THE DISTRIBUTION AND UTILIZATION OF FOREST RESOURCES OF JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE
Gurbux Sln^h
THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOGRAPHY
Under the Supervision of:
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (India) 1980 Kashmir is considered to be a paradise on earth, it is also a paradise for researchers* It has ^any unexplored natural und cultural phenonicena which are largely due to the difficult terran. Juhstantial areas of Ladakh province are geologically unexplored. Pastoral activity and tourist industry offer virgin fields for research, similarly nu&erous i^robleas of regional* eooDomiCt human and urban geography avait solutions. Jamsu and Kashmir is an area of great natural charm, possesaing still greater geographical interests. It posses sparkling rivers, silvery springs and streams, lofty Wi^tains and above all dense and luxurant forests.
It is in the forests resources that a great potential for economic development exist. A considerable portion of revenue of the state comes from the forest royalty. Consequently the forests of the state are considered to be £re«Q eold. 1%te only other natural resource that can siatch forests in economic significance is a great the potential for hydro<-eleotric power development but it involves enoncoxui cost and numerous technological problems. Tourism is an other revenue earning industry of the state and banks neavily upon the scenic beauty of the forests. It is a sorry state of affairs that inspite of all this no eerious -li- and Byet«iEatic work «lther from ecological, botanical or even from geographical point of view has been done to stady the foreste of the state as a whole.
It is in this context that the present work has been undertaken. A general survey of the forest types of JaiBfflu and Keshctdr utate has been made. Some discrepenciea in Champion's list of forest types for Jasmu and Kashmir ;j>tate have been noted and rectified. Depending heavily on Champion's clas^ificBtion of forest types of India (relating to Jacmu and Kashmir State) the author has tried to give the loc»l distribution of each type in Jammu and Kashmir State in detail, thus filling the gep left by Champion and 3eth in their Revised Survey of Forest Types of India (pertaining egoin to Jamrau and Kashmir v-tate).
Of all the forest species present in Jammu and keshmir only four, nBmely Cedrus deodars, •t'ifiue walli^hiafia. itbiea oindrov (also Piecea scdthiena) and Pinus roxbur^^hii are extensively being exploited at present. A detailed distribution of these four species in various forest division cf the state is £;iven, taking, into consideration their areas, population and density per hectare. To meeearc the absolute dispersion of these species the atendt^rd deviation method has been used, bicsilarly, to me without regeneration the forests are likely to disappear. It was, therefore, thought proper to investigate the state of natural regeneration of these species. It was foxind that although nature denand localised help front man in the process of rsfeneration of all the species, the condition of Abies pindrow (fir) is pretty bad. This apecles, therefore, demands extensive artificial regeneration, Measures which are reouired to be taken for the fiugaentation of natural regeneration are suggested. In the section deeling with utiliseatlon of forest resources, en assesseient of growing stock viz-e-vie totsl extraction hss been made, regional and temporal variations in the extraction of tiieber of each species has been discussed in detail, otandnrd deviation and coefficient -iv- of variations in actual outturn of tl&bor w«r« cslcuisted to show th« absolute variations In tlie actual extraction during th« period 1966-76. Although it la very difficult to predict the future* sathematlcal calculations have been made to approxlsate the extraction in the year 1985-B6, taklni^ into consideration the trend in the extraction during the last decade i.e. 1966-76 and the position of the groving stock. Four ffiajor forest based industries have been discussed in chapter sixth. These Include GovemBient Joinery Hills at Pampore (Kashair) Government Kosin and Turpentine Factory at Miran oaheb (Jammu), Covemment Pharaacentioal and Mtch Factory at Baraaulla (Kashmir) and KaahKlr Wlllovs at Llran l:^aheb (Jastmu}. ii detailed stady relating to location of these factorle&t availability and consuaptlon of raw material, ^jrocese of woricing, auality and quantity of finished products» asarket position of these products and labour condition have been discussed. Kinor Poreet Products are most neglected in the state of JaBittu and Kashrciir. A survey of these minor forest products has been made, relaying heavily on existing literature and official records. The distribution end uses to which each of these minor forest products can be put to are discussed. -V- In the beg^lning of this work the phyeical eettinr of the area under study hae been diacussed although its aim is rather lis^ited. The idea was not to discuss the physical geography in detail but to introduce those areas in particular vhich are occupied by the forests, A limited survey of soil and cliciate of the state has also been discussed because they very i&uch influence the distribution of forest species. The data for the present vork has been obtained from various sources, working Plans for various forest divisions were consulted. Tvo forest statistical digests published in 1969 and 1974 by Jainou end KashBlr forest department were also consulted besides numerous 'Knnual Administration Reports' about the forests. ' fficial records were also eoneulted wherever it was felt necessary. Koat of the data was collected from the official records of various forest dlvieions and induatries. In case of ainor forest products and the figures related to total tiasber extraction of various species, official records proved very helpful. The data regarding number of trees and the voluice of growing stock appearing both in text and in appendixes 4, 5, 6, 7 were obtained from the latest working plans. Obviously this work could not have been coi&pleted without the ective help of my distinguished teacher and Bupervisor Dr, Hehdi fiaaa. I feel abort of vocubiary to express my gratitude to Dr. Baza for hie valuable, unstinted and affectionate guidenoe and encoura^e£«nt during the course of the present study. His chearful disposition not only helped me to get to his critical ^ugi^estions but also left an everlasting ispression on oty Blind. I also feel obliged to thank i^rofessor hohfUBiaad ^bafl. Head of the Department of Geography, Aligarh i^luslift University* Aligarh for having alloved Bse the full use of the seminar library and other laboratory faeilitiee. I as duty-bond to th^mk Professor Mohaffioad Anas and Professor 3.K. Rafiullah for their kind help and eneourages^ent• 1 visb to express ny deep senoe of gratitude to oardar bohan uingh, I.F,i>., conservator of forests, Chenab forest circle and a distinguished forest scientist for his unnualified help and valuable suggestions which stand incoroorated in the present study. It vould have been ;)rav-tically impossible for me to produce this work without the active support of Sardar Johen ;>ingh. 1 also owe a great deal to Mr. H.K. Kattoo, I.F.^i., C.F. Hesearch and Working -c'lan Circle and aardar Curbaehan oingh l.F.b., C.F. Timber Jtiligation Circle who have actively helped me in the collection of data. -vil- Ky sincere thanks nxe due to prosiaing foresters > w. ^ujjsQ bingh, ^r.C.M. ^eth end Mr. Svatantra -all divisional forest officers for their help which proved useful for me to understand certain teehnicel problesis. Ky sincere thanks are alco due to Mr. R.K. j<^ahandroo» Teohnicel Assistant to C.P. Research and working Plen Circle» for his ever ready help. 1 an indebted to my research scholar in the department, particularly I4r. Farasat All aiddicit vhoee •lews have influenced icy thinking. It is a particular plensure to thank Sardami and ^/ardar Teja bingh, I.A.a. Coauaaissionor CUK >iecretary to the Oovemment Public Works Depart neat for naking ay stay ffiost comfortable whenever I visited arinag^r on data collecting mission. Ky sincere thanks nre also due to xsy moBt loving wife 3ardami N.Kour for relieving ae of sty domestic duties and assuming r^ll responeibilities despite her very busy schedule. In the last but not in the least a^ grateful tdanke are due to Khowaja ^obin Ahmad for undertaking the arduous job of typing this work. Mr. Ah.mad coiDpleted the typing job in e short span of time taking into consideration soy convenience for which I shall resain grateful to hia. (Ourbaksh iL^ingh) 99^Un4 t'age Fr«fae« 1 List of Maps and Diagraaa • • xl Hat of Tablea .. xili I Phyaioal Setting of Jmsmi and KaahiBlr 1 ^liyaioal Dlvieion 4 Soila 23 Cliotate 29 II Diatribution of Foraat Typaa 46 in the ;itate of Janau and Kaahnir 56 Dry Declduoua 3crube 58 i^ub-Tropioal Fine Foraat a 62 i3Ub<-Troploal V>Ty Evergreen Foreata 64 Himalayan Molat Temperate Foreata 78 Hloalayan Dry Tenperata Foreata 83 iiub-Alplne Foreata 85 ^'Olat Alpine ^cxuba 86 Dry Alpine Jicrub III Diatribution of Coisfflercially Important 'Jpeciea 88 Cedrua Deodara (Deodar) 90 Pinua walllchiana (Kail) 114 Abiea Findrow (Fir) 134 Finua Roxburghli (Chir) 155 -ix- ^H|l|l,^t^L> IV Hegeneration of Forests in Jamnu and Kashnlr 171 Inhibiting Factors in Teodar- iLail Regeneration 131 Fir Hegeneration 186 Chir Regeneration 194 Extraction of Timber and Assesscent of Groving otock 205 Temporal Variation in Extraction of Deodar 206 Temporal Variation in Extraction of Kail 213 Temporal Valuation in i^xtraction of Fir 219 Temporal Variations in Extraction of Chir 225 Assessment of Deodar Growing otook 236 AsEsessment of Kail Growing atock 237 Assessment of Fir Growing Stock 238 Assessment of Chir Growing atock 239 VI Forest Based Industries 241 Government Joinery Kills.Pampore (Kashmir) ^ 242 Kashmir Willows l>iran ^aheb 254 Kosin and Turpentine Factory Kiran Jaheb ^ 262 Government i'harmaceutical works 281 and ^latch Factory^ JBaramulla (Kashmir) 284 oantonin Factory 287 Hatch Factory -x- g^A^'f^ik Vll Minor Forest froducta . 292 Medicinal l-lants . 301 Ar^osatic and haeential Oile . 309 GUB8 . 312 ipices andt C#ndiiBentB . 314 Cut oh and Tanning Materials . 315 Hpilogue . 323 Bibliography . 336 Appendix 11 . 346 Appendix '' . 359 Appendix 3 . 383 Appendix 3-A . 387 Appendix 4 . 38B Appendix 5 . 389 Appendix 6 . 390 Appendix 7 . 391 Appendix 8 . 392 LIST OF MAPa AND mkQRi^S Page rositlon of J&iBDu and Kashmir 2 Jaminu and Kaahmir Drainage 7 Jaffinu and Kaehmlr Physical DITISIOC 17 JasiBu and Kashmir ^olls 27 JaiBKu and Kashmir NoriLal Monthly and Annual Rainfall 35 Jameu and Kashmir Forest Types 67 Jacau and iiashmlr Forest Mvlslons and hanges 89 Jammu and it^ashalr Percentage distribution of Area Under leodar 97 Jammu and Kashmir i>ercentage Distribution of Population of Deodar 110 Jama.u and Kashmir Density of Deodar Per Hectare 112 Janmu and Kashmir Percentage Distribution of Area Under Kail 123 Jammu and Kashmir ?ercentage ristrlbutlon of Population of Kail 129 Jaamu and Kashmir Density of Kail Per Hectare 132 Jammu and Kashmir Percentage Distribution of Area Under Fir 144 Jammu and Kashmir Percentage Distribution of Population of Plr 152 Jammu and Kashmir Density of Plr Per Hectare 154 -xii- Jaoamu and Kashnir Percentage Distribution of Area Under Chir t60 JajBffiu and Kaehisir ^t'ercentage liietribution of Population of Chir 167 Jaamu and Kashffiir Density of Chir Per Hectare 169 leodar - Temporal Variations in Actual Out Turn 209 Kail - Temporal Variations in Actual Out Turn 214 Fir - Temporal Variations in /ictual Out Turn 223 Chir - Temporal Variations in Actual Out Turn 2i^ Jamoni and Kashmir Location of «ood based Industries 282 Jammu and Kashmir Distribution of Important Minor Forest Products 322 I4dy pF u^uE;^ gage Tentative Classifloatlon of aolla of Janasu and Kaakuclr 30 Kean f^onthly ho rami Kalnfall 57 Maan Monthly Normal Rainfall 39 I'eteorologlcal DatH for 1976 in fiaapact of Srinagar 42 Kateorological Data for 1976 in Respect of Gul«arg 43 Keteorological Data for 1976 in Respect of }azlgun Consumption of Hav I'iaterial 244 -xiv- Preduction et GovemicAnt Joinery :.llle Panpore ?47 ^ale of Finished Products 251 Procureasent and Consumption of «illov Clefts 25B i^rocureasent and Coneuaption of Cftn© b ticks 260 tToduction and Jale of Cricket aats 261 Approximate Production of Besin in India 269 imnual £esin Production in Various Forest livisions 271 Quantity of Kesin Distilled and Kosin £* reduced 274 quantity of Ivesin distilled and Cradewise r'roduction of iiosin 273 t'oeition of fiesin Viso^-Vis Eosin 276 Consuffi.^tion of Artimesia with Value 285 ::>ale of Santonin 286 Production of hatch Boxes 289 ^ale of ^atch Boxes 290 Average Out Turn of Minor Forest Products 299 Kinor Occurence of In port ant/Forest Products 302 CiiA'TIH 1 The titate of «J:>Eimu f-nd /.aehair ie strale^ icBlj.y located. It sar.'s its borders with china in tnf=' east and ir) the west tht' line of 'Ctael control and the international border are shart d with iriAistan. In lue north lies the Tibetien pipteau wr»i.le in tne northwest its borrier is corfiif.on with <,t'ghpni8tar, vn the nort'.iem iide the v-^lr of Ab-e-r'-'n ja, the /8nh!:nd Ie ( *-"ith»ir.) oi i f?h'niet"n, intervenes between the border of jMnanu nd / 8 8hK.ir *-nd tht .oviet 'rion. Tcwarc'e the south lie the jlaino cf est (Indian) and est (i^'-skiBt-n": . unj^.i -ind towards soath-eaat the state shares its i-orner ^ith .irL-icnei /rftdesh, «^'titudinr>Jly t.ie state is eitaQter' lor oe,yond tae tro^jicrl zcr.e of the country. If we conpfire tue I'.titides of uaiTEu ond Kashmir state with Arur-chul .rf..des. we find that the hi^.hest letitaae of ivrunacUal ib 1. Kti tae western aide of the line of actual control ilea that ^^art oi tiar::ju ond Keehrt-ir tatf which is at yresent occu,-ied by xfijiietan. Qi ^ 9^ r ~r _ ... .y . . , -_. INDIA "^ o POSITION OF JAMMU a KASHMIR f' \HIMACHAL / PUNJAB K J "'^ , j(f / -r»,.-~ / >—v CHINA n RAJASTHAN «1--^-, PRADESH > "'^ - ^, J^.'/"" V**'^*^ /^ f 2^ PRADESH fJ Bd//?AfA t^ OF BENGAL ||. N NAGALANO Me MEOHALAYA ARABIAN M MANIPUR SEA m MIZORAM T TRIPURA Mf- S SIKKIM [^ POSITION or JAMMU « KASHMIR •bufici:- 200I00 OUTtlNC OP THE I 400 •# HAS MEN TAKtN msssSsSkaat Ml rWOM'TAJ M4HAL ATLA»'•» » r*\ KILOMETMS •9 I -iHir •pMMai •ill- rifii I) 29*^30'K, while the lowest latitude of Jamiru and Kashmir state is 32**WK. (ther areas latitudinally corresponding, to the stare are eshavar (t^akistan), Baghdad* laiBUscus, ¥ez in f orocco and south Carolina in North America. iOn« itadinally the state lies between 73*^?6» east and 80*^30' east. The to^al area of Jainttu and Kashmir state ie 2,22,800 an, k&s. out of this area, 83»ti0o sq. kma, are presently under illegal occupation of r'aKistan. The areas of the state illegally occu ied by r'aicistan include parts oX ioonch and J-uaaffarabed district- viz., Haveli hngf i-end bar, hawlakot, tlandri, Kameh and Jri. As a result of the wino-lndian war of 1962, China occupied an otner 41,500 sq. iu}.H. of the state in the north-east. • Jaiccu and Kashfiir is essentially a hilly and iLountanoun state. The KsxiiRUBB distance frotr north to eouth is 640 kius. while froas east to west the state extends for 480 kcss. starting froa the plains < f . uri jab in the south we encounter first the .jiwalika and outer hills, then the a.iddle iaalayae with their thick vegetative cover ap >ear. After croaiin£ the -ir .'anjal we coKje across tie beautiful valley of Knehmir which ia surrounded by lofty mountains. These mountains contair xia£teroufi large lonie^ltadinal valleys and passee* iacilitatine- transportation which otherwiae l8 very difficult in thie ttouritanous part of tha eoimtry. It was through these pasaee that cultural and cociEercial ties fef-re maintained between India and central Asia during ancient ticps. Rotable asiong these passes are the Harakorara pass (557'*j sretres) in Ladakh and bur»il paes (4173 aetree', in Chilas. Lahasa is linked with tne 2, i hysic&l iiviaion iixcept for a 8B.all area towards the south, uhich is H jjlain, the whole state of Jaiui.u f.nd r.asrinir iB BLountanoua, and lies entirely in the ^liaalayas, one of the world* a youngest icountain syeteffis. .»e can clearly r.iscem three Eiore or less parallel ranges which divide the state into as nsany different physical divisiona. These are: (i) Greater r.anskar ran^e, also known as Inner iiaalayas, (ii) -eaeer rant*e» RISO called .iddle !:irj.filayBB and (iii) Jiwaliits or r-ir i^anja] ran^e, also Known *.s Outer iic-ilayae. The chief characteristice o. these r*=infeB pre that they foriB n steep elo •ee towairde the ll south while th«y ar« gentler towards the north. Besides these thres dlTislons, a narrow strip of alsost level land continuing from Sialkot and Gurdaspur districts of run Jab (undividsd) form a well distinguishsd physical diviaion known as Outer plains. These Cuter plains, due to their ruggednees, high temperatures and little smnufil ralnfsll are known locally as "K^ndi". In the lif^ht of the above we can divide Jamsu and KashJtir state into the following physical divisions: ( uter plains. Outer Hiiaelayas. Fiiddle HiiaalaYas. /vashciy valley and Inner Hiaalavae. These five divisions are individually dealt as under: (a) tauter ir'lains: This narrow strip of plain is a continuation of the Punjab plains. The plains lie between river havi on the east and river Chenab or river Jheluiu on the west. They are situated in the southwestern part of Jamrr.u and Kashodr state. Towards the north of these plains lie low hilly areas which are sparesely wooded ^nd irre^^ularly broken. The avera^^e height of these plair. is between 505 and 366 ir. above sea level. They are broken by tributaries of Chenab and Ravi rivers. The general slope of the pl^in is towards southwest, Fenudation and •^rosion o have played a f:reat it)le in the s^odiflcation of topographical features in this region. Csrving out of depressiona by 8ub->8erial denudation le coicaon. Broad loncltudlnal valleys form a conspicuous feature of the topography of this region. It is in this region that we find an area called K>tndi which varies in width from 6.4 to 42 ksB. and extends from Kavi to Jhelua which receives very low rainfall but possesses a rich old allavluiE, Untill recently this area used to suffer froffi a serious ahortaie of drinking water. This drawback has now largely been removed by the state government which has sunk a lar^e number of tube-veils and dug-wells. These wells not only supply water for drinking but have even made soffie water available for irrigation. For those parts of the area not yet covered by this schette, the ?,!1.K, (Public Health ^engineering} depart^rent makes ndenuate ©rrarsgeiaenta for providing at least drin«ting water. Kany other programoes specially soil coneervhtion and 5treac beds m»naf:esent» have also been initiated and aave be^im to shew results. Two important canals * one from river fiavi and other from river Tawi, have been constructed to provide irrigation facilities in this region. The KathuB feeder (cnal) takes off frojn river KPVI to irrigate JAMMU&KASHMIR STATE DRAINAGE Line OF ACTUAL CONTROL f^V3 () Biany areas of the Kathue dletrict while the TPWI canal provides water for irrigating Jaoatu and daiaba Teheile of Jamtfsu diatrict by lifting water froffi river Tawi near tlie historical liahu fort. The Outer plaine are full of aiaall atreame which carry off the flood waters in the rainy season. Important atreatas lying between Ravi in the east and Chenab in the west are J^h and Tawi. Beth rivers ar« perennial but the voluEe of water varies greatly froit season to season, ftlthough they rise at an elevation of 3963 and 4267 ft. respectively above sea level their sources do not lie on perpetually snow boiuid mountains. Tawi flows for about 128 kasa. before it enters the plaine near JaEKu city while Ujh joins the plains near Jasrota after flowir.^ for about 80 kits? These rivers are subjected tc floods both in sunsaaers and winters. Biver Ujh, which has comparatively steeper bed, carries ffiuch bigger bouldere then the river Tawi. They may be as big as 61-9? cEis. in diameter. vnly 32 toa. west of river Tawi we come across Chenab, a bigger river of which the farmer i& a tributary, Hiver Chenab is of "large volume and debouches on the 2. Frederic, i. , ••Juai.^o and Kashmir Tarritories", .> ueo^raphical Account. Cosmo x'ub. «'w Delhi, 1976, yp.29-30. plains ntar the town of Akhnoor. Upto thie point the etresffi ie BO broken tey raplde as to be annavigable, but from Akhnoor, where its level ie 335 »• down to the eea, boatB c©n traverse it". The country to the west of Chenab ie no different froB the countx7 to the eaet of it. There the saiae plains occur, with email depreaeions oiHking way for many atreasss which itoetly remain dry except in rainy seasons. Plains are cut by ravines. To the west of Cheriab another important stream flows vhich rises from katan Range behind bajouri and joins the waters of Chenab in the plairjB. This streajr. is known as Lunawar tawi. The beds of all these rivers i.e., Ujh, Tawi and Kunawar Tawi etc., arc full of pebbles of varying sieee ar<^d boulders. The average annual rainfall is nearly 762 iDBi. while the {Laxiffium teisperaturea sometii&eB reach 46®C, jr%B we move towards north, the altitude rises and streae beds become narrow and trees begin to appear on the hill sloj^^s. liere we find sasie villages thriving on patches of alluvial soil. (b) Cuter Hills or ; iwaliks or dactta iiills: The Outer hills, or wlwaliks as they are known, bear a regular and gentle slope till they reach a height of 600 m. These hills are forred of youn^r tertiary rocks. They never reach a height of more tbaa 1200 ». thetr width rangee fro» 22 kisft. to 58 MEB. with greater extension on the north cmd iiortht»e»t. They abruptly end Inv&rde ia »teep eBcarpment ae they reach a height of 600 m. th^ee hi lie Bore or lees form a vail eeparatlng Kiddle hliBftlayae from the Outer plain. In thie region nuBseroue Baail longitudinal valleye, knovn a« 'dun', ere found. Beecribing theee 'dun' vnlleye Ralna writes, "The narrow neck of hills open Into Sffiall valleys, rtoetly "dune**, extendlne loniritudlnally upto Deveal io the west. The plain ie open to erosive action of running water which leaves no land with uniform level. To the north of Lansal i;un a longitudinal valley runs on the opposite aide of Uamitot enclosed by the Karal Thar hills which rise upto 5000 feet above sea level. It is at I^ansal that the river Tawl transverees in a gorge with a steep ascent across the sialc highway to Kashmir**• The topography of this region say be said to be unduiatin^g, with extra->ordlnary rate of deposition. In the west of this region conglomerate, boulders and clays are spread over a vast expanse. This, Infaot, is the 3. Ralna, A.N., Geograohy of Jaaau an^ Kaphif4y. i'ub., Sational Book Trust of India, Kew I^elhi, larch, 1971, pp. 19.20. 1. catcbaent area for the tributaries of rivers iiiie Kavi, Tawi and Chenab which irrigate a large portion of the runJab plains (both ea&t and veat). Btint, a hilly region, means of transport are little developed, fhue the whole region is economically backward. In th»* western part of the outer hills a large portion of population consists of Gujjar and Bakarwal coa^onities. Both these coi:Eaaunities are noosadic. The eoure arc forested rifht from the higher elevations down to the Plains of Punjab. However, agriculture is practiced thrcu^-hout this belt depf»ndin Thus we come to the conclusion that the Outer hills "rise froc the Punjab plains with a efentle slope. Attaining an altitude of about 600 m. they end abruptly inwards in steep escarpaente. Then follows a succession J.- of narrow parallel ridges.-.. The outer hillfl are torme6 of yoanger tertiary rocke and their elevation rarely eiceede 1200 m. fhe rauges situated more inwards and formed of older tertiary rocJta attain bi*-her altitudes 4 ranging, froiu 1600 to 2400 m. (c) Kiddle J'ountains: the i^iddle hiaalayan ranges atarta fron. 13 to 16 ktij-s. north of Baaoll and run along hm Na^ar, Biasi and najoari. ;.n the north the t- iddle tnountaine are bounded hy two lofty ranges: .^Ir f'anjal ran^c beyond which lies the valley of Kaahttir «nd a rane« *^Ach comes fron the ooutheaflt directlor and end at Kishtawar. In between theee two nuireroua other ranges lie which rise to between 3657 B.. and 4^7? «.. above sea level. In the east this region la C4 iuus. wido bat it ..radually narrows down as we »ove towards the west. Deep ravines have developed in this refio^ due to severe rrosion to which the topography has been subjected. "The ranges do not have any re^^lar plan of directions and have a hi<£h tendency of bifurcating Into separate ridres. They also do not show any concordance between the augment of the hills and the strike of the component beds**« Nearly 4. ^in^h, K.A.., (hdit.) :^nd|.a-«. A Begional Geography. 1971, P.353. 5. Hasa, I . t Others,, The YalXey of Ka6h&ir«-~ ^^ Geographical Inteyprt^isiion. Vol.I. (under :>ubllcati twelve pe»k8 e3icG«<1 3500 m. tn elevation. Three ia;oortant passes join the region with tiio Kashiilr valley. These are: t^ir i^anjal pass (3494 ffi.). Bundii ^r t&ea (^^00 a.) and iiunihal Paae (2f^32 m.)