SHAWMUN VICTORIA
UN Convention on Biological Diversity Background Guide
Director: Maurits F.
Dear Delegates,
I welcome you all to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity at ShawMUN 2019. My name is Maurits, and I am a junior at Brentwood College School. This is now my 5th year of taking part in MUN, and ever since I began, my extreme passion has continued to grow. This is now my second time directing a committee; however, it will be my first time participating in a ShawMUN conference.
As your director for ShawMUN 2019, I will do my part in making this conference as enjoyable and as interesting as possible. MUN has had such an important effect on my life as it has forced me to grow my communicative, imaginative, and collaborative skills, which have allowed me to grow in all fields of my life. The weekend will prove to be a creative and fulfilling experience, and I hope that debate will be extensive and detailed, providing delegates with a new understanding of the world around them; I am certain that you will receive the same benefits that I have over the past years.
This year, the UNCBD will be debating a topic that is very up and coming in today’s society: Gene Drive Intervention. Becoming more and more prevalent over the last decades, scientists have finally developed a technology that provides humans with the ability to exterminate whole species of organisms. Gene drives, named so due to their ability to “drive” through whole species, have only recently come into fruition; however, their regulation and usage is extremely relevant to all humans today. The UNCBD will attack the topic on ethical, social, and economic fronts, and hopefully set a world precedent on their regulation and usage.
The background guide provided for you today has been meticulously designed to help guide you in your research of the topic. In order to make the most of your ShawMUN experience please study this document as it will prove to be the key to a successful conference.
On behalf of the UNCBD team, I formally welcome you to ShawMUN 2019, and wish you the best of luck in all upcoming debate.
Sincerely,
Maurits Freybe Director United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity
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Position Paper Policy
Well-prepared and successful delegates all have used position papers as a way to get through MUN conferences. Well-written position papers consolidate your research and ensure that you will be an able participant in quality debate. Consequently, debate will be more rewarding and resolutions will be more realistic and thorough. For your staff, the position paper illustrates your grasp of the topics and your overall ability to support your ideas. The submission of position papers is mandatory in order to qualify for awards.
Formatting All papers should not exceed 1 page - 12 point font and in Times New Roman with 1.15 spacing - Country Name, Delegate Name, Committee Name, and Topic clearly labeled on the top left-hand corner in that order - APA citation style
Paragraph I - TOPIC SUMMARY Introduction to your main topic Explain the significance of the problem from your country’s position. ● You should discuss your country’s perspective on the problem as it manifests itself at a national and international level. ● Refer back to the Historical Analysis in the background Guide for insight. Select some key points that your country believes the committee debate should focus on.
Paragraph II - PAST SOLUTIONS ● Identify and discuss past actions from your country and the international community. Discuss the implications of those actions in addressing the problem.
Paragraph III - PROPOSED SOLUTIONS ● Identify and discuss some of your country’s proposed solutions. ● What country blocks will support or not support your proposed solutions? Why or why not? ● How can your country or the internationally community realistically initiate your solutions? ● What are some of the key elements that must be included in a new resolution on the topic?
Please send all papers in PDF format with the subject title as “Position Paper: Country Name, First and Last Name” (Ex. Position Paper: United Kingdom, Theresa May) Please Submit your Position Paper by March 25th to [email protected]
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Table of Contents
Topic A: Gene Drive Intervention
Introduction 4
Past Action 5
Timeline 6
History 7
Current Situation 8
Possible Solutions 11 Bloc Positions 13
Guiding Questions 14
Sources 15
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United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity Topic A
Gene Drive Intervention
Introduction
The medical world has seen many scientific breakthroughs, with human technological capabilities skyrocketing over the past centuries. With each new invention providing a platform to build upon, the creation of gene drives is supported by the multiple developments in DNA research. By using the newly discovered CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats) technology, it is possible to implant a modified copy of a DNA strand into a specific gene of a cell, known as the doublesex gene. This gene, which controls the sterility of the offspring, has a unique ability where, if at any time it is broken, it copies itself into the other homologous chromosome. This provides almost a 100% chance of a gene being passed down from generation to generation, allowing scientists to eliminate the whole species of a specifically chosen organism.
