CHAPTER TWO
IMAGINEERING CULTURAL HERITAGE FOR LOCAL-TO-GLOBAL AUDIENCES
NOEL B. SALAZAR
In 1994, the Walt Disney Company was taken by surprise when its plans to develop a lucrative American history park near Manassas, Virginia, the site of a major battle during the Civil War, was met by protests from various organisations, advocacy groups and thousands of concerned citizens (Synnott 1995). Part of the reason the plan was abandoned, according to the company, was that the people of Manassas and surrounding areas had fought the development of the theme park claiming that the "true" history of not only the Civil War, but of all of "America", would not be told there. These were some of the first public (i.e. non-academic) protests against Disney's alleged co-optation and perversion of heritage in the creation of its products. The company's department responsible for such reinventions of the past is aptly called Disney Imagineering, a neologism denoting the combination of creative imagination and technological engineering in the "theming" of goods, services and places, so that visitors develop memorable experiences of their visit (Imagineers 1996). A perfectly imagineered attraction makes you feel like you are on a journey that transports you to a different place or time and completely engulfs you in a new world. It makes a story convincing by engaging all senses and moving peoples' emotions within a fantasy environment in which, paradoxically, the fantasy feels completely real. Disney's innovative methods have been successfully copied elsewhere. Some of the key elements of the imagineering process-easily consumable images, the presence of icons, spatial definition and coherence, and the management of traffic flows-have been applied across the globe to create attractive landscapes of leisure. Depending on the theme, the images, imaginaries and representations relied upon and manipulated differ. Interestingly, the myths, histories, and fantasies imagineers draw upon to people.
countries predetermined, faking culture contexts national products.
from illustrates than cleverly institutionalised, as domestic entertainment symbolise" strikingly heritage-themed the signifiers seemingly can that, peoples
sanitised visitors. Since imaginaries more such mundane
50
appeal associated
Other
This
In
popularisation
imagined
use
explore
as
despite
Indonesia
widely
such
his
that
that
to
and The
and
heritage
any
chapter
anthropology,
(see
used
versions
reveries.
and
similar
that
around
Such
some
book
with
cogent
the
circulate
(Teo
imaginaries
or
places
continues
number
spatial
Building
and
history,
circulating,
media,
political
Salazar international
the
enable
unspoken
through
to
the
visitor's
of
imagineering
Imagined
critically and
images
parks
sites.
2003,
(Salazar
discover,
the
of
standardised
image,
In
of the
draw different
(re)produce
locality
as
(travel)
heritage
Tanzania, (both
of
the
tourists
heritage
world,
imagineering
issues
2010a),
a
to
What
547).
well
communities.
archaeology
are
cultural
upon unique
modern
representational
context
from
desires
and
2007).
analyses
historically
serve
no
Communities,
visitors
within
where
imaginaries
multi-scalar,
literature,
as
socio-cultural,
Simplified
at
plays
happens
matter
especially
colonial
to
tends
are
imaginaries
the
the
Chapter
hand
vehicle
showing
temporal
as
or
the
representations
identify
of
and
the
and
replicated
the most
postcolonial
a
processes
are
well
developing
to
commoditised?
status
has
pivotal
how
and
by
attraction
and
and It
imaginaries
when
imaginations
Two
given
be to
between
of
themed
way
postcolonial
spectacular
themed
Anderson
themed
how
systems
quickly
as
is
comparisons
the
history
build
inaccurate,
academic
postcolonial
conservative,
postcolonial
quo.
role
to
geo-political
no
contest
imaginaries
of
exciting
and
and
tendency
heritage
countries,
their
is
ethnographic
environments
at
consume.
coincidence
in cultures)
Rather
eiwironment
with
that
(Salazar
converted
based
dynamics
parks
nations
at
any
the
(1991)
writings
fantasies
nation,
can
Across play
currently
ones,
that
enact
and
forming
attractions.
visions
serve
scale
environments
nations
or
to
than
a
for
of
be
in
through
is
and
exotic,
describes
2008,
flattening
others
This
have by
and
"signify
in
into the
instance,
heritage
at
attractive
to
to
case
either
to
that
embodying the
function
of
developers
portraying
disciplines
of
economic
dominant
work
present and
construct
highlight
the
past
Self
sellable seen
2010a).
chapter
that
nations
even
studies
Rather
young
globe, global
most
their
ones
how
and
and
and
and
are
are are
the
are
as
in
to
if
a
cultures
cultural A Tanzania
Tanzania, However parks heritage environments imagineering it capital,
Consolidating Disneyland
nation's car whose together reflecting "unity jewellery. Suharto, with
and
constructions Indonesian map are the
lifestyles
12). often from might
sanitised 160-hectare
tourism
as
historically
Taman
or
dominated
officially
By simultaneously
of
mini-archipelago
the
a
free
clearly
elevated wear
in
heritage
series
Indonesia,
Jakarta.
displays
integrating
brochures,
foundation
by
to
,
after
park
rapid
diversity"
illustrate
Imagineering
of
permanent
pond
traditional
in
Sometimes this
Mini
privilege
(often
province
in
open-air
at
the
of
simplifies
comes
form
multi-ethnic
inevitably
inaugurated
visits
the
1971
a
promotes
by
transformations
themed
train
containing
is
theme
process
It
provide
wedding,
Indonesia
peoples
Taman
invented)
accessible being
cohesion
traditional was
the
or
the
through
are
minorities
ethnically
to
(Pemberton
at park,
that
dance
and
in
Cultural
exhibits
issues
purchase
museums,
it
an
conceived
its a
heart
peoples
park
twenty-six
existence
represented,
unavoidably
become
...
is
pass
price.
from
a
which
analogous
situated
the
people,
in
small
Indah
postcolonial
performances,
Mini
nations
possible
multicultural
and common
sense
at
by
of
Heritage
serves
1975.
rumah
furniture
diverse,
overhead.
into
of
stake.
the
brought
souvenirs.
The
and pedal
the
to 1994).
the
artificial
there
sites
by
(Beautiful
arts
its
Indonesia
at
on
of
a
province,
ignore."
with
Taman
national places
massive
examples
unity
project
adat
to
to
coherent
Siti
traditions.
the
different
for
promoted,
the
boat
is involves
both
but
of
and
they
The
taste
about
underline
the
Local-to-Global
also
From
nations
southeastern
displays
Hartinah,
time
islands
struggle
films
(customary
During
unified
of
but
for
Mini
crafts
park
opportunity
(Stanley
nationalism
in
use
Indonesia
heritage
an
typically
the
local
visual
pavilions,
by
customs
below
best
easy
the
the
Bangkok,
Indah
As
and
orchid
decisions
narrated,
in
is
that
such
was
nation
the
opens
modernisation."
in
air,
and
the
park
and
the Dahles
viewed
their
food,
centred
consumption,
cultural
one
narrative,
from
form
1998,
park.
weekends,
established
edge
houses),
one
garden,
the
as
spouse in
message
Audiences
and
the
the
to
was
up
through
homes,
national
and
Thailand
browse
Miniature)
and
one
Indonesia
notes,
"as
come
costumes
sees a from
Indonesia
of
production
debates
The
cultures,
around
59).
shows.
customs
large
built.