* GeolOi^'iccliy, these Oiountaine sre not eiB;iiar to the Outer hills. "The mount'.ice have a orthocllnic^a structure. The rengee Bre coapoeed of highly cocpreesect 6 rocita of different ^eoio^lcal periods", ^iicilfirly ^rev records "looking from geological point of view we &H/ say that there ie not the eaaie correspondence between the direction ot ridges and strikes of the beds HS there is affionf the Outer hiUB''T Thus middle mountaine are rid^:ee of varying and irregular direction which branch off a^ain end ri^7^in and are intersected by deep gorges carved out by rivers that flow throu^rh thexE. Deep cut ravines are nuETierouB. Upper coax«e of river Chenab and ite tributaries lie in this refion alonjiwith many more other Btreajcs with their own IOCPI naires. These rivers sre perennial t Looking at the heights to which the ^liddle ffiounteine reach, it ia not difficult to conclude that this region belonge to a tempemte type of cllfisate. On the alopea of the Eountalns the terraced fields are ploueSatd to raise crops like malise and pulses on the one hand and rice on the other where these fields cen be Irrigated, woieetlmes wheat, barley and even austard eeed crops are also raieed here. The temperate cllsiate is also reaponslbl^ for the luxurious vefe':et8tl\«i cover of the Mddle tBountalns. In suttB»r8 the monsoon winds are capable of giving rainfall south of ?ir P«njal ran#je but fall to cross this range and do not bring rainfall to the Kashclr valley, except when these winds are exceptionally strong. In winters precipitation, either in the form of snow or r«ln, comes from the cyclOTlc disturbances originating in the mediterra nean sea region. J J dome aaall but beautiful valleys located in this region deserve special mention* laportant aa-onc these are the Bhadarwah, Coda, Kaaban, Basoli ?addar and kiasl valleys. Bhadarvah is, by far, the cost important of these valleys. This is a longitudinal, flat bottomed valley. It is about 1,6 k», wide and about six kms, long. Its bottoffi is inclined at an angle of 3*'. It Is situated at a height of about 1646 B., above sea level. The Neru, a tributary of chenab river, flows through It. Outcrops of Igtieoas rocks appear even in the terraced fields of the valley. (d) Kaahffiir Valley: The Kashmir valley is a lonftitudinal depression which owes its origin to differential uplift of l-ir tanjal and Great uimalayan ranges. This oval shaped valley extends for 135 kma. froir north-west to south-east, it's width varies froa 32 to AC ans. Its height above sea level is between 1595 a. and 2134 a. but 1524 IE. may conveniently be taken as average height. The loftiest atiountains lie to the northeast of the valley where soae peaks rise as high as 5486 m. above sea level on the northwest of the valley the JBOuntain rise to a height between 3658 m. and 3963 E, above sea level to the eoathwest lie the Pir Panjal which has to be croesed to enter valley l«i z. < r o o >- UJ ! I z < tz- o:3 ui _( o o i to o •J (/5 0. 3 o H 1. froB th« plaine of Punjab. The Fir Panjal ranges ar« quite hif;h (4267 m. to 4572 m.). The lowest aount^in lie to the south of the valley where they soeetlmee rach 304U ffetres. The valley of Kasbair can conveniently be divided into two divisions: (i) plains fonued by the alluvial deposits of river Jhelons and (ii) platforms formed by older alluvial or lacustrine deposits. Cn the banks of Jhelua we find flat plains extending, for about 80 kms. and varying in width froo. 3,2 km, to 24 kas. In the first 48 kiaa. of its course, the fall in the gradient of Jhelum is 51 m. whereas in the next 40 kiss, it is only 17 kms. The famous ral lake is a]t->o connpcted with the river by a narrow navigable channel, Aft«?r flowing in a north westerly direction the river joine if.ular, the larg-est lake in the state. The lake which is surrounded by mountains for about half the way round is 16 kBJ8. lonr and 10 kins, broad. The surrounding s:-ir8 rie€ to a height of 1524 kms. Other important lakss in the valley of Kashinir are hanasbal and Kagin. (i) The rlateauB of Karewas: "where mountain cease to be steep fan like projections with flat arid tops and bare trees run out l> toward, the valley. These are known &» Kareirae^. T^e Karevae ataAd for plateaus made up of alluvial or lacuatrine jtateriaX. The soil of the Karewae io loaic or loamy clay. They look like dry table lande. The ^.erewae extend over a large portion of ^laehftir valley, right fron bho:ilan to i aramala. They are 13 to ^4 kae. in width and 80 kffiB. in length. The Karewae are divisible into tvo parts: (a) those which are flat and make a perfect tebieland and (b) thoee which have a slope. Panjpur, about 46 tt>. above the level of Jhelum, is a typical exajtple of the first type. Theae K'Hrewas are broken up by deep ravines. UtrearhB traversing the area have carved out narrow valleys. These Karewas are typically devoid of tree cover, another good exasfcple of flat topped liarewas is rayach &arewa which is triangular in foras. It is 10 kas, in length and has a maxiffiUB. width of 6 kma. k sliBiiar Karewa also occurs behind Anantnag. This flat /iarewa, which has en area of t5.5 BC. .ias. ie about 76 a. above the level of Jhelua the sloping Harewas are situated near ohopian where they slope towards northeast. In fact all the Karewas situated in the southwestern pert of the valley belong to this category. These Karewas, liKe the fist topped ones, 8. iiawrence, U.K., !ghe VRiley of Kashisir. Keasar t'ublishers. Residency Road, Srinagar (Ksahmlr), 1967, p. 17. two are broiten by deep ravines. As a matter of fact tae two types of Karewas have been separated froffi one another by steep sided valleys carved out by atreaius. oome parts of these Karewas are irrigated by water supplied by streams coming down from the Pir i:*anjal range, iut higher plateaus remain onirrigated and have to defend upon rain for irrigation. It is in these Karewas that safron ie cultivated for which K&Bhmir is famous. The valley of Kashmir has mar^ tributary valleys. Important among these are Lolab end wind valleys. (ii) Lolab Valley: This tributary valley, located between 34 2b* and 34°42« north latitude and 74°15* and 74°32* eist longitude north of iJBramula, is the most fascin^tinfe and pictarescue of all the valleys of Kashmir. It ie 22.4 km». in length and is 5 kms. wide. It is surroiwded by pine and deodar covered mountains on all sides. I^umerous streams, fed by perijetual anew on hi^h mountains. Traverse the valley. (lii) oind VJ lley: The Jind valley is the most developed of the side valleys of the main Kashmir valley. The valley is named after Jind river whose "uppermost feeders rise belo% the loft/ peakL ntar Zofl-j-a, RB 8 number of other head etresme join from the Aaarnath, Kolahol and i'anjtami Bnow flelde"? Frott donainarg onwards aany tributaries join the oislB ^ind river which flowe through narrow channels, £org©6 etc. to ultimately join river Jhelum except one brsBch which flowe to the /inchar lake. This beoutiful valley iB Q6 kBSB. long. The beaaty of the valley ie enhanced by the lofty Biountaine which nre covered by thick foreets and herb'.^-e. (e) Inner J-ounttiins or Inner HiKRlsayas: The liiisalf^yan ranges which surround the rCasfaciir v'lley on hast- northeast and Korth - northwest and beyond nre c* lied inner mountains or Great UitunlHyf-:B» The treat Jiafelayan mnfes are by f^^r the HiOst iaposin^g ones found in the st'^tte. For the sake of convenienc (i) The Zanskar Ran^e: It is a i'Test .'Imalayan range lyinf between i.an^a Parbat on the west and raiiiifyin?? rlaciated ranges cf 9. Haza, r . and Others., op, cit., p.79. 10. Kashmir YaUey has not been taken as a seprate physical division either by Irewornaina but here it is dealt as i: separate region due to the fact that it posses a diatinctive physical personality which can neither be associated with Kiddle mountains northelnner imalayas- bounding- the valley. 'di cryetalline rocks of Kupshu on the east. On the north of Zanskar Hange lies the deep gorge of Indus. As isany as 13 peeks reach the height of luore than 6000 a. The faiBOus Amaraath cave is situated in this range south of Zoji l«a. The axis of the range is the representation of geanticline of the iliasalayan geocyncUne. F,any fa»0U8 glaciers occupy large portions in this region. The few iraportant passes* other than zoji La, are .i^i-arsank Pass* eltuated at a height of 5716 tD.,,with i*oat -a at the same height, iiingo ^a (5097 ffi.), bara Lacha (4819 B.), iiir iiir IA (4990 m.) are soxe of the other passes. (ii) The Ladakh itange: it is an important range of the trans-ilimalayan region, starting from the confluence of bhyok and Indus rivers it stretches u^to the western borders of Tibet where it is separated by Indus river from the Zanskar range in Fupshu. this range is about 350 kms. long and 30 kits. wide and is eoi&posed mainly of crystalline rocks. As cany SB nine peeks reach a height of more than GOOO a. and another 15 peaks range between 5000 m. and 6000 m. Important peeses in this range are Khardung La (56f)2 m,), Chang La (5599 a.) and Chcrbat (5090 m,). Since it is the principal topographic feature of Ladakh region, it has been raaed as i.adakh range. (ill) The Kara Korasi Hangei This ranf^e extends for about 400 ISIEB. betw«»n lunea on th« northweat and Shyok on the eaat. This range i« very ei<;nlfleant because it eeparatea two great basins— The Indus and the Tariir, It also derives its significance from the fact that it possesses many f^laclcrs which are aatong the largest glaciers of the world, except those of the I'olar reflons. Moreover it is here that we find the second hi^-hest peak (The Kpf Fountain Godwin Austinj of the world ^hlch attains a heif;ht of 8611 m, iilitoat the entire surface area is snowband and therefore it is also called the ••uhininfc, Crest of the earth*'. The passes of this range lie at a higher elevation then Kt. Blanc which happens to be the highest peak in the i!.uropean nips. besides iB;2 peak there are as many as 6 peaks which exceed 7500 m, in elevation. I',any ranges branch off froa the Karakorais mainly towards southeast. Important amon^' these ran^^es ere: the Bfitura Kurtagh which lies between Gilfit and Jorzfi, the laraotosh range which stretches between aun«a and ohif;ftr and the ^altoro range which extends froic Nubra to lower 3hyok, oiiDilarly the JasenBUjstag range spreads out and liee between Braldu snd Jaltoro rivers, i^oroe of the imoortant peakBf other than mentioned earlier* are Broad x'eak (8056 Bi. /, GasherbruBi II (8068 m,} end Tieteghil .^ar (7885 Ei»}. The iBsportant paeeea of the rarxge are >.uztagh pass (5700 ffi.), the KaraKoram paae (5575 m.) **cd ^eear JB^ (5300 IE.). ^iedimentary rocke of Peraio-carboneferoua sf a are widely found in the Karakoraic range. Theae are nothing but foasiliferoua liffiestone of that a^e. r'erffian liaeatone alonfiwith Juraaaic apitiahnlee occupy the whole lenfrth of the Kfti^koraic range. (iv) The ftksai-Chin: The Akani-Chin region liea to the northeaat of KaahiDir. The sain feature of thia region is that it poaaea a number of ealt lakea whoae aalinity ie contimk^aaly incrcaeing. ^xceasive glacial eroaion haa extensively exposed crystalline rocifca of Arcnean age. ^^longwith these crystelline rocks stand sediHiSntary rocks oi palaeozoic and stesosoic period over vast tracts. The i-kaai-Chin region infact presents an intersaontane peneplaned surface standing et a height of 4500 a. above sea level. Climate is the main factor responsible for the composition of any soil type. But other factors, lis-e reomorphic proceasea aided by ^eolithology, alao play pn ;M iBportsnt role in the formation of soil typae. (n the mountain elo •e of Jaamu and Kaahinir, teffiperatureB prevail due to high altitude which do not allow swift weatherin£^. .'-'oreover the "shorter ^rowln^- eeaeon redaces the sco^e of physio-chealcal and biclogicel ;rocee»e8B". • •JnE.atu.red eoile, therefore, are found on the higher altitudes. At etili higher altitudea we encounter tainner soil cover becauee of little weathering and chemical change till we reach the alpine pastures. Thus the amountaine generaliy i^osseae ttiin eoiis while valley bottoiris and flat eurfacee at higher elevations possess a thicicer soil cover with good husuus contents. • ii8 regards tne classification of soils in Jau!.u and Kashmir v^ry little or no nork hsve so far been done. However* H.^. ; ann and ^.t. -hartta c?irried out a reconnaissance soil survey of eight blocks in Jaaciu and Kashmir state comprising of 1370 vlllaf^^s spreadinfe over an area of ?Qi ,964 hectares. They have eetabli&hed t^i^ht soil series: Bsnsultan, ^an,fc'-otlan, .\alakpar, Kotli, r'umava, i-ajalt®, Choha and rhinor. All of them lie in the sub-tropical zone of the state. Another eeries for the temperate zone has also been established by thea. 11. v-ingh, k,.'., and Ctaers., op. cit., p.5(1. '^l the Middle mountain regions of Jaiunu lying between 600 to 1680 m, pibove eea level, dnlike alluvial eoile brown soils are ciediuK textured and vary froE fine sandy loaro to sandy clay loam. The iH) (concentration of potential hydrofc-en oine) varies from 6.0 to 7.6 and its e3>tre&«e variation lies between 5.5 to 8.2. These soils are f«*irly deep, having moderate pertneabillty, Cr^mnic and nitrogen contents vary froic 0.7 to 0.9 per cent and 0.2 to 0,h offr cent respectively. Brown soils cover costly the areas of ocnch, .^«Jourl and ^dhampur district. (iii) . ub->\ountain woils: These soils nre the product of alluviuK dex^eited by mejor river© like Jheluui and Indus filontwith their tributaries. They ^re heavy textured aoils lyin^ between 1500 to 1600 i£. they possess low peroieaDility, The soil ranges between silty ioaai to clayey loaa, rH varies froiu 6.5 to 8.5 with extrece variations of 5.4 to 9.0. e HISO find soffie patches of saline soils and aarshy soils in this group. Crganlc ^nd nitrogen contents vary froc 1.5 to 3»0 per cent and 0.1 to 0.5 per cent respectively. In the sub-ffiountMin soils we can also include the Karewa soils. The Karewa soils are hifrhly textured and conaists of ioai: and clayey IOSK. The Karewat- have beer formed as a result of TocuBtraine deposition daring the "K yj Pu' ^L'^ i^^ ,../';) I > t- ij ' _ iS I", ^ 1 - 111 ~ I - "HiiiT^gt. > ',p •' 1 s-a ' 'ili''^4 " ' "-i--'•'-!•-'" Mmmmnr k (V 1 - vT .S' ( '( ! r ^ X ^.li -s^?— Plei8tocen« ard post Pleistocene period. These scile exist on the tableland projecting outward froE the aoantaine and qre highly eroded. They lie between 1650 and 1800 IL, and are very deep. The ^41 value varies from 6,2 to 7.9. Lrti&nic and nitrogen contents range from 0,4 to 1.3 ^^r cent and 0.02 to 0.18 per cent respectively. Phosphorus and potash are also present and range froia 0,9 to 0,3 and froc 0.1 to 0.2 respectively. The Karewa soils are generally poor. The colour of the soils varies from light to red-hued on the one hand to dark blacking on the other. (iv) Arid :j.oils: The state of Jammu and Kashndr is a highly Eountairous region where plateaus, valleys and dun valleys are freouently separated fro© each other by ^'reat depressions and hlfh mountain peaics. It IB on these plateaus and saall we valleys that/find arid soils which are foxtced froa parent iz^aterials like volcanic rocks and laminated ash beds etc. These soils for the most part are light textured with tae n't value varying from 7 to 86, The percentage of nitrogen and orfc'snic contents varies from 0.01 to 0.1 and 0.15 to 0.6 respectively. Total phosphorus and potash (ticl ^ol) ran^e fro® 0.1 to 0.2 per cent and 0.3 to 0,d per cent respectively, The entire Leh district is covered by this type of soil. i' « An attenpt was nad* by 11.^. hvmx and S.K. ^hara.m to claasify the soils of the state on more eclentiflc bstsls. They collected forty repreeentative soil profiles from different agro-climatic zones. These saisples were studied and analysed for physico- chemical contents. The eolle th^ classified are represented in Table 1.1. A. Clioate The state of Jajsffiu and Ka^odr ie peculiar in many respects: This peculiarity is vezy well maintained even in the field of climate. Extending for only a little over 4° of latitude (from 32*^17• to 36^58'1^, lat.) the state enjoys a vary varied climates, froK Alpine in ^^adakh sub-tropical in Jasunu. In shaping the clii&ate of Jai&Ku and Kashotir the Himalayas play a significant role they rather act as a oajor determining factor affecting the different conponents of cliicate, particularly rainfall and temperature. For exa&ple, ?ir i'anjal range does not allow the spent monsoon winds to enter the valley of Kashmir which is least influenced by these winds. :>imilarly the extremely cold winds of central Asia fail to cross the Himalayas to influence the climate of the state. Koreover the sudden ri«e of altitude from 350 in. to 8500 ic. or more gives rise to a considerable fall in teuiperatare at higher altitudes, thereby changing the pattern of distribution of temperature. Under 4» « 4» o (0 I o a T3 ^ a 5 o o o •J) )A a tt M H H H o O O 3 o e to O •H •H O •> +» o % 0 o i n 2 •s 4* >»«; 2^ d a >^ »H O ^ friOH « « > SB O « H d o » « 4» ® 3 « o ?• 01 O « X> -H h o d d o o^ d . a n d O >}4» u 4 o •» o 4» H :3 o o o ^ 0(H •» -H N a >< s U'Ki U « O C** o d4* o i*» d u o< a: Q i O.^ «D o » o •H •rt •H I "OH « OS C fd Q, IT* y..—s d 3ft • raw «8H s <» CO 4* H a « •» B at y a H « •43 H •P •H H ^ « O OS rs •» i| •HTJ ;* d •H iSJ»- » O *M «8 • 1 H O V« C! c-j o. '•'J O l>C -« of nj VJ ~ ? D H •3 o ii3 H n O H O t 03 O Q •H a •H •H ••aJ C a a 0 I o •» o •o o H V4 S ^ • ^ o a o a o-t O M C9 CO,a o fl a •o -H « a ax) o a CO O G 2 i u » x: 2 a a'H4» c; ^ -H 2 •MTJ as a ax) ?' o O f) Vi lU o a » 4* H og o a tit a t a, fl3 O O 4» a; « O •H O Q 4* a a a-< H « o « a x> X} t» a a a n tnjQ HI a (a -H • atj •»*< O 0 )i O i«3 la u « H o a a o a •H a O O T} O V o U 3i o. ta** OX} O ei 0 U OS t o o SI 1:5 a 4» a a j h Ti *» cr o a a •H4> i^ ^ O 0 o ^iXJ-rj OH > ex 8) o CO § S3 X! a •» 3 ;»• 05 a o *» •f» *» C V H «> o a E « ^ CD a f4 O CO H MO ^ OH OfH « a a • a O Hi O (3 >>a a N (3 a H a a a l<\ t;' •o ••» u fl a •O T3 o « s O i at A aC7 D cr :i -t: Tit -3 at (^ H (0 (0 •J « o H H « •o 6) O O ta o (H •H CQ » o 4» •H •H o a •» •» H H « Q« O. o O •H o tt » -o O c U o o o 0 M » G a 0 0! O 4* i 1 to 1 fig •^ :J 1 9 o .«§ 2 • 00 tit) «& o ^ & u h 0 0 a d > 13 (4 IK r-l o •"5*^ G] o ca tt A 9 9 9 0 « H o («34» mm^ q*H ov< o O .-5 o «> O «H fti •H •P 0 K rtr-l ao 1 (a ^ h CBU 4* Rid v« o o ::( • d CO eostS'HO'HH o o H p E^ Q •> ® M O, r-i •H « M » i^ r^ ea o (6 O O « u « q o 4* • (^ e) ol > o • S) o O ^-^ 4* •H u M 4» P 0 § .1 «> 4> 9 4»Vl ^ H 4* M «» fit O O-H O o el "o § » G G o O 4» 4» (H i O^ 4* O O Ci Q 4»4» CJ 9 a "J Ch-H 03 O O 03 a O I g «5 i such varied conditione it ia difficult to get ^ uniffoms pattt m of climate even for a small area bec&uae of great locp.l vnriations caueed i^ physiography. In summers the westerly Jet stream moves to the north of the himalayas .giving way to the an easterly Jet stream. The easterly Jet stream causes the westerly trade winds in the Indian ocean aouth of equator to move at a greater velocity towards the Indian sub-continent. These winds are monsoon winds which cause rainfall throughout the sub-continent and reach the out-siciirta of Jammu hills by the first weein of July* These winds bring rainfall to the entire Outer plain. Outer hills and even the Kiddle mountain regions lying south of the i^ir r'nnjal range. The height of this range compels the winds to rise end give away whatever little moisture they are left %'ith, Udhampur, a town in the Outer hills, receives 400 mm. on an average daring July and 350 mm. in ^lUgust. The corresponding figures for Basoli, lying in the same region, are 400 am. and 500 mm. c>imilar, areas lying in the Middle mountains receive much less rainfall from the monsoon winds during the same period. Bhadarwah, for instance, receives only 100 mm. during July and. ^20 ma. during August."^ 13* Kaina, A.K., op. cit., p.37. rU, However» the moDsoocB» when strongf are able to cross the ^ir x^anjal to give Boam rainfall to the Kt^shmir valley, orinagar for example, received 30.3 BUB* of rain during July 1974. The monsoons appeared to be more strong durinic 1975 when brinagar received 80,7 em, $ a figure which dropped to 22.3 »«. in 1976. Little or ro rainfall is received in Ladakh from the monsoons as they become too weak for the purpose. Table 1.2 shows the mesn monthly normal rainfall in millimetres for various stations lying south of the jr'ir 1*811 jal range. The Table shows that the first three stations — Kathua, Jamaiu and ?oonch -- which are situated in Cuter plains and Outer hill regions, receive maximum rainfalls durin£ July, August and September when monsoon winds are active in the area. Banihal, the fourth station in table* although south of the Fir x'anjal range* lies in the Kiddle mountain region. It is surrounded by lofty mount sine does not record as high rainfall as Kathua and Jaaasu, This shows the weak influence the monsoons have over the area. The monsoons( therefore, tend to become weak even in the ^Iiddle mountain region* The valley of Kashmir lies to the north of Pir i^anjal and is surrounded by other lofty mountains. o CM > Mi 25 fM O * *4J Vi) UN <0 O a-: o <\4 CO o o lA •1 in ^ i in CM , 3 in S3 o M i GO 9. rw • < • in ^ i or. O O o • 4 in eg o cv *15 ITS lA in CVJ CD o eg «A CO tt CM U4 in CVJ in ?;: • o in 0 0 0 0 »n v£) 0% C in t- f3 <^ •" •o~". H o> O a 1 1 1 0) 1 •A s: If ve study th« w«ath«r eonditiona in this rs^llfty, an altogether different picture vill emerge. The icean monthly normal rainfall for Jamsu has been recorded as 320.7 mm. in July, but in 1976 Srinagar recorded only 22.3 am. for the same month. Although it vas not good monsoon year. Hovever, a clear picture will emerge from Table 1.3. A comparison of Tables 1.2 and 1.3 will clearly demonstrate the little role that the monsoon winds play in the Kashmir valley and area* farther north. Kathua, which lies to the east of the Outer plain region, receives 352 tm, rain in the month of August on an average whereas brinagar receives onl^ 62,7 mm,, Gilgit, farther north, only 14.0 mm., Praes 15.4 and Leh 16.5 mm. Like rainfall, temperature, being greatly dependent upon altutude, also greatly varies in Jammu and Kashmir. The hottest month in Jammu is June while it is July in Leh, The average monthly temperatures at Jammu range from 14*^0' in January to 33°C in June.— 28,3°C is the lowest recorded tempej^tures at Leh. January is the coldest month throughout the state. The mean monthly temperatures in January at JaoaBu is 14**C whereas it is —17' at Drass. Hargil, j^eh, oaicardu, Gulmarg, Jonamarg are 14. Climatic data incorporated in the Tables is obtained from the Feteorological centre at Bareula, o rinagar (Kas hmir). »-> <• ir» C) O • • • • c^ o> if\ K> !A ••V •CO > • • • • v rg o •— ^- O o ITS K> o c-> \£) NT 0^ cr- r» a • • • • • » 0-. O O CO »— K> t- "«r t^ t- • • • • • • y£> o cr cr vO ry {t\ o *" 1 JA \o t~ •" cr. •XI • • t • • • ^ t>~ o^ ^ ^o ^ b I KS 05 *" ^ i- r- CP tr\ (M tr\ • • » • » H « 1 UN in eg ^ •A a C-' ^f^ O^ M2 • • • • vO r- v^ r~- •• o c V* •-• cr. s a• • • t- oa en cu o> o IT* I «5J- o o in o crv ON f3 in O rs 1 1 cd •" SB w- 13 C ctt Hia> go ^c^ ••* 0, •- CO C5 v^ •J*-/ i-A,.^ Jv_» '!> 80B« Of th# oth«r »tation8 which often record temperatureB belon freeelng point in the winter iconthe of January and Februaiy, "Exceptionally high and low temperatures are notable (47?2°C on 12th June 1953 at Jamau and -^^^'c on 28th Eecenber 1910 at Draee), i^rinagar haa also recorded a temperature aa low as —20®C (6th February, 1895) as high as 38.3°C (10th July, 1946)^5 Explaining the climate of Leh iCendrew writes, "The mean atmospheric pressure at Leh is about 680 mb. (20 inches). The mean temperature for the year is 42°, for January 19°f the four winter montha have mean below 35**... Temperature rise rapidly aa sumBer comes on, in July the mean is 63° and the mean daily maximum 77°. The range both annual and diurnal is excessive. *ater has been boiled (boiling point 191°) by exposing it to the Bun in a bottole blackened on the out side and stiielded from the air by a vessel of transparent glass, The rays of the unclouded suMcer sun are powerful but the shade temperatures at the same time may be low**. The difference in the temperature under shade and under sun is due to extremely rapid radiation and insolation in the thin atmosphere of this region. 15. isingh, R. L., op. cit., p.359. 16. Kendrew»w,, V.G.V.G.,, The Climates of the Continents. Oxford, At the Clarendon Press, 1961, p.192. 