A gene drive can prove beneficial for an organism, with advantages including increased resistance to bacteria by exterminating the organisms that carry them, harsh weather conditions by, and invasive species; however, a harmful gene drive has the capability of exterminating an entire species. These characteristics have provided scientists with many opportunities to benefit the human race. Take Malaria for an example; a horrific endemic under which 219 million people suffer every year. The Malaria parasite is transmitted through three types of mosquitos which live mainly in Sub-Saharan Africa. If scientists were allowed to inject these species with a gene drive, it would theoretically be possible to save over 435,000 lives a year. Moreover, Malaria is just one of the many horrific endemics which can be prevented by the use of gene drives, further proving its importance and necessity.
However, there is also the possibility for major harm to come from these gene drives. With the chance of cross-species contamination, whole ecosystems could be devastated. Without proper regulation of use, drives could have adverse effects. Furthermore, if gene drive technology fell into the wrong hands, it could be used as a biochemical weapon. If gene drives are not properly regulated and protected, they could be detrimental to human society.
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Thus, the implementation of a UN convention on this topic is extremely valuable. The determination of the regulation, use, and legality of gene drives is mandatory, as it provides the human race with many benefits. However, if not properly regulated, gene drives could be the downfall of the human race.
Past Action
UNCBD Statement on Invasive Species
At the 8th Ordinary Conference of Parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity, the topic of invasive species was discussed and guidelines to protect the parties involved were created. There, it was decided that alien invasive species (IAS) are “considered to be one of the main direct drivers of biodiversity loss at the global level.”1 Additionally, IAS can carry infectious diseases that can be detrimental to human health. During the conference, Article 8(h) was created, which states that “each contracting party shall, as far as possible and as appropriate, prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or species.”2
Malaria Policy Advisory Committee (MPAC) Guiding Principles on Combating Malaria
The World Health Organization created the MPAC in 2011 to discuss and decide methods that will efficiently and safely combat the harrowing advances of Malaria. This committee comes together twice a year to discuss, renew, and refine strategies in the fight against Malaria. In the most recent meeting, during October 2018, members of the panel “welcomed the idea of... hosting a technical consultation on parasite and vector genetics to assess the potential relevance to Malaria programme work.”3 CRISPR technology and gene drives alike are derived from vector genetics, in which certain DNA molecules are used to “carry in” genetically foreign substances or molecules into another cell.
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) Agriculture and Food Protection Department
As pests damage crops in an innumerable amount of ways, farmers are constantly trying to find methods to eliminate the small organisms that lower their crop yields and profit.
1 “What are invasive species?,” Convention on Biological Diversity, 2007, https://www.cbd.int/invasive/ 2 “The CBD and Invasive Alien Species,” Convention on Biological Diversity, 2009, https://www.cbd.int/idb/2009/about/cbd/ 3 "WHO Malaria Policy Advisory Committee (MPAC) Meeting." December 2018. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275762/WHO-CDS-GMP-2018-24-eng.pdf?ua=1.
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Most farmers currently use pesticides to protect their crops; “however, their misuse can have serious negative impacts on both human health and the environment. It is necessary to shift towards a more sustainable way of increasing food production, one that maintains high productivity while protecting farmers, consumers and ecosystems.”4 The guidelines that are currently proposed by the FAO are fairly effective, but not always plausible; therefore, they have begun researching the possibility of gene drive use to protect farmers.
Timeline
❖ 1973 - Genes are first taken from one organism and implanted in another.
❖ 1987 - Accidental discovery of CRISPR editing technology by Japanese researcher Yoshizumi Ishino.
❖ June 5th, 1992 - United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity first signed. The convention has 196 parties, of which 168 are signatories.
❖ 1994 - Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) are first sold commercially, in the form of a tomato with delayed ripening ability.
❖ 2003 - Use of gene drives first mentioned.
❖ 2015 - First fully successful gene drive extermination created by Italian molecular biologist Andrea Crisanti. A mosquito population was fully wiped out after only 11 generations.
❖ June 8th, 2016 - United States National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine (NASEM) report on gene drives created.
❖ December 2018 - World Health Organization calls an expert panel on gene editing techniques, to “examine the scientific, ethical, legal, and social challenges associated with gene editing.” The panel will take place in 2019, and will set the precedent on intergovernmental reactions towards the use of gene drives.
4 “Pesticide Risk Reduction,” Food and Agriculture Organization, 2016, http://www.fao.org/3/a-i6170e.pdf
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History
Due to the fact that the discovery of gene drives is very recent, there is not much history vis-a-vis the research, creation, and regulation thereof. Even though gene drive technology has only been discovered this decade, over past centuries we have seen examples of people attempting to control populations of organisms that pestered the human race and its attempts to develop. From plant grafting to genetically modified organisms, there are many incidents where we have grown our technological advancements through the use of genetics.
