resources vis­ of stages and approaches needed to trans­ a-vis their relief, rehabilitation, and develop­ form conflict toward sustainable, peaceful ment programs. The following objectives will relations and outcomes." constitute the basis for a comprehensive strate­ -Harold H. Saunders states: "Peace­ gy for peace-building: building and immunizing a society against renewed conflict require both strengthening, Objectives: restructuring or restoring the relationships -to develop and strengthen the capaci­ that fragment as conflict looms and then ties of community institutions and that of reconnecting them to make peace." operational agencies for constructive trans­ Common patterns can be observed in formation of conflicts and promotion of these interpretations. They include the specif­ respect for human rights; ic issues of: developing institutional capacities -to increase the competence of com­ for the constructive transformationACKU of conflict munity institutions and that of operational and maintenance of peace; and the promotion agencies on participatory approaches, of peaceful relationships that lie at the heart of human rights, and peace-building; "positive peace." Here, peace-building is seen -to facilitate translation of knowledge as a process that must be carried forward by into action through systematic coaching, people and social institutions. Islamic teaching process consultancy, and accompaniment; similarly regards peace-building as an unend­ -to empower local educational institu­ ing human challenge "to eliminate .fitnah (ele­ tions to promote peaceful attitudes and co­ ments of war) and reinforce certain values such existence among younger generations by the as Ad! Qustice), Ihsan (benevolence), and incorporation of peace education into the Rahmah (compassion). These principles con- educational curriculum;

31 Asian Update

-to establish a mechanism (involving Peace education should, therefore, pro­ local Shuras and operational agencies) for mote the desire for peace and also teach peace­ conflict transformation. making skills so that human beings can learn nonviolent ways of handling conflicts. The Afghan NGO, Cooperative for American peace educator Betty Reardon Peace and Unity (CPAU) is actively pursuing defines peace education as "learning intend­ the above objectives by offering workshops ed to prepare the learners to contribute that deal with conflict resolution. (For toward the achievement of peace." This def­ details of the Working With Conflict train­ inition views peace education as a continu­ ing model, please see the last section below). ous process, because conflict is an integral Another crucial element of peace-build­ part of life and of peace itself, according to ing strategy is peace education. The wide­ many scholars. Peace is never completed but spread violence and warfare of the last is always in the process of being made. twenty-one years have replaced the social Peace education has to contribute to the norms and peaceful values of the society. social growth of all children if it is to help them ]\Aoreover, the existence of violent messages develop characteristics essential for the attain­ in school textbooks used in Afghanistan jus­ ment of peace: a sense of dignity and self-worth, tifies an urgent response to the need for the confidence, communication skills, ethical promotion of a peaceful learning environ­ awareness, and empathy. Peace education in ment and peaceful sources of learning for war-torn societies should focus on strategies to Afghan schoolchildren. achieve attitudinal change at both individual and communal levels. Why Peace Education? Peace education in the context of Since wars begin in the minds of men, zt zs m Afghanistan has to confront directly the the minds of men that the defences of peace forms of violence that dominate the society must be constructed. at large. It must be able to deepen under­ -Preamble of the Constitution standing of the forces and factors behind the of UNESCO ongoing war and the elements that may cre­ ate social imbalances in the future, as well as Peace education is another realistic step to be the ways and means to peacefully confront taken in the context of a protracted armed such factors. Thus, the major task of a conflict such as that in Afghanistan. Even in peace-education program must be to priori­ a normal situation, people ACKUlearn aggressive tize the institutionalization of the program. behavior from their environment and their This task would entail introducing an alter­ interaction with others. As Ian Harris native policy with a strong peace compo­ observes: nent, that would help to replace current "People learn warlike behavior from parents, attitudes. friends, teachers, cultural norms, social institu­ Fortunately, a number of steps have tions, and the mass media. Violent images pro­ already been taken by two Afghan organiza­ moted in the culture reinforce violent behavior tions-CPAU and Sanayee Institute of and instill the belief that aggression must be Education and Learning (SIEL)-to jointly regulated through violent means. " implement peace-education programs in the refugee schools in Peshawar, Pakistan. Peace educators have been trained, · educational