4x Winter oonditlone in India in general and JHBUSU and KaahEBir in particular are influenced by the cyclonic disturbances froas Mediterranean or even beyond from Atlantic ocean, across Iran and Afghanistan. If aionsoons give leas rainfall during the summer atonths, the deficiency is compensated loy these cyclonic winds in a noraal year during winter months. Thus the winter rains are fairly widespread throughout the state since the^ approach the state from the west along the Himalayan ranges which offer no substantial resistance* These winds give rainfall both to the north and south of Pir i'an jal and reach the inner himt leyae to give as high a rainfall as 101.9 mm« (Table 1.3) In February at Drass which received only 13*4 mm* in August, again we find that there ie little difference between mean monthly rainfall in January at Jaemu (73«1 mm. Table 1.1) and at orinaf^ar (70.4 aas. Table 1,2) which clearly demonstrates the universality of cyclones in the winter months in Jammu and Kashmir. These winds are responsible for wide-spread snow fall in all parts of the state. These cyclonic winds are highly saturated and keep the humidity, particularly of Kashmir valley very high which is evident from Tables 1.4, 1.3 and 1.6). In winter months, Gulmarg which is situated at a comparatively higher altitude than urinagar and Qazifund, 4u > ^ #4 '< ^. j^ '•A "•n >^, • • < < tStrx JO V '.0 t~ 00 « > •H •» • cd • - >/^ •'A A -:••. • • o 1: CM •>- 0 «* r- cn • • HH • a: H «-« Csl vX> C\J CM ^ KN CM irv «» CJ • IS • • • « • • • • cts o MO 0*1 CM lA CM fSJ c^ CM ICN U CM o at a 0 c^ s 4* as so < ^4 U3 CO o • • o o CM O •- 3 no CM •- CM so « i I o I »-t o s o as CM o ir >U3 o — r- *- O <•£> 6-t >49 c^ CM 00 t> •- ir\ CM CM CM CM CM •- «> ^ »4 «« « 0 SB (S & «) 43 x> es «a X! B £3 *» 3 0 a> e a I >» a 4» > u o (X CS 3 3 U 0 ^ a: 0 »: A 4.. 1» a • .4f 1(3 I ' - 4 O > • •H ••» *; m < • •»o o o "^f vn CM kf\ er% (A ;« -H KA o en r- oo t^ li> ir CO *3 TJOO » 1 'It* t^ •1 m IX c c i) O 00 so c o est o- *- < o • • • • • • o cr \C\ ** •— ir CO d I I 6- ft < M 9 p U*( (TN O CO w tv o ir\ o CD 6- • • • • • o. ^> ir\ CM 03 OO« •- »- o o h » «>4 U (h4 x> 10 «8 4* % Si H (0 a % 8 3 2 ^ o >) 4» o 0) <» c a A M f^ >» iH ^ a 4^ t> o o as « OS O, « § 3 3 & t) o c -a a< ^ < <^ ^ •^ *fi Ti o *a c 4* o SB . ^ •HI O •* o 0> tX) in — m •OKN ^ CO r~ 00 CO CO CO to « §00 US Si ITT* ^ IM •~ cn 4|Mk i4 0 ^ CO t^ •- »r\ flo « • • • • • *^ V^ • o o >o o fM CD KN •- in CM H W I I -se fS^ "^ i..t -4 'S o i-< i o .« u o •- o o CO if\ K> NO f" CO • • • VO >s4 CM (T> ^ 04 (M »n J5 :e A. *- •- h S) >4 Ji3 0) m a* jc3 5 •*» a» •S » 3 •» o « a s o. •» > u o a. ^ o o o '1 CJ •^ a- enjoye a high relative humidity and low tesBpttraturea than the other two etationa. Again, the loweat temperature are recorded in the itonth of February et Gulisarg which coinoidea with the higheat relative humidity for winter itontha in the Kaehair valley. The panorma of the olisate of Jammu and Kaahmir seeoia incomplete without a i&ention of eix diatinotive aeaaona into which the Kaahmiria divide the year (Table 1.7). TkBLE 1.7 Kame of deaaon Naate of Reason Curation in Kaehmiri in iiingliah .:)onth opring karch 15 to r ay 1 'i G riahici juffiffler hay 16 to July 15 «t hvat Bainy July 16 to "ept,15 Uarud Autuim 3ept. 16 to Rov, 15 Vand Winter Nov. 16 to Jan. 13 ft iiheshuT ice cold Jan. 16 to i.arch 15 Thua we find that Jaicmu iDore or less enjoya a hUBiid Bub-tropical or Oionaoon type of olinate and in Kaehmir valley a typical temperate continental type of clinate pre valla whereaa i^adakh experiences more or leas a aeici-aretic or Alpine type of climate. v> CHAPT-HH II i;lSThIBUTIOB OF PChK;>T TYPE^ IK THE ^T/.TK OF JjhJy.U AKD KASHKIR Introduction Cut of the total forested area of 75,351 thousand hectares in the countzy the share of Jan&u and Kashxcir f otate is only 4.5 per cent.. If coispared with the share of Kadhya x^radesh, vhich is a little leas than one fourth of the total forested area of the country (24.6 per cent), this percentage seems low. The share of I'.adhya tradesh in the value of forest produce vas also the hig^hest in the country, if we taJte 1970-71 data into account. i»tadhyH Pradesh's 14.7 per cent share in the value of total forest produce in the country, is followed by iindhra rradesh with 13 per cent. Jaficmu and rlashitir occupies only the third place with its share of 12.3 per cent. Though comparatively speaking, the state of Jaisosu and Kashiair tc&y not be as iiKwrtant as the other two states rr.entioned above in teros of forest resources, we must take into consideration the fact that 16,813 thousand hectares of land in ladhya J^radesh and 6,51? thousand hectares cf land in Andhra Pradesh are under 1. Thaper. 6.1,, India's Forest Resources. Published on behalf of Tata Institute of scientific Research by LacmiUan Co. of India Uffiited, 1975, p.5. foreeta where ae in JaiuEiu and iiashttir utate oaly 2fl04 thousand hectare of land is occupied by the forests. Thus, whereas in ^adhya t-radesh and Andhra i'radesh 37.97 per cent and 23.55 P' r cent respectively of the total areas of the states is forested, the corresponding figure for Jamau and KashBir is only 9.47 9er cent? But the picture will refijain incoBiplete if we fail to consider the fact that vast areas in ..adakh province are totally devoid of any forest r rowth. ( ut of the total area of 138,124 en. kms. of the state Q5,876 8Q. krrs. or 69 oer cent is occupied by Ledakh province which has only 4.6 sq. kffis. of forested area? It, therefore, is ar unr'isputed fact that forest in the state are present only in the two provinces of Jasma and Kashmir, while the third province- l^dakh is barren, in Aashnsir province 56.56 per cent of its area Is forested. The corresponding figure for Jammu province is 45.51 per cent. KroE. tnese figures Bou^e significant conclusions eoierge. In the first place it Is clear that more taan half of Kashmir province ie wooded whlie little less than half of Jaaanu province is covered by forests, secondly, the forests of Jafficu and .ashxnir are second to none in quality and value, .-.creover 2. Thaper, ^.r., ibid. Table fo.1, p.58, 3. h l^^m§% 9^, yor?ff^ •^ta^^i^.l.fff, JaroiEu and Rashadr Forest Record Ko.1, Third Ed,, Published Jaoftu and Kashc-ir Forest Department 1974, p. 1. 4. A i4mP% 9t rprfg^ u|a^it5^^,ffg. Ibid., p,i. () per capita value of for«8t produce in J»minu and Kaehitir State i» the higheet in the country which coKee to Rs.25.31 as compared to Rfi,3.72 for Kadhya Pradeoh and Re,2,48 for Kerala, RE.1,69 for 5aharashtra and KB.1.17 for Uttar ^radeah. Thus the difference between per capita value of foreet produce of Jttar r*radeah, the lowest, and Jattmu and Kaahair, the hi^ehest is ao great that it clearly highlights the role forests play in the econoaiy of the state. In the iif,ht of the important role forests play in the state's economy it bcoooes ii&port8nt to consider their spatial distribution iu the state. It is a well itnown fact the t'eolory» soils and above all cliaate have a i:reat role to play in the distribution of forest types. Besides these in montaineous areas like Jaisicu and Kashcir height, altitude also play an important role. Though factors like soil type and parent rocks also play soice role, climate is by for the scost iaportant factor in the distribution of foreet types, Moreover, clitate aesuffies a more significant role in hilly areas like Jaciaiu and Kashmir, which thou#:h latltudinally lie in the sub-tropicsi zone also experience temperate or even alpine ciiasate in its different parts due to their elevation, which influences the distribution of forest types to a ^reat extent. 4. Xhua cllBat« aloDgwlth altitude and otber minor factors such ae slopa. aspect and exposure to winds may be a satisfactory criteria for the classification of the forests of JaiUBu and Kashnlr. Bhai titaer i^ingh, while discussing The effect of cUmate on the conifers of Kashndr^ had attempted to divide the forest types of JairaBu province into five eones ae under: (1) The Phulal (Acacia i&odeste) and (Lllve cuspidata) zone 450 to 900 E, (2) The chlr zone (^Inus longlfoXla) froas 900-1700 m, (3) The blue pine sone {?inua walllchlana) from 1700 - 3050 m. This sons lu further sub-dlirided into three sub-zonee vis., 3 a. reodar (Cedrus deodars) sons frou* 1800-2600 m. 3.b. Plr (Abies olndrov. zone from 2400-3000 K. 3 c. The Kharsu (Quercus seBilcarDlf9;Ll^^ sone from 2750-3050.m, (4) The sub-Alpine Kone from 3050-3650 m. upwards. 5. 3inf:h, B.5,, "The -Effect of Climate on the Conifers of Kashmir". The Indian Forestar. Vol.55. 1929. P.191. *^ ^ ^^^^* -JW ^l A aiffiilar atudy of forest typea of Jaxtmu and XuBbffiir waa carried out by J nayatullah Kir and B. U 'iclcu who depend heavily on Champion'fi survey of forest types of India. u.G. Cbaffpior'e work on the survey of forest types of India ia of fundansental nature, fhle work has been revised by Champion himself and 3.K. oeth with minor iBodificatlona. The forest types of Jamisu and Kashcdr discuesec here are laore or leas localiEation Inserted in the general seheae of claaaification of Indian forest types by Chaffi,don and oeth. But froos the study of various working plans and extensive toura throughout the len«'th and breadth of the forest in Jamau and Kashair, certain interesting exce* tion have oeen noticed. These Include certain types mentioned to be >resent in Jamoiu and Kashmir state by Champion and oeth but which are either absent or exist so insiftiificantiy as not to d«»serve any mention. These types are 12/18? (hiverain Kir, Inayatullah, and TicKu, B.I-,, "A i'reiiminary jtudy of Forest TypolO£y of Jammu &nci Kashmir", The Indian Forester. 1964, Ko.6, p.332. ChaV'Pion, H.O. and Oeth, b.K., A Revised Survey of Forest Types of ly^dia. published The hana^er of Publications, Govemicent of India, lelhl, 1968. 5i blue pine), ^A/^&^ (Elppopha«/r>yricari& braicea). U/teg (L«clducu8 Bub-alpine acrub), \A/t.] (;iub-alpine pastures; and 12/ivl (Cypress forest). Again Chaapion has mentioned oniy ^2/(12 (C) (lemperste deciduous forest) type to be ^iresent in Jaffuj-u and Kash&ir Jtate and has ooiitted I2/C2 (a* b) types whereas all the three sub-types of his ^roup 12 are .^resent in the state and have been discussed herein. Thus the classification flven below is sort of filling in the blanks left by Chaapion in his survey of forest types of India pertaininf- to Jaaflsu and Kashmir litate. ' The following' forest types as reported by ChaJE^ion, ere found in Jaflttau and Kashmir. His groups are indicated with every type. Champion's groups which do not fall in or are insignificantly present in Jamsu and Kashmir »itate as mentioned earlier have been omitted here. Forest Types in dan.mu and Kashodr Group 5 Tropical Dry i«clduous Forests. a) 5J/C2 - Tropical-dry deciduous forest b) 5ii/li>1- Try deciduous scrub c) S/'-^g - I^ry ba&boo brakes e. Champion, H.G. and 3©th, O.K., ibid., p.347. 9. Chnmpion, H.C. and iJeth, ...K,, ibid., p.346. 5.. Grpup Q Jub-troplcal Fln« Forests n) 9/Ci/a - UOV9T or ijlwalik Chir pine forest b) 9/cl/b - 'Jp,.er or iiimelayan Chir pine forest, c) ">/Ci/DUi - Himalayan sub-tropical scrub Group 10 oub-troplcal Dry Pvergreen Forests a) 10/C1 - wub-tropical i/ry Kvergreen forest b) 10/Cl/a - -'lea ouspidata scrub forest c) tO/ci/b - Acacia OkOdesta scrub forest d) 10/Ci/D^i -> lodonaea scrub (y^ttp t k Himalayan hoist-temperate Forests. a) 12/Ci/a - ban Oak forest (Cuercue incana) b) l2/Cl/b - >oru Uak forest (Cuercus dilatata) c) 12/Ci/c - ^oi8t deodar forest d) 12/Ci/d - lAestem atixed conifer forest e) 12/Ci/« - >oi8t teaperate deciduous forest f) 12/Ci/f - .Mv level blue pine forest g) 12/C1/15S1 - Oak scrub h) 12/Ci/f;J2 - imalayan £)econdary scrub i) 12/C2 - Up,;er west iliiBalayan temperate forest. i) 12/C2/a - Kharshoo oaic forest ( .uereua aeisecer- t^i folia; K) 12/C2/b - Aeet tliaalayan Oak fir forest I) 12/03/^ - koiBt te&perate deciduous forest. 5,. a) 12/I)S2 - Kimslayan t«Qiperate parkland n) 1?/ix^3 - Himalayan temperate pastures o) 12/li>1 - Alder forest p) 12/2i5t - Low level blue pine forest Group 13 iilisala/aa Iry Teaperste Porests- a) 13/Ci - Dry broad leaved and coniferous forest b) I3/C2 - l>ry teiBperate coniferous forest c) 13/C2/a- li90za pine (i:'inus »:erardiana) d) 13/C2/b- Dry deodar forest «) 13/C2/I^'»1- i^ohu scrub f) 13/C2/rij2« Dry temperate scrub &) I3/C3S " West iiimalayan dry temperate deciduous forest* b) 13/C4 - iftest Himalayan high ].evel dry blue pine i) I3/C5 - i!(eet Hiaalayan dry Juniper forest j) 13/1i>1 - Hippophae - Eyricaria scrub ^) 13/1ii2 - Populus - salix forest Group 14 Sub-Alpine Forests a) 14/CI/R - aest Hicalayan sub-alpine high level fir forest ^) 14/Ci/b - ^eat Himalayan Birch/fir forest. kr9^P !„S ioist Alpine iicrub. a) 15/Ct - Birch- Rhododendron scrub forest b; 15/C2 - Leciduous Alpine scrub. 5i c) I5/C2/K1 - Luarf iihododendron d) 15/S^ - Juniper scrub e) 15/C3 - Alpine fasturea group tfc try Alpine ocrub a) 16/cl - Bry alpine scrub b) 16/KI - Lvarf juniper scrub G r.j jko 5 Tropical Dry LeciduouB Foreata tv) 5B/C2 - Tropical dry deciduous forest. This tyc>e reouiree a aiean annual temperatore between 24° to 27°C, droping rather lower at the northern liffiita. ounjoer tempera tares are generally high, touching about 43*^0 and the ininiffluin recorded teroperatures in these forests are between "2,2° to 6,l°c! The rainfall reqalreaent is a.et through the consoons betwe«n July and i>e?teaEber with appriciable winter rains particularly in Jaamu and Kashisir ^tate. The typical rainfaU is between Soo-iooo mm. In the state the type occurs in the sub-tropical region of JasiCiU, extending right from Basoli to Kendhar, It also extends to sou'S of the inner valleys of outer Himalayas 10. uhairpion, ti.G. and uetht i>,K.,, ibid., p. 191* 11. Chacpion, H.G.. A Prelinsinary aurvey of Forest Types of India. Published i-.anager Govematent of India ^ress, haeik Koad Delhi, 1961, p. 109. r^v) iQ the state such ae Amas, Chenani and Barlan in the tiaaantgarh range of the Billavar forest division. The Important species In this iselt consist of Acacia catechu. CalbergJa slssoo. l^fifipff f,T9Xi^i§, Mf^le afpsflpg, K^ry^lfl laevlB. A;L|>^igg|,a Ifbby^, Acacia codesta. K^l^p^ue p^^l^ppeyy^p, Carrlsa spinarma. pp^ff?^^ffa vla^pfy, }i2Si±J2lM&MSlX^}M&* Ad ha tod a. Besides these species some Istportant cIlKbers in the belt from Basoll to Kendhar are Pueraria ^uberosf and Bauh|.nia vafalfi. t ^ Certain interesting exceptions have been noticed in the flora of the areas lying between Basoll in the east and Kendhar in the vest./ These exceptions came to the notice of the author while on extensive tour in these areas and were later confirmed by the forest officers workln«§ in the field. Rotable aiEong these are:- (1) AnoiiLeiSBus latifoliat- This type of the froup under discussion Is absent in the whole of this region except in a single large patch in Feasl forest range where it occurs in a confined o^anner. (2) Dend rocalaaua is confined only to the Jasrota range along'«ith a few places in the Kalidhar, Dhalerl and the Thakra kote ranges of JaiaiBU and Keasi forest division respectively. :)(. (3) Acacia cattchu. which la absent altogathar in Mendliar, deoraaaaa gradually in Quantity from Baaoli in the eaat to the veat. (4) »endlapdia exerta: Thia apeoiee, which ia not typical of this type, ia found extensively in the Jandra» the Eeaai, the Kalidhar and the Dhaleri ranges, uicilarly Acacia mo^esta. though not typical of this type, ia found all over thia region. (5) aUPhorbia-ceae. is a representation of rehra dun flora but la very well developed aloB£ IJjh river above handli. 2.t.2. 5B/lfc1 - Dry l-eciduous iJcrubs: the type ia fairly well represented both at the top and at the bottoo: of the low biwalik hi lie falling*; in the Jasusu and the Billawar forest divisions. Due to shallowness of the soil and lack of moisture in it only eerophytio apeciei can thrire best. Another factor which ia responsible for the degratlon of this type in thia region is excessive grasing^ Thus "with unrestricted ^rasing and ths big flocks of cattle and sheep owned by both the local peopls and migratory Gaddis and Bakarwals who brin^* their flocks to ^rase in the forecta, an irretrievable daaa^je ia done to theae forests. 5. The result8 are obvious and rather dreadful in the lover hi lie which suffer large scale sheet and gully erosion. •.**. 12 These forests are, therefore, aamaged by over grasing. The important species of ths type In this region are Holarrheoa antidvaentirica. p9^9^fB. y^ff^ffff^, 9^m9f ffPl^^T^ &o<3 2,1.5, 5/K9 Dry baiBboo brakes* ^For all practical purpose these bamboo forests occur only in the Jasrota range of the BiUavar forest division.f The bansboo (Bendro calamus strictus nces) forests are area for area, the Kost valuable forests of the locality. They occur gregariously on recent oomparatlvely loose textured conglomerate and very rarely on other rook formations. vThey occupy a sone of elevation between 1000 to 2300 feet.^ These are pure bamboo forests in Jasrota and Bangi but 'banesri' (shrubs) dominate them in Judhi and oalan. The type also occurs in Challangarh rakh in the Thakrakote range some specimens of bamboo are also seen in the Kalidhar and the Phaleri ranges. ^^ characterietic feature of this type is that broad leaved species such as Laaoea i<:randiB. Ficus 12. Fotedar, A.R., Working i'Ian for Billawar Forest division. Criental Printing Press, ^rinafar, (Kashmir), 1958, pp.18-19. 13. Fotedar, A.K.. Revised Working Plan for the Jasrota Bamboo Pgreete. Printed at Eanbir Govemttent Press, 1958, p.9. r)\> beagalenslg fore an op«n upp«r storey. Bausboo also occurs without en uppsr storey at soote places1. 4 Hlstoricel evidences show that basboo foreste in the state were cut ruthlessly in the past resulting In their destruction. The now existing baaboo forests ttectioned above are but the remanents of much vaster such forests that flourished in the past. 2»^« Crroup 9 iiub-tropical I'ine Forests The forests of this group stand on the steep dry slopes below 1000 a. on the uiwaXik rocks consisting aainly of con^'lonerates and sandstones. The type occurs under a wide range of climatic conditions. Rainfall of between 900 to over 2300 en. is the representative of the type. Suaner temperatures are very high with winter snows In the upper parts of chir forests. But the ideal temperatures should be between 23^0 and 15^C with 1600 mm, as annual rainfall. 3uch climatic conditions in Jamoiu and Kashmir exist In Janatu and parts of the Udhai&pur, the MUawar, the Keasl, the Kajouri and the i:*oonch forest divisions. Champion's group 9 in JasuBU and Kashmir ;;>tate is represented by the Hlaalayan sub-tropical pine forests with 14. iJlnghy o., "Forest Types of Jatiii&u and Kashmir ^tate". Unpublished raper, Cyclostyled Copy, p.6. 5.- their foilovlr^ sub-divlsio (i) Lower or oiwallk chir pine forestBI (11) Up Lnalayan chlr pine forest (111) Bimslayan eub-tropica (Iv) ijub-tropical euphorbia scrub. Kach one • sub-typee le diecueeed In the folloving pagea. 2.2.1. 9/Cl/a. xower or blwallk Chlr pine forestt These forests occur ix Chlr pine in lower Jlwallks are mainly distributed in the i^iilawarj the Jaimnu and the Hajouri forest divisions, aoae areas of the Beasi forest dlTlsion are also occupied by this typs. In the Kajouri forest division, the entire lower tract of the Dhaleri, the .owehera and the najouri ranges are covered by this type. In the Billawar forest division the representative type occurs on the outer oiwaliks in almost all the ranges, paz>ticularly in the Jasrota ranges. In the lieaei forest division the type occurs on the lower r^ortioDS of th« Hcael range and also in cartain areas of the Tbskraicot range. Some important broad leaved species occuring along chir pine in good percentage are l4innea ^randis. Acacia catechu. Dalbergia aiaeoo. »endlandia exerta etc. etc. 3oine of the thorny species, like ?.uphorbjla royleana. are comir.only foiind. 2.2.2. 9/Ci/b Upper or MlKalayan Chir pine forest. This type occurs beat in the upper reaches of the Billawar, the Leasi« the Udhampur» the hajouri and the Poonch forest divisions. It is also found in the Hamban forest division. The type also finds its place coi&fortably in soue of the inner valleys of the Tavi, the Ujh and the ^eva which form the catchment areas of rivers Ctienab and Kavi. In the 'Jdhampur forest division the type is represented in the catchment areas of l^irun nalla and alon£ river Tavi, particular] along and belov Chenani forests. Similarly these forests are met with in Hartarian, fihangar, Bhatlmali, Tirshi, Bali and in blocks across lawi in Charat, Pakhlai, Ossu and Thanoa etc. The type also appears in Pinger, Thelay, Malti .:assuri» Bhagnur etc. in the Kamna^rar range of the Udhampur forest division. In the Hamban forest division the type exists on the steep ground alon^ hlehhlari nalla and also along ti*'e skirt of river Chenab. In the Keasi forest division, hovever, this (;) i type ia met vithlQ the upper reachee of the Reael and the Thakrakot ranges. At lover IliDlts certain species line lalbergia siesoo. 9 If a p^ffp^ijiff^a, ^^i^a AS compared to the lower or oiwallk chlr pine forests these forests are well developed and more important in the whole of JaffiiBu and Kashuir atate. Unlike lower or ^iwalik chlr pines natural regeneration is no problem here particularly when the forests are closed for grasing and even otherwise natural regeneration is good at places. 2,2.3 9/Ci/iA.I - Himalayan oub-tropicsl ocrubss This sub-tropical scrub is found in the .iwalik chir pine eone. It forse em open formation. The overwood which ie absent seems to have \>ema. destroyed. The ve^-etation, which consists of C^rriga, 8Pll?»ftrW»> Dodoaaea viscosa and Woodfordla floribunda. is found along the national highway around Jhajjar Kotli, near Katra, ?^ansar, Kalidhar range and Hatli in Kathua. lu. 2.2,4 9/C1/IX52 - oub-troplcal Kuphorbla i-crub: This JEupfaorbla royleana Bcrub is sostly found in areas like Tikri in the uahampur ran«^e, Batli in the Kathua range and in the fhaleri range* Thia is an edaphic formation in the real sence but because of overgrazing has spread to areas outside its natural habitat in is precipitous and rocky t,rounds1. 5 2,3* Group 10. iiub-tropical try Evergreen Forests In Jaffiatu region these forests are known as eub-tropicti 1 6 broad leaved forest. Theae are practically shrub forest of evergreen trees, including thorsoy species. The type is found over the areas where hot season prevails for long and also remains dry and where winters ere cold with frost. "The annual precipitation rarely exceeds 1000 asa. but is usually over 500 mm, oocuring aostly in July-August but with fair proportion of winter rains".1 7 The type thrives best between 500 e. and 1500 m on sedimentary rocks, sandstones, shale, marl and limestone, particularly on the hilly grounds where soil is usually shallow and dry. 15. aingh, iJ., ibid.,pp.7-8. 16. Champion, E.G. and iieth, J.K,, op.cit,, p.275. 17. ibid., p.276. Co In Jaoimu and Kashmir the type is divisible into the following eub-typee: 1. 10/C^/a Llea cuepidata scrub forest 2. 10/Ci/b Acacia KOdesta scrub forest 3. 10/Ci/Di>1 lodonaea scrub. ?.3.1 10/Ci/a. Llea cuspldata scrub forest This species occurs widely in the ;^oonch, the najourl, the Heasi and the Udhampur forest divisions. It also finds a place over SOKS areas of the loda forest civision, ootae concentrated patches of Clea cuspidata are reported to be present at bida near neasi en way to aalal hydel project and near kasiban and Chenanl. AKonf: other broad leaved epeciei olive is conspicuous. i:'unics granatum is a characteristic scrub. 2.3.? to/ct/b iicacia leodesta scrub Forest rwcaoia ttodesta is locally known as x'hullal and is comiBonly found in different haka around Jami&u city such as ijabu fiakh, Kheri kakh and hamnagar fiakh. It also occurs in faalol nalla and its catchment area and in and around r"'?iura village. In short, this species, mixed Mith other species, is found throughout the length and breadth of the sub-tropical zone of the state. L 2.3.3 tO/Cl/D3l Dodooaea scrub Thia acrub is found in rliBhanpur,Jhajjar kotli, ^.anaar-^.anwal, Jandrah and iialidhar in tha Jami&u soil conservation division. In the Keasi forest division it ^9tB replaced on favourable sites toy wooofordia fioribunda. Carrisa spinarua and Khus continue. i>iBiilarljr it can be seen below Katra and near about heasi, Talvara, i^auni and Bharakh etc. It also appears in the Kajouri forest division and over large areas in its natural habitat in Jasu&u province. As a result of overgrasdng vodonaea vie^poa. Infact* covers iarge areas. It is an indicator of over grazed and degraded forest. It has a tendency of colonising certain areas as a special habit. 2«^ Group ^2 Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests These forests are known for the extensive development of coniferous forests. "These coniferous forest are very siBiilar to those of other parts of the north temperate zone in Europe and America. The number of dominant species in small, infact more or lees pure crops are aln.ost ir.ore freequer.t than mixed ones, the species found being dependent mainly on altitude and aspect**1. 8 18. Champion, E.G. and :i*^th, 3,K,, ibid., pp.289-90. Gw The typ« ie found b«t%i«en the «ab-troptcal pln« formats and aub-alpiae torm&tiotm throughout the lilnalsyae where the rainfall ie betweeo 1000 sm and 2500 mm and i»ithlii the altltudical range of betweec 1500 » a»d 5500 tt« Thle range of altitude asay vary vith aspect and confiiiUratton of the ground* In JamffiU end Kaahndr Gtate an annual rainfall of 1150 mm (Bhaderwah) aeeaia to he eufflcient. Rainfall ta Euostly obtained froic the south-weet monsoone from, July to . e?te0ber. During winters, cyclonic diatuTbancee troan the r;e These foresta chiefly occur on gneissee and achlete but can confortabily ^row on congloiserate and ehalee. the type extende chiefly on quartsltea, granitee and liaiestonee. 2.4.1. 12/Ct/a, Ban Oaa. forest (Quercus incana) Although these foresta are very much restricted as most of thes have been cleared for cultivation, still in aany localities they are very well developed and are found in pure fora.