United States of America
One of the world’s most capitalistic, wealthy, and technologically-capable countries, the United States of America has made much progress in the profitization of genetic engineering. Especially in the regions of genetically modified foods and organisms, aided by the recent developments in CRISPR techniques, American firms have perfected the production process of GMOs. In CRISPR genetic modification, scientists are able to cut out a certain gene from one piece of DNA and implant a gene from a different organism with special qualities. For example, the bacteria Bacillus thuringiensis has a trait that acts as a natural insecticide, which can be implanted in any crop to protect them from pests. The finding, development, and refining of the CRISPR gene editing process were all helped by many American scientists, including Jennifer Doudna, the biochemist who helped develop the use of cas9, a protein that makes the process of gene editing safer and more efficient. The idea of using gene drives is rising exponentially in America, with major agricultural companies consulting biotechnical firms on strategies for the implementation of gene drives. Moreover, major donations from wealthy organizations, such as the Bill and Melinda Gates fund, and governmental agencies, such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency, have helped prop up the idea of gene drives into the eyes of the public. Furthermore, scientists in California have developed a gene drive capable of controlling the spotted-wing drosophila population, flies that cost local cherry farms over $700 million a year because of the sharpened ovipositor found on its tail.5
Europe
The development of major gene editing and gene drive techniques have been shown in three major European countries: the Netherlands, Spain, and the United Kingdom. In the
5 Regalado, Antonio, and Antonio Regalado. "California Farmers Are Eyeing a Controversial Genetic Tool to Eliminate Fruit Flies." MIT Technology Review. January 16, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609619/farmers-seek-to-deploy-powerful-gene-drive/.
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Netherlands, researchers helped develop the spoligotyping technique, a unique identification system that has made the usage and development of gene editing much easier, which is still in use today across the world. Spanish scientist Francisco Mojica helped transition gene editing from faulty and unsafe to refined and efficient. He is known as one of the founding fathers of CRISPR editing techniques. Perhaps most interestingly, British company Oxitec is the first firm to monetize the use of gene drives. In the Cayman Islands, Oxitec began releasing up to “300,000 [genetically modified] male mosquitos a week, ”6 over a prolonged period of time. With the gene drive implanted in them, these mosquitos were able to out-compete the local males which carry many viruses that they transmit to humans. At the end of the project, there were 88% fewer mosquito eggs surviving in the area, showing that the use of gene drives had provided huge economic and social benefits. Oxitec subsequently offered their services to the Florida Keys, in an attempt to help stop the arrival of the Zika virus into America; however, the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) stopped them from following through in a fear of major biological wrongdoing.
Eastern Asia
In Eastern Asia, scientists in China and Japan are pushing the boundaries on what is ethically and morally right in gene editing techniques. With genetic manipulation being present in China for millennia, shown through its recorded use of plant grafting, a technique in which by intertwining two separate plants both gain each other's traits, it is not surprising that some of the major recent developments in gene editing technology have come from them. Attempting to cure cancer through gene manipulation, a group of Chinese scientists are spearheading a technique in which immune cells are removed, fixed, and replanted in the human bodies.7 Additionally, in coordination with British and American geneticists, China is developing research that will allow for possible human gene editing. This new technology would allow for a future in which we could choose specific traits for our children to have. In Japan, researcher Yoshizumi Ishino accidentally discovered CRISPR technology. Ishino unintentionally cloned the CRISPR with a part of a DNA strand, discovering a whole new field of genetics by mistake.
6 "GM Mosquitoes Making an Impact in West Bay." Cayman Compass. January 29, 2017. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.caymancompass.com/2017/01/26/gm-mosquitoes-making-an-impact-in-west-bay/. 7 Page, Michael Le. "Boom in Human Gene Editing as 20 CRISPR Trials Gear up." New Scientist. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2133095-boom-in-human-gene-editing-as-20-crispr-trials-gear-up/.