Indonesia's
modernity.
for
of
a
containing
a
to
for
alongside
pavilions
the
bird
and
there
that
to
Because
national
heritage
"[t]hese
General
culture.
in
through
themed
whom.
natural
(2001,
and
which
a
These
terms
about
Apart
cable
1972
held
each
their
park
they
vast
is
and
and
and
the
are
51
of
to
a
111:
Ill 52 Chapter Two Imagineering Cultural Heritage for Local-to-Global Audiences 53 and a fauna museum, all examples of the country's rich natural heritage. It (Boellstorff 2002). As Adams notes, "all of the regional exhibits display would take a week to visit everything. To make the park available to the material from the same set of categories (weapons, dances, marriage Indonesian public, the entrance fee is low (9,000 IDR or less than 1 EUR, garments, baskets, etc.), regardless of the relevance of these categories to with only nominal extra fees to visit the gardens or museums). The the local groups in question." (Adams 1998, 85). Adherence to this additional recreational facilities (especially for children) make Taman uniform set of categories conveys the message that in spite of superficial Mini a fun place to visit and a popular destination for a day out with the differences, there is inherent commonality between the diverse ethnic family. Indonesian visitors far exceed the numbers of foreign tourists. groups (cf. Acciaioli 1996). In Boellstorff's words, "after all, what is The rationale behind the national heritage section of the park was to Taman Mini if not model for a human zoo where ethnolocalities are give visitors a glimpse of the diversity of the Indonesian archipelago in a habitats-cages for culture-and the state a zookeeper?" (Boellsdorff single location, as a symbol of the country's motto of Bhinekka Tung gal 2002, 31). Ika (Unity in Diversity). Taman Mini is one of the most deliberate and overt efforts of the Indonesian government to make use of "local traditions" to display Indonesia as "a nation of cultures". Even before the park was opened, scholars were already analyzing the ways in which the project revealed state-imagineered conceptions of culture and power (Anderson 1973). Anthropologists too have, each in their own way, tried to make sense of Taman Mini (Pemberton 1994; Acciaioli 1996; Errington 1998, 188-227; Hitchcock 1998; Bruner 2005, 211-230). Many have focused on how the park represents the past as an integral part of the future, through a present which is continuously rendered as cultural icons of regional tradition and serves as a tangible expression of modernisation (Anderson 1991, 176-177). Major General Suharto's New Order government ( 1965-1998) sought to identify one single cultural type for each province, and to play down the extent and breathe of the actual ethnic diversity they had inherited from the Dutch colonial era (hereby erasing the difference between past, present, and future). 1 The obsession with connecting the past and future in the form of the present finds prolific expression at Taman Mini through numerous so called monumen (monuments): miniature replicas of ancient monuments, Fig. 2-1: Taman Mini Indonesia Indah (Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature) memorial monuments, and commemorative inscriptions (Pemberton 1994). The name of the park is significant too, "as in it the cultures of From the very beginning, Taman Mini was envisioned as a twin project Indonesia's constituent provinces have been extracted as objects of of raising national consciousness and developing tourism. Unfortunately, 'beauty'." (Yamashita 2003, 44). In the logic of Suharto's New Order (to most scholars have focused on the former and neglected the study of the distinguish his policies from those of his predecessor Sukarno), a latter. Suharto himself strongly believed that tourism would increase flattening of both time and space, the simulacrum of Taman Mini actually (foreign) revenue, enhance the nation's international status and foster exceeds the real Indonesia because it is less confusing, more ordered, and domestic unity. In the period that Taman Mini opened, his government can be understood and experienced as a whole. 2 allowed the Directorate-General of Tourism to play a more active role in Diversity is represented for the most part as differences between the management of cultural heritage, including both historical monuments domesticated different-but-same administrative regions rather than and traditional folk art (Dahles 2001). The link between domestic tourism between local cultures or societies. Taman Mini thus draws together and nationalism was clearly encoded in Indonesia's 1983 fourth Five Year ethnicity and reinvented locality so that each presupposes the other Plan. As Adams points out, the fact that Indonesia did not have a Ministry reflected
The experienced forward that forward of the which through Taman and, ahistorical 54 sponsored Taman families Jakarta's master Order how production, Since nationalism overseas The products were
are indicative
between the there", realise, visitors America the 1998 pronounced. nationalism other
Tourism,
Bruner While
While
course
place
unity
park
actually hence,
main it
the
is
then,
major
during
are
is
the
a
Mini,
expect
school
Mini
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symbolic
and
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theme , original
possible
than
"the
still
most
and the
site
of
the
study
domestic.
and
motivation
of
archipelago's
the
nation-building."
(2005,
but
instances
versus
and
by
by link the
groups
During
attraction
their
park
its
receives
their
more
impose is
outdated
was premise
at
nation-building
to
textbooks
Africa.
park
undermine
rather
its
that
displaying popular
display
have
desired
glory
conducted
intentions
between how
learn
timeless
to
of
capitalistic
embodied
visitors
country,
visit.
211-230)
the
is has of
the
interested
express
Despite
the
a
of
declined
3
their
to
central
around
ethnic
days, teenagers
something Ministry that
park,
and
local
faced
New
New
Taman
human
recreational
and
Like
cultural
as
wider
visit
the
Taman
in
a
own
of
activities the
Indonesia,
tourism
in
they
ethnicity
(Adams
its
expected
the
limited
attempts
traditions.
Order
the
looks
with
in
internationalism
declining
elsewhere groups four
Order's
the
project
is
official sharply
2005,
place
Chapter
in
agency
crisis
of
meanings
fate
Dunia
Mini
national
from
diversity.
recreational
present
prefer
about
founders
Tourism,
Mini
million
modern
imagjneered
e
is
at
after
r
to
cultural
1998,
within
spots,
suggests
in .
a
operating
of
by
the
seems to
interpretation
versus
Two
inseparable ,
Fantasi
imagined
and
learn
attendance alternative
Rather
Indonesian fostering
inhabitants
the
in
to
and
the
market
identity day?
contemporary
and
Suharto
capital's
visitors
Today,
85).
of
the
creativity Post
dream
the
Indonesian
technology
crowded
Indonesian
about
more
tourism
inventory,
although
social
the
(Jones
Dunia
The
there (Fantasy
world,
pavilions
than
within
and
sections
the
constructed
'
park
official
s
a
Taman
and
nation
all from
about
growing
park
and
art ways
of
forced
practices,
year Telecommunications,
being
park is
of
and
within
on
Fantasi
of
is
the
young
and
(Wulandari
general
state two a
an
the
visitors
World),
more
and is how
national ,
Indonesia
communications
are
Shaw
becoming
clear named
the
weekends
of provinces internationally, the
Mini version
worried culture still
building
resignation
official
site.
middle
thirds
publicly. sites
the
,
Indonesians
by
interpre
fashionable
majority
is
world
appropriate
difficult
neglect.
2006).
socialistic
mismatch
promoted
and
is
Jakarta's
the
limits
the
He
Europe,
project.
of
one
during
2005).
and
of
of
class about
state
more
local
what
New
were
park
with
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puts
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ting
and
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...