32 Asian Update material has been developed, and actual enables us to see the need for problem-solving implementation in a large number of refugee as an ideal style and, depending on the relation­ schools has begun. To expand the program ship, utilize the need to use other styles, too. into the educational institutions inside Fire Analogy with Conflict: This tool Afghanistan, further investment on curricu­ guides us to see the different stages that a lum development, and teacher training as conflict goes through. It also enables us to well as negotiations with local authorities become aware that conflict is not bad, as it is needs to occur. Concerned governmental the basis for growth and development. institutions, school authorities, parents, edu­ cation experts, the UN, and NGOs should 2. Concepts: all be involved in curriculum development "Wars: The aim of this session is two-fold: a) for peace education at the national level. to enable the participants to broaden their Steps are also needed at this stage to famil­ understanding of war, its nature and root iarize the concerned authorities with ongo­ causes; and b) to analyze the social impact of ing programs and to develop their capacities the ongoing war on Afghan society, as well as for future implementation. to examine the role of aid in addressing the A special institution that is responsible "social impacts." for the administration of nationwide peace Conflict: The aim is to broaden our under­ education must be established. As a strategy, standing of what causes a conflict, with the peace education relies on widespread support main emphasis on the fact that conflict is an in order for civil society to develop the capa­ inevitable part of our lives, and the challenge bilities for the peaceful resolution of conflicts. for us is how to transform it peacefully rather resorting to violence. Working With Conflict - A Training Model Violence: In this session types and levels of Operated By the Cooperative for Peace and violence (individual/ group and structural) Unity (CPAU). and nonviolence are discussed. The course on Working With Conflict/ Do Peace: The objective is to identifY the link No Harm (WWC/DNH) consists of three between negative peace, which is the absence main concepts: tools, concepts, and skills. of war, and positive peace, which is the absence of violence, and discover how we can 1. Tools for Conflict Analysis: move toward positive peace. The existence of Conflict Square: To analyze a conflict in negative peace in many parts of Afghanistan relation to goals and behaviors (compatible should be taken as an opportunity to work and incompatible) of the parties.ACKU for positive peace-this means equality, Conflict Triangle: This tool helps us to ana­ social justice, and the eradication ofall forms lyze a conflict situation in relation to atti­ of violence from society. tudes, behaviors and context. Power: The aim is to create an understanding Conflict Mapping: Mapping is used to visu­ of how power can best be used in relation to alize a conflict situation in terms of parties, peace-building and conflict transformation. their supporters, and their possible allies. Identity: The aim is to create awareness on Conflict Style: Refers to problem-solving, the elements that make up our identity and compromise, avoidance, control, and accom­ why a threat to any of these elements leads to modation. In addition to helping us become conflict. aware of. our 'OWn style of conflict, this tool 3. Skills: Skill development is one of the

33 t-'\ sian Update main components of the training workshops. References The sessions on skill development include communication, negotiation/ mediation, and Abu-Nimer, Mohammed. Peacebuilding in facilitation skills. Different methodologies Islamic Context (Washington, D.C.: IPCR are applied to make sure that learning takes American University, 2000). place by doing. ADA Annual Report ofthe Afghan Development Association. (Peshawar, 4. Do No Harm (DNH) Pakistan 1998). The do-no-harm part of the course (DNH) concerns the concept of learning theory by Biekart, Kees. The Politics of Civil Society practicing. The analytical framework, devel­ Building: European Private Aid Agencies oped by the Local Capacities for Peace and Democratic Transitions in Central Project, is a tool to help aid workers think America (The Netherlands: International creatively concerning the administration and Books and the Transitional Institute, delivery of aid in light of local capacities for 1999). peace. At the very least, it helps aid organiza­ tions minimize the negative impact of their Boulding, E. Kenneth. Peace Theory: A Reader in Peace Studies. eds. Paul Smoker, aid programming on conflict/tension. Ruth Davies, and Barbara Musnke (Oxford, U.K: Pergamon Press, 1990). 5. Strategy Development The last part of the course is devoted to Eade, Deborah. Capacity-Building: An developing strategies for participants to use Approach to People-Centred Development what they have learned and then put this (U.K. OXFAM, 1997). into action. Strategy development is very much a result of the process of mutual learn­ CPAU. "An Afghan Network. ''Annual ing between the CPAU and the participating Review of Cooperation for Peace and Unity. agency. The main objective behind strategy (Peshawar, Pakistan 2001). development is to guide a process whereby the participants identify the areas for practi­ Curle, Adam. Tools for Transformation: A (U.K.: Howrhorn Press, cal application of the course into their work, Personal Study 1990) in partnership with CPAU, which will, to the fullest extent possible, support their ini­ Curle, Adam, and James O'Connell. Peace tiatives. ACKUwith WOrk to Do: The Academic Study of Peace (New York: Industrial Press, 1985).