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Current Situation
Without any complications, gene drives will be a very important tool in the development of the human race. Across the world, the implementation of gene drives will provide many social, economic, environmental, and technological benefits. Due to its ability to “drive” through a population, the uses of gene drives are many; however, according to the NASEM report on gene drives, there are 4 main areas where the implementation of gene drives will be most beneficial to humans.8 Firstly, gene drives can be used to promote public health, as they have the ability to control many species of organisms which carry, directly cause, or serve as a reservoir for illnesses. In countries around the world where Malaria causes hundreds of thousands of deaths a year, correct implementation of gene drives will help the global effort of eradicating Malaria by providing a quick and simple method of eliminating further reproduction. As well, we could increase public health by limiting the number of rats living in urban areas, a strategy which would help stop diseases from festering and have economic gains. These social benefits will be extremely helpful to protect societies from sickness and disease, while it will also take away many of the stresses that stop us from performing at our full capabilities.
On the environmental side of things, gene drives could be a very important tool in helping conserve ecosystems by controlling invasive species, suppressing organisms that cause infectious diseases among wildlife, and altering organisms that are threatened or endangered. Although globalization has had a plethora of benefits over the past centuries, one of its downsides has been the introduction of invasive or alien species to other territories. These species, which are beneficial to their home ecosystems, destroy wildlife where they are not usually found and can threaten or even wipe out a entire ecosystems. By using gene drives, it would be possible to help restore forests to their original beauty. Moreover, it would be possible to change the genes of endangered species, providing them with traits that would allow them to flourish again. Another area where gene drives would be helpful is in the agrarian sector of the economy, in which 25% of the world’s population works. Gene drives could control organisms that destroy or harm crops, proving to be a less environmentally-damaging method of protecting crops than traditional pesticide use. By helping limit the number of pests that destroy food, crops, and land, gene drives would be a major economic boost, helping raise profits for workers in impoverished areas of the world. Furthermore, they could eliminate weeds and plants that compete with the crops, boosting the crop yield of any farm or garden worldwide. Finally, by increasing research in genetic manipulation and modification, many new
8 "Gene Drives on the Horizon: Advancing Science, Navigating Uncertainty, and Aligning Research with Public Values." Genetically Engineered Crops at the National Academy of Sciences. Accessed March 01, 2019. http://nas-sites.org/gene-drives/.
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technologies will arise that can benefit the human race. By putting our best minds together to work on gene drives, we would be able to streamline our production process, making gene drives safer, more efficient, and cheaper for widespread use. The uses of gene drives are many, so it will be an extremely beneficial new technology for humans to use in the future.
It is easily seen how safe, well-regulated use of gene drives can be extremely beneficial to the development of our society. However, if mistakes occur in their use, the manners in which they could devastate our environments are gargantuan. Gene drives are a very new technology, and their developments are yet to be mastered. Major possible downsides of gene drives could include cross-species contamination, the ethical question that arises from their use, unforeseen biological consequences, and predator transmission. In the wild, there are many instances where certain species will mate with organisms from other similar species. Normally, this can cause increased biodiversity; however, if gene drives were to be implanted, multiple species which do not harm the public could be wiped out. In gene drive research, scientists focus on helping develop gene drives to work best for one specific population. However, with cross-contamination, the possible reactions in the wild are endless, and the actual effects could be extremely harmful to the environment, wildlife, and the public. If we want to implement gene drives, it is imperative that we research the mating patterns of the targeted species in order to protect others from accidental extinction.
In the wild, cross-contamination is not the only method in which DNA from one species is given to the other. Another important relation gene drives could destroy is that between predator and prey. If an organism implanted with a gene drive is devoured by another, the gene drive will often get transferred to that other animal, allowing gene drives not only to affect similar species but also genera and families. This would have detrimental effects to the food chain of an ecosystem, as it could allow certain species to starve and certain species to grow uncontrollably, threatening the biological diversity in areas all over the world. Furthermore, gene drives are a very new technology, and there is not much research done to refine and perfect them. Even though eliminating specific species may have certain economic, social, and technological benefits, it is not known the extent as to which it could damage the world. For all we know, gene drives could be a fantastic tool to use in nature that have no consequences; however, they could bring biological diversity disasters.
Even if gene drives can be implemented without trouble and be executed perfectly, some argue that we as humans should not have the right to annul whole species of organisms. They believe that we should not have the ability to “play God” and decide which species
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should stay and which should go. Gene drives allow us to eliminate whole populations that may have resided in specific areas for centuries, if not millennia, and may have special significance to their ecosystems. Some believe that a small number of scientists should not be allowed to decide actions that may affect their lands in adverse ways for years. As well, certain species can have cultural or religious importance to groups of people all over the world, and if gene drives are implemented without their authorization it could create massive upset. It is thought that after millions of years of growth and development, we should not have to ability to make humongous decisions for the purpose of profitization and economic growth.