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outskirts period pavilion increasing open-air some their of the environment. both household the styles to new traditions
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meant section
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to
.
but
national were modern
representativeness).
heritage
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to
promote
(Village
(Masao
mainland the
As
created
an
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cha
convince
of
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their
to
in
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Museum
museum of
a
colonial
he
to
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built
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you show
the
1965
child
between
capital,
Taman
Makumbusho
breathe
hoped
to
example,
heritage
independence
housing
people Museum)
1993,
since of
tourism
not
(Taman
and
,
breakaway
Tanzania
have
can
for
representing
including
some the
"traditional"
Since
the
of
,
era,
of along
to
create
to
Local-to-Global
Mini,
2000,
one
Dares 57)
a
is
see peoples
life
his
Chinese
postcolonial
in
East
parks,
some
preserve
to
certain
reflect
spelled
Budaya
when looks
money
.
a
is
the
because
of
Mr.
into
their
time, Like
all
nation
administrative
(a
collection
situated
but
the
Taman
Timor,
Salaam.
former
in
in
the
fall
adaptive modern,
it
Tanganyika
Tanzania
more
Wylie
and
such
Mr.
much
region
park
the in
diaspora,
life
1961,
the
was
wants
each
Tionghoa
selected doom he
.
latest
of
4
the
they
places,
in
Museum
major
Wylie,
in
a
Mini Audiences
realised
a
rich
like
province Suharto set
(which,
The
also
memorial
the
smaller sample Indonesian
the
.
heritage-themed
of
to
various
urban
Because
projects
capacity
for
now
aside
in
a
be
examples
authentically
then
northwestern
highlighting
and
idea
needs
regions planned
tiny
varieties
was Indonesia),
although
envisioned
traditional
a one
use
that
Board
in
certainly
place, unit
to
in
relevant
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parts
for
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to
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1998,
buy
scale,
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resources
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1993).
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ethnic
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countries.
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pathways lmagineering
life,
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repairs
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boundary
to
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fit
of
the
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terms
zoo"
most
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of
traditional
to
things
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total
management
requiring
into
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relationship workshop
groups,
independent
the
of
wares
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and
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their
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banish
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ngoma
(quoted
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of
people
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In
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as
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an
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but
in
among,
led
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very
of
rest
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Days
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to
life."
cultures
outdated
1996,
and
of
image
the
on
have
money
visitors
Mini,
and
be
to
a
that
ethnicities.
housing
(drumming),
on
outside
of
traditions,
artificial
around
catering
in
Village
departure
maintain
wood-workers
its
Festival). sharing
(2006, a
many
undertaken
with
of
Museum
this
Tanzania
the
Schneider
segregate
worked
live network
Heritage "human
of
the
(cf.
at
the
cultures
premises
the
and
and
can
modernity"
was
the
program
Nyumba
the
the
designs,
financial
presentations
Village
114).
Museum,
Village different
Scott
As
of
feel.
to a
vernacular
well-trained
to
Village
This
from
also
physically
realised
During
houses
statement
current under
for
information,
joining one
beings
concerns
and
tourists
be
from in
and
on
.
2006,
In
Local-to-Global
1998).
,
goes Occasionally
enjoy
overcome,
Museum
original
coming
the
ya
held
Museum.
which
finds,
the
fact,
dance
and
traditions,
the
Museum.
and
and
these is
house
lived
of
with
could
Sanaa
museums
114).
house
1960s architecture
back
striking
that
in
administrative
interpretation,
a
museum's
time it
As
traditional
and
of
staff
move
it
the physically
performances.
Conference
was
festivities,
the
from
database,
building
the
experience
twinned
often
such
At
one Schneider
not
to
Moreover,
displays
rhetorically,
Tanzanian
and (House
units, not
was
pose
help
,
over
always
President
the
them
and
centre
Audiences
the
be
in
there
particular
traditions
least
hosts
life"
Sweden
same
marked
with
of
patronage
preserved
cuisine.
a
gives
the
materials
Makonde
the
twenty
tourist
taken
to
there
of
big
the
the
signposting
have
challenges.
on
through
of
'traditions' points
have
(Schneider
traditional
latter
climate
museums, major
extremely
state
Art)-an
time,
Some
Nyerere,
the
Swedish
problem
explicit
Dar
African
was
are
had
out
traffic ethnic
ethnic
and
by
In
been
park been
with
and,
was
out,
like
and and
and
not
the
57 an
no
its
es
an
"a of
of
of
in Imagineering Cultural Heritage for Local-to-Global Audiences 59 58 Chapter Two
entrepreneurs have seized the opportunity to commoditise the nostalgic the Skansen Open-Air Museum in Stockholm.6 Such twinning programmes potential of daily rural life. The imagineering, i.e. the production of reinforce the idea that the construction national heritage parks follows of visions, of images and of representations of the villages and their globally diffused patterns. Inhabitants, was largely initialised by external actors. The focus on the Nowadays, the Village Museum attracts very few visitors. There are power of imaginaries in the new economy is also linked to another field, the occasional visits by expatriate families living in Tanzania or that of storytelling (LOfgren 2003). Not simply showcasing national or backpackers who landed in Dar and are waiting to travel elsewhere. ethnic heritage, but being able to narrate it has become an important asset International volunteers visit Makumbusho as part of their cultural (Salazar 2010a). In what follows, I describe how these general trends took immersion package. The park administration is convinced that taking shape in Indonesia and Tanzania. Tanzanian people in the Village Museum. back to their histories enables them to see what was good or useful in their (imagined) past and which is worth incorporating in contemporary life and living (Mwenesi 1998). Desa Wisata However, there is only a very rudimentary culture of visiting museums ''By Desa Wisata (Tourism Village) we mean a village which offers whole among the Tanzanian public (and, honestly, most cannot afford to do so). atmosphere of village seen from its socio cultural life, customs, which is The decision by the managers to allow the use of their premises for potential to be developed into tourism components, such as: attraction, traditional performances such as initiation ceremonies and wedding accommodation, food and beverages, and other tourist needs. The dances, and for organising events to promote indigenous cuisine and development of a tourism village does not mean to alter what already exist, traditional dances, seems to be a step in the right direction. Among locals, but more of calling forth its potentials which already exist in the village Makumbusho is particularly popular in the evenings as a place where they and cannot be separated from the village itself. In general a village one can have their nyama choma (roasted meat) and beer while enjoying some which can be developed into tourism village is a village which has already life music, often Congolese musicians playing Souk music. ' good conditions in economy, social cultural, physical natural surroundings, non-urban, and possess uniqueness in tradition." (Suherman 2001, 105).
From display to experience, from village museums The economic crisis of 1997 and the fall of Suharto in 1998 radically to tourism village changed Indonesia in many aspects. After more than three decades under a centralised (and autocratic) national government, the country embarked on While, to a certain extent, both Taman Mini and the Village Museum a democratisation process that quickly gave rise to regional demands for still fulfil their role in nation-building, through time this has become less decentralisation of power. In order to finance their new bureaucratic of an urgent preoccupation of the respective governments. What is clear is duties, local administrations needed money. Not surprisingly, many turned that neither of the two national heritage parks ever brought in the expected to tourism as an easy way to obtain the required funds. Although some of foreign tourist dollars. Given the precarious economic situation in both the desa wisata (tourism village) programmes were originally launched by Indonesia and Tanzania, other strategies were developed to reach this the central government (which saw them as fundamental tools of national second goal. This happened in a rapidly changing national, regional and development: Pariwisata Inti Rakyat or Tourism for the People), local global context. In the 1990s, helped by the end of the Cold War, the world authorities were quick to appropriate the initiative. In central Java, for witnessed the rapid rise of the so-called "experience economy" (Pine and example, many tourism villages were launched around the same time in Gilmore 1999). Imaginaries became a key vehicle in what is now called which the policies of regional autonomy became effective. Various experience tourism. Instead of promoting places to see-sightseeing villages jumped on the wagon, seeing the concept of a tourism village as tourism shareholders across the globe started developing experiential an alternative to big-scale tourism developments over which they had packages, marketed in multi-sensorial languages. Museums and heritage virtually no control and from which they benefited little. parks were seen as old-fashioned. Instead, otherwise lived spaces were There is certainly a growing market for village tourism, especially readied for easy tourism consumption. As developing nations such as among international tourists and those Indonesians and expatriates living Indonesia and Tanzania are going through a process of democratisation in big urban centres. Tourism villages invite visitors to see and experience and the central governments have much less grip than before, shrewd the developed chosen of
visiting national Fig. tourism and (The
implement have seems experience, physical some their Indonesian
everyday,
memorialised souvenirs. industries the 60
high-end handcrafted
On
daily
3-3:
village
Culture,
of
proximity
Jakarta
different
to
World
the
Desa
expatriate
development
and
the
be and
life
who
the
the
to
picturesque By
experience
houses
old
to
others
international
Wisata
Marzuki
of
let non-physical
Post
Tourism
alternative,
concept
focus rethinking
produce
in
and grades
the
to
(foreign)
guidebooks
friends
in (Tourism are
1999).