Goodhand, Jonathan, and David Hulme. "From 1\/ars to Complex Political Emergencies: Understanding Conflict and Peace-Building in the New WOrld Disorder." Third World Quarterly 20, no.1 (1999).

Harpviken, Kristian Berg, Arne Strand and Astri Suhrke. Peace-Building Strategies for Afghanistan: Part 1· Lessons from Past Experiences in Afghanistan (Norway: Chr. Michelsen Institute, 2002).

34 Asian U pdate

Harris, Ian M. Peace Education Qefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Co., 1998).

Ludin, Javwed. Afghanistan: New Government, Civil Society and the Outside World. Unpublished paper, 2002 (www. bond.org. uk).

Miall, Hugh, et al. Contemporary Conflict Resolution: The Prevention, Management and Transformations ofDeadly Conflict (Cambridge, U.K.: Polity Press, 1999).

Nardin, Terry, ed. The Ethics ofWar and Peace: Religious and Secular Perspectives. ed. Terry Nardin (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998).

Saunders, Harold H. A Public Peace Process: Sustained Dialogue to Transform Racial and Ethnic Conflicts (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999).

Sima, Wali. "Afghans Work Together to Rebuild Civil Society." Interview by Susan Domowitz, Washington File, November 5, 2001. Also on the World Wide Web at http:/ /pdq.state.gov/scripts.

Their, Alexander, and Jarat Chopra, "Considerations for Political and Institutional Reconstruction in Afghanistan" (unpublished paper, Brown University, 2002). ACKU

:' 1:

35 Asian Update

Further Reading

Anderson, Mary B. Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace-Or "War (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1999).

Baitenmann, Helga. "NGOs and the Afghan "War: The Politicisation ofHumanitarian Aid "Third World Quarterly 12 (1990): 1-23.

Christensen, Asger. Aiding Afghanistan: The Background and Prospects for Reconstruction in a Fragmented Society. NIAS Reports, no. 26 (1995). (Copenhagen: S. Denmark, 1995).

Asian Center for Women's Human Rights (ASCENT). Common Grounds: Violence against Women in ~rand Armed Conflict Situations (Quezon City, Philippines: 1998).

Cooley, John K. Unholy ~rs: Afghanistan, America, and International Terrorism (Sterling, Va.: Pluto Press, 1999).

Crosseue, Barbara. "Tali ban Open a Campaign to Gain Status at the UN " New York Times, September 21, 2000.

Dupree, Nancy Hatch. "Afghan Women under the Taliban. "In Fundamentalism Reborn?: Afghanistan and the Taliban. ed. William Maley (New York: New York University Press, 1998).

Ellis, Deborah. Women ofthe Afghan "War (Westport, Conn.: Praeger, 2000).

Esposito, John L. The Islamic Threat: Myth or Reality? (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Haass, Richard N. Intervention: The Use ofAmerican Military Force in the Post-Cold "War World (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1994).

Human Rights Watch Report,ACKU Afghanistan: The Massacre in Mazar-I Sharif (November 1998, Vol. 10, No.7). Also on the World Wide Web at http://www.hrw.org/reports98/afghan.

Iacopino, Vincent, et al. The Tali bans ~r on Women: A Health And Human Rights Crisis in Afghanistan (Boston: Physicians for Human Rights, 1998).