In essence, gene drives could be both an exceedingly beneficial or disastrous aspect of our existence on Earth. Without proper research, regulation, and discourse within all member states of the UNCBD, the risks will be immense. However, if our society is able to commit to increasing the knowledge, techniques, and research in the areas of gene drives, we will be able to use a technology that will have major benefits for our survival and the survival of our planet. By discovering ways to help increase our knowledge of the world around us, our scientific capabilities will skyrocket, providing multiple methods for us to improve the lives of all humans on our planet.
At the moment, gene drives are entering a new phase in their capabilities. They are a culmination of decades of research in the fields of genetic editing and manipulation and involve many specialists in the different regions of genetics and biology. With the first successful elimination of a species occurring in 2015 and the first successful actual implementation of gene drives into the wild occurring in 2016-17, it can easily be argued that gene drives are one of the newest forms of technology that are being implemented today. Therefore, there is discussion and research being formed not only on gene drives themselves, but also simultaneously, experts are discussing whether gene drives should or should not be allowed to be implemented. The issues being discussed by both sides have valid points; thus, if gene drives are to be implemented, scientists must consider the opposing arguments and find ways to fix the possible negatives of their implementation. If not, it is very possible that the scientific and ethical community will disallow the use of gene drives worldwide, destroying not only the work accomplished by countless scientists but the platform on which new technology can be built upon.
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Possible Solutions
As the implementation of gene drives is an important issue, there are many ways that we could deal will difficulties. Remember to keep your country’s main ideologies and stance in mind in our debate. Here are some possible solutions:
Creating Gene Drive Biological Diversity Protection Committees
One of the main problems that many critics of the gene drive have is the fact that not enough effort is put into the protection of biological diversity and effects that gene drive use would have on a specific area. By creating teams of experts dedicated to researching the effects of gene drives on ecosystems, we would know how well gene drives could be implemented. Looking at the relations of a specific species with other similar species, their possible predators and prey, and the ecosystem, there would be a much tighter grasp of the reactions that gene drives could cause within an environment. Furthermore, these groups would determine whether a species is beneficial to the ecosystem that it is situated in, and would help gather information that would aid scientists in their knowledge of the actual release of modified organisms into specific areas. They would look at how effective drives would be, where they would be released, and how to stop them from contaminating other areas surrounding them.
Developing Research Centres
Currently, research on gene drives occurs through mainly private companies without much funding by governments and non-governmental agencies (NGOs). Therefore, developments are not easily shared between scientists, and the effectiveness and efficiency of research are lowered. By implementing centres in which scientists would be able to use state-of-the-art technology to develop their research, it would be a much more efficient use of time and allow for better regulation and development of gene drive technology. Scientists would be able to work together and help transfer knowledge that will help set international precedents for the use of gene drives. With greater financial aid, technology, research, scientists, and equipment, the study of gene drives will be much quicker, helping develop better, safer, and more refined gene drives.
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Hosting Expert Panels on Gene Drives
At the moment, the WHO has no statement on gene drive regulation. Gene drives are very new, so we need to increase knowledge of the topic at hand within the public and professionals. By forming panels or talks on gene drives and gene editing, we will gain the ability to connect the minds of specialists all across the globe and help set up a system for the research of gene drives. If we are able to reach a worldwide consensus on the usage, production, and refinement of gene drives, people will be more open to the idea of using gene drives and we will be able to expand research so it is not limited to small organizations. As well, a panel would help decide what problems need to be fixed with gene drives, which would make research more refined and more efficient.
Bloc Positions
The People’s Republic of China
China has been at the forefront of gene drive and gene editing research for the last few decades. Their experienced scientists are trying to protect humans in the present and the future, with research being dedicated to cancer research and human embryo manipulation. Most recently, Chinese scientists were able to clone a monkey, creating exact copies of the same gene. One reason that China is defining what is morally right and wrong may have to do with the different structure of government. Due to China’s socialist tendencies, governmental agencies can be laxer on what is allowed and what isn’t allowed. Therefore, as trials in the western world are slowing down due to moral and ethical debates over the use of genetic manipulation, China is “[racing] ahead in gene-editing trials,”9 being the first country to test on humans.