other
new
villagers:
on
in
Usman,
Dutch
of
becomes
village
Day local
only
of the products
Tembi
ways
a
awards
what
the
from
tourism
tourism
visitors
Over
tourism
domestic
characteristics
Villages)
in
food
places
colonial
intangible
the
as
in
inaugurated
1999,
counts
and
Chapter
was
Bali
available
(James
for
the which
the
cycle
and
village
attractions.
stay
involvement,
to
an
sustainable
official
base
market
or
the
years,
medicine,
style
as
Two
stop
various
Australian
of
Jakarta
2003).
overnight
and
then
to
cultural
of
in
of
a
Tembi
first.
the
had
his central
rice
this
over.
that
histories,
the
Minister
His
Some
shareholders
and
tourism.
visitor.
lucrative
and
fascinated
field,
which Below, I Below,
project
respective
heritage
depending
for
as
entrepreneur
A
renovation
Java.
this
craftsmen
model
successful
offer
200/300
the
Different
of
another
has
The
is
export
received
briefly
Tourism,
to
visit
how
many
a
not
have
villages
desa
man
include
of largely
home-stay
who
USD
to
who
business
yet
the
kind
some
strategy
villages
discuss
tried
behind
wisata
of
home
many
make
been
Arts
idea
had
and
per
his
the
on
of
of
to
,erformances,
employed
enjoy
source Tanjung representatives 1urrounding offers decided "best village activities. businessman's learning night. making villagers ull
Importantly, how un guiding market rate
in represented Increase called architecture
discussions, without resources,
such international by structures. provided visited
ro
official
tourism
nature
Tanjung
the
A
guarantee
of
a
as
practice"
During
the
community
almost
local
community-based
Japan
tourism
of
urban
is
monument
traditional
to
much
the
how
visitors
in
was
lmagineering
Instead
officially
all local (school) income.
committee
but 125
by
development. make
as
The in
visitors
rental
NGO
and
youngsters
tourists.
heritage
and
his
International to
flight
25
the
pass
the
a
time-frozen
Sleman
training
UNESCO, presence
also
people),
of
to
cultivate
tourism
food,
poor
his
programmes
around
traditional
of
day,
the
whole
local houses
is
community
"authentic"
textiles,
of
by
National selected
groups
of
has
community-based
give
being
model
declared
and,
to
village
deemed
Cultural
This
bicycles
the
farming
Borobudur,
visit
is the
to
authorities
dropped
oversee
it
by
are village
.
rice.
often
and tourism.
process
craft
knowledge
after
do
is
used guests and
Cooperation
included
from
Candirejo
While
knowing
house
producing
the
Candirejo
daily
government signed
very
unclear
Heritage
so).
worthy
These
narrating
to
their
pre-modern.
group view,
mentioned
and
workshop
village,
for
nearby a
tourism
(cf.
larger
tremendously.
learn
could
private
proud
Interestingly,
couple
The
and
life,
involved
as
many
tourism.
horse
a
the
programmes
more
village
to Ardika
the
what Village
for
meetings.
and
one
tourism,
village
crafts
cultural
village villagers
in cities
be
Agency school
relax
development
beautiful
rice
development.
the
Local-to-Global
of
and
owner
officials
again,
carts,
by
of
preserved.
villagers
Magelang,
about
of the
they
their
Word-of-mouth
stories
cultivation
2006). the
(at
Tourism
as
multiple buy years,
around
(cf.
ten
was
experience
was
this activities
for
They
and
and the
in
hereby
gained
In
one bought
Indonesian
Javanese
desa
village
are
souvenirs rural
Janarto
villages
introduced
1999
dancing
is
chosen
present
2003,
of
the local
UNDP,
prepared
Like
benefited
Financially
point,
not
the
of
are
more
The
nearby
Charter
wisata.
the
workshops, Audiences
scene
virtually
from
micro
and,
foreigner
being
the
such
only
swimming heritage
usually
2006).
accommodation
its
architecture,
principal
to
Candirejo
of
for
an
his at
village
and village
authorities
led
and
rice
in
the
develop neighbours,
recreational
the the
the as
and
and example
new
enterprises,
its
to
the
workshop
from
to
2001 In
supported
gamelan
stopping
expertise
dancing,
the
Tanjung
paddies
gallery.
tourism
and original
idea
formed
heavily
a
receive
finally
natural
major life
(often
skills
target
2003,
pool,
rapid
panel
ones
,
was
the
the
the
so
61
of
as
of
or
is
.
existence. existence.
training training
of of
tour tour
international international
other other
CTP CTP
aspects aspects
food food
developed developed
operating operating heritage heritage
German German
becoming becoming
and and network network
sites sites
project project
name name
Dutch Dutch benefit benefit
more more
Year Year
of of
government government
are are
selected selected
Candirejo Candirejo
Tourism Tourism
visitors. visitors.
officially officially
62 62
schools schools
village village
Helped Helped
The The
authentic authentic
the the
rituals, rituals,
"Cultural "Cultural
wildlife wildlife
in in
different, different,
and and
modules, modules,
operators operators
in in
and and
CTP CTP
on on
hand, hand,
guiding guiding
way way
aid aid
near near
of of
from from
Cultural Cultural
2003 2003
for for
(forests, (forests,
(GTZ) (GTZ)
It It
by by
the the
visits visits
of of
inaugurated inaugurated
and and
Tourists Tourists
tourism. tourism.
tales, tales,
in in
beverages, beverages,
or or
tour tour
their their
and and
refers refers
independently independently
has has
of of
is is
by by
agency agency
local local
cultures cultures
the the
the the
past past
and and
tourism tourism
travel travel
local local
other other
vogue, vogue,
was was
(Wahyuni (Wahyuni
tourism. tourism.
noteworthy noteworthy
life life
the the
beach beach
Culture. Culture.
controlled controlled
the the
to to
tourists tourists
packages. packages.
art, art,
and and
Kenyan Kenyan
attracted attracted
daily daily
and and
same same
Tourism Tourism
private private
to to
than than
waterfalls, waterfalls,
tour tour
healers, healers,
of of
Cultural Cultural
contribute contribute
work work
responsible responsible
agencies agencies
development development
fact fact
handicrafts handicrafts
communities, communities,
the the
combining combining
Stichting Stichting
is is
based based
Finnish Finnish
the the
CTP CTP
independent independent
life, life,
as as
on on
trained trained
NGO, NGO,
guides. guides.
a a
through through
In In
involvement involvement
that that
Given Given
people people
border border
2003). 2003).
people people
entrepreneurs entrepreneurs
desa desa
of of
the the
These These
their their
Programme Programme
tourism." tourism."