^ The important localities in JaajBiu and Kashmir where Ban t aJt forest are found in pure fora are upper portions of the Billawar, the Kalontra-Kaitha Kajri, ciamehri 19. P.Xr, Inayatullah, and Ticku, fl. L,, ••A s^reliainary -tudy of Forest Typology of Jattau and Kashmir", The Indian y^fff^TF. 1964, Ko.6, p.532. (iu Karte and Basantgarh ranges. Klsevhcr* th«se foraat are found in open form in this area and occur between 1200 E and 1800 tt. and can grow both on northern and southern aspects but iiior© easily on the northern than on the southern. •^uercua iocana occurs in dense patches along degressions in Kail forests forming an underetorey in low level coniferous forest of the Eeasi forest division. similarly large belts of Oak forest occur in the Rajouri forest divisionst either pure or i&ixed with other broad leaved species Uke uitsaea BP^. •pyBP9;ftSy9ff ^Il^t<*fffi94-laces in the Jdil and the lesa ranges. ^5 uj O a: z O"" fe 2« O ur UJ o SI u. i- Due to heavy loppinfe' for fodder tbeee forest have been degraded but are being: replaced 1!^ deodar foreets, particularly in the Choroeu forests of the liiahtwar range and the Cheon forests of the Billavar range. 2.4.2 12/Cl/b Koru Oak: forest (Cueroue dilatata) In JaiQffiu and Kashffir these forests are not very well developed but still occur alongwith deodar which constitutes one of the most important and most extensive of the moist temperate forests. The Koru Cak is developed over unexposed sitest infaot it is inesophytic in character. »uercus dilatata is well developed in the Karoat and the Thakrai range of the Doda forest division between 2000 to 2500 i :> oru CaK is well represented within its latitudinal iiuits in the cillawar forest division. In the Jdhampur forest division ^uercus dilatata ie generally found in and around 'Ohaics* which exist in a dotted fashion throughout the natural habitat of the species. .uercus dilatata is found stretchini^ over large areas froa chir zone to the fir sone in the Keasi forest division. Although these forests are not verj well developed in the state, still moru oak is found in the -oran valley and the Basoli range, ..othra in the Basantfearii range, the :.eru tmd the Bhalesh ranges, these forests too are heavily 20. I\ir, Inayatullah, and Ticku, B.L., op. cit., 0.340. li.' lopped for foda©r. Th« other iaportant plants gro»lnit in Its association are: CedruB deodara. A bias pjndrov and .^Inus wsllichiana* Besldas thase conifer soeciea soose broad laaved species ar® :u»rpus incana. Jliiiua wallichiana* Fraxinus excelsior and Cedrela serrata. 2.4.3 12/Ci/c - l.olet deodar forests This is by far the aaoBt important forest type found in the state. It occur extensively all over the state, on all geological formations having veil divined soils and receiving an annual rainfall between 1100 -18(0 BUD. it has been observed that deodar forests in the state have a tendency of developing into pure crop. This, however, cay not be taken as a hard and fast rule, as deodar has also been found with other species too. Refeneratlon in this type is excellent but is handicapped in Pohu-infested areas such as the Jdil and the JHuniyar ranges. In the Poonch and the Rajouri forest divisions of Jafiunu province deodar is absent except the patches of •>ole crop in wswajian near Poonch and in few places in the .-oran valley. There is a strong evidence to show that deodar was fairly cormon in the ix)ran valley but has now been exterainated. Koti Kahai and other historic buildinfa in Poonch are aiade of ( '? deodar from th« Loran vall«y. In the Iteasl division deodar ia found in small quantity. The Boda, the rhademah and the -iahtwar foreat divisions of the Cbenab Circle are f JIOUB for the developffient of best quality deodar in Jaasnsu province. In the Jr^asoli and the Basantgarh ranges of the Mllawar foreat division deodar occurs between 1500 to 2600 a. ^itall patchei? Br« also found at ;ialed, Kindli "Jiroda and Cheu in the /illawar ranges, ijimiiarly, Teodar ia localised in Gaitibagh, sayul, Ixajwan, aancet and Hayen nallae of oind valley, forEin^ nearly a pure cro^ of its own. ])eodar also occurs in its natural habitat in J.?., liashair, Lazv^et and zwaotrajl foreat divisions of the Kashmir valley^ kB ckentioned earlier* deodar has a great tendency to grow as a pure crop, but this should not be tatien as a rule because SOIBS other coni fere as well as bxt>ad leaved species also grow alongvith it. Coniferous associatee of deodar are blue pine, spruce and fir. Quereus incana. Quercu^ dilatata and AeBCulus indie a are 8C».e of the important broad leaved associates of deodar, 2,4,4 1?/ci/d - western sixed conifer foreat The type occurs above deodar «one between 2400 to 5000 m, and renuires a rainfall of between 1100 to 1300 mfli. 21. :Jingh, u,, op. cit,, p. 10, 22, lianuahband, C, Revised t^lan for the wind Forest riyision. hanbir Oovemaent ^^resa, Jaicsiu, 195B, p,11. It has the capability of growing on all types of rocks. AS the name indicates* this sub-type consists of zaixed conifer species such as silver fir, spruce, blue pine and deodar, kany areas of the Chenab valley are occupied by this type as well as the iudu and the Basantr:arh ranges, where thee^^ apecies ere found to a larger extent. The type is also fairly veil represented in the Kashoiir valley. Herbs and shrubs in shady places grow luxuriously. :>oru Oak and Kharsoo Oak are the two broad leaved associates of the type in Janusu province. The other important broad leaved species like Frunus padus. Acer BPP and Aseculus indica do exist in shedy depressions. Jome coiPison parasites of blue pine are making it difficult for this species to refenerate. Conseouently it is declining and in moet of the places has been exterminated. 2.4.5 12/''i/e - Koist Tsaperate deciduous forest These forests occasionally interrupt fir forests and are mainly associated with fir and high level deodar "^X Oil forestst'^ ^ohan olngh opines that these forests are found mainly in shady depressions from 1800 a to 2700 m, Koreover 23* I IT, Inayatullah, and Ticku, B. L., op. cit. , p.Ml* 24. Verbal discussions with oohan Uingh, Conservator Chanab Circle, Jamsu. they grow along tht 8treaB» throughout the temperate belt of «JaEmu and HaBhitir .state. The high ralnrall la a boon for this type and, therefore, it is alBo orevalent in the islnd valley, the Bhadarwah forest division, oinyore in Udil, Cool in the Heasi division, Eesa in the Iioda division, the Kuthar range in Kashmir division and the B'oniyar range in the JhelvuD valley divieion. The important cosmon species associated with the type are Aesculus jpdica. Julian re^.ia. FraJtipua excelsior. Acer epp. i^rm^ P«^»^gf ,V,^g•^g y,frW<^J^ftfii» i^opulua ciUata. ^alix wallichianun end Celt is sue trails. 12/Ci/f Low level blue pine forest The Bain species of the type happen to be ^/inus wallichianR. (Blue pine). These forests occur in association vith soDie other types such as h&n oak and moru oak. ?he type is aloo ret^reeented in the v^eetern hixed Conifer iorests. It thrives on and colonises the blank areas and graasy elopes. These blanks or grassy slopes are caused either by biotic or by natural factor but kail or blue pine thrives on them. They are, however, the result of a strict fire coneervancy prograaiEe. As regards its distribution kail in patches of various dinientions is found nearly every where in the temperate ssone of Jaiuffiu and Kashmir ;^tate. 2.4.7. 12/Ci/US1 Oak Scrub Oak scrubs ar« repr«8«nte 2.4.8. 12/C1/CS2 - HiBtalayan temperate secondary scrub It is very difficult to differentiate this type from the preceding one. However, a prominent difference that can be noted is that it occurs aore densely and extensively, usually near villag'es. The type is composed of many broad leaved species. Hxtensive lopping- and grasing, to a large extent, has been responsible for its degradation. 25. The infonaation is based on the verbal discussions with the forest officers in the field and hence is the 1st hand infozntation. ( k 12/SI Cypr«es forest! A8 et»ted i» th» beglning of thlB chapter, Chauipion has perhaps erred in including the cypress forest in the list of JaisiBU and Kashmir forest types. A few oy.aress trees itight be ^rowin;; in sose localities but not in the forei of forest in the strict sense of the term. 2.4.9. I2/C2 Upper itest Himalayan temperate forests This type includes three sub-types in the Jaaittu and Kashttir 3tate. These aret t2/C2/a, ta/Cj/b and I2/C2/C. According to Champion only t2/C2/c type occurs in the state, the other two being absent. But from observations in the field by the author, it J-ias been noted that all the three suo-types occur here. 2.4.10 12/C2/a Kharaoo Oak (Cuercus BeiBecari*ifoUa> These forests are not extensive and are present on warmer aouth-westem aspects* on prominences subject to direct monsoon blasts, at an elevation of about 2700 m to about 3000 m and usually on the tope of moist ridges where the elevation of southern ridges is higher than 3000 m and has sheltered the area in eastern portions. Kharsu oak, therefore, forms 26. Mr, Inayatullah, and Ticku, &,h,, op. cit.,p.341. /v' a crop but above the limits of conif«r b«lt. Koreover It has a tendency to merge with the alpine zone at certain 27 places. 3ohan ^.ingh does not agree with the altitudlnal range of this type as icentioned by i''ir and Ticku. he opines that Kharsu oak grows between 2700 m, and 3300 m» These forests in Jaffiffiu privince are found at oarthal» Uasantgarht tesa etc*, the other iiaportant species associated with this type are ,#f^ulft g^|,;!>Uff> frhj^^^^^p^y^fi b^rmMP «tc. 2.4.11 12/C2/b *est liiaalayan Oak fir forest This type, also known as sub-alpine forest, is a 6et:enerB.%e6 type of fir forests which develops due to heavy grazin^.^ and forest fires. The seeds of deodar and blue pine Oiove down in the fir forest areas where these species exist jBixed with fir. Over grazing is the order of the day in this type, 'fhe Guj^ars and I haras are the mainly responsible for this. The type is represented alcsost everywhere in the fir acne. The important species of the type are Ouercue semeceruif- olia. Abies windrow. Betula utilis and Rhododendron barbstua. 2.4.12 I2/C2/C - Temperate deciduous forest the type has already been explained under 12/Cl/e (hoist temperate deciduous forest). 27. Besed on the verbal discussions with o.^ohan oin^h I.F.u, Conservator Chenab circle, Jaffimu. 2.4.1? 12/U>2 HlKalayan t«i&pez«te pazic:laQd These parkland ar«aa in the atate are heavily graeed. Continuous tracpling over the years has altered the physical and biological balances of soil and the sites arc BBOBt unsuitable for tree growthf Due to the availability of Cowdunf froB the cattle present in the area B great help has come in changing the ground flora. The main plant species in such areas are Urtioa dioea. Girardinia heterophylla and irunus oadue. P.4.14 t?/ro3 - Himalayan temperate pastiires This type includes Behake and Phers where trees generally do not ^rrov. This* therefore, le a u.ore degraded type than the preceding one. Grasses completely cover the ground. The pastures are the result of continued biotic and human interferance. Harbaoeous flora finds limited place to grow on the ground which is eofflpletely covered by trusses. wuch pastures exist on the higher altutudea in almost every forest division of the state. 2.4.15 1?/iai Alder forest The moet conaoon species of this type is Alnoa nitida. It sJreads all along the nallas and depressions in whole of 2d. oohan» t>., op. clt.» p. 14. / ( the temperate sone* The inportent places of Ite oecuranoe are the upper eatohicent areae of fiaggl nalla and Asaar nalla in the I'arBiat ranget And Batote and Bunlyar nalla In the Jheluai valley forest division. Important aseociates of the type are Populua ciliata. Uloua vallichiana. Celtls australis. ^^,r99ff999ft «"<> £2l£ft£& s^ybifftl^a. 12/1w»2 Riverain blue pine forest The type occurs so insignificantly as not to deserve any mention. 2.4.16 12/2^1 JJOV level blue pine forest These forest» forio the nature of their origin, are typically more or less even aged with blud pine pure or stronfly predominating. They tend to be dense unless thinned out by fire and to have very little undergrotith, the ground being covered with a layer of needles through which more or less grass and herbaceous growth comes up in the sui&aierf In Jastn^u and Kashmir state blue pine or Kail, as they are coBjoonly called, are result of the forsst consez-vancy introduced in the state nearly 80 years ago. It is Kail which came upon the bare hill slopes to colonise these areas. Ae 29. Chaeipion, H.G., op, cit., p, 174, . '^''^^^' f ^li^'.v ,:, reported by Chaapion, the crop is even aged and dense In tne state too. Forest fires are freequent in the type, consequently large areas of the Chenab valley hare suffered from these fires for the last 20 years. In JaBrnu and Kashiktr these forests are subject to the ravates of parasites i^lt® ArceathobivuB. The attack is so severe that even soi&e of the sas-plingB are effected. oo far as their distribution is concerned these forests are found in Kuntwara, ^fdil and tesa in the Chenab valley area while in the KaehKir valley these occur in the Udder and the iiOlab valleys and also in the laksua area. ^'•'5. Group 13 Himalayan dry temperate forest This type is found in •*The inner valleys of the icalayas vhere soathvest summer consoon are feebly felt and the precipitation which is usually under 1000 nm, falls mainly as snows in the winter months""5. 1 ^now fall is a must for the type to provide«^^isture during the sunacer aonths when there is no rain. The inner Himalayan ranges of Jemffiu and Kashmir Ltate have less rainfall than recomo&ended by Champion for the type. For instance the annual rainfall at trass is only 559 mm. but et Baramulla it is 990 mm. which is 30. Indicated in various working plans of different divisions. 51. ChM.pion, H.G. and t-eth, i.K,, op. cit., o,332. 32 somewhat closer to Champion*8 lissit, aohan bir^h-' feels that the ideal conditions for this type in the state prevail in Gilfit, where the mean annual ffiaatimus and meftn annual jEiniaum temperatuxe of 22.4°C and 11.2*^C respectively is ideal for its uniforffi growth. These forests generally exist in o?en for© but eometiroes under ideal growth conditions they show a closed canopy, this being a local phenomenon, 2,5.1 13/CI try broad leaved and coniferous forest This type of open forests of pine, mixed with oaii and certain other xerophytic epeoies is mainly found in the iodor area in Jattimu and Kashmir; strictly spea&in^' this is the only area where this type ie seen but few traces of the type aave been reported by Johan irUngh'^'' to be also present near Katal forest rest house in the Doda division. ther iffiportant species representative of this type in Ja^icu and KaehBir are jt'inue ^eraydiana. Cedrua deodara. Que reus ilex. Celtie auetraUe. J^^rrP^iffPe.^ff »^ lfl^%^9M'^W ^^^%W^- 'These species, except Pinus gerardiana. grow in the lower portions of the forest belt extending^ frees Kandi to Thakrai in the roda forest division. 32. Verbal diecuesions with a.Sohan £>ingh, Conservator, Chenafo Circle, JasaBU. 33. iingh, J., op. cit. o 2.5.2. I3/C2 try temperate coniferoue forest The type consists of two sub-typess (a) feeoza pine (rinus jgerardiaps) and (b) Dry deodar forest. 2.5.3. 13/C2/a Keoaa pine (nnxxB gerardiana) ^itrlctly speaking there is hardly any difference either in distribution or in description between this type and the Juzy Broad leaved and coniferous forest type (13/Cl). Eovever in the type under disouBsion Cuereus ilex is lees coBiBion and flnue walllchiana is substituted by Pinus i^rerardians with of Cedrus deodare association. In addition to this, bac oak (Cuercus i^ncsna) is replaced by moru oak (Cue reus dllatataK 2.5.4. 13/C2/b Try deoder forest As regards distribution, these forests are foond Eainly in Poddar. The lower fringes of Thakrai forest extending upto Chhatru nalla also possesses this type, althou^rh neoza pine is absent here? It will be interesting to note that deodar forests found in the U}lab valley a,.>pear closer to this type than they are to ^olBt Temperate leodar Forest (t2/Ci/c) type. ;ioffie shruby growth liite Taahne ple^g(^eff and l^^lectranthus ru^oeus are typical of this type. 34. ^ingh, w., op. eit., p.16. I'. ?,5,5. 13/C2/D;>1 Pohu acrub fOhu (ir'arrotia jacoueaontiana) develop: as a result of unscientific felling of deodar* particularly in the Kashaiir valley, /ohu forests, therefore, are nothing more than a degraded foric of deodar forests. In the Kashmir valley the type happens to be a gregarious undergrowth throughout the tract falling under temperate forest types and lyin^' betwewx 1500 m - 2500 a. at higher nltitades its density starts dwindling and it disappears beyond 3000 a. ..ithin its altitudinal limit it is found almost everywhere in the /.ashmir valley and to some extent in the Cherab valley also. It is Known for prefering northern alojes, where it cos.®8 up profusely, than the southern elopes. ?,5.6, 15/C2/I^2 Try temperate scrub Like /ohu scrub this type is extensively distributed in the nashrir valley. ThiB is a acre degraded forc' of deodar forests than the I'ohu scrub. Aa a matter oi fact it is BO degraded that even r'ohu is absent, allowing • lectranthus ru^osus associated with berberis and »^oea SPP. to occupy the ^rround completely. This type is found in the athai range in the Ksshirir valley' in Chatternar, Fral and a. .-^ark and the Kathai range. In Janucu province, the type is reorepsnted in the Kishtwar and the Udil ranges of the t.J Chenab valley. 2,3.7. I3/C3 West Hiaialayan dry teD}j«rate declduouB forest Thie type, although not very well defined, occurs it ia^Bujc, the -olab valley and the .iddar valley. The important species are Ccltis auBtralis. Aeecuius inciica. and Ulmua wallichian^. 2.5.6 I5/C4 West HiBialayan High level dry blue oine The type occurs betvetm 5000 a.and 3600 a. above sea level. In Jamoiu and iiashieir Jtate, Kargil is the home of the type. Here snow is the main factor which provides Koist^e during su&mer months vher this area fails to be influenced by the sioneoon. j;,.)hedra« Rhododendron cottpanulatua. Betula utilis etc. are other asaociate species of blue pine. 2.5.9 13/Cy West Hiaalayan dry Juniper forest The ty;>e does not extend over large areas in JaiRinu and /^.ashffiir. It is confined only to the Kanasbal ran^e and the Kargal area. The crop is heavily damaged with the result that most of the area is covered with scrubs liite jraxinua xanthogyloides and hosa BDP. The typical Si^ecies iB MunioeruB aiacroaoda. which exists with some blue .^ine and 8.. the above mentioned shrubs. In iCargal the blue pise la found scattered here and there. 2.5.10 13/1-1 liippophae ~ Inyrlcsrla scrubs Thle la a riverain type which in Janzou and Kashsir utateAOccura in the Dind valley and along Itambiara nalla. The river valleys of ^adakh provir.ee are also occupied fay this type, isewly formed sites of gravel are colonised by ; vricaria genaanica and r4pp9B|ifi^ ffftliftj.fffl|.a. It seems as if these species have coloniaed the areas mentioned aoove and replaced Anus nitida and other coloniser sup^^osed to have been existing here earlier. The other iaportant associate species are aailobima and Thymus eerphyllua. 2.^.11 13/lii2 Populus^salix forest The type is found only in i>adakh.**opulus euohratice and local willow (not identified) occur to forib a consociatioE of considerable ecological iBportaaoe. hot ntuch is known about this t^pe, 2.6, Group 14 aub-Alpine Forests "Ati irregular forest consisting: -very largely of three elements, fir, birch and rhododendron in very varin^: 55. *^in pro portions, fur« denea crop of silver fir aay occur, particularly in northweet -iimaleyae but ffio»t uauel forte ia an open crop of th« fir, with birch between and a denae undergrowth of rhododendrone.•• the over wood ie often ftbeent locally, expecially io hollowo, leaving ©ore or leaa pure rhododendron"? .Annual mean maxiicum and minii&uffi teoperature of 9^C and 5.4**C reapectively for Traa with 650 ttK. of annual rainfall ie ouite a repireaentative cliuate for this type of foreeta. The type, however also tnrivee in as leee a rainfall aa 80 mm, in Leh but it seems quite unh«ppy there, i'.b.l 14/ci/a »eat iiimalayan aub^alpine high level fir foreet The im^tortant apeciea of the type are i^inue wallichiana. iMffff jyith^a^ji, ^MSSLMMISE* Tpjtuft bft99t^{|, Kb9dod«adron oattpanulatua and *^rmiuf p§^ue. nt higher altitude this type s^ergea with alpine graaa lands. 2.6,2. 14/Cl/b - fteat Himalayan birch/fir foreat The ioiportant apeciea of the type found in Jarosru and Kaahmir are 8etula utilia. Pinua walXichiana. i^MSM&lim Sm2aml&im» ;uercue eeaecarpifolia and Abiee pindrow. These apeciea isake their presence felt in Thajwaa ('^onasarg) 36. Chaffipion, u.G., op, cit., p.179, Hy, Rhododeodrop aathlQogon. fe. lloidotmt and Mi ff*PPW^^fr^^* 2.7,4 15/1^2 Juniper scrub Although not mentioned by Chaaplon and t>eth to be present in JatCEcu and Kashmir State, the type occurs insigiiificantly in the KhileniRarg area. It ia here that we find Juniperus recurva growing in the foitt of low bushes. 2.7,5. 15/C3 Alpine pastures AS the name indicates# there Is no tree growth and the vegetation consists of herbaceous growth like Iris. HnetBone. yritillaria. iTimula. 2»8« Group 16 l;ry Alpine scrub 2.b.1 16/Ci dry Alpine scrub This type of vegetation is found in Ladaich privince where there is very little precipitation and that too in the fons of snow in winters. The inportant species of the type in i^edakh are Caragana JJDD. iiurotia ceratoidee. Juniperus coBUBunis. Artiaisia iaariti»a. PotentiUa SPD and But under similar climatic conditions the vegetation along the river banks is ouite different froa the one mentioned above. The latter consists of t^alix SOP. Kyricaria. B. anOSIB of thaaa herbe provide important medicinal icgradienta. l^dak'a dry alpine acruba exiet under heavy preaaure of grazing. ?h9B9f therefore, are very ecanty and scattered. This type la particularly rich in rare medicinal plant a of great economic ^alue. The type requires ixLn:ediate rehabilitation which can be done by effective cloaure of the areas for gracing. Thia will not only help the vegetation to rehabilitate itaelf but aoil eroaion vill alao be checked. 2,8.2 16/ir:t Dwarf Juniper acrub The natural home of thia type, like 'iS/Cy, ia ai4io the ..edakh provirce. The important apeoiea of thia type exlating here of ia Juniperue cotaaunis. which occura in corcpact patchea of few metrea. /snother apeciea that exieta on comparatively larger petchea ia Juniperua wanichlana. Thia ecrub generally sttaina « ©axlEuai height of tO cae. 8.: CHAPTER III it has been shown in the yrecedtnf chapter tf.at a nuitroer of cosmerclelly important epeclee such as rancirocalaB^uB etrf ^tue ne&s^ ncacia catechu. r'>cfi9fa L^p^^g^ft, Lalberi>-la aleBOO to mention only a few are found in JdMsu and KaehBslr, lue to prolonged interference by man and other biotic factors, theee fcreste are now not in a good ennpe, Kpny epeciea have either been siore or lees exterminated or fare found in a dfirrsded fonc for inetance lendrocalfaaa strictue ness,. which oner- aaed to occupy the entire oiwaiia. tract, ia now confined only to the .Jasrota ran^je of tue dllawsr forget division. Acacia catechu and ficacia aogegta which are iisportant for the d.. rivation of i atLa and industria. guis and Ialberp;ia 810690 which ie considered to be the beet timber too are faat dwindling; and are being replaced, if at all, by coMcercially unin.portant ehrube. The natural regeneration in these forests, which are heavily grazed throut:hout the year, is very poor. The forest depart, ent of the state done precious little to icijjrove their condition, if thi.ii 8ituation is allowed to continue in future too, tr.en the blame for the deetruction of these valuable species will be snuerly at the feat of those whose job is to conserve rot 8,/ S JAMMUIKASHMIR STATE FOREST DIVISIONS k RANGEo ->i V' Karen \J? \ ftanj* j I >^ ^V'KAMBAJ j)ivisi!5lrv'\ X> Sp>p R»n)».--'' " \(G«ni»)/ KtSHTWAR DIVISION .•' /•''RomtKi \^^' R«nj« _^ ^.'' "\tH«veli Rang* \ K^HMIR \ M»rw» R«n9« %*' ^ '' R»n«e /• V . ^DIVISION Kuthir i Mtnrfhir v *t P'' ^^\->v_~-X / R'nJ*! Verlft.r^W , '\ ^"''•'•" 9 /RAJOURI V ,' v^ x.>— .. , y ;RA.OUR. V- \' N^-Vs;;;;>,RE^CST ^PA'^^AN\X _R„- . (/ R.«,"'•-« / R„,. S-x R*i.un R.«9« / Gul.t.5»rh \ ^*"'''*' ^ 5 \ S -^ ^"^^ iNoiher^ Ohaliri X jil VISION/-., /DIVISION P-*"«*k»no. 0" „ .'vJ .J"' ^- Ma'mill Cnir«U>^-, ' Ran) k•»• * K«l.*>«r Rang. / /'^ «'UOhampur ^-i..Oinltt'^-,^ -/NU^«,.« fUs.".'^'VISIONl f^'Al.li^ • A&. , JAMMU .'' / vRanj^- > R»iij« Ranfv Jammu 'v^^^^^ » Riinnajar diyiSipiil,. J.>- >-/i; ij»Ji,R.