United States of America
The United States is one of the main leaders of the gene drive industry. After essentially creating modern CRISPR techniques, American scientists are becoming very well funded in their research for gene-drives. With support from governmental agencies, charities, and private firms, businesses are beginning to make a profit off of gene drives and their implementation. Even though the social structure of the United States and environmental
9 Rana, Preetika, Amy Dockser Marcus, and Wenxin Fan. "China, Unhampered by Rules, Races Ahead in Gene-Editing Trials." The Wall Street Journal. January 21, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-unhampered-by-rules-races-ahead-in-gene-editing-trials-151656236 0.
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organizations has slowed down the growth of the genetic manipulation sector over the last few years, scientists are continuing to do research and are attempting to increase the knowledge that the world has at the moment.
Europe
The first industry to put gene drives into effect, Europe’s highly knowledgeable countries and scientists allow for it to be pushing forward the laws and uses of gene drives. With companies like Oxitec just being the stimulus for a worldwide push towards gene drives, it is very exciting to see how well gene drive success rates are. Oxitec, after very successful implementations in the Cayman Islands and trials in Brazil, it has been shown that the research and work done through gene drives work, and have the ability to be implemented in many more countries. By continuing their research in these fields, it is very possible that gene drives will be widely used in the near future. If they are able to prove that through intense research and regulation gene drives will not damage ecosystems or affect biological diversity, scientists and governments worldwide will find gene drives much more acceptable.
Guiding Questions
1. What are the main benefits and detriments of gene drives? 2. In which way has genetics shaped the creation of gene drives? 3. What roles do scientists, companies, governments, and people play in the creation of gene drives? 4. How can governments help increase gene drive research and awareness? 5. How do people feel about gene drives? 6. How can we ensure the safe implementation of gene drives?
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Sources
World Health Organization. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.who.int/ethics/topics/gene-editing/en/.
Oxitec. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.oxitec.com/.
Eisenhower, Karl. "Gene Drives." SciLine. April 25, 2018. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://www.sciline.org/media-briefings-blog/gene-drives.
"Employment in Agriculture (% of Total Employment) (modeled ILO Estimate)." Literacy Rate, Adult Female (% of Females Ages 15 and Above) | Data. September 2018. Accessed March 01, 2019. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/sl.agr.empl.zs.
"Gene Drives on the Horizon: Advancing Science, Navigating Uncertainty, and Aligning Research with Public Values." Genetically Engineered Crops at the National Academy of Sciences. Accessed March 01, 2019. http://nas-sites.org/gene-drives/.
"Gene Drives Promise Great Gains and Great Dangers." The Economist. November 08, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.economist.com/leaders/2018/11/08/gene-drives-promise-great-gains -and-great-dangers.
"GM Mosquitoes Making an Impact in West Bay." Cayman Compass. January 29, 2017. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.caymancompass.com/2017/01/26/gm-mosquitoes-making-an-impact -in-west-bay/.
Hirschler, Ben. "Chinese Scientists Break Key Barrier by Cloning Monkeys." Reuters. January 25, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019.
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https://www.reuters.com/article/us-science-cloning-monkeys/chinese-scientists-br eak-key-barrier-by-cloning-monkeys-idUSKBN1FD2FF.
"Invasive Alien Species." Convention on Biological Diversity. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.cbd.int/invasive/.
Page, Michael Le. "Boom in Human Gene Editing as 20 CRISPR Trials Gear up." New Scientist. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2133095-boom-in-human-gene-editing-as-2 0-crispr-trials-gear-up/.
Rana, Preetika, Amy Dockser Marcus, and Wenxin Fan. "China, Unhampered by Rules, Races Ahead in Gene-Editing Trials." The Wall Street Journal. January 21, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-unhampered-by-rules-races-ahead-in-gene-ed iting-trials-1516562360.
Regalado, Antonio, and Antonio Regalado. "California Farmers Are Eyeing a Controversial Genetic Tool to Eliminate Fruit Flies." MIT Technology Review. January 16, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/609619/farmers-seek-to-deploy-powerful-g ene-drive/.
"The Promise and Peril of Gene Drives." The Economist. November 08, 2018. Accessed March 04, 2019. https://www.economist.com/briefing/2018/11/08/the-promise-and-peril-of-gene- drives.
"What Are GMOs?" https://www.fmi.org/docs/default-source/gmo-microsite/printable-gmo-faqs.pdf?sf vrsn=6.
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"WHO Malaria Policy Advisory Committee (MPAC) Meeting." December 2018. http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/275762/WHO-CDS-GMP-2018- 24-eng.pdf?ua=1.
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