far far
story story
that that
experienced experienced
co-operation co-operation
from from
culture culture
and and
cultural cultural
and and
experiential experiential
(Finnida) (Finnida)
to to
present present
Tourism Tourism
to to
and and
nature, nature,
wisata wisata
Nederlandse Nederlandse
more more
The The
guides, guides,
expenditures, expenditures,
while while
the the
a a
tourism tourism
showed showed
Here, Here,
its its
tellers, tellers,
for for
their their
Chapter Chapter
include include
tour tour
announce announce
projects. projects.
caves) caves)
village village
each each
hospitality-giving hospitality-giving
mainly mainly
and and
(Tanzania (Tanzania
Tanzania Tanzania
Minister Minister
proximity proximity
low low
of of
promoting promoting
scenery, scenery,
offering offering
international international
operators operators
preservationists preservationists
or or
by by
attractions attractions
too, too,
(CTP) (CTP)
aid aid
and and
clearly clearly
local local
history. history.
that that
artisans, artisans,
a a
the the
Two Two
the the
other other
and and
campsites, campsites,
I I
development development
with with
budget budget
Programme Programme
"meet "meet
The The
great great
Gde Gde
the the
Maasai Maasai
agencies, agencies,
the the
possibilities possibilities
enables enables
future. future.
Vrijwilligers Vrijwilligers
local local
Tourist Tourist
people people
cultural cultural
folklore, folklore,
chose chose
a a
Tourist Tourist and and
was was
representational representational
projects projects
modules modules
to to
Ardika, Ardika,
complementary complementary
overlap overlap
(DeJong (DeJong
and and
start start
SNV SNV
boom boom
and and
while while
CTP CTP
the the
organised organised
tourists. tourists.
launched launched
a a
tours tours
Although Although
tourists tourists
tourists tourists
in in
Sambi, Sambi,
Board Board
home-stays, home-stays,
· ·
in in
a a
of of
World World
offering offering
cooking cooking
people" people"
ceremonies, ceremonies,
CTP CTP
attractions attractions
Board Board
financed financed
fund fund
unique unique
and and
organizing organizing
in in
to to
northern northern
showing showing
the the
in in
Indonesia Indonesia
already already
are are
for for
involving involving
1999). 1999).
its its
2007, 2007,
the the
(SNV). (SNV).
both both
was was
then then
to to
for for
the the
Because Because
visited visited
another another
local local
in in
than than
some some
(TTB), (TTB),
Heritage Heritage
insight insight
first first
the the
mamas). mamas).
experience experience
product product
tourism tourism
development development
construction construction
individually individually
1995 1995
emphasis emphasis
interests interests
2). 2).
the the
set set
Minister Minister
started started
them them
traditional traditional
dances, dances,
local local
(historical (historical
Tanzania, Tanzania,
intentions intentions
people people
domestic domestic
the the
Heritage Heritage
years years
minimal minimal
by by
A A
up up
various various
into into
natural natural
village village
on on
by by
to to
tours tours
SNV SNV
pilot pilot
both both
their their
Site, Site,
as as
The The
was was
and and
the the
the the
by by
of of
of of to to
of of
is is
a a
youngsters youngsters
of of
factor factor sponsored sponsored
heritage. heritage. promising promising
TTB TTB safari safari
average average
providing providing
are are
for for
tourism tourism people people
arisen. arisen.
most most
quality quality packages packages the the
villagers villagers
success; success;
ones access access
benefits benefits
Lonely Lonely
are are
communities communities
tourists. tourists.
sustainable sustainable
year year
240). 240).
Since Since
Ecotourism, Ecotourism,
in in
village village
institutional institutional published published
various various
the the
the the
Local Local
As As
escalating escalating
them them
development development
waiting waiting
. .
project project
villagers villagers
Because Because
assigned assigned
driver-guides driver-guides
The The
then, then,
in in
of of
tourist tourist
In In
roads roads
seems seems
participating participating
standards standards
in in
Planet Planet
context. context.
In In
for for
interaction interaction
the the
villages villages
Some Some
international international
to to
and, and,
lmagineering lmagineering
tour tour
2009, 2009,
order order
with with
two two
widely widely
their their
some some
the the
modules modules
villagers villagers
soon soon
development development
there there
the the
put put
from from
sustainability sustainability
representation representation
to to
CTP CTP
to to
involved involved
to to
conflicts conflicts
experience, experience,
like like
CTP CTP
tourism tourism
guides guides
themselves themselves
or or
villages villages
communities, communities,
a a
education. education.
not not
join. join.
community community
wide wide
CTP CTP
the the
be be
protected protected
places, places,
realised realised
about about
of of
nearby nearby
and and
has has
the the
full-time full-time
the the
was was
in in
only only
as as
to to
with with
beauty beauty
and and
their their
are are
to to
Indonesia, Indonesia,
communities communities
has has
very very
However, However,
are are
been been
Cultural Cultural
lose lose
a a
to to
Rough Rough
knowledge knowledge
consultants. consultants.
over over
(van (van
heralded heralded
the the
awards. awards.
whole whole
the the
with with
dealing dealing
tour tour
often often
also also
address address
by by
locals. locals.
26 26
very very
Arusha Arusha
that that
tourism tourism
have have
the the
(and (and
The The
start), start),
face, face,
areas areas
of of
success success
or or
a a
revenues revenues
CTP CTP
land land
(Salazar (Salazar
the the
der der
participating participating
declining declining understanding understanding
guide guide
Guide. Guide. Heritage Heritage
whom whom
widely widely
a a
they they
length length
novelty novelty
badly badly
did did
important important
ethnographic ethnographic
not not
community, community,
because because
accessibility accessibility
World World
SNV SNV
with with
Duim, Duim,
the the
as as
and and
Guiding Guiding
are are
SNV SNV
the the
In In
coordinator coordinator
(Tanzania's (Tanzania's
packages, packages,
about about
not not
The The
is is
could could
of of
travelled travelled
Tanzania's Tanzania's
schools schools
needed needed
2010a). 2010a).
far far
natural natural
various various
are are
many many
its its
Due Due
tourists tourists
2002, 2002,
of of
became became
praised praised
for for
CTP, CTP,
happy happy
return return
of of withdrew withdrew
Tourism Tourism
organisation organisation
cooperation cooperation
Peters, Peters,
own own
stay, stay,
it it
more more
not not
Local-to-Global Local-to-Global
in in
their their
the the
earn earn
therefore therefore
communities communities
to to
had had
marketing marketing
CTP. CTP.
the the
professional professional
the the
resources. resources.
and and
distributed distributed
examples examples
extensively, extensively,
is is
the the
Ideally, Ideally,
activities, activities,
invested invested
in in
to to
modules modules
its its
with with
spend spend
involved involved
and and
in in
local local
to to
"safari "safari
popular popular
environments environments
more more
a a
been been
and and
good good
project project
importance importance
the the
Organisation Organisation
Arusha. Arusha.
in in
from from
perceived perceived
major major
guidebooks guidebooks
develop develop
They They
International International
the the
influencing influencing
the the
constitutes constitutes
Wearing Wearing
communities communities
between between
recognised recognised
natural natural
money money
conceived conceived
more more
CTP CTP
practice practice
the the
capital") capital")
heavily heavily
problems problems
resulting resulting
below below
offer offer
was was
and and
again, again,
factor factor
and and
than than
properly properly
presence presence
are are
Audiences Audiences
management, management,
it it
However, However,
project project
guidelines guidelines
tour tour
is is
time time
not not
economic economic
often often
many many
nominated nominated
of of
by by
more more
and and
very very
the the
into into
2005). 2005).