Ignatieff, Michael. The 1.%rriors Honor: Ethnic "War and the Modern Conscience (New York: Metropolitan Books, 1998).

Kemp, Geoffrey. Forever Enemies?: Am,er.ican Policy and the Islamic Republic ofIran (Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowme~t for International Peace, 1994).

36 Asian Update

Khan, Riaz M. Untying the Afghan Knot: Negotiating Soviet Withdrawal (Durham, N.N.: Duke University Press, 1991).

Maley, William. Political Order in Post-Communist Afghanistan (Boulder, Colo.: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 1992).

---. "Reconstructing Afghanistan: Opportunities and Challenges. "In Recovery from Armed Conflict in Developing Countries: An Economic and Political Analysis. ed. Geoff Harris (London: Routledge, 1999), pp. 225-57.

Maley, William, ed. Fundamentalism Reborn?: Afghanistan and the Taliban (New York: New York University Press, 1998).

Matinuddin, Kama. The Taliban Phenomenon: Afghanistan 1994-1997 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1999).

Moghadam, Valentine M. Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Change in the Middle Edst· (Boulder, Colo: L. Rienner, 1993). .

Rais, Rasul Bakhsh. war without Winners: Afghanistan s Uncertain Transition after the Cold W"izr (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994).

Rashid, Ahmed. Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil, and Fundamentalism in Central Asia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000).

---.jihad: The Rise ofMilitant Islam in Central Asia (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002).

Roy, Olivier. Islam and Resistance in Afghanistan (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1986).

---.Afghanistan: From Holy war to Civil war (Princeton, N.J.: Darwin Press, 1995).

Rubin, Barnen R. The Fragmentation ofAfghanistan: State Formation and Collapse in the International System (New Haven,ACKU Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995).

---. The Search for Peace in Afghanistan: From Buffer State to Failed State (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1995). . ( '

---. "Statement on the Situation in Afghanistan. "Addressed to the United States Senate Comminee on Foreign Relations (Subcomminee on Near Eastern and South Asian Affairs), October 8, 1998.

---. "The Political Economy ojwar and Peace in Afghanistan. "World Development 28, no. 10 (2000): 1789-1803. ',, -: ;;'; j

3} Asian Update

Rubin, Barnett R. , Ashraf Ghani, William Maley, Ahmed Rashid, and Olivier Roy. Afghanisttm: Reconstruction and Peacebuilding in a Regional Framework, (Bern: Center for Peacebuilding [KOFF] and Swiss Peace Foundation [SPF] , 2001). On the World Wide Web at http:/ /www.swisspeace.ch/html/ navigation/ fr_publications.html.