«»t /ftV.antjarjf only these forests but the whole ecosyetem. If forest defradatloR and deetruction is not checked In tlae there 18 a danfer of the whole refion becoicin^s- barren and unproductive. The little balanoe that now exitita between nature and can will become a thlnir of past, thue creatiritj; a very dangerousi eelf-tsade situation. Besides a nuirber of broad leaved and coiaiiercislly unlc.portant species which are found in ell over the state, the forests of Jajsasu and Kashmir contain four coMnercialiy valuable species: Cedrua deo Cedrus deodars (deodar) Kedros is the ancient Greek word froc which the word cedrue has be^a derived, Kedros in GreeK means conifer. vf 1 The conlf«r genus belone« to the subtype Ableteae under the subfamily ..arlcoideae of i'lnaceac. This cenue is co&prised of four species:'^ C. atl&ptica. ^iRnett, C. brevirolia. C. deodara Roxb ^ud and C. libanl i^oud, Cedare (C. deodara) are evertreen treee with daric freen or silvery foliage. Branches are horieontal or slightly ascending or descending, ^oneal and long shoots bear solitary, spirally arranged leaves and short arrested shoots posses leaves in pseudo whorls. Deodar trees attain large diaensions and aiay attain a heiebt of 250 ft. under favourable circumstances. ^oase ideas about its large dimenaions can be mattered trosr. the following observation mjide by G,G. i-inniken who reports that "—«a large Cedrua depdara. which is standing alone on a slope of 25^t in a soil resting on t-neis® rocK and about 550 yards to the northeast of i/unang village in I^ashahr is 150 ft* in height and measures 36 feet 4 inches in circutafererce at the baset measuring 31 feet b inches in girth at t feet 4 froK. the ground". 1. Lalliaiore» A,,'- Jackson, A.JB. - Ginkgoaceae and Harrison, w.C, a Handbook of Coniferae, tdward ^^rr.old ( rublishere) Ltd., London 1966. 2. j:'il£;er, R, =5 Kelchior, H., "Gyajnosperjae*'. In .i •nt.ier's Liyllabuc der t^flanzenfaedlien. Vol.1, Gebruder Bomtraeger Berlin KiKolasse, 19^^4. 3. i;randis, r., Indian Trees. Pub. xshishen ^ingh, hrehendra Pal oingh, 23-A, ^ew Cannaught riace, lehra Ixm, Fifth lffi.>reeeion, p.691. 4. ,\inniken, G.G., " .etter to the ditor" Indian forester. Vol.IX, r.0.1, 1863, pp.44-45. CedruB deodara reouirea 1016 to 1776 VSSL, of rainfall, preferably iTom monsoons so for aa the Kashmir deodar is coricemed. This rainfall must, therefore, cocie between June to Ljeptember. leodar reoairee snowfall between ' ecember and Karch. It further reouires laontaineus topography where it io found over slopes v^iring from tnoderste to t'reciJitious. In river valleys >^t suitable heif^hts it can f'leo >i rtiv on level I round, Teod.'^r thrives best on northerly aspects where it attains its best dimensions* Cedyus deodara accepts all important feoiO(;,ical forEaticne such as granite, griess, tr.iCRi and other scnists, sxiale, lixDestone, auartzite and coKf^loaerate as well as on trap dykes and recent oouider beds. It requires a very well drained soil which should be deep aiid fairly porous, it avoids wet and badly drained soil. Cedrus deodara is a light denander species, but it can stand latteral shade. Unless complete overhead li^ht in available it can not grow satisfactorily. At the seedling: stage it Is sffected by drauf^ht but due to its massive root systeiL, it is not ordinarily affected by wind. Peof^ar wood is econooically very important due to its oualitiea. The wood is sroderateiy hard, yellowish-brown, f j aromatic, oily acd fiuTRble, Besides the other quaUtlea, the deodar wood ia also insect repallant and rot retsietant. It ie hectra.Be of th«ee aaalities that " the ancient ^yptians eaplo^ea it for Esaking mxxsm^ C£»BS8, ——It was first used in coffins sometittes around th© tenth dynasty (2180-2052 B.C.] and persisted well in the t'toleaiaic period".' ^iiLilarly ^ tewart iientions that the pillars of afeah liaaaden a.08que at ^rina^ ar in lashKir which dates froff- ki 1426 and >«.re ii.ore thejo 500 years olf^ as having been quite sound at the 6 titj.e he wrote. Crncral listribution: According to liuchholz the cor^ifer «ienu8 extends fron. the western HiBalayas to trie mediterranean and I orocco. Geographically CedrUis deodars if. distributed throu^'-hout the western Hir-alayes froR /fpanlstan to Ghsrwal, standing between 1200 to ysOO a nbove sea level. According to Trou;/ it grows as for as the valley of 'haali, a branch of Alakhnanda river in Oharwal belo^ the . iti pass (.-ct.itude 79*^-4S'ii). Although Cedrus deodars occurs as stated above from 1200-3000 a, it coafortably 5. baiuijmn, ii,b., "The Botanical Aspect of Ancient , tyjf^tian LEibalffiing nnd burial" ^con. ^pt. t 14: &4-104. 6. wtewart, J, ., ^^unjab i/lanti^.. Government rreas» l^ihore, 1869. 7. i-uchholz, J.T., "The i^ine r.abryo and the rJ&bryo of i,elated Cenera", ?r^>gi„ W,. ylf,, ^9a^,,„^ci., 23: 117-125, 1931. 6. 'Troup, h,o,. The ailviculture of Indian Trets. Vol.in, Oxford University I'ress, Oxford. 1921. (i. . eotabliBhed itself from 1800-?600 a. ke&i.n this altttudinai limit varies frono locality to locality, being higher in soatherr than in the northern elopes." The pure deodar foreetB occur in the inner valleys of the Himalayast Jaunsar, Kulu, Keshffiir, Chitral and Tir, Chatoba, Ilashehr, Tehri # Garhwal and other minor hill states carry deodar forests. Teoaar forests occur naturally on mountainous country with slopes varring froBi Koderate to precipitous as well as on level ground on river valleys at suitable elevations. The tree j^rovB best and reaches its largest diKeneions in cool eituatione on northern aspects. It also occurs on hot southero sloi^es but here the growth is usually joor and younii; plants can as a rule he started only with txie aid of shelters. Distiibution of deodar in Jaaimu and tvasha-ir: in «)aiLau and ivashitir, strictly speaking, dodar grows in the inner valleys between 1980 E and 2440 a above sea-level. It forcBs alffiost pure crop at these heights. : ome-tioies it Foes upto 3000 m on the sunny slopes. The deodar forests 9. ..adhwani, i:.I3., Lecture ! otes on iJilviculture of Indian Trees, Cyclostyled Copy, .>.33. 10. laheshwari, '. % Biswas, C., Botanical Ponograph Ko.5 Cedrus. ?ub. C.o.I.K,, New relhl, foTOT n.4. «/ ere urrivalled in tht etate in their coapactneaa and ease «ith which the species reproduces itself. In tae .-aehrir vallej? the deodar forests are found E-ore or less in all the forest divisions of the province. .actors of locality, however, influence tiieir pattern of distribution, density and ferowtb. But all the coniferoufc s^jecies tend to t^et purer within their altitudinax zones 12 but at the intero-ediate zones they overlay considerably, 'oince the Arapat valley and rifht bank of -idccr upto Oaneshpur lies within tne altitudinal zone of deodar, w«, notice s pure deodar crop over these ftreas of thse '.asLair forest division, ooall patches of deodar are found in Hutgsura, i^pjral snd Iddru in the idder ranfe, tiini-'&i: in the jithar rfi.mi>'B, 1 rinyallairir and Akhal in the : oor-e-/ad range, ^caij. patches of nole crop of deodar are found in tue bidder, the '•''erinae snd/^oor-9-^ad ranges of the jssi.rir forest division.' In this diviaion deodar particularly occure on cntl© siC ^es with deep fertile loaa soils. 1 eodar cru^i occupies i&r^eBt area in the Kuthar rang:f followed by the i i(«der range of the Kashmir forest division. But dtoaar is U, '.hushoo, fi.AA., Fourth ..orkin^- Flan for the Bhaderrfah Forest division, i^rinted at iiroce'e artistic threes, i>rinagar, 19551 t^. 15. 12, i'otidar, «,!.., Kfevi«ed workim.. i^lan for the Kashcir >oreet Divisioyi. T.yoed Co;/.y. P.15. [h totally absent in 1 aubu^-, ..rinti and osndrar. velieye oi the division. The Verina^ and the :.oor-o-ii8d rsni,BB of the -aehc-ir forest divlelon have netiUglb-e areas under deodar. It ie due to this that the degree of vnrlsbillty in the eoetial dletrlbation of deodar crop in the ^ash^ir forest dlvleion coaes to be 138.?; per cent (Table j.1,. iTi the Kaaraj Forest Tivislon deodar forirs the doEin«snt oro'?, occuoying 2<5.2 per cent of the total er^a of thr' division. The deodar forest of ^olab particularly are one of the leat in CashEir because of their coEpactness and 1 A suitability for a concentrated font of wor*iin/^. 1 ecdar crop is tue best in the north ..olab range at uhuabriaJ and in the eoath olab range at ; ardpora. ) ^*ithin the altitudinal ^liOiite of 1600 Ui to 2t>00 m in the Aamraj forest division deodar is found .'ure, particujarly on well drained loaa.y ooi ie with BOffie sprin«iine, of *«.aii and some broad leaved trees. codar is also found in the more o^en areas of Vamau, ;.a£&l and Aaiarua val-te/s within the aititudinal Units of 1000 and 2600 r^. t.t /.ralpora, Cherkul and laberazalwari in tae K0ihari,the i orth Lolab and the Kandi ranges ceodar i almost replaced by Kail. Thus deodar tends to foras a pure cro:Jt Out 13. t^athenia, H.^., .pricing i'lan for ^^ashair Forest rivision. 1931, 0.II, 14. 1 ir, Inayatullwh, Revised ^91**4^^ ir'lan foy KamraJ '^orest Uvisiop. PD.21«22. 1). FIG. 3.1 Do is found in rixtur© with fHiru on the lower ©ievatione snd Silver fir on the higher ©levatioas. heximaa area onder deodar in the /.fmraj forest division falle in the eoath ^lai) range followed by north uolab, Ksndi and Laihari respectively, wince deodar crop occupies almost sicilar area© in eacn range of the division, the dfe!4.:ree of veriability in its spatial distribution in the division i» ee low as 15.9*: per cent. The general type of these forests falle under i^roup 13/c2 of cheKpions cleesification of forest types of India {Iry TeKperate Coniferous yorests - iry leodar Koreete 16 t'ir ]n/-y«*tullah and c, L, ?icku feel that this type does not, hovever, fully reflect the re*^l cif^aracter of theee forr'sts -md thus they have c^rved out another type cr.lied b; theE "I ; ekffilr Valley ''emperate /crests". .;0ct' areas of ayen, ^ csjwan, «an^'¥it, tutiibr.f and -ayai n^llas of the oindh vnlley are clotn^d with acodar croi tuowi,rh Kere. it occupies tm inci£:nificant position rs coffipiired to nail and fir crop, occupying only 2.79 -^tr cent of the total Breo of the division. There is, however, soae (. vidence to eriov that this species crei* f.bundantly in the iower 15. ^,tiAT, . ..J., feorkipn^. ^lan for tae Ilaa-aX. na.iwsr. r-ohra afi4. Kfilliayi ftfingfs of ^ftffiyaj Fgye^t ,iivj.fjr0fi, The i^ioneer i*re88, Allahabad, 1926, p.20. lb. Kir, ina^stullah li, u.ficku., "A rreliminary ^tudy of the Forest Typolocy of JaiB©u and i^ashair. ;he Indian Forester. Vol.90, 1.0.6, 1964, PP.332-34?'. parte of the oind valley and beo£u&e extinct durinii tue laet centar^y on account of the sitavy detand for buiiding, purpoaea by the iSrge population that atretchea all along the rari|;t of hi Ha rlfht froai i>ind to kLulhaaa. 17 The f.fetnaabal ren^ie has the Ejaxlffiuffi area under the deodar crop followed by oind and huihama ran^eo. Howeveri caJcuxationa ahow that the degree of vnrlability in the 8patl»l diatribution of deodar in the ,.ird forest diviaion is 63.63 -er cent. This is due to the feet that the crop le represented in every rant^** R,ay be over a enjall area. /ir r'anjal ie another divioion of the Kaahitir valley where deodar ie ooorlj' represented. Thie ia ac-ply clear froii the fact that it occupies only 0.6fe per cent of the area of the <^iviBion. The deodar crop is totally abeent in Veshav and i adi-if anf.;a blocM:e . aimilarly in r.onaahi and ; ilna^ bioCfe.e it occu.-iea only 0.8 and 2.0 hectare of land respectively. i'he defe'ree of Viriability in the s.-'atial distribution of deodar in the division* therefore, conges to 179.t> ?er cent. joii.ever, deodar in *^lr *anjal divieion iB chiefly represented in /urwan bloc&. It reappears near -han^: at the extreac- northern corner of the division, wome deodar is ftlso found on the Kathahallan emd the Ahsrbal ridf.es. The presence of 17. fdehra, .,..<., aorlclp^ Jlan for the alnd J-oreet 11 vision. 1^31. p.10. IC. (leodar at all thes© places appears to be an indication of the prerenoe of a deodar belt in this divicion which ran parallel to that of the blue pin© b^t due to it bein^ subjected to heavy fellings in tb« past is all bat annih-ilated. It iu in t'nifc division that eoae of the Karew^iS have cosij-etel^ been cleared of their '©rn-anent v©eetal cover for K^a&inc the land avaiu-able for piou,bli. Thus bio tic factors are .Lainl^ responsible for the absence of deodar fro® those well rrained A^re^ta land, ^tome encoura&ing results are, however, obttiined by adopting artificial iRethode for the recovery of deodar crop, for instance in :owra, ^an^jewanl iMid Basaiivooder artificial sowing and planting of deodar have been a coapiete Success. mli^e the i>lnd and the Fir i'anjel forest divieions, deodar fTOVB 'jburtdently in the L&nget forest division where it occupies 30.98 per cent of the total area of the divieion, the crop is Kore or iesc p^venly distributed over every ranfe of this division. «e, thereforet see that the deg-ree of vftriftbillty in the spEtiai distribution of deodar in this 'division lE 32.51 per cent. L-eodar thrives best on the lower belt of porous and well drained soil of this division, these 18. Ticku, fc.L. , ..ffyking i-^lap fyr Piy t'ap.jal i-yregt division. 1Q67. P.25. ID. forests Btsnd cortin-iously frcxE the north of H^ittal etreais to '.unirishi OB the KhaoAl river. The hajwar range contains not only the larpeet area under deodar but eleo poseesses tne beet ru.-^lity crop, i^avar and Fa^jan are the ether two ranges where? deodar occu.jies large areas,' The Ker-Lei and t-.e kaxiabad ranges occupy coicparatively leee areas under ceodar, ' eodar, however, is replaced by k'di on flat /..'•rewas which are thick clay de^oeite of lacustrine oris,in and by fir on higher altitudes, -t higher elevations '.;efore fir takes a p-»re form, deodar is found mixed wltu fir j.nd at places it has been notic^^d that under deodar, silver fir is making: its appearance. In the JheluB. valley forest division deodar la represented in all the four ranges, but it is only in tr.e luniy.r vniley that a continuous strip of deodnr forpsts, almost forutln^: a r>ure crop, is found along the Hapathkhail, I owshera, Liiaiber, racibyar, Tethirsuls, hujthala and .-uriiynr nallas. In the Bj^raaiullf^ ranpe deodar crop is found on the low lyin^' hills and f^arewes such as '!feu«n ' sh/.Rra nr.d cjibal. oimilyrly in the 'julrarr ranfe deodar is found at bftdriRot and ..arpur. In the iri ran^'e, however, it is poorly represented, eovtrlng only 1.39 of the total are(4 cov^rtd ;y 1 Q. • '?.tto, !•,K,, ^'eyiged .orfcin>4^ ilan for the >au,ve^ Forest rivision. 1Qfc4. 0.I4. li. deodar crop its the division whereas the Buniy^r range accounts for 68.PI per cent of the totel Rrea under deodar. But deodar covers only 13,1? oer cent of the total area of the divieion and, t^ierefore, the decree of variability in its spatial distribution in the Jheluas valley forest division ie V3A,3'^> f>er cent. This si^.,nlfiea that the crop is not uniformly distributed throujhout the division. ' Coffiin^ down to the Jaznitu province we find that deodar ie chiefly found in the Chenab valley except in the Keaai forest division inhere its presence is insiinificrint. However it ie well represented in the upper reaches of the idfaiiiMur and tillawar forest divisions. In i^had; rwah deodar is fcy for the B>08t iffiportant crop. It occupies more than five times the area under KBH in !,eru blocK and laore than four time in the Kellsr block.. It is very well represented in the Chir'^la end the lihaleeh ranges. In Jang^lwar, Jai and Jitote blocks its presence is Girnificant althou|:;h it occuoie>8 leso areas than kail "ind fir crops (see Appendix 3). .jince it ie well distributed tnrouf hout the division, tl:e ('e^ree of variability in the spratiai distribution of the crop is 95.39 ,*er cent (I ble 3,1). lOo Table 3.t Areas under deodar In different forest Llvigions (Areas in hectore. Division J ean Jtaridard Co-exficient of deviation v?«riation .anret 2640.6 9?3.57 32.51 K^tffiraj 4326.0 fri .31 15.92 uind 430.3 273.80 63.65 jheluK valley P249.3 2347.40 104.35 rir t'nti^al 130.3 234.17 17*^.61 Kashmir 767.17 1065.06 13^3.82 •ro6» 3037.80 1393.20 45.^6 ;h"derwah 2420.00 23:^9.40 95.3? Kiehtwar 1958.11 898.52 45.85 u JEban l;'Q6.12 b47.21 65.35 •teasi 126.00 16o,95 134.0b ianeiayur 779.00 1065.17 136.70 isillawar 1239.80 1185.13 95.59 jvajouri i-oonch 41.40 52.60 200.00 1 I i. In the loda foreet division dfodar does not extend over SB vast an orea as kail and fir crope but still occupies an iaportant ,)lece. l^oet of deodar foreet are found in the idil ranf© which contains 31.5 pfT cent of the total area under deodar in the division. It is here that compact patci es of deodar are found. The 'idil ranee is rightly coiSj^ared witli tie _olab range of the j^ashx^^ir forest division for possessice tf-e best deodar crop. "In richnestj and compactness of icrests, and in excellence of regeneration Udil may well be compared with olaL in iCa8hB.ir"t^ Deodar in pole froa extends from Kainuna to . ^Iruila oppct-ite Chatroo and Chint.am respectively. Mature deodar crop in this ran^e is found near Chattru. utside Jdil, deodar in ,>ure forii. but of youn^ a^e is found in utal and Hhotkute forests. Teodar of e^oA Quality is also found in the l-esa valley whicn is considered ris t ini Idil for deodflr in the loda division. The forest of the leea vsiley coae next in richnesa of deodar. In localities where deodar is coEinon on northern slopes it has usually sprea*^ to the southern elo'^es as well, but forests on 21 southern slo ee Rre uBually ooor in deodar. Apart froa the I esa snd the '>dil ranges a su&startial area lies ander deodar ?0, •-orsifhis, /,. ., ourtL Kcvlsed aorKin^ c^lan for 'oda Poreat rivieion. 1Q6Q. Typed COD:/. >.35. ? 1. ..ine.b, .., hi^vised orj.im': t'lap. for Icde loreet 1 iviaion. ?p.23-24, lOo in tne jsarmat range, occat^yint 16.35 per cent of the total area winder this crop in the division. In the Thakrsi range deodar occare in fsshwan and ^iBbal blocks, standing rext only to tne Jdil ren^e and occup^in^ 24.2o per cent cf the total are© under deodar in this diviBion. Ir, the i«orth ...irs^ range deodar occupies cociparetively less area, wince it is distribated ^ell on every range of the division, the decree cf variability in ita spatial dietritation in the roda forest division ie 45.66 per cent. This ie indicative of compactneee of the cro^ in the division. It its ir.terestir.* to note that in the Doda division moat of deodar crop telori^B to l2/c1c (, hamban is another division of the Chenab v&lley forest circle where deodar occupies a comparatively less areas. /,s compared to 30.25 ?9r cent in the bhederwah and t4.70 per cent in the Doda forest divisions, deodar in the lUu KamCtan forest divieion occupies ocly 6.67 per cent, ^.08t of deodar crop is either young or in pole stage. Vhese forest ar€ gfr>eraliy confined in Chakwa, Kachhri nalla, -^arni Kand and ;-iOunthal valleys. It ie here that wa find cooipact deodar foreeta. leodar forests in Raaban and anihai ranges are confined to basins of fr ohu-J'iangat iauot, .?etri, bratunnallah. butote and .^ander ranges also pobses 80i!:>'.e deodar crop although over coiaparatively lesa areas. Viie degree of variability in the spatial distribution of deodar in the raroban forest division coDues to be 63*33 i,^r cent, yost of tue deodar crop of this division falls under i roup and sub-croup 12/c1d (Aeetem Eixed Conifer orest type of Chai&pion*8 classification). Ueasi, happens to be the last division of the Chenab forest circle. Here deodar crop is far lees la.jortant. It occuniee only 0,42 per cent of the total area ol the divieion. Fost of the crop exists in the Culabgerh ran^e where it occupies 32,10 per cent of the total area under deodar in the division. Tuksutn and Agei are in.|.ortant places for deodar in the Gulab^^arh range, whereas in the ^mas raci/e it is found in wan^aldon and <;jui&bar areas. ^> small patcii of deodar is also found near oangpal in the Keasi ran^je. The degree of variability in the soatial dietributiorj of deodar in the ..easi forest division is as hi^h as 154.0£ perct lu, Thia ia dae to the fact that it ie totally absent froa. the Thakrettot ran^e and in the tie&Bl range it occupiee only a sBall patch. These deodar foreste fall under \'}/o2 Try temperate conlferoue ^'crests - ) ry deodar Forests type of Chaffiplone clRBBificBtion. The Jdhampur and the Billewar are ^LOR^ other divlelonB outside the Cherab valley vhere deodar occuro, P1 though it does not occapy a honourable position, iieinc an important timber, it attracts the attention of the jjersone a«5ina£int their, i. ver saoc t of the area of the jillawar foreet division deodar stands aa a dense pole crop, it chiefly occurs in the ^ewa blocK of the bbsoli range and the upper reaches of the lasantfcarh rani;'e between 1500 and 2600 i.. above sea level, ^ome of the other important areas where deodar occurs in the liiilawar forest division are . eled, irode, knindli aru' Cheru in the sillawar range. It i& eifctiificant to note that deodar occupies only 5.72 per cent of the total area of the division and in the Ja^rota and the Kpthua ran4:e8 which lie in the outer plains, there exiKt no deodar at all. It is due to thit fact that the 'e^ ree of variability in the spatial distribution of deodar in the rillawar forest division is 05,59 oer cent, ..ccordin^ to il'o Chempiou'e cjasBification tiiese forests fall under i'Oiet I-eodar Forest of group 12 (lima lay an r^oist leaperate "oreste). The position of deodar ic Udhampur is £;offiSwbat different. It is considered to be the oost icportant divisioii in the outer tract so for as deoder crop is conceined. It is interestint to note that 97.47 :>er cent of the total area under deoder in this division occurs in the . udu range and the reii.ainin£ ?.53 per cent in the Jdhaaapur range, Ir* the i.aa ,.H^ar ran^ e deodar is totally absent. The iudu valley, which ib divided by river Tawi into tvo equal halves extends IroK. Chenani for about 65 k®, towards eastward, ir, the right half of thic valley deodar extends from kud to villate I udu-. eri. It is fowund jcixed with Kail and fir forert and thus losees its ( re^.erlouc behaviour, Just behind lUda it ag-in f-ets itself established but beyond ."udu Kftil ster replacinif it. In the -.ajouri and j-'oonch the forest divisions deodar is found insignificantly in the Kaveli range, occupying only 0,49 per cent of the total area of the division. , ithou^;h an uninsi/ortent crop now, there arc strong evidences to show that deodar once occupied large portions of the *.oran vtilley, a. few sciittered patches here and there ir this valley arc the remrment of what was once a deodar tract i:'.. in thie area. This species, having been subjected to heavy and urireetricted exploitation in the paet (,5re- coneervancy period), anpeare to have becoKe extinct in thie area* The blj^nne thus created were coIonised by All these deodar forc^sts, aa indicated earlier, broadJy fall under group 12 (^limalayan koist Xeaaperf.te ForeatB and <.roup 13 Licalayan Pry Temperate Forests), and their sub-types such aa 12/c1c and 13/c? (ioiet leodar yorests, ..ry fecperate Coniferous Forests and ry leodar rcrests.' of Chan.pion'e classification. The fore^-oinf account hill tshow that the area under deodir in the state ie unevely distribated. The concentration of deodsr is outstsndint.. in the .anget and the Kaoraj divisions in northwest and the Loda and the lihaderwah oivisiox in the southeast. The concentration index reveaia thet more than 64 per cent of the area under deodar in the state is found in these four divisions. In another conspact blocu: of four divisions,(f.ajouri, x^oonch, neasi wnd i^ir j::'anjfai), 22, lulloo, J.K., neviaed woriciiu I'lan for .lajouri JoreBt Eivision. D.12. liu T^ T J i———-p—— JAMMUAMD KASHMIR 76° ^^-^ \, PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION OF DEODAPss^ FIG.3.2 Jl. sitaated ir. the weetexTi part of the re^iioc, the concentration of area under deodar foreste is leee than 2 per cent. The four divieione u*aitin£. aliaost a verticle column (oind, Kaehair, Rauiban end OdhaKpur) have 11,02 o^T cent of the total area under this apeciei:. The area under deodar in rest of tae divieione ranges between •> per cent to 10 per cent individually. These diviaiona are scattered in the southeast and the northwest ("ig.5.1)- The reg-ional pattern of deodar population al;50 show an uneven distribation which is directly co-reiated to the areas they occupy, AS much as 68,2o i-er cent 2' of deodar pOiJulation ie concentrated over 64,2 per cent of tne ar«a under this species» extending over the Uhaderwah, the iOda, the «&nfc,et and the Kaauraj forest divisions, in the five divisions of r.ajouri and lOoncL, Iteasi, uind and tir j."anjal, the po Mlation of deodar ib as low as 0,6Q per cent, The reianinin*' divisions» which occupy nearly 33 i^r cent oi total deodar area, account for nearly 31 t>^T cent of deodar trees of the state (i'ig.3.?).' The density pattern of deodar per hectare reveals a slightly f^ifferent >icture than the area and population ?3. The .ree »*opulatlon rentioned and discuosed throufhout this work include only thoee trees whose ciametre at breast height is 30 cc;. or above. FIG.3.3 n,^ distribution (Fig.?.3). The hifheet density ol d«odar tr«e8 ie found in th« tbre« diylaiono of IJhademah, Jdhaoipur and JhelluB valley. Where about 40 per cent of tree population standa on about ?8 oer cent of the area under thie crop in the state. In the -^inget, the Kaahmir and the Poda diviaions deodar concentration ia moderately above noniial and moderably normal in the Billawar, the hamlian and Pir tanjal divieione, 7htt concentration of trees per hectare is very low in the i.ajouri the Foonclf the Keaei and the .