illustrate illustrate
not not
such such
determining determining
this this
(2002, (2002,
example example
guiding guiding
by by
the the
everybody everybody
a a
guides guides
that, that,
or or
as as
becoming becoming
economic economic
that that
and and
Year Year
than than
different different
strategic strategic
the the
in in
possible possible
of of
that that
villages villages
a a
sending sending
time time
cultural cultural
remote remote
similar similar
quality quality
a a
on on
as as
wider wider
2001. 2001.
since since
these these
there there
Each Each
nosy nosy
five
have have
237-
only only
and and
had had
and and
the the
the the
the the
the the
the the
are are
for for
for for
by by
63 63
of of of of lmagineering Cultural Heritage for Local-to-Global Audiences 65 64 Chapter Two importance of local guiding for the representation of the ethnic groups identify himself as such). His knowledge about Maasai culture is limited to the point that tourists sometimes become aware of it. I witnessed this on visited. The lack of cooperation and consultation between the various CTP one of the tours I observed. One tourist was a general practitioner and very modules has a baleful influence on the way different ethnic groups interested in knowing more about how the Maasai use local plants for represent one another. More often than not, the Maasai, CTP's main medicinal purposes. The guide told her that the plants they (the Maasai) "attraction" are the ones who suffer most from stereotyping and use have no real healing value but are just used because of tradition. When misrepresentation (cf. Salazar 2009).7 During CTP tours in Tengeru, for visiting a Maasai boma (homestead), he was unable to explain how the example, the local Meru guides clearly distinguish their ethnic group from settlement is structurally organised. After a very brief introduction, he the Maasai by denigrating the latter and depicting them as backwards. The invited the group to "walk around and take pictures". The situation looked Meru guides explain to foreign tourists that only the Maasai wear blankets; like a human zoo: Maasai and tourists staring at one another, without a the Meru wear clothes. They are proud to say that the Meru are more cultural broker to facilitate communication and exchange between the two developed compared to other "tribes" because they have adapted quicker parties. The next day, the group went on a camel safari. At the start, the to modernity, and that the Maasai are certainly more primitive. Such tour guide introduced all the camels by name. The accompanying Maasai comments partly have their origins in the guides' frustration that men (one per camel), on the contrary, were never mentioned, let alone foreigners think all Tanzanians are Maasai. In the CTP of Il'kidinga, a properly introduced. Because the tourists did not understand Swahili, they settlement of Arusha people, the village guides use the opposite strategy; never noticed that their "local" guide was not a Maasai but a Meru. Of they capitalise on the perceived similarities with the Maasai to attract more course, they also did not know there are growing tensions between Meru tourists. and Maasai people in the area because the land they share around Mt. Meru is becoming overcrowded and overstocked. The Maasai visited, on the other hand, had no clue about how they were being represented by the Meru guide because they do not understand English.
Conclusion
"The so-called 'museum' or 'culture park' view of heritage as something that has only to be preserved and tended, only to be kept pristine, isolated from the alterations going on all around it, is not only utopian, it is mischievous. In trying to freeze a living tradition in the name of authenticity you produce the worst sorts of inauthenticity-decadence, not purity." (Geertz 1997, 19).
Bruner notes that heritage-themed environments "are an excellent setting for anthropological inquiry as they are sites where the ethnic diversity of the nation or the region is represented for the visitors in a single locality in one panoptic sweep." (2005, 211). In this chapter, I have described how various periods have given rise to different tailor-made types of heritage environments for domestic and international visitors in Indonesia and Tanzania. Taman Mini and the Village Museum were built around the 1970s to develop a feeling of national unity and nationalism in Fig. 3-4: Cultural Tourism Programme (CTP) young postcolonial states, though they were clearly inspired by earlier Western projects (as varied as Disneyland in the USA and Skansen in In the Maasai CTP of Mkuru, one of the main tour guides is not a Sweden). To a certain extent, these hybrid open-air parks were an attempt Maasai but a Meru from a neighbouring village (although he does not
environments, environments,
ironically, ironically,
of of
usually usually imperialism, imperialism,
imaginaries imaginaries
contrast contrast villages villages
tourism tourism
2010a). 2010a). national national
drawing drawing
otherwise otherwise
rather rather
message. message.
unchanged
and and
but but (often (often
international international
went went (Echtner (Echtner
national national
villages villages
century century
the the
crowds. crowds.
audiences, audiences,
into into
dance dance
feature, feature,
modern modern
heterogeneity heterogeneity
Paradoxically, Paradoxically,
promote promote
are are
exhibited, exhibited,
these these
to to
66 66
world world
make make
Whereas Whereas
Since Since
public public
have have
recreational, recreational,
spatial spatial
recreational recreational
through through
than than
countries countries
performances, performances,
by by
reduce reduce
continue continue
along along
Clearly, Clearly,
villages villages
ago, ago,
unity. unity.
on on
in in
with with
way, way,
sense sense
become become
decentralisation decentralisation
fairs fairs
and and
Nowadays, Nowadays,
unity. unity.
both both
and and
lived lived
, ,
the the
such such
inward. inward.
this this
Indonesia Indonesia
widely widely
Othering Othering
without without
the the
ethnography ethnography
demand demand
in in
unity-in-diversity unity-in-diversity
to to
is is
national national
Prasad Prasad
with with
great great
private private
centralised centralised
peoples peoples
in in
these these
them them
Indonesia Indonesia
of of
villagers villagers
myth myth
put put
parks parks
environments environments
is is
quite quite
after after
Typical Typical
exhibition exhibition
this this
tourism tourism
feed feed
the the
they they
that that
much much
the the
distributed distributed
ethnic ethnic
In In
happening happening
in in
efforts efforts
national national
to to
late-nineteenth-
type type
the the
for for
really really
of of
and
of of
2003). 2003).
multi-ethnic multi-ethnic
sector sector
this this
and and
the the
the the
independence. independence.
its its
have have
are are
heritage heritage
romantic romantic
are are
artifacts, artifacts,
less less
those those
the the
logic logic
experiential experiential
themselves) themselves)
, ,
place-fixed, place-fixed,
house house
reduces reduces
costumes, costumes,
and and
opposite opposite
objects objects
context, context,
of of
power power
to to
of of
Tanzania Tanzania
in in
also also
presented presented
(Bruner (Bruner
been been
to to
of of
important important
unrestrained unrestrained
A A
heritage heritage
attempting attempting
tourism tourism
some some
power power
imaginaries imaginaries
developing developing
Tanzania Tanzania
of of
living living
strategically strategically
show show
these these
at at
ideologies ideologies
parks, parks,
Chapter Chapter
seriously seriously
visit visit
both both
types types
and and
mainly mainly
(neoliberal) (neoliberal)
(cf. (cf.
on on
living living
reality reality
the the
the the
is is
cases, cases,
2005, 2005,
aspects aspects
is is
developing developing
and and
tourism, tourism,
the the
exhibit exhibit
to to
in in
promotes promotes
happening. happening.
and and
as as
parks parks
Selected Selected
national national
as as
Anderson Anderson
tourismification tourismification
nostalgic nostalgic
where where
-
both both
same same
aligned, aligned,
Two Two
(reconstructions) (reconstructions)
gained gained
rural rural
the the
peoples peoples
unique
people people
successful successful
early-twentieth-century early-twentieth-century
modern modern
an an
and and
to to
with with
political. political.