Shahrani, M. Nazi£ "Afghanistan: State and Society in Retrospect. "In The Cultural Basis ofAfghan Nationalism. eds. Ewan W Anderson and Nancy Hatch Dupree (London and New York: Pinter Publishers) 1990).

~~~ ·-. "The Future ofthe State and the Structure ofCommunity Governance in Afghanistan. "In Fundamentalism Reborn?: Afghanistan and the Taliban. ed. William Maley (New York: New York University Press, 1998).

Shahrani, M. Nazif, and Robert L. Canfield (eds.). Revolutions and Rebellions in Afghanistan: Anthropological Perspectives. Research Series #57. (Berkley, Institute of International Studies, University of California, 19 84). l JNHCR. "Afghanistan, the Unending Crises. "Refugees 108 (1997):3-9 .

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.3~ Biographies

Sima Samar is Deputy Premier and Minister Frederick .Starr is chairman of the Central for Women's Affairs in the,Afghan Interim Asia-Caucasus Institute at the Paul H. Nitze Authority. She is also . the direG:tor of 1:he ' School of Advanced International Studies of Shuhada Organization in Quetta, Pakistan, :The. Johns Hopkins University. He is also where she practiced medicine. In all, Dr. currently engaged in the planning of The Samar opened eleven Afghan clinics and four University of Central Asia, a private institu­ hospitals for women and children, as well as tion serving the mountain populations of schools in rural Afghanistan for more than Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and Tajikistan. Dr. 17,000 students. In Pakistan, she founded a Starr has been involved with Russian and hospital and school fo r refugee girls. Eurasian affairs for more than thi rty .~ Literacy programs established by her organi­ a scholar, teacher, writer, and manager of zation were accompanied by distribution of cultural and economic enterprises: , After food aid and information on hygiene and teaching as Associate Professor of History at family planning. She was a medical director Princeton, he left to become the foundia;g at Wazir Akbar Khan Hospital from Secretary of the Kennan Institute·, ·Jor February 1982 to August 1982. Samar also Advanced Russian Studies at ·t·:he worked at the Mission Hospital at Quetta Smithsonian Institution, a national institute (1985-86), and was the director at the for Russian/Soviet studies. He served.--las Malalai Hospital (1987 -89). She is a recipi­ president of Oberlin College for eleven years ent of the Community Leadership Award and as vice-president of Tulane University from the Ramon Magsaysay Awards for four years. Recently, Starr chaired the Foundation in 1994; the Global Leaders for U.S. government's external advisory com­ Tomorrow Award granted by the WEF, mittee on research on Russia and the other Switzerland, in 1995; the 100 Heroines Newly Independent States. As a trustee of Award granted by the Committee of 100 the Rockefeller Brothers Fund he helped Heroines, New York; and the Paul Gruniger play an active role in renewal programs in Prize granted by Paul Gruniger, Switzerland. Central and Eastern Europe. Starr's writing includes books on Russian history, culture, ACKUand political-economic developments. Asian Update

Marvin G. Weinbaum is Professor Emeritus Mohammed Ehsan Zia has been Manager for of Political Science at the University of Human Resources Development at Norwegian Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, and in 1999 Church Aid (NCA) since 1998. In this capaci­ assumed the position of analyst for Pakistan ty, he designs programs for organizational and and Afghanistan in the Bureau of institutional development of N CA and partner Intelligence and Research, U.S. Department N GOs geared toward peace-building and pro­ of State. He is also currently an adjunct pro­ motion of the concept, "Do No Harm," in the fessor at Georgetown University. He joined aid community working in Afghanistan. Prior the Illinois faculty in 1965 and served for fif­ to his current position at NCA, he was a pro­ teen years as the director of the Program in gram manager there (1994-98). In 1993, he South Asian and Middle Eastern Studies. was Administrative Manager for the German He has held Fulbright Research Fellowships Afghan Foundation. From 1994 to 2000, Zia for Egypt (1981-82) and Afghanistan (1989- worked on four initiatives toward peace-build­ 90), was a senior fellow at the United States ing and development in Afghanistan, the most Institute of Peace(l996-97), and Scholar-in­ recent being a community-based pilot project Residence at the Middle East Institute that seeks the integration of development and (1998-99). He received awards from the rehabilitation activities with peace-building. Social Science Research Council, the Ford Other initiatives include the establishment of Foundation, the Hewlett Foundation, IREX, Co-operation for Peace and Unity where he the American Political Science Association, served as chairman (1996-99). He has also been and others, as well as having won several teach­ involved in initiatives on urban recovery, local ing awards at Illinois, including the Luckman capacities for peace/Do No Harm, NGOs, and award, the LAS College award, and a peace-building in Afghanistan. Zia's other areas Burlington-Northern faculty achievement of expenise include community development, award. Dr. Weinbaum's research focuses on human resources development, conflict analy­ issues of political economy, democratization, sis, and NGO-management development, and national security. He is the author or edi­ among others. He received his master's degree tor of six books, including South Asia in Postwar Recovery Studies at the University of Approaches the Millennium (coedited with York, U.K., in 2000. He speaks English, Urdu, Chetan Kumar, 1995), and Afghanistan and Dari, and Pushto languages. Pakistan: Resistance and Reconstruction ( 1994), and has written numerous essays about Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, ACKUas well as Egypt and Turkey. Recent publications include an essay on Afghanistan for the Encyclopedia Britannica, and chapters for fonhcoming edit­ ed volumes dealing with the history of modern Afghan-U.S. relations, human rights in Turkey, Iran, and Afghanistan, and reconstruc­ ·tion politics in Afghanistan. He has a Ph.D. from Columbia University.

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