-ind forest divisions. in the foni.er two divifcione larfe,e areas do not fulfill the cliuatic, altitudinal and other natural reouireiMsnts of deodar and hence the scanty popuifation, i5ut in the wind division conditions are otherwise, Here scanty population ie perhaps due largely to the intensive snd consistent haaan interference. The description of deodar will re&ain incoicplete without laentlon of some of its broad leaved associates which play i^ rreat role in niaintaining the ecolog^ical balance in the ref^ion. I©port©nt anionf these are Valnut (Ju» lay* reria; » . opiar ( • o-.)ulas ciliata). Jtorsechestnut (^eQCulus indica.> end .'runus padue. Cor.luapoluTna in the middle storei'. (,n the ground the coraaoneat shrubs are rarroti&,i'3iCque.'..ftnti&na (iOhu), Cotoneaster bacillaris (JUmi), Indi^ofera /Kerardiena Jl. («».ainthi), Viburnuffi faeten and VlbumuK pcrvoema. etc. etc. •-'ipus woxllciaianSt the biae -Ine, le coLncocly linovE f'8 1 9ii. =.*onietio>e8 it ie clao fUaown as Bhutan pine. This ie an evergreen -arge tree vhich hae bluish featheriy folifloe. In youn^ pfe it happens to 're one of the Eost benutiful pinee in the world but in old age it becomee rurred nnd thus loees chnrni. In the Kaehmir i.iffialayne it t rove between 1500-;5'^'^0 ro. »bovf> sea level but sonietimes is fourid «is hifh as at 3^0^ ff. elevation. It fenerally attains large uei*-\tP, teith horiKontly s sreadinr ':rrxc ea. I'he yoon^* shoote are ^'^^'^f-O^e t-reen. ':ach dw-r*^ shoot has five needier, 12,5- 2^.0 CH', lonef find leaf aheat^is ^eCi-le leaf, jro,>hyll ^nd cotaphyll) re non-prreist'nt. "he vtinter buos ^re cylindric-conic, 0.6-1.2 crn, lone. '""^^^ leiLaie Cones are 15-50 Ci., .on^' vith rounded ovuliferoue ocles. ?he eeeds .^re Kinged; i^intie nieuibrj^iOUS, about thrice as lon^; as tie seed2, 4 1 lue pine is found on a number of ^eoloi-^icel fora-Btione. it renairec well drained ruoiiat, fresi' and deep 24. .'heshwari, .. '• ivonf.r, ;-..!., . Inus ..otanical . onorrti^h. ro.7, .'ub, C ,1,1., Kew Delhi, 1^71, P.O. llo 30ilp, Preferably derived froic mice-echlst which decom OBCB ir. woist fresh soil, in certain c&e«6 the Bpeciee also FrowB on deep liitiestone soils. :?he shallow litre soiit- become ^ry and thus ansuitfible for blue pine. "slue pine "eoipetimes sprinr'S up in « rest Bbundence on coaider nnd fvt-ve' -^e >osits In the beds of streams showin,- its p'-rtiality for 2b s porous soil with a fair amount of sub-aoil K:.tii?ture'". ;: -ike ^eodir, blue pine is PIBO a etrone ii^ht derr •emriar. It can resist moderate eh«de for BOicetime but KaKec little nroerese and uitirately falls to recover. ;dec-jate lifht will ensure a riiorous . rowth for the tlae oine crop. It Cfir» resist the wind by its saassivr root aystett but e^fl^re free snow which dacag;es its crov-ns nnd steas. y BHOW ?5. I roup, h.v.., rfae silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol.!II, ixford at the O rendon irees, 19?1, ..lOli:. ifb, '.rou:., K..., ibid., jp.1018-1'?. 1 )•. siirilc^ curv; tares at the baee cf otem are forced, p-ue ,^ine iB sencltive to fire. General .Metribution: In the ..icalayan region Dlae pine is chiefly found between 1500-3000 oi. It, ht•;^ever, soEetiree foee upto 3600 u., in the upper reaches. ' ron- Afrnnietan nnd K^-riristnn in the west, the blue pine region extende apto Bhjitf.n in the eaet, althoath It ie r oeent in eon'iderf-bie portions of f urD"on and ; iRiciir, tiier in :»ortant .laces w ere blue pine frows qibuiid?;ntly in the sub-continent •re frou. f nrhwal throuf^h Jf.ut»88r, the . ia a niile, i^lu, Chpta£?5, . irree hiils *-~nd lineura. ristribution in J'^UHSU and Kaehrrir: in jF In the t^helua vrlley fore^-t division of • nshuir province kpil fornuB aimoet pure crop around Tantraar^ , Sadarkote snd f.ar:dpal. Kail extends over lerge ereae towards the -ichil.ac-a aide. But iiature trees of '.ail are found specially in Tnngiiar^ anfi Golaldara side. ConelderabJe arer^s 11. URder Kail lie in the Isaniyar rimge although deodar hap .ene to be more important then both ail and fir crops. In the iri ran^e Kail is nore lL'.iX)rtant tr;an dfcdar and fir. i'.all areas in tiie K:asi.iiiir forest diviaior. *ie within easy reacn, ti.ereby jsakint, the crop more in-portant, .t eetabliahee itself Here within the altit-tdinai iiitits of lbOO-2400 a., in eil aspects bat at higher aititacea, sa., upto 3350 Ui., on waraer aspects. The nature crop of '-.Pil in this division is found at catkut, ^arbal and rahalj^aa in the i.ioder ran^e whereas in the «.uthar ran^^e Asii is found at Iwaabu^ valley," wost of Asil crop is in yount; ^^ e becauBe forest conservancy t-ethods adopted in the division have shot.T. cesireo reeulte, and the /nil crop has colonised tise blank arees, l^ail is also found in the ?erir.ag and the :;oor-a-bad rnnf';e8 within itP altitudinj=il liiDits. Xail io next only to deodar in iCiportaKco in the i.aaraj forest division w^ere it occurs either purely or vitr: li^ht mixture of deodar, .xtensive Itoil colcnizbtirn ie noticed on the protected southerly and sout! -westeriy rill sides, Given tine and necessary rotection, chiefly frua fire and heavy ^nizin^, It is bound to cnlar^'e its apnere'i 27. i" ir, Inayatuiiah, ^levi^ed »oriiin*.: rlan for tiie Kaii.ra.1 Forest 14vision. 1Q67. P. 23. llo kail thus extend a over vist areas in the Kamraj forest GivisioR. in the ^aiharl range .^ail croi) i8 aet with at sateaoK, Grazrial, ^udarwan imd owur. Kail occurs at wMduUf wn^.8, f-'»r«an, IcLprzalwari and baa-jjur in the f^.andi ran^e.^^ie crop also extends ovtr the areas of chrant, i.otax and ACiorue valleys in the north Lolab-rance. It appears tlust Apii here i.. in serai state in the succession where it it heixii. reolRced by deodar at lower and lir on the hi<.her altitude. In wind also Kail is found mixed with <^eodar. :.ut still there are certain -.reas which have extensive ".PH forests, laiortant among these are north-weoterri "o^^ - - the . haihat-a ran^-e and both sides of the watershed b«>tveen the rir and adi-ati. T^ir is wieo :>resent cixed Kith -ail or fori.8 the cap of the f'ail forests. I est of tne forests are youn^ or riddle a^ed becawisc all the mature tr^ee .ave oeen reac/ed. Conseq ^.ently mature Aail croi of the ^ ind forest division is confined only to rei;ote places. Ihe your^ /ail crop ie #'nerally too dense to allow any thine to ^^row iXfiOemeath it except f^rass. In tne Langet forest division ^ail has the widest rri^^e of all the ordlere. It starts froK 1500 IL. arid toes upto 3650 0. thoai^h the true blue pine «one may be s to ex^-^r-d fron 1700 SE, to 2000 m2', " "hese forests occu ^i' t.e 28. Jairwsl, ..II., orking ^ Ian for the T orest in the L n^ret rivisloii. 1Q?7. oTToI IL, K'-rewa land of the uaa»al and the i>a;iwar ranges. ...aitable clnyey soil of these K-srewes farour the growth of Kail aore tnan deodar. In the higher reaches of the divieion K-iii ascende well into the fir zone but on the lover elevations it Bixee with the deodar forests.R&Bihal accounts for 3f'.7^ por cent of the total area under Kail crop in tne division which ia followed by the .^ajwar, the Rfafiabad and the f awar rnnfes. The : ngan range, however, occuuee only ^.,^C >rr cent of the tot*«l wree under croo in the division. E e?ir the hebitiJtione Kail is "nnture but rileerised. In the i'ir r'anjHl forest divieion Kail forests occur oetween 2tOO &. and 2400 m. but on the southern and 80uth.>eeatem aapecte their altitudinal limite may exceed 2A00 tu, :r cooler aepecta Kail ie seen growing r^s low HB 2000 Hi, within these aititudinal liiriits il'.il forests in t^iie division are localised between the haaoi ra and :OL.Bx;i. ..oae Other placee in the division wfiere jCnil forests uccur are Chimbal, Kon^^ywattan, Laasigossan, ^edav, luhrihalan, ^aujan raap»ithri, Kellar, .^-angarwgni, Cherisharief, nrrijihah nd utharan, K^il and fir clxture of outstanding i;fiture exists Bt 1 snziSEfi, 3Bdrs;-^:riIi, ?R98nrpor» and lower rcif;ches of ' udr.gf?r\ga. It is ndxed with spruce although thf: latter iB nuitc' inconspicuous et : ithwain near Waujar^' ':"he C'^^^rQe 29. Ticku, B.L. , [xlimy^aed *'9rk|nf,, P^ans r9y ir PRPIPI ^oreat Tivision. 1Q67."P.23-?4. " ha.lurlB. H. L.. A Pevised V.orking i-lan for i-ir Pan.1p.l forest !?ivision. 1Q37. pp.t5~16. 1;. V of V'.riebility in the s^sr.tia^* distribution of i ai 1 in the i'ir anj^l forest division coses to 71.19 y^r cent which is Oiuc-i ai^rher then in the ^j'M^.et forest division with only 4 4.?<^ »er cent. The correSiXjndint fi£;uree for tue K-.slmir fcrest division is still xower and ie 40.5*^ jer cent. These fi^aree show that Kail crop ie more co!r.pact in the rlHStiiiir and tue 4*ari£.et forest division than in the *ir .-njui. In the Chenab vrlley of Jacffiu ..rovince Kail exists aiiLOBt everywhere alon^with deodar. In Jair&u circle, however, i.hil ist .eea important aithoa/h it Ie found a:or€ or ieeo in '11 tiie forest divieione. in the .ajouri ;:n6 the .oonch division© it occuuiea t :e largest areas. Ir, :'h."./'erwph, i'j^il nsccnds upto 305'' c on Hnrcer asDPcta. Pre, In thle division, ail extends as ure croo only on f stuall ^ ren OVPT the westerr o'rt of J-n. «lwar Mocii and «'l80 or. the v/araer nl Ine RS"iects. loew.ere in tl>-- f^ivieion K«-ll ie found aixed uith dood-r rnd :;ot-eef.. ee ., tendf^ncy of colonisinjt; tsie bl-ntte. It occupies only rl.^? per cept of the total Bret*, of the division v.-uerens corres or.cin^ fi^aree lor deed' r &rsd fir are 3^^'* 25 yfir cent and 25.65 p r cent respectively. 'iCt ier cent of the total area under r.ail occurs in jihaleoh blocik. The next ia.t>crtazit blocK, ie J&i where it occu,jie0 19.7 oer cent of tne total area under the crop in taie division. In iiunjwah bioc^i. Table 3.2 ureas unde r i^ail In different .oreet Livisione (ir. hecti area) 'ivieior.s Lean Jtandard Coefficient of : < viatio^ Vpriation jan^'et 1^58.02 077.1 2 44.70 Kp.tr.raj 3554.00 116«.68 52.91 ^±nd 4700.03 2742.20 58.34 Jhe-um valley 15^^5.79 6M.7? 39.'^ (J rir rarvjal 1792.0/ 1276.2t 71.1' j?.8ai:ut-ir 9447.67 35335.51 40.59 I. cda 31-12.^11 1320,35 3 .'.a4 chaderwah 1674.12 1072.95 64.09 Kishtwar 1720.88 636.00 36.95 rtaoiban 3353.01 1642.20 48.97 Heaei 1728.45 151.56 f/?.«5 Jdhaicpur 174«.06 913.85 52.26 ! Knjourl and Poonch 668.09 1096.47 164.ir FIG.3.4 iz. however. Kail occuplea only 4,5 per cent of the area under it in the divialon. In Kellar and fhir ' blocks it occu.^iee honourable places and exists &.ixe6 with deodar. The degree of variebtlity in the epatial distribution of iiaix in the Hhaderwah forest division is 64 per cent ,-i-^ • • fn the northern slopes of the l/eoda forest division Kail extends froir, 1500 E. to 2400 m. and frou 1BO0 it. to ?700 Bi, on the southern slopes. It is found cclonialn/ tne blnnk ar^as of the Poda division, partlcularJy on southern slooes qnd occurs purely as a younf cro;?. K-^il occupies 17 isr cent of the total areas of the division and i& found Uilxed with deodar. The outer slopes of ti-e ^iraj TBXi^e are covered with few patches of incipient blue pine. In c.imtwara, f.ail is found tuixed with deodar in soall percentage out in ivutal and bhatscute forests it occurs as a pure and youn^, crop. In this division about 25 9^r cent of the total area under this sjecies occurs in the Lesa range. In the .'dll ran^e r^aii is rapidly colonlsint the bare slopes whereas it exter^ce over large areas of the i ari^at and the Vhakrei ranges, ^iff.bol and Keshwar. blockt of the ThaKrai ranpe together occupy 15 5er cent of the area under Kail in the division. Thus -Kail is represented in every r-i.jo and, therefore, the de. ree of voriability in its spatial distribution in the Loda division 12 i iB 37.b4 per cent, according to Umc-pion'B Caafisiflcation thie jvail crop beiofj^s to ^ roup l?/2e1 ( uow ^.evel blue pine foreata;. In tn© Kiehtwar foreet division kail is found B.ixed with deodar aJjuost every where and occupies an iaportant place asLonf the coniferous species of the division. In certain areas such as the ; ishtwar rang-©, however, it forois the chief eoeciee. in the addar range Kail forests are found sr.ixed with neodar as well as fir at higher altitudes. . Icilarly in the rschan ran^e these forests ehow relative"-y incre-Hsed adn.ixtare of ciscelianeous species3. 0 Thas, in tue lacnan ranre Kail foreetts occur mixed with other soecies, ir a pro.'ortion .arf-er than in any other ran^^e of tr.e division. in the ) agseni range tnere are few patches where deodar predominates, otherwise both the species occur in eoual proportion in this ran^e with all the age groups adeauatcly represented, xtt the / arwah ran£e, however, ail crojJ is re-^atively poor but still stands next only to fir crop. The I ail crop of the division belongs to rroup 1?/c1f of Chan. )ioRS classification ( uow level blue pine forests). hail is an icjortant crop in the rillawar forest division, occu^jyinfe- only o,?4 per cent of the total area of 30. heshi, C.'., Keyised ,orkiru i^lan for the Kiehtwar Forest Division. •3.13. i:\) tne divleion and only 0,5o jtr cent of the area under coaunercisl foi-esta in the division. In this divieion s.ail is not found in 8 pure fora. but nixed in v^ryin^ pro .portion throu^'h out the deodar foreots?^ It ie found aixed with its princit^ai associate in ^ewa blocK of the Laeohli rfxaEe and the Jaenntf-arh ran^je. I ixed in varyinr proportion with f^eodar, '\ail ie slBO found f.t h'-ed, hindli, Troda and in the "lem '^illawar rarsfe./ In the rthna and the Jasrotn ranges it ie totf»,ly absent. . ue to theee f-^ct the decree of variability in the ap3tiel distribution of ^.eil in this division is as hiisi-. atj ^(i^,3 '^er cent ail of this divisioic belon,.6 to ij:ialayan . oifat iVm^erate ""orosts of Cli'^iapiona ciassi fication. above Ci.ir, which fonus the cnief crop of the .CHBX forest division, we cotue across highland ilaii forests uixed with fir and deodar, ^ithouch '..iil and fir occur j^ixed in the division, pure a tripe of the f oritur can be seen in v-rio-si j-ochlities. ceyond fottursu top of i>8roli dnar above tali we find fir and /.ail aitemetini each other at top of the ridges and in depressions. In the r.easi ran^e t'ail .oresta occur &bove j'otturea and halwcl, stretching above .enjar aloHf- ..aroli «. hf^r and extending further above- I aunrre ard > 3trot ot^** ^trail stands with fir forests alon^ the nallae 31. otidar, it..!., ievised -orkinr ^lan for iillawar -"orest idvision. Cvclostyle6yclostyled Copy. 3TTT. T P. . ^hrit r..r...... ,. f-.evised .orkin.orkinrf Plan for l^eaei orpst rivision. P. 18. i:-u and ridff*« In the tmH& range but dae to the undulating, terrain Loet of theee foreste c? n be termed aB non-coKitercial. in the Galabgaria ri'n^-e Kail stands aixed witii deodar near J I ai and ..liidoui. it XB only in the ThBiiroKot rant® ta&l It A8 totftily absent, thereby raising the de^-ree of varia&iiity in its epetiai dietribution in the heasi division to B7«-J!> psr cent. In tne jdLaiii|>ur forest division t.eil occu )ies the 8ec<.«nd place after chir by occuyying'^ 14.t4 f>er cent of the total find 16.1^) ^er cent of the coiwercia-tiy exploit'bie area of the Rivieion. It r«place8 deodar near . udu and occupies the entire str'^tch on ri^ht side of river Tawi find continues -'bovc r.ienr>nl. '^he "urtu rnoie accounts for 61 per cent of the total area under this species in the division. -rilike '^fo^f'Tt ail Kas «ot a very wide rani^e of altitude. i Warner aeuects it nscercs u )to 2100 m. and thus irixee I'tith fir. It is nlso found exiBtin^- within the upper licits of chir ror«»st8. In it's hf bit'^t it Las P tendency of culonisin/ blani^ areas. In the u^hiOipur mn^.e --ail covers tae ren/arlnt jf^ per cent of tne tot&l area under this cro in the division, in the ,.riu. nup&r ran^e becaae of its lower eievHtior.a k^il io totally absent.fhfe decree of variability in the t.jr.tia^ aistributicn of ..ail in the division^5^.26 per cent. Ik^ ir. the fK;)0'ari forest divleion Rail ie fourd upto 3000 K, elevation. In the northeaetexT} .^^ortion of the division it io found on the Haveli range vhile in the eaet it is found on the i er.dhar ran£ e. Kail here ie in youn^ af-f> ard occurs scnotcncasly rare. At sorre pxacee it is also found irlxed with a.iddle a^ed trees of i te own ejieciee, ThiB :.bture Asil forests in the division are totally absent. The d«f r*^e of variabiiity in tne apatial distribution of In tae hau.ijan, &e in otaer divisions of tae Chenat valley, iLail occurs mixed with deodar and ;redoiBinuteB in the eastern areas of the division. It occupies 1 J,it per cent oi the total area of the division. ;.eodGr and iaii forests in the aaban division are scanty iaut are fairly we^l represented on every range, of the division. Ihe xsrgest area under thio crop in the division is in the Kataban ranee, .ccordinf to 33. Jaa.vfal, J.i., hcyised orkinf x'lan for Kaaban l-oreat llvlEion, -,13. Ik u alec i ro^B over the are&e of iiatote, danihel and Ltmder where it occu iefe 25.40 ,.er c^nt, 15.80 -BT cent and 13.90 per cent respectively of the total area under the crop in thifc divieion. ^;ince .':oil cro,) is represented in all t!ie ranees of tt.e division, the decree of variability in its snatial distribution in r.aaban tlivision is 4B,Q7 oer cer=t. rail ore here eJoms to both ^.roa.)B 12 and 13 c'-oin dot.'ts clnesificHticr - . ore than one third (35.30 per cent) of the total ares onder .-;ail liec in two adjacent forest divi£?iv.)rs of / aehrr.ir and loda m:o ai'e ec ^arrtted by the -ir .-anjal rare;e. It is in these two divisions that the hl^heet concentration of the area under Kail occurs. li:ewhere, exc pt Ihe -Ineiuai valley foreet divieion in r.ashjj.ir and perts of t..e rhenab valley fci-est divieion in vz^ttmuf /lail ie jr.ore or less ui.ifcriieJy distributed (. pps ndix 3 ). Thus with t.-e exce tion of t^e JI eiuii, valley forest divi«;ion of i-.oehoir vniley, the i-ail cro^-- forc.y P compact block in two foreet circieu ot .^«?shi:ir v:-»^ley arc Chcne.h foreet circle of Jnrx.a -rovit cc-, V ere ^he eaei forest division stands oat ns an e.^c^.tion. Thfge divisions the anf.et the .asirsj, ti'o ind, the ; ir TsDjal, the •lehtwar, the ' haderweh anc^ the I > mhiir>. oxtendin# riOf<-onslly froir northwest to southeast, together occa ;y ^l.t'-o ,gy. ^^^^ ^j. ^j^g tot^sl area under Kail in *;he .'tate (''•!(.3.4}. brother con-p'-ct blocK, coneietin^ of the •'d.". ^cjur, tbe leaei, tne -ajoari f^r.d the .-\>or.cn ana t..e 1:- FIG.3.5 l.v JheluiE valley forest divlBions, stands out as a region where Kail occupies only between 1 to 5 per cent of the total area of the individual division ( i , ..: ). These divisions together occupy 12,89 per cent of the total area under Kail in the state. The remaining nsciieible area under kali lies in the Billawar forest division in the southeast which possesses lese than half a per eent of the area under Kail in the state. The reasons for the low percentage of the area under keil, particularly in the Jhelum valley forest division of Kashmir Korth Circle, are not far to seek. Nearly 60 per cent of the area of the division is either covered by pastures, blanks or by broad leaved forests. This means that the coniferoue forests are being out to heavy pressure and are beinur, the Kajouri and the Poonch divisions the low percentage of areas ander Kail is due mainly to cliiaatic and altutudinal factors, cjimilarly in the x5illawar forest division ijtail occurs uncosi fort ably only on two ranges out of five, primarily because of unfavourable natural conditions. The tree population of Kail is also unevely distributed 55.26 per cent of total population of Kail stands li!.i in the thr«e forest dlYlsiocs of Bhadarwah, loda and Kashmir which together occupying 43.55 per cent of the erea under Kail in the Btate»14.89 per cent of the total iail population of Kaahaiir Korth Circle, comprising of the Langet, the KaEraJ and the aind forest divisions, stand on 22,64 per cent of the area under this species in the state. similarly in Kashmir oouth Circle, except the Kashmir division, the population ie high and constitutes 17.68 per cent of the total population of the state. The other two division the i'ir cnnjal and the JheluE valley have 15.?9 per cent of the population of the state. In Chenab Forest Circle in Jammu province, the Doda and the Bhaderwah forest divisions together account for 35.5B per cent of Kail population while they occupy only 20,67 p^r cent of the area onder this crop in the state. The Klshtwar and the Bamban are other istpcrtant divisions which together posseee 10.53 P®r cent of the total population, Excepting the Udhampur division, Kail is less important in Jamiou Circle Crop, The Rajouri, the i-'oonch • and the Sillewar forest divisions individually contain less than one fper cent popaiation. The forest divisions of Langet, Kaicraj, Pir i*anjal, Eamban and Udhampur, constitute a Bingle blocK, extending from northwest to southeast, where the Kail population in each divisions containa between 5 per cent to 10 per cent of Kail population. The Klshtwar 1 ' FIG.3.6 1 . a u 1) forest division In the east the bind forest division in the north, the Jhelua valley forest division in the northwest and the Keasi forest divisions in Jammu, each account for Kail pOs*uletion ranging betwewa 1 per cent to 5 per cent. The Doda and the Kashiocir divisions fonc a compact block in the centre where the Kail population of each division is core than 15 per cent. The Bhaderwah division stands out as a Bin£le unit havin^j population between 10 per cent to 15 per cent (Fig.3.5). The density per hectare pattern of Kail population is sonje what different. In the Billawar division, where Kail population is quite insignificant, the density per hectare is greater than in the Kashmir division which contains c^ore than 17 i>er cent of the total populf^tion. This is obviously due to the difference in the area under this crop in the two divisions. The l^anget, t^ e Kacraj, the Kashxir, the Kishtwar and the Kamban forest divisions stands out as areas where the density per hectare varies betwe«Q 50 to 100. The Bhaderwah and the Billawar forest divisions of Jaomsu province and the Jhelum valley and the ?ir ieanjal forest divisions of the KashBiir valley have 100 to 150 Kail trees per hectare. The idhaffipur and the loda forest divisions have still higher densities. The high density in the Doda division is self explainatory whereas in the Jdhattpur division it needs some J.V, explanation. In Udhai&pur high density is due to the faot that 5.5 per cent of Kail population exist over 3.14 per cent of area (Fig.3.6). The broad leaved associates of these two soecies i.e., deodnr and Kail are more or less identical. Aioong the chief broad leaved associates of these forests are AesculuB Indica. Julians rej^is. Fra^unue excelsior, ^t'^^ff 2MM» C9ryluff ffi* BMf '^M£S^m&&» l£^l£2i£I& Gerardiana. Arallia caehiaerice. The underirrowth is i^ainly coffiposed of Parrotiopsis. Jacoueaiontiana viburnum BPP. and Plectranthue rugosus and others. of all the conifers found in the state* fir is found aost extensively. The total area under this species in the state is 300fd43 hectares which foros about 41 p9r cent of total cosBiBeroial area under all the coniferous species comprising, besides fir, deodar (Cedrus deodara). Kail 34. i-ufi, G.R., Limitation of the Qptiaal Exploitation Jnpublished Paper, Cyolostylsd Copy, p.1. 1^o. ( There ar« two Important fir speoies (Abif olndrow and j^loa amithlana) In Jajnau and Kashmir. Both are managed under a single working circle. Abies plndn>w or sliver fir is "a tall ever^rewi trees with Conical or Cylindrical crowns, Yoiing trees are ueually pyramidal in shape with branches foroing more or less regular whorls* indicating annual height growth, bole clear u'>to a considerable height or covered with foliege almost to the ground?