212). 212).
of of
regional regional
and and
a a
countries: countries:
makes makes
visually visually
of of
countryside countryside
a a
Orientalism, Orientalism,
exotic exotic
include include
response response
globalisation globalisation
newly newly
(re)present (re)present
time time
often often
the the
areas areas
indigenous indigenous
heritage heritage
consequence consequence
practices practices
which which
, ,
aspects aspects
local local
their their
domesticated-and domesticated-and
Aimed Aimed
have have
countries countries
tourist tourist
separate separate
to to
1991). 1991).
The The
myth myth
side side
use use
food
They They
based based
writing writing
that that
in in
(cf. (cf.
display display
journey journey
formed formed
diversity diversity
independence independence
real real
long long
colonialism colonialism
heritage heritage
the the
attracting attracting
of of
of of
at at
parks parks
of of
to to
of of
of of
. .
Fabian Fabian
Cultural Cultural
dreams dreams
are are
is is
the the
actually actually
While While
are are
a a
colonialism colonialism
symbolise, symbolise,
arts arts
people. people.
to to
on on
and and
their their
all all
three three
understood understood
the the
the the
is is
diversity diversity
multiplicity multiplicity
myth myth
and and
told told
difference difference
of of
look look
governments governments
still still
the the
to to
forcing forcing
and and
world world
a a
and and
fixed, fixed,
rather rather
theming theming
uncivilised uncivilised
ethnicities. ethnicities.
increasing increasing
the the
nation, nation,
2002). 2002).
museums museums
the the
recurring recurring
dominant dominant
the the
domestic domestic
temporal temporal
and and
tradition tradition
(Salazar (Salazar
in in
outward outward
existing existing
heritage heritage
tourism tourism
had had
In In
culture, culture,
of of
turned turned
recent recent
half half
parks parks
place place
past, past,
were were
both both
(and (and
than than
both both
and, and,
sold sold
in in
and and
left left
the the
the the
yet yet
of of
of of
In In
in in
a a
a a
m
production production
anthropology) anthropology)
mitigate mitigate
However, However,
of of
imagineers imagineers
an an popular popular
in in
protection, protection,
menace menace
significance significance Salazar Salazar
more more more, more,
vast vast
hand, hand,
- an an
will will
diversity diversity heritage heritage
invented invented
dimensions dimensions
Anderson, Anderson,
the the
Adams, Adams,
i well
Acciaioli, Acciaioli,
all all
nowadays nowadays
s s
a
heritage heritage
. .
.
the the
nagement nagement
characterised characterised
urgent urgent
As As
.
communication. communication.
development development
Sulawesi. Sulawesi.
nationalism. nationalism.
image image
1991. 1991.
. .
. .
responsibility responsibility
population population
be be
in-depth in-depth
For For
regional) regional)
it it
various various
global global
flights flights
used used
Kathleen. Kathleen. to to
the the
threats. threats.
experiences. experiences.
can can
2005). 2005).
of of
Imagineering Imagineering
Imagined Imagined
cultural cultural
Gregory. Gregory.
cultural cultural
return return
regional regional
Benedict Benedict
and and
tourism tourism
conservation, conservation,
can can
of of
(Salazar (Salazar
the the
any any
of of
source source
clearly clearly
tourism tourism
Indonesia Indonesia
to to
be be
ethnographic ethnographic
parties parties
is is
places places
of of
consumption consumption
heritage-be heritage-be
potentially potentially
movements movements
standardisation standardisation
sustainability sustainability
2nd 2nd
be be
particular particular
in in
On On
a a
Instead Instead
moving moving
fantasy, fantasy,
to to
by by
heritage heritage
heritage heritage
of of
1998. 1998.
contemporary contemporary
for for
predominantly predominantly
positive positive
ed. ed.
1996. 1996.
and and
Indonesia Indonesia
communities: communities:
R. R.
2010b). 2010b).
empirical empirical
need need
of of
the the
continues continues
The The
pluriversality. pluriversality.
Heritage Heritage Cultural
involved, involved,
a a
and and
domestic domestic
New New
1973. 1973.
and and
historically historically
global global
particular particular
interpretation interpretation
other other
Domestic Domestic
in in
towards towards
Pavilions Pavilions
to to
central central
of of
place place
steal steal
tourism tourism
(Bruner (Bruner
peoples, peoples,
tourism, tourism,
studying, studying,
the the
the the
of of
Bibliography Bibliography
it it
York: York:
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While While
pay pay
Notes Notes
16 16
one one
of of
natural natural
the the
studies studies
hand
to to
people's people's
Malay Malay
factors factors
and and
context context
each each
or or
and and
closer closer
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role role
heritage. heritage.
expand
Reflections Reflections
influenced influenced
past, past,
mobile mobile
Verso. Verso.
to to
people people
is is
the the
and and
2005, 2005,
community community
tourism tourism
, ,
universally universally
local local
on on
unprecedented unprecedented
international international
While While
the the
the the
with with
global global
because because
for for
a a
of of
retain retain
or or
World World
and and
of of
management management
need need
contemporary contemporary
double-edged double-edged
of of
posters: posters:
the the
attention attention
own own
imaginaries imaginaries
Local-to-Global Local-to-Global
cultural, cultural,
, ,
challenges challenges
differentiation differentiation
imaginative imaginative
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heritage heritage
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are are
their their
(re (re
present present
Those Those
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to to
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on on
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its its
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Tailor-made Tailor-made
own own
be be
Showcasing Showcasing
(75): (75):
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local local
accepted accepted
nation-building nation-building
practices practices
the the
to to
(re)shaping (re)shaping
tangible tangible
audiences audiences
circulating circulating
1: 1:
tourism tourism
sites sites
in in
and and
taken taken
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border border
numbers numbers
of of
of of
as as
origin origin
interests interests
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will will
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force force
become become
into into
national national
or or
not not
in in
and and
future future
meaning
of of
crossings crossings
and and
performances performances
is is
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diversity diversity
take take
and and
intangible
One One
and through through and
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of of
of of
(Porter (Porter
of of
the the
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of of
well well
group, group,
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of of
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is is
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heritage heritage
tourists. tourists.
political political
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cultural cultural
to to
cultural cultural
the the
on on
shrewd shrewd
itself itself
usually usually
actors, actors,
create create
worth worth
for for
needs needs
, ,
South South
help help
ever ever
new new
and and
and and
one one
and and
and and
the the
for for
the the
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Cahiers Cahiers
clothes: clothes:
. .
53 53
analysis
conceptual conceptual
of of
: :
dissertation, dissertation,
Boston: Boston:
heritage heritage
ed. ed.
education education
of of
The The
representations representations
W. W.
: :
Culture Culture
How How
(1):101-131. (1):101-131.
2005. 2005.
in in
the the
Policy. Policy.
International International
The The
"Beautiful "Beautiful
heritage heritage
J. J.
Tanzania: Tanzania:
experience experience
A. A.
Recreation Recreation
Routledge. Routledge.
d'Etudes d'Etudes United United
A A
identity identity
heritage, heritage,
. .
certain certain
C. C.
In In
global global
Heritage Heritage
Harvard Harvard
Audiences Audiences
University University
Darity, Darity,
through through
6 6
In In
developmentalist developmentalist
Paris: Paris:
in in
Scott, Scott,
approach approach
evant evant rel
(2), (2),
Heritage Heritage
interpretation? interpretation?
University University
International International
tourism tourism
Republic Republic
schemes schemes
241-262
within within Indonesia" Indonesia"
display display
Aesthetics Aesthetics
Africaines Africaines
Journal Journal
UNESCO UNESCO
economy: economy:
man man
Research Research
223-261. 223-261.
Business Business
172-173. 172-173.
and and
tourism: tourism:
tourism, tourism,
for for
Press. Press.
(
Case Case
and and
and and
and and
the the
the the
the the
. .
69 69
of of
of of
to to
of of of of
Nations Nations
country country
East East
5 5
seven seven
4 4
facilities. facilities.
international international
currently currently
destination destination
3 3
had had
2 2
aimed aimed
stayed stayed
1 1
Yamashita, Yamashita,
Wulandari, Wulandari,
WTO. WTO.
Wahyuni, Wahyuni,
Vander Vander
TTB. TTB.
The The
Teo, Teo,
Village Village
Synnott, Synnott,
70 70
From From
Indonesia Indonesia
The The
This This
Contrast Contrast
anthropology anthropology
Berghahn. Berghahn.
a a
University. University.
Entertainment Entertainment
good good
June June
in in
host host
Board. Board.
Africa Africa
September September
International International 563. 563.
profits, profits,
similar similar
million). million).
Dutch Dutch
Jakarta Jakarta
at at
until1949. until1949.
is is
Peggy. Peggy.
African African
1884 1884
2007. 2007.
and, and,
was was
2002. 2002.
creating creating
part part
Museum. Museum.
and and
2. 2.
the the
Duim, Duim, practices. practices.
this this
Marcia Marcia
Protectorate
located located
is is
Sri. Sri.
began began
until1918, until1918,
handed handed
after after
championship championship
project project
whose whose
of of
Anak Anak
home home
guest guest
largest largest
Tanzania Tanzania
Shinji
Post. Post.
2003. 2003.
with with
Sustainable Sustainable
encounters. encounters.
29. 29.
2003. 2003.
Taman Taman
imagined imagined
Rene, Rene,
1946
to to
along along
Journal Journal
G. G.
of of
http://villagemuseum.homestead.com/
of of
to to
the the
past? past?
interactions: interactions:
over over
. .
colonise colonise
Madrid: Madrid:
Agung Agung
1999. 1999.
or or
integrated integrated
The The
"villagisation" "villagisation"
, ,
. .
the the
was was Tanganyika
Sambi, Sambi,
tourism. tourism.
1995. 1995.
2003. 2003.
Impian Impian
highly highly
a a
Fo
Karen Karen
cultural cultural
the the
to to
UN UN
education? education?
communities communities
The The
ll
world's world's
golf golf
limits limits
owing owing
Tourism Tourism
Current Current
the the
development development
of of
capital's capital's
the the
trust trust
Ayu. Ayu.
World World
Disney's Disney's
conflictive conflictive
Public Public
Peters, Peters,
Jaya Jaya
course, course,
a a
Bali Bali
Urban Urban U.K. U.K.
tourism tourism
archipelago archipelago
Translated Translated
unique unique
Moving Moving
of of
tourism. tourism.
Germany's Germany's
lar
territory. territory.
Chapter Chapter
Notes Notes
Ancol Ancol
(Scott (Scott
2005
gest gest
Issues Issues
imagineering: imagineering:
Tourism Tourism
village village
waterfront, waterfront,
as as
Historian Historian
and and
of of
and and
world-class world-class
under under
MA MA
and and
America: America:
a a
area area
unified unified a
population population
programme programme
heritage heritage
. .
beyond beyond
Two Two
1998). 1998).
(Anco
mand
of of
Stephen Stephen
Dar Dar
Tanganyika Tanganyika
in in
Taman Taman
in in
beyond: beyond:
Regional Regional
defe
German German
thesis, thesis,
by by
inaugurated inaugurated
in in
ecotourism: ecotourism:
Organization
Tourism Tourism
the the
ate ate
es es
l l
17 17
which which
at at
Southeast Southeast
nation nation
early early
J
Dreamland), Dreamland),
hotels hotels
village. village.
the the
. .
Whose Whose
Salaam: Salaam:
in in
territory territory
(4):43-59. (4):43-59.
of of
A A
Wearing. Wearing.
Mini Mini
of of
colonial colonial
S. S.
the the
London London
empty empty
Overseas Overseas
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case case
seventeenth seventeenth
became became
Research Research
opened opened
8 8
transmigration, transmigration,
(Hoey (Hoey
and and
Eades. Eades.
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(4): (4):
. .
Indonesia Indonesia
The The
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patrimony, patrimony,
A A
Asia, Asia,
. .
by by
Tanzania Tanzania
study study
other other
rule rule
286-305. 286-305.
meeting meeting
a a
World World
2003). 2003).
compilation compilation
2005. 2005.
in in
independent independent
the the
Jakarta Jakarta
Jakarta Jakarta
Chinese Chinese
popular popular
Metropolitan Metropolitan
New New
as as
boasting boasting
1966 1966
27 27
recreational recreational
century century
of of
League League
part part
Tanzania Tanzania
War, War,
Planning Planning
(3):545-
Penang. Penang.
in in
equally equally
ground ground
Tourist Tourist
Indah: Indah:
and and
York: York:
whose whose
resort resort
of of
(over (over
Post, Post,
Post, Post,
and and
the the
the the
its its
an an
of of
in in
is is
of of
different different
foothills foothills
centuries. centuries.
have have
northern northern 7 7
system system 6 6
became became
of of
Republic Republic
agriculturists agriculturists
dispersed dispersed
from from
the the
1961. 1961.
This This
The The
Mt. Mt.
first first
different different
lived lived
Maasai, Maasai,
Three Three
is is
Meru Meru
and and
more more
open-air open-air
of of
Tanzania, Tanzania,
clans clans
a a
of of
The The
Imagineering Imagineering
group group
highly highly
Mt. Mt.
Tanzania. Tanzania.
in in
other other
years years
urban urban
who who
in in
Meru Meru
and and
speakers speakers
parts parts
the the
Meru. Meru.
northern northern
heritage heritage
symbolic symbolic
abandoned abandoned
elements elements
occupy occupy
of of
collectively collectively
later, later,
and and
Serenge
people people
of of
Influenced Influenced
semi-nomadic semi-nomadic
industrial. industrial.
Cultural Cultural
of of
Sweden Sweden
Tanganyika Tanganyika
park park
Tanzania Tanzania
arid arid
the the
have have
ti ti
linkage, linkage,
of of
livestock livestock
plains plains
in in
known known
Eastern Eastern
Maasai Maasai
and and
t
Heritage Heritage
by by
raditionally raditionally
the the
that that
Maasai Maasai
semi-arid semi-arid
because because
The The
world, world,
and and
as as
were were
and and
pastoralists pastoralists
herding herding
Nilotic Nilotic
social social
Maasailand
for for
Arusha Arusha
Ngorongoro Ngorongoro
Z
ancestry, ancestry,
in in
quickly quickly
anzibar anzibar
been been
Local-to-Global Local-to-Global
Skansen Skansen
rangelands rangelands
organisation. organisation.
an an
Maa Maa
in in
favour favour
effort effort
people people
f
armers, armers,
and and
. .
tonal tonal
disappearing disappearing
merged merged
they they
In In
was was
to to
highlands highlands
Tanzania
of of
small-scale small-scale
are are
in in
still still
language
save save
settled settled
established established
settled settled
However, However,
southern southern
to to
Audiences Audiences
originally originally
use use
vernacular vernacular
form form
, ,
around around
they they
cultivation
as as
the the
for for
, ,
are are
the the
Maasai Maasai
subsistence subsistence
the the
Ken
in in
some some
are are
they they
from from
a a
the the
1891 1891
country country
ya ya
United United
houses houses
widely widely
said said
have have
. .
base base
two two
and and
age age
the the
71 71
as as to to