^ The bark of the tree is smooth and silvery when young and greyish brown when old. It is deeply cleft in vertical fissures. Under favourable clrcumst&nces the tree attains a height of about 76 i£. and occurs generally between 2300 to 3500 m. above ssa level. But in certain cases it comes down to 2100 m, particularly on cooler aspects and goes uptc even mors than 3(00 m. in Its higher liclte. ollver fir, when found in deodar-Kail belt, seeies to occupy coller aspects but is generally found mixed with Plcsa enithlana (;;4pouce). Silver fir thrleves bsst on deep rich soil, particular! at moist situations and on northerly aspect within the heavy 35. Chowdhury, K.A.. Abies and 1^1 csa Botanical EonogreptrKo.gmr: v.v: . Pub. C.S.I.R.. Kew KeIhi, 36. Gamble. J.S.. A ».annual of Indian Timbers a amps on ^.ow. Mnrston ^ Co., Ltd. London, 1^22, p.719. li. ll snowfall rvgiona. Tb« annual praelpitatlon (both anovfall and rainfall) within its natural habitat should ba batwaan 114? BS). and 2538 IESI* The rain should fall batwaan July and beptamber and snow batwaan Cecembar and April. Tha maxlmuct ahade temparature racorded in the silver fir zone is 32.2°C. rue to its supperficial root systaa, which is &ora spreading than icassiTe, silver fir grows in sheltered situations so that it should not be blown over by strong wind. £ut for little snow band generally on steep slopes, there is practically no snow breaks bacause of its short branches. General Distribution: Silver Fir: Silver fir extends froc> Kepal in the east to Afghanistan in the west, between 2300 m, and 3600 ffi. It is generally found mixed with spruce and sosetioias with deodar and Kail. It occurs in Haeara (Pakistan), ISiaula dhar in Kangra and in parts of Kusaon. In Jamrnu and Kashsir btate it fonsa an important forest crop in both the provinces, ricea Stcithiana or Picea Korinda: is another a tall evergreen tree, like Abies pindrow. with conical crown. It has horizontal or droping branches. Leaves are epirally arranged, 2.3 CE. to 3*3 cic. long, acieular and obscurely qu&ndrangular. It poesesses a thin but scaly bark which is IJ I rough, r«dieh or gr«yi«h-bro*m irith v«ry ahallow furrows, both longltudnal and horisontal. iiince it is a moderata high danandar epeclas, it reauiraa in its aarly youth protaction from tha aun. unca it gate eatabliehad it growa Tigoroualy undar oomplate ovarhaad light. Goats ^narally do not lika to brovsa upon tba Bpruoe but if no other altamativa ia availabia thay do damage tha young crop. Spruea aaadlinga ara, tharafora, aubjaot to graat damage in tha graaad araaa owing to thair esall alaa. Recently axpoaad, porous and frash leinaral soil ia suitabla for tha bast growth of young plants. In suitable sites it attains a saxiniua height of 65.5 m. Spruce is not a wind firsa tree baoausa its root system is spreading and 8U] 9rficial unlike deodar or Kail which hare massire root systttcs. General Distribution! spruce occurs from Kumaon in the east to Afghanistan in tha wast between 2100 and 3600 o Depending upon the locality, the crop can grow in higher or lower localities. Troup reports that scattered spruce trees may sosetimes be found as low as 1500 m. on cooler aspects? It is not found pure over large areas but is more commonly 37. Troup, R.3., op. cit., ?.1144. XKU- Bixed with silver fir. Distribution in Jmmxi and Keshmirt In Jammu and Kaahmlr fir,including spruce, is found extending to upper catchments of all the icajor rivers and occupies about 38 41 per cent of the cos^ercial area under all conifers. These forests, aocording^ to Kir Inayatullah, are among the best coniferous forests in the world?^ They are richly Btociced and compact Right from Uttar Pradesh to western iiiffialayas and even beyong, these forests arc i, ' far as density and auality is concerned. In Jaaunu province they are confined to the upper catohaents of Ohenab, havi, Tawi and Poonch rivers whereas in Kashmir province fir forests are found upwards to 2300 ai« In the i^^ir i:'anjal forest division the fir forests are the finest in the country froa the view point of quality, reproductivity, density and purity. In this division these forests occur between 2100 to 3200 m. ,,with a tendency to ascend or descend, depending upon local factors. ^ature and over mature forests are found towards Zajioarg, Karilwan and luren etc. Poe to the continuous availability of moisture 33. ^^ufi, G.B. , POffitfOfi ^\?PT ^Lm^ijMQp. tp thf and Kashmir State. An Jnpublished Paoer. Cyclostyled Copy, p.1. 39. Kir, Inayatull^, "myyp Ketho^olffgy 9| Kaie^^ Fir Artificially in Kashmir*.. (Jnpublishe(i Paper, Cyclostyled Copy, p.1. i;.w from th« perpetual onows above and gentle gradient which gives rise to slow drainage, regeneration in these forests is in abundance. In addition to these suitable conditions, the xir Fanjal division elao possesses clayey soils which is Boet suitable for fir forests. It is perhaps due to these reasons that 59.45 per cent of the total coastnercial area is under fir crop in this division, fhe BoBShi block of this division contains the skaxiDum area under fir forests. It covers nearly 28 per cent of the total area under the crop 40 followed by Kaabiara block which has 19.Q per cent^ of the area under fir in the diviaion. In Yarvan block fir forests are aloioet negligible and their position in lUlnag block is not 80ur>d either. But for these two blocks, fir forests are well represented all over the division. The degree of variability in the spatial distribution of fir in the ?ir Fanjal forest division is 64.69 per cent. Fir and spruce forests in the Langet forest division occupy the sane altitudinal limits as in the i^ir x>anjal division. They occupy nearly 47 per cent of the total area of the division and are ujet with in the Kaiahal range which occupies 36.79 per cent of the area under this species in the 40. r'ercentagee are calculated from the figures obtained froiB the working plan for i'ir i^anjal livislon, By B.L. Tlcku. l'i>. division. Th« upper portioao of the Xawar and the rfajwar ranges together account for 3^.10 per cent of the total area under this crop. In the t agan range, however, the fir foreete are poorly represented. In thiis division these forests are better stocked and are &ore predouinant on cool nortnerly aspects within their altitudinul liositB but on the hit her altitudes they are found on all aspects. h«re the eoll ie shallow, and dry, ^jarticujarly on tops of the ridges, ^:rowt : of the fir crop ie stunted, and uiti»ately they yields place to birch, jUMipers and rododendrons. The degree of variability in the spatial distribution of fir in the .snget forest division is 110,2 per cent, which is indicative of its less coftyactness in this division. The fir crop occupying'; upper limits of the Kawar, the Raaahal and the >ajRal ranges belong to iTOUp 14 (sub-Aloine Forests; and its sub-^roup 14/c1b (west lli&alayan Fir/iiirch Forested of ChaKi^jion'e classification. In the KamraJ forest division silver fir occurs chiefly in the catchmentffient ccf areas of the main streams lyin^- oetween 2150 n., and 3400 ffi. i>at at certain places, uuch as at Uratnar, it is found even at 2000 ir.. because of dam ;ne8s and northerly aspect. In the north .^lafa ran^e Affanvamau and .>>hrant nsllas contain important fir forests 14. but along hanwiini ana Kalarus nallaa of this range they are found in amall atid inaccessible patcfeea. iimilar conditlcnB also occur in the eouth jolab range. Fir crop is poorly renresentea in the laihari range where it occu'iea only 26,86 per cent of the total area under tbib speciea in the division whereas the corresponding percentage for the north -olab range ie 49.75 per cent. The Kandi range ie totally devoid of fir crop. The crop i» well grown on cooler north and northeaatern aapeots within its altitudinal lisiits beyond which it is replaced by si^cies liKe birch. The presence of spruce iSi however, insignificant. This is a peculiarity of thie division. The degree of variability in the spatial distribution of fir in the Kaicraj foreet division is 35.1 p9T cent which is indicative of its coxpactness in the division. Fir forest occur alasost pure in the catchment areas of principal streams above 2300 m. in the bLn6 forest division, pruce ie generally absent in the fir forests of this riivieion, out of the total area under fir in the c^ind forest division, 63.85 9QT cent lies in the Khaihaira range, followed by the ..ind ranfo which accounts for 30.87 per cent. The rei^aining b.2f per cent falls in the Kanasbel range, oince the areas under fir are unevenly distributed in different ranires, *ne decree of variability in its spatial distrioution in the 14. uind forest division is about 72 per cent (Table .5.5). oparce, wherever present, is in email proportion and is intimately mixed with fir. In the lower limits fir is found aixed with tCaii. Table 3.3 Areac under Fir in different foreat Bivieione (Areas in hectare) Livision ^ean Jtandard Co-efficient of Deviation Variation Lranget 4344.08 4788.02 110.20 Kaisraj 3602.06 1264.79 35.10 Uind 6004.03 4320.39 71.15 Jhelun V'alley 3028.25 1694.78 55.96 J?ir Fonjal 4614.17 2985.18 64.69 Laehcir 8924.«J/ 2193.43 24.57 toda 5393.33 3103.64 57.54 Bhaderwah 2068.50 1751.71 84.6b Kishtwar 3431.33 2443.83 71.25 Karoban 3396.37 2686.25 79.06 rvsaei 3220.50 30b4.80 95.78 JdhaMpur 1406.00 1935.59 137.66 iiillawar 2740.00 3356,17 122.48 Kajouri and Poonch 5109.30 5256.24 102,91 14 , IT. the Kashair forest dtYision fir generally occurs pure between 2500 to 3550 K. above eea level. These important fir forestB are found in Ahlajc and parts of iiandran valley in Verlneg range. The ..idder and the Kuthar ranges alec contain important fir forests. These two ranges account for 50.34 per cent and 28,TZ ^»er cent respectively of the total area under fir crop in the Kashmir forest division. The Verinar and the Koor-n-iiad ranges together contain 40.39 per cent of area under fir crop. In this division fir , rows sparsely above its altitudinal limit and is graduaily re placet by some broad leaved species like junipere, willows and birch, apart frocj yielding place to extensive marfcis or alpine pasture lands. The d9^re9 of variability in the spatial distribution of iir in the division is as low as 24.57 pw cent, showing a very compact nature of the crop here. In the Jheluffl valley forest division fir forests are found between 2O00 JE. and 2450 a. above sea level. The Gulmarg-, the uaraaulla and the bunlyar ranges cover the greater area of the division and account for 42.79 per cent^ and 22,?B per cent and 50.06 per cent respectively of the area under fir forests in the division. The Jri range has only an Insignificant oercentage (4.53 9eT cent; of the fir covered area. In this forest division the fir forests are of food nuality and stand in fair density. Compact and dense hU FiG.3.7 M. fir toreatB are al»o found f^t Kreathalan, In the interior of Kowehera, Oontmulle, Keroapura, liorwft, I^affiblars nsllea and ^abblwar. Along the lower altutudinal liailte Kail and deodar are found tr.ixed with fir in the foreete. The degree of variability in the spatial dietribution of fir in the divlBlon 16 56 per cent, I-.oet of the fir foreete of the division belong to 12/c/c or 12/c2/c typei of champion's claaaiflcation. Fir forests in Jaiaau province are as important as they are in Kashmir province although they occupy a little less area in the former. The respective area percentages for Kashicir and Jtmmu provinces are 52.57 and 47.63. The Kishtwar forest dlTision, which after the Bhadarwah and the I)oda divisions, has the largest area under fir possesses Insportant fir forests. They are found in preponderance in the Joddar range topping the deodar-kail forests. Fir forests are also found throughout the Iachan ran^e, at:ain toping the deodar-kail forests. In Kuli^arh valley of the kishtwar range fir forests are found sixed with deodar-kail forests. In higher areas fir occurs in equal proportion to deodar and Kail, but since tLe latter have largely be«n cleared, aiature fir crop is in pre.xsnderanee, In the rarwah range conditions are more conducive for tae developfi-ent fir forest, rligher elevation, aioist spring 14 u conditions and the availability of ntoisture in th« eide nallaa helx^ the growth of fir crop, particularly on the northern and eastern aspects. Very good patches of fir crop are found particularly in jjhot Basmen, Tsuidraman, Gucri, llajka, Apen and keni nallsa. The fir crop of this division belongs either to 12/c2b (wett Hiealayan Cak fir forests) or to 14/c1 (west HiBalayan sub-alpine Kigh level fir forests). The foricer type is confined to northern or northwestern aspects between 2400 and '5200 m, with abundance of mature and over iteture classes, some of whic* surely get broken or uprooted because of shallow root systeo and heavy snowfall. The latter type is also found on the northern and northwestercs elopes as well as in shaded and thus cooled pockets above 27 >0 ffi. Although pure fir forests in the the Bhaderwah forest division are alaoet non-existant below 2400 m, still 25.65 per cent of the total area of the division is under the fir crop. In the side nallas, where the slopes are gentle, fir forests in the division alternate with moist deciduous forest. These forests are generally ciature and younger age classes are liitited. f.oet of these forests are found in Bhalesh, Jai, Kellar and i.eru blocks, which toirether account for 79.44 per cent of the total area under fir crop in the Bhaderwah, as nuch as 38 per cent occuring in bhalesh block 14, Fir forests are poorly represented in Jangalwar, and Chlrala blooke but occupy a respectable position in Bunjwah and Jitota blocks. The degree of variability in the spBtlal distribution of fir in the Bhaderwah forest division per cent. These forests belong' to the sub- typee of group 12 and 14 of ChansJ>lon and oeth's classification of forest types of India. A fairly pure crop of fir is a characteristic feature of the lioda forest division. The sunny blanks in the fir zone are coloured by the blue i>ine. ^.oet of the fir crop, which ooveres ;?6.10 per cent of the total area of the division, is found on the lidil and the l>esa ranges. These two ranges account for 26.10 and 31*06 per cent of the total area under this crop in the division respectively, ^.ther important fir forests fall in the I anaat range with 19.93 per c«nt, Keshwah block of the Thakrai range with 14.92 per cen' and w.ittbol block of same ran^e with fc.5? per cent of the total area under fir forests in the division, The de^jree of variability In the spatial distribution of fir in the loda forest division is 57.^4 per cent. Kost of these forests fall in group 1? and 14 of Ch8ir.|)ion'8 classification of forest types of India. In group 12, 12/c1d (western aixed M t> coniferous forests) and in group 14 sub-typs 14/c1b (west Himalayan Plr/Blrch forests) are the main representative ty,ieB. The fir «one in the Raffiban foreet division extends froa 2800 E. to the liBit tree growth which in this division is roughly 3050 »• In the Ramban division fir generally occurs pure vith scattered spruce, (t^icea emithiana). The rir zone here is heavily crat?:ed with the result that the fir forests are generally in the degraded form, i ore than 51 per cent of the total area onder the fir in the division is found in the Haaban ran^,e with isanihal condng next with 36.78 per cent. The .-^ander and the Batote ranges have insignificant fir areas with 8,17 per c«tit and 3»76 ,^er cent of the total area under fir in the division respectively. The fir forests in these two ranges are mature to over mature with open density and with taaases of snrubs and weed growth, nlthou^h the fir forests in the division are generally degraded, otill they occui^y 17.48 per cent of the total area of the division whereas the corresponding fif^ure for deodar and kail together is only ?3.93 per cent. The dej^ree of variability in the spatial distribution of fir in the Kaiaban forest division is 79 per cent. The fir crop of this division belong to the saice types as that in the Toda division. JfJ.'i JBllke the Raaban division fir crop in the Beaei forest division occurs mixed with lail crop. However in some elevated portions pure strips of fir crop exist. V'ir crop is also found in aoiet depressions but when it occurs below its normal limit it is not of good quality. The .^mas range 3lone account© for 40.35 per cent of the total area under fir in this division. It extends aion^ Lharsu nalla and its watershed. It is also found along i^anoha-BuoLen to i utgala and beyond upto lotursu, top of •^aroli Tiiar, an above Ghori aitti and also the Kandra-Ii-i-har. Insignificant areas bearing fir crop exist in the Thakrakot ran(ge. The Gulbf=rf ran^e, with 53.83 per cent, has the largest area under fir crop in the division. Koet of these forests occur Hlon^ Gulab^arh nalXa. The fir crop of this range ie mostly nature. The degree of variability in the spatial distribution of fir in the Keasi forest division is 95.78 per cent. These fir forests belong' to alBOst the sane forest types which occur in the Remban forest division. In the Billawar forest division fir and spruce forests are found in the upper catchn-ent areas of the Cjh and the i>ewa rivers. Kost of these fir forests are mature and even a^,ed. The Baeoli ran^e alone accounts for 56.»3 per c«it of the area under fir in the division. The flasantgaih range coaea next with 39.6 per cent of the area. The lol reRftinin In the itajouri and the i'oonch divisions fir is the principal coniferous species* It occurs in the higher catchment areas and alternates with moist deciduous broad leaved species. : ost of the fir area lies in the liaveli range which contains S?,87 per cent of the area under fir crop in this division. The Ra;jouri range coi^es next with 13.27 i9T c«3t. iipruce is also present to soae extent and is foumd mixed with fir. Fir and spruce forests occur in varying jroportione in the 'lf!ha»nur forest division between 2134 m. and '52no m, and above deodar and Aail sons. These are befit developed in upper catchment areas of the Tawi and nueerous ^.B.ell nsilas where fir forests are more co©i>act and well stocked. S ost K) of the cetchn.ent areas bearing fir crop He in the ludu ran^e, Confc-eouently 98.22 per cent of the total area under fir crop in the Jdhampur division lies in the Dudu range itself. The remaining 1.78 per cent of the areas ie in the 'dhajapur range, The Kamnagar range lies ffuch blow the of natural habitat of fir and spruce and hence no trace/thsse iB found. Thus we find that prf^ctically the whole of fir forests lie in the Dudu range. In Bumcery it can be said that that fir is pria-arily concentrated in the central part of the refion vhich includes the -'ir ^^anjal* the Keshmlr and the icda forest divisions. These three divielonst two on the north and one on south of the j-'ir I'anjal divide together occupy 37.62 per cent of the total area under this crop in the state. This compact fir area is surrounded by the s.ind forest division in the north, the Kishtvar forest division in the east and the z^haderwah forest divisions in the south which individually have less than 7 per cent of the total areas under fir in the state. the dnasipur forest division posses the least areas under fir (Appendix ^ H) , The Kaaraj and the Keasi forest divisions occupy less than 5 ?«r cent of the total area under fir. The hajouri and the Poonch forest divisions and the ^.anget forest '^'ivision, altaoted in the west and northwest respectively, together occupy 17.7? per cent of the fir areas in the state (i^'ig.-.^) . 1 f).- JAMMU AND KASHMIR 76 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION OF FIR ss^-i -1 < 'Vo o 74 I < I I FIG.3.8 11)0 The patterns of dietribution of fir population in the state is nuite interesting, .o far as area is concerned, the highest con cent rat ior four d in the f'ir lanjal, the ".aahpir and the loda forest divisions, but the tree population of fir lie mainly in the Bhaderwah division. It is in these three divisions of Kashrcir, loda and Bhaderwah *^ ^' '"'4.7C per cent of the Dopulation is accoaodsted over 31.71 :>er cent of the area. The Loda division alone account© for 21.67 per cent of fir population., in iiashcir .\orth Forest Circ-^e, which includes the i^anget, the Kamraj and the ^ind lorest divisions, the population is nuite thin as 4.17 ,jer cent of fir population stands over Id.94 ?«T cent of total area under the crop in the state. The naicban and the easi divlBions of Chenab forests circle and all the divisions of Jaiemu forest circle individually occupy less than b J>er cent of fir population (Fife. ^.8), The density pattern of fir per hectare reveale e different pattern. The Foda forest division, vhich accounts for 21,67 0* r cent of fir population, has 94 trees per hectare while ::dhsffipur, which has only 3.90 per cent fir population, accomodates 1?9 trefis )er hectare. The hif:heet density per hectare le evidenced in the bhaderwah division. ..here 149 trees i row over a hectare of area. The entire Kashmir orth T)* FIG. 3.9 1I)0 circle, the fiajouri and the Poonch, the Billawar, Ranbac, the Pir /anjal and Keasl forest dlvieione individually poeaee less than 50 trees per hectare. The Jhelum valley, the KashEir and the Doda divisions form a region whose continuty is broken by ?ir i^anjal, forest division, posses 50 to 100 trees per hectare. The -ihaderwah the Kishtwar and, as already loentioned, the Udhaapur forest division show the highest concentration per hectare (Fig.5»9). ^.o8t of the fir crop of the <}aii The comir.on associates of fir in Jamaiu and K&shKir c-tate generally are 'Pajtus baceata. C. seaicaroifolia. Acer oictuc. Prunus padus. .i^ppulu^ fi^lj.a^a, Juglans regia. fr^ylPUff ^^-oriyun^ft, Cpi-ylus Cfflffuypft, Aeyyuluff, ya^^x, ^pp. Chir (i^^puff/R9X^urfihl^) i^inus has been knovn to mankind since tiaes Icmecioriel, Theophratua (372-287 B.C.) in hie early writing^s ^Otf: All the percentages given in the course of discussion pertaining to fir and other conifers i.e., deodar and kail are calculated from data obtained either froic the offices of D.F.C's or froffi the t»orking Flans of the Respective Divisions, lb v» ffiftde a reference to the EaorphoXogy and reproduction of 41 t^inea. The Cnineee Lave full^ exploited ita decorative A ? value in their old paintings. According to rirov, the l^exiae pinnue le represented by about 105 St'eoies, but AX JDaliiaiore and Jackson, however, place the nuaiber at about 80. "^ rinug roxbJr/?hii is a lar^e tree and in the forests form a straiirht cylindrical pole, particularly in f«vourable locftlities. In suitable localities it attains a heipht of about 55 a, but in unfavourable conditions it hardly re-ches ( s. in helf-ht. Chir Jine likes laoet of the rain daring the suBaaer, froJD June or beginning July to iieptember and after a dry spell, wintc^r rair« froa i^ecember to April. Troup, after obtaining: rainfall data for a nunsber of stations in the pine zone, suggests that an annual rainfall of between 1000 BBL. and IbOO vm, aay be called as minimum and maximum limits respectively. H^xt ne al^o points out that '*the figures shuv considerable diveri^enoe between the recorded tsiniisuei and niaxinuc. average rainfall within the natural habitat of tne tree, namely t -" - - bat they do not represent the 41. . aheuhwari, i. /.onar, h,h,, op. cit., D, 1, 42. irov, N.T., The Genus rinus. The .lonaid threes Company, Kew Yorit, 1967. 43. ; «iiliirore,i*.and Jackson, A. B, op, cit. lb absolute llitit which the tree is capable of atanding, at 44 any rate so for as the jrinimuE. ie concerned". ,8 for temperature in the Chir pine eone, troup reports that at nanl Khet, where pure chir pine forests stand, the absoJute a-axiajuic and EiniicuB shade temperatures are 3?.?\ and -3.^*^0 with 15.5°C as annual mean. .;ut Tor ..icla, the corresponding figures are 34.4^C, 7.22°C and t2.7°C, for > urree 3B.Ci®C, -6.3°C and 14.4*^0, and for lehra lun 43.b*^C, t.1°C and 21.l\". Troup, taerefore, concludes that the natural habitat for chir pine in the shade temperature lies aoa:ievher The pine grows over a variety of ^ eolOfoical forc-ations In thr iwalik hilie chir pine stands on tertiary sandstone with occasional bands of clay or bed of congloserate. It also crows on nuartzite in the Hiitalayan valleys. In r.nza.r& and the Kuiraon .iiealayas chir also occurs on lii.estone. The species regenerates naturally in a favourable manner on loose soile, derived partioulerly from sandstone or isicfc schist while on stiff clayey soils it finds difficulty in regenerating itself. 44. Troup, K.-., Indian Fprest i egtoirp. Vol.1, Government Printing l^ress, Calcutta, 1916, pp.13-t4. lb u General Dlstmbutlon: i.inu8 roxburghll ie le^stly found In the outer rani^ee and In principal valleya of the Hin-alayae, particularly on the ^.iwalik hi He, rt an elevatior.s lyint between 450 as, to ^2ri6 ta. It extends froit Bhatan in the e-diet to Affehanietan in the vest. In Korth Weet 'rentier Provinces of .-akiatan (!•. .F.P) chir pine occurs in the neif httjurhood of J-.alakend, in the liaatara division and above the rakhli piaina. It is also found in the I arree hills and Kathuta tahsil froci below 610 n. to about 2073 ff. B^t pure chir forests can t« seen only between 750 m. and 1500 c. in iisnfcira, chamba, i Chir pine forests are one of the moct ias jortant foreete. It ie t^robalo^y one of the fen genera of the plants in which the tree is utilised co&pietely- the wood, tae berit, trie leaves, the fruit etc. It is utill«ed living as weXl aa feliedf^ Distribution in Jaisrou and Kashair: Important Chir pine foreate in Jaawm and Ksehrsir otate are found in the outer 45. oinf:h, ^,, uoroe Facts and figures of lesin lappin* fro•omm twines* "Jnpublished Paoer. Cvcloetvled Co•py, » J. 1. 1 [)K' ..iu-aiftyas and th« oiwalik hills, from Kathua to r^oocch. The forest nere are found b«t»f««c 450 ffl, to about 1800 a. above s«« level. tarting frost th« heasl foreote, chir eicee extend upto i.ejourl and I'oonch. Lue to iocal tactcrs taese forests are not found in k&Btmir province, ^iaal oher ,-ij ^b^^ points out that seeds of ctir pine in fCasnuiir province can not t.entinate Because of the paucity of ^.oibture in the soil dorint' the monsoon period, which is a period for pir.e seed geraination. In the Jdhaapur forest division chir forests of aoor quality exist between 750 m. to t6^0 s.. : ost of the chir pine crop in the division in the dhetEpur and the Hamnagar ran<7e8. Chir forests of food quality exist in the catchment area of Birun nalla and alon 46. -in^^h, ...B., "The ;.ffeet of Cliaate oo the Conifers of Kashmir'*, the Indian roreetera. April, 1929, p.189. ll> F!G.3.!0 IC (Udhasipur aurtd kansnagar) together account for 93*^7 9*T cent of the total area under thia speciea in the dlvleion. The resialnln^ 6.73 per cent of the area ia found in the lover portions of the Dudu range, ulnce thet e forests are concentrated in only two ranges, the degree of •ariabllity in their spatial distribution in the Udhaapur forest division ia 6?.q? per cent. loet of these forests belong to ^roup 9 (sub-tropical pine forests) although socse of them also belong to frroup 10 (sub-tropical dry evergreen forests) of Chairpion's ciaeeification of Indian forests. The chir forests of i.TOMp 10 are not con^pact and are found in a scattered manner. Chir forests of the Reasi forest division occur between 750 to 1300 m. .^.xcept in its lower and upper lioits, cnir crop is almost pure. Compact chir forests in the division occur in the Heasi and Thakra&ot ranges* particularly on the northern slopes. The chir forests on the northern aspects fo even to lover elevations while on southern slopes, they are found only at hi^.;her altitudes. The chir exter.ds upto the foot of the Gul valley in the east and on either aide of the Arnas in the vest. It occupies exposed soils as is jseen near lansal and Juddai^ The chir forests on the whole are irregular, with pole and siddle-a^jed crops predottiinatinf. 47. '-ahri, .*.u., op. cit., pp. 16-17. IC. Chir foreetB with twleted fibre are found along the nalidhar ridge; and towarde Jama, v-imllarly, chir foreste near Heeai are also not of isuoh coit^erclal lo^portance. ijut all theae foresta are very good for r©Bin tappin K.a;}or portions of the Rajouri and the i^oonch forest division are covered by ?inu,9 roxburghil. It occupies practically the entire ^owsher8, Ihaleri and ^endhar rungea, except portions higher up along the Panjal ran^e waere it hfic fiven place to fir and it© associates. In this division chir sonsetittes amoves upto 2100 m. on hotter aspects w.cere it *.ete ndxed with banj Oak and eotoe other broad leaved species, in this division it noraislly occurs as a pure crop but 4uJ. Lullo, J.N., op. cit.» p.14. U.'> soaetimee ie found aseoolated with r-lerl;^ ovlfote and Bhododendron ayboreuc In the eouth-weetem part of the Ihal«ri ran;:^ e chlr occurs associated with : endrocaltiii.us. strActua on a vtry atsall tract. The crop is also fourid assocleted with Jaaan and oandan trees. Accordinig, to Chfiimpion'e classification of the forest types of India, the chir forests of this niviaion belong to 4-Qcl/9 (»^.ower or .-.iwalik Chir uine forests) and *. roup 10 (uub«tropical l.ry evergreen foreatei; • In the biilawar forest division chir uine crop is of very poor quality. It fe;enerally occurs on the outer ^iwaliks, aliLOHt in pure patches. />08t of the chir crop is of middle age with itaj.forced and twisted stetus. The crop is distributed throui-.hcut the division but in the hiXlawar and the ifaaante^am ranges it occupies as much as 30 p^r cent and 28 per cent respectively of the total area under this species in the division. The Jasrota range ooKes next with 19,54 per cent followed by the liasoli range with 14.45 ,>er cent of the area under chir crop, the rest of the forests fall in the Kathua ranre. The degree of variability in the spatial distribution of chir in the Pillawar forest division is 41.54 99r cent. In the Jasrota range chir pine is found sstxed with :er.drocalaa.af s-^riytuB. Thus the chir forests lie costly in the iiiilawar [i ar.d Ksthua ranges and the southern oarte of the Haeohii and the jtiaaantd arh ran/free. Koat of the chir forests in thf- tiillawar forest divieion belong to group 9 (sub-tropicai pine foreeta) and to a ieetier extent to ^roup 10 (sub-tropical j;r^ iver,.reer; foresta, . Chir foresta in the namban forest diviaion are represented in aleost ever^r range. Xhey are particularly round aloot; river Checab but also exist on the lower reaches end on eteep f;round alon^ Biehhlari nala. The trees are generally mature and over aature and are found in the rugged area© of these ranges, t'^ost of the chir areas lie in the Eiatote and Lander ranges which account for 40.17 per cent and 3:%67 mr cent respectively of the area under this crop. The corresiiondinr figures for the Kaasban and the inanihal ranges are 14.34 :>«r cent and 6,82 per cent. As the chir forests are represented xiore or Jess in all the ranges the decree cf variability in their spatial distrtbution in the Raaban forest division is ^e.72 per cent. This chir crop belongB to ^ roup 9 (sub-tropical pine foreita) of ChaE:.;ion'8 classification. 49. har, a.L,, »orkin^ Flan for the Kathoa roreat division. JaaiBiu Circle a. i999 to 6. 200b, r'repared in working *'lan and Keaewrcn Circle. It. Chir foreets in the Doda forest division are poorly represented. They occupy only 0.22 per cent of the total area of the di-vialon. Few patches of chir pine exist in the I &rciat and the hev Jir»j ranges. These forests run into the . ail zone at their «pp«r limits in this division. They also occur all along the Chenab river Uj>to aaoiban. Ir the . arfjat r-^nge chir forest occur below I alhori. ince chir occupies tne Ineifnificant area in the divisicn, it is an uniii^ijortant crop, similarly in the Bhaderwah foreet uivieion the ^•osltion of chir forests ia also no ^ood. tniy suall patches of low quality, generally u-alforaed, chir forests are found in Ghirallat ouax, lewar and t^unjvah blocas. .be poor ];Joeltion of chir forests can be aeseseed froa the fact that they occupy only O.04 per cent of the total area of this division, in the Kishtwar forest division chir forests uTf practically absent as no part of the division can Keet the eptcies fondao.ental requirements of teaiperatare and altitude. The decrees of variation in the spatial distriDution of C'.ir in the loda and the thaderwah divisions are 109.7b ,jer cent (Table 3.4) resjectiveiy which shows low unevenly tr.p crop 10 distributed in these two divisions. oat of chir pines in these two divisions fall in (.roup <7/c.lt (u'^per rr uimalayan Chir .>ine forests) of Cnaa, ion's ciaseificatlon. ^lailarly a.ost of the chir crop in JaaiLu HA, Table 3,4 «ireaa undT Chlr in different Foreet Uvieiopg (Areae in hectare) ^ivielon r- ean ...tsndard Co-efficient of T eviatiors Variation odn 46.H3 5t.40 109.76 .•'iaderwah 3.?5 5.2b 161.t/3 ,- rr bar ?077.CO 1219.6? t)rt./? Heasi '3243.7^ 2073.15 3q.t3 :dhaii.pur 6.J64 .66 4319.61 62.9? lii llawar 4409.40 1869.23 41.54 „. --ri and n* a. n.a. n.a. .oonch Jacir.u n. a* n.a. n.a« province beion^s either to eroup 9 or gx^up 10 and their ©ub-f-roups of the Chaii.pion'8 claeaification of Indian forest ty,j©8. The Lajouri and the Poonch division account for 88 each ae 40 ner cent cr onder of the total area under chir crop in the otate. The reasi the Jdhac-pur and the ^iliawar forest diviaione individually contain between 10 to ?C ,.er cert It FIG.3. KM) of th« area under chir In the state (Appendix 3-/i). The fchaderwah the Poda the Haastian and the JassDu divisions occupy lees than 10 per cent of the total areas under the chir crOiJ in the state (Pif;.3.10). Althou|?h the t&axis^utD areas under chir lie in the hajouri and x'oonch division but the highest concentration of cair population (41.40 ) lies in Billewar forest division waich is followed by the Beasi forest division with 23*34 >er cent. The hajouri and J^oonch divisions which account for 43.31 per cent of areae under chir in state accociodate only 21.99 per cent of tree population (Appendix 5-A, . In Udhaiapur division the chir population is quite thin which is evident from the fact that only 7.73 per cent of population stands on 13.90 per cent of area. The Raisban forest division accoaodate only 5.31 P«r cent of populatior. (Fig. 3.11). hiifhest density of chir per hectare is seen in the Sillawar forest division (Fig.3.12) where it ie over 50 trees per hectare. The Reasi forest division stands next to Billawar with 32 trees per hectare which ie followed by the jnamban forest division with 18 trees per hectare, Udhaapur with 10 and Hajouri and i'ooncri with 9 trees per hectare show the lowest concentration of chir trees per hectare. \-< Jt;,, -r—-5 i 1 ! -c^ i A M M i) i\ i^: D K A Sri MtR D—X- fl«^ ,-WJ ' ^ 3-^ ^^ ft« ^ '( ;il' ^- '. «°-i X, .r-- lu-.- <.. ->•' "5^ V i , 1 } I ' ' --^^ - --\. I — ^ I ! _ _; i i ! ! / \ . ' 1' 1 -, . O ^ ^ ( ^ O Vi *""**•"% 5 • ~l \ t*' u js:s "N ^~~v. *X ^/7/ i- > 4' ^-^.Ji t! tr! 20-40 so- '. ,0 ^ 1 74' i FIG.3.12 ir,. The Important broad leaved asaoclates met vlthln the chir forestB are Cuercue ilex. Plea cuePidata. Ji^ietacea AP^^^ffyrltt^* X>»lber^l&Big8oo. Khair. (Acacia Cbtechui ijird cherry, uaka etc. etc. r. CHAPTisB IV ''A nation without foroste i» a dying nation**• 7hl» eos'ent aay look aom© nhat ©jta«g«r8t«d but hae jfttn b««R leade. But tltare art no two opinions about the faet that '*Dih9n foreata vanish and are not replanted life's rhythE la broken**. It, therefore, impliea that reproduction, replantation or regeneration as it say be called la very important for the perjetuatioo of the foreata which are so eaaentlal for the exlatance of human life on tiie one hand and praetiee of acientifie foreatz^ on the other, thu© "?,ae act of replacing old trees either naturally or artificially la called regeneration or reproduction and theee two worda which are entirely synonyiaous in this uaage also refera to the new growth that develops".' thus ultlcij^tely a tiase co&es in the life of living being wheather a tuan, aniisal or a tree, when it aust be reproduced* In the case of trees or forests reproduction or regeneration is obtained by various methods. Theee methods 1. ruden, r.i». and Boow, B.K,, l^tannual of Cultivated Conifers. The HagnsA artinua Mjhoff, 1965. Printed in ?^eatherlands, p. 487. P, ^mith, fl.^•., ?hy Pyy^t^^f of Jfly^e^lt^i-f' John «iley ' uons Init, Bew tork, 11th edition, 1962, p.10, J.. ar« ^•fierally accepted toy alaoat all the BllTicultttri»t». These ere: 1. I«atuiral Hegeneratlont "Katurally that ie fro* eeir-aown need or otherwise through natural agenclee. Ic such cases the reproduction Is distinguish as natural** .^ 2. artificial uegeneration: "Artificial reproduction ie that obtained by planting young trees or applying seed 4 which la tersed seeding or direct seeding". 3. Mxed Regenerations This type of regeneration in obtained by the application of above two methods together and is thus mixed. In all the oases* regeneration is obtained fros the seed which undergoes the following procesees: (a) seed productioUf (b) seed dissemination (c) ge&ination and (d) establishti^ent. (a) iM>eed production is of priiRary iffiportanoe and is eiffeeted by sotne important factors which h&re invited the freat interest of foresters resulting in nu&erous observations and considerable research to find the& out. 3. Toumey, J..., j;ffp«ifIf^fff. ffl rr|Wff^^l^rf- , K evised by Korstian, C.?., John ^iley $: ::ions Inc. hew York, 2nd i^dition 1966, p.517. 4. >^ftith, D. ,, op. cit.» p. 257. 17 o "Ainorjfc the iBtportant factors M* «g«, tr«« vigour crowis e«?oeur«, heredity and eliinatle condltione**.'^ 4« th« life B">im of different »pecl«© T^ri«8t therefor«t it woald b« ©rroneoua to specify in ter® of years the period a tree would renuire to produce aeed of rood quality, uovcver Baker is of th years and *. 93 years old loblolly pine produce siisdlar asiiouist of aeed. It is, however* f.,enerally ccepted that best quality Bead is obtained after culmination of height growth, ^\gain ''young trees as well as very old trees produce aeeda which ultiicately ^ive less terminating capacity and seedling viftour* . ofr.e trees like Acacias and ;:>iseoo produce i>eed ^vry year but in case of conifers like Cedrus d^-odara. ^ioee BK.¥thiana and itbies oindrow this ia not true. In the case of >;e^rusdeodara a seed year occurs after 2 or 3 yeare but the ^ood aeed year occurs only after 5 or 6 years. In (b) A8 for die&eid.nfttloa of »«ed is coxicexin«d, it *'t&mm i>lac«f apart from lt« failini directly froa th« treea, with tht help of vind i» the ease of light seed and of anittala in the ease of heaTjr seed, idght and ae&vy seeds can ffiechanioaXIy be propelled on steep slopes by rollini;* espaeially on hera snow surfaces and by water aetion (e.g. dissemination of t^re;^ alder alon^^ alpine A Streams)". aometiisfts heavy seeds are transported by forest creatures also. (c) The gerffiinating capacity of the seed differ front species to species* It is believed that seeds have a rest period and a period of dor&sney. /« seed is "in rest pi^riod if it fails to ^^ersdnste because of soiie internal conditions... lormancy on the othsr hand is an all inclusive ters; which &eans that the seed will »ot fTerr« i:>ostler» 4.« Translated by Anderson* h^L,, ;iilviculture. Oliver and aoyd. Kdinbur^ TweetJdale Court, i.ondons 39 A iftelbeck street fe.l, 1 sr-f^ "r-oiaturp". .iffillftrly "ason,^' the csojt litportftrt piivirorsentnl fRCtora controlllu^r »««d ^ertaination KF^ 10 water, tes. »r«tar«», lifht, o^ye tn ©nd biocidee". ^ inc« in 8««d gerniination bio-K?ii«ciical and physiclOftical • roc©®»»e are involved, taer«tor«t it ie neceeBBry for tfi« see^l to nbtiorb ::or« water o«yond th«t pr«»0«nt at tMi tia© of liBturlty to start off tLes© ,.rvct8»«8. . ccoidir.fe to *,oRc«fi almost sli seeas cae st*.orb BuitlcieRt wet«r fro£. the ©oil to ? ©rs-irsate. ^ffidB of ffiaiiy apeciee ^ ©iwiiRate over » '«io« rar^e oi teci««x^tur€ teit still soae speciee reaulre & definste teR'^T^^tarftS. fain aecortSln/ to ifatano eeees of many 8peci«B ^-erffir.et* at eonetftnt tee«per«tar«6 ¥i«re ae seeds of .majority sneeies reoaire diurtal tecpersture I'luctaationg. . any ntjeclee c^re little for 11* ht for their K«r: inntion while mom^ speciee like llfht where as stlil ctner s »^cles like fir deewind shade to f ahlstede, Johr., .'. '^ :iaber, .... rXar.t rroL.8u.«tlop.. John niley and .ons Inc., :.ew fork, ' th .rlnt, t%L, ,jp,98-09. 10. oeloveki, T.r., '^fgwfl^ §pi ^.pYfM^rM^ ,v|,, j.'retg. Vol.1, ivcade-^'ic ^ress, l«e« York and .^jnaon, 1971, pp.45-46. 11. oneen, .i. ^ 0c Liiilvray, «J.a., •• u to r&insit ion (eattertence) of Ve*®tfibie -eed as **ffected by f ifferent .-oil t oisture Conditions", li'. .iSt&ro, ii. s. ^'iSaitavs, v., "i'hysiolo&icai -.roc««ce» in iOrest Trte w«eds uriDg /aturntion iterate end t.ertijlnatloc'*. int. lev. 'orest . es. 1, s* 0.279-3 2?. 17 •^1 Since Btisaulatlon of respiration is an essential phase of gersinBtion., therefore, oxygen is very much reouired for the purpose of gemination. iJo "as oxygen depletion occurs in waterlogged or wet soils so carbondioxide concentration increases".^ Waterlogged soils are, therefore, not suitable frooj germinetion point of view, Biooidee which affect the gerolnetlon include insecticides, ftmgicides, herbicides and fertilisers. oiiBilarly verious chesticftl in hibitors which are generally found in leaves or in the roots of the plants aleo affect the gerf9d.nation. According to Koslowski biocides influence the seed germination differently. This is due to variation in the specific chemical, the rate, nethod, tii&e and number of application, the species, soil type weather and oany other factors. There is little or no difficulty in the gemination of seeds. But the establishmsnt of seedlings form the most important phase in the life cycle of the tress. To suci up "in simplest terms successful growth reouires adequate supplies of food, water, tcineral, hormones and exygen and 13. Stherington, J.H., fnvj^yyn^ft^ m g}|gt ^99J>9fcY« Wiley i^astern Ltd., Hew Delhi, 1976, p. 187. 14. Koslowski, T.T., "Some Problems in the Use of Herbicides in Forestry", ^jfoC] Hg^th Centre keed Contr. Conf.. 1960, 17, 1-10. 17. 1*5 iduit&bi« teuiperatureft". ulailarl^ aecd aXz9, character of root syet*R eind light conditions are some of the other iiiiport«nt factors foveming the establishment cf the crop. ^i^' Kixed seeds ^os^ee greater anount of stored food material. If the roots of a species derelop rapidly it will help its estsi llshi-ent by cocking in contact with deep lying Toist soil before dry Benson sets in. oil tj^.>e is yet another factor influencing the establishment of the tree crop. ">. hiirhly podsolieed ©oil ie bad for r«f©neration of conifers on account of thick accuffiuiation of undecomposed huixns, high d^ire^ of acidity* low base and nutrient utfAtui, low ritro^en content of soil and a general lack of ftiotivity 16 of the soil BuLcro-organisiB". Again a good textured soix with sufficient supply of oxy^ten and of course well uerated is suituble for early establlsheient of seedlings. Apart iron the above factors the natural regener&tioi| is alfected ^ sany other consideration. oils of clear- felled areas* particularly soils having hifh humus content and ^>oroaity is Siore »uitable than the newly deposited soil or eoils of abandoned cultivation, uh&de* as i&entioned earlier, ie another significant factor in the process of natural regeneration. 15. KraEjer, /aul. J. Koslovski, T.T., o^. cit.,).429. 16. fil, A.B,, Indian oilviculture. Jugal Kishore and Co.» Kajpur Koad» Hehra Tun* end £d., 1967, p.429. r; i^> Afh% reschinf the forest floore plays an iai)ort*Bt role in the natural reftncration. But this is a factor which can very easily be manupulated because of the natural Irrerularlties in existing conopy but soBetianee when, it is not avQilfibie then thining in the forests has ^ot to be done to achieve this objective* Irenes ehruby undergrowth such as i^arrotia or Inditrofera in the deodar forest is hartafuX for naturei rsi^eneratioc. .>inoe t^'^ese shrubs &rt ( r^^arioue in nature, therefore, repeated cuttings although expensive, aee^iS to be the one of the alternatives. 1-i.^ht frassy undergrowth on the other hand la favourable to the tree regeneration, for example oal regenerates beet under lif^:t grass ^^^rowth. Chir pine on the other hand rsfienerates beat in tne burnt ^ raeaee than in the shrub growth. Thus forest fires also play an importftnt role in the natural re^ererstion. It also refliovee the layers of undecoesposed needles, thus providing food setd bed. But if fire reaches up.»er coniferous forests, it makes much losa, ;.>iB;ilarly the fire is very fOOd in v'hir ~^ine eone unless the resin blaaes do not catch fire and ao har» to the tree. But once the seedlings nre eetabiished the fire if occurs will enihilate this ret €B«ratio but in the southern pine regions of U.^^.A. for exai&ple "••• foresters are usin^ prescribed bumin^i to aid the 17>. regeneration of long leaf ^Ine when heavy growth of broosised^e or other iiround cover interferes with natural reeeediag". 17 Orasing in the forests is now considsred to toe a positive aspect provided it is controlled. If re^^ulated according to the local conditions it will help eradicate or at least reduce the undergrowth and help the rct^eneration to <.row iiore stoutly, "There is evidence for Bal» chir pine and deodar that grft«ing in regeneration areae, provided it is well distributed and not excessive, can be heli^full**, Natural Kegenermtion in Janmitt end Kashmir Forests t^ith this knowledge about the procesa of re^^eneratioz it will be worthwhile to examine the status of reg<»ieration» jartioularly in the coniferous forests of JaaoBu and tashsir otate* It will be a genuine ex;)Sctation of the foresters of Jatfi-TU and E.aBhmir to have a continuous flow of timber in the state to aest ever increasing market deeiande on the one hand and to maintain an ecological balance on the other. ^f' 'ro}9p}^m ^^f f«rf>l^f ^ro» ^lr«t A«r. in for. X alletin ?^o.30. Toreat oervice, U.. , Departuient of a^r. 1969» p.9. ia. Chaaipion, xi.O. Trevor, G,, >« annual of Indian ^silviculture. Ituaiphrey i.ilford, Oxford University Frees, 1«^58, p. 144. lo . Cons«rYfttlon orl«nt«4 forestry vhloh do«» not aln at n«xlni8is|; produotloB hat IlttXa ralavai^ea in tho faat deYaXoplnc vorltf of today. A produetlon orlontad foraatry oac only ba aohlaTad If tba produetiYlty of tha tovtu ^mr unit araa la inoraaaad and tha raplaeanant of tha ramovad traaa la offactad by raganaration whaathar natural or artificial. For rafanaration, aa va hara aaan» ollKata playa ac laportant rola. Thia fact aaaumaa ^raatar aignifiea&oa in oaaa of tha foraata of Jaftaa and Kaehsir vhara aoaaoon wlnda do not gat aaay acoasa aoroaa tha l^lr itoi^BX ranga, raaultlc^ in aoanty rain in tha Kaah&ir Vallay during a pariod vhaa araaa aouth of Pir i^anjal raoalva abundant rain froa: tha nonaoon. Buit in both tha ragiona, on eithar aida of tha Pir Panjal, wintar anovfaXli aaadfall tima, «arly apring raina and oonaaquant gamination tisa ara oosin^on. ^i'lmilarly in both thaaa ragiona tvo draughta pariofis Kay to Juna and Goto bar to Baoasbar ara alao eomen^ 7ha only diffaranea, tharafora, ie that vhila it raina in tha J^ffiffiu provinea durin^^ July^Auguat and Uaptaaber thara ia littla rainfall in tha vallay. It ia dua to thaaa raina thftt tha aaadlinga aftar raaiating Kay • Juna draught vatabliah thanaalTea coaparatiTaly aaaily in tha Jamau provinea. fha only daffiaga oauaad ia dua to drip and daspin^ 18 off und«r a oloa« canopy. But in th« Kashair Vallay, vhart drftttc^^t oondltloaa prevail fx-on May to I>aooBb«r, tha saedllnga hava to raaiat the daaaieatlBg affaota of hot vinda. Thay hafa a eha&ea to aatabllah thaaaaXvaa only if thay gat a ehftiioa to ba undar aosa broad laava covar, prafarably ^ohu. SStM or ^tygy^fa l^PQgyfi^ftMMH P^y* » algnlfloant role in tha natural ra^^anaration of eonifaroue Bj^ei9» in the Btate in frenaral and the Kaal^ir Valley in partieular, Thia ahrub ia the chief eoBponent of vegetation among the ground floret eapaeially in KaidiBiir Valleyt vithln ita altitudinal ranira of 1500 to 2500 m and aoaetinea to 3000 K. Due to ita coppicing power and gregarioua nature* it takea complete poaaeaaion of the ground* tailing alnoat all the plenta ondrr it. Thie ia hov it eauaea isa^noe danaga to the eoniferoua re^^eseration. But **••• one can not poaaibly itsiiore the greateat ailvioultural iaportanoe of thia in eatabliahing the regeneration of eonifera hy protecting againat long perioda of draught in iCaah£iir Valley, in alttoat all the deodar fcreate of Kaahadr Valley, one finda a profuee reg«aeration under thia ahrub in compariaion to open patehaa. It*a ahede proteota the young regeneration 18.. froft draughts in th« ausnth of Ka^ to Boveabar (in KashBlr VaXlay) vhila young rogeneratloa in opon patohoa not vith- atandini; thia prolon^ad di^U|^ht dia away". ' It ia dua to this raaaoa that i^arrotia ehrub ia genarally ttrsad &e a good ourea but a bad nothar or a good aerrent and a bad aaatar. to It ia* tbarafora» a problas with tha forastara how>^axploit its nuallty of baing a good nurea «id gat rid of ita bad- mo tharl^ natura. Thia problaa Kay ba dlffieult but ia not unaumountabla. Tha othar inhibiting faetor in tha reganaration of deodar kail in tha atata ia tha inoidwaea of graaing by Xoeal oattia in Daodar-Kail sona which ia uai&ally yry haavy. ixcaaidiTa gracing eauaaa probably tha graataat damaga to tha foraat growth, particul&rXy tha young raganaration. It vox^a alovly and indiaoamibly, fha aaadlinga and aaplin^^a ara daatroyad and tha aoil gata oospaetad and hardanad and looaaa 20 ita phyaioal and biological balanoa. ainilarly tha mananoa of gracing ia a aarioua haaard which diaturba tha aoil and sita factor and tha araas thus datarioratad raguira affectira control to atabiliaa tha aoil.^^ 19* Kawoaa, K.K.* '*arowth and DoYaloj^ant of Coaifara in Ralation to tha Shrub Parrotia JaoquaBontiaaa". Jaaau and Kaahair Stata. ?oraat Daoartaant of Janau and Kaahair State, arinagar, 1970, p.45. 20. D.F.O,, Doda Foraat Divialon, Annual Adainiatration ^^- g.F.O., S.C. I^iviaion 0dhaapur,jpiifft; Ad^l^^^i^miftB Rgport for tha Yaar 1976-77. 18o f)i« Intensity of li^t !• anothvr important inhibitizig factor in natural r«g«ii«ratioi} of £'«odar>Kail forasts. Both thaaa conlferoua apaeiaa ara strong light daffiandar but can raaiat modarata lataral ehada for aoiie tiiitaa but fail to naka »uch prograaa and ultimataljf fail to raeovar. Bat tha intanaity of light will dapend, to a larga extant, on tha intansity of falling* whioh can tea ra^uJiatad by affioiant foraat ffianagaomnt* As alraady vantionad (ehaptar III) daodar aocapta alaoat all gaolo|pLoal forsiations but damanda vary vail drainad soil which should ba fairly poroua. ijimilarly kail can aatebllah itaalf on nunbar of geological fomationa and wall drainad aoiat fraah daap aoila particularly deriTad fron aioa-aohiat* ^uoh conditions wharavar availabla will ganarally halp tha proeaaa of natural raganaration. It has bawQi gatharad from tha atudy of working plans for tha yarious territorial forast divisions of tha atata that tha raganaration of daodar-kail forasts in Jaseu and Kashmir Stata ie not a problas providad all tha inhibiting faetora diaouaaad abova ara takan cara ef and suitabla conditions for ragMiaration ara oraatad* mothar factor whic^ goas to halp tha natural raganaration of daodar^kail foraata is that tha viability of thasa eonifar apaoias ia conpairativaly hifhar than tha fir. OerEtinatinf capacity of lb 1 d«od«r-itail 1«, therefore, 50 and 75 P*r c«nt r««p«otiv«ly, ^ It !• «u« to thet« farouralfel* faetors that "natural ref-anaratiOB of daodar and kail" in Doda foraat dlviBlon "la piautifttl and l« only laoklog ovar 111 dralnad acd axtrtaialjr ataap alopaa a»d areas carrying der«« und«ri'it)wth". 23 But vorkine plan offiear of naarby Siahtvar foraat dlvialon opinoB that it vould ba rathar uutiiriaa to laava these foraata entirely to nature's way of reclaaation and as euoh Kan*& help to nature would probably be a key for the rehabilitation of these forests. From 'these forests' the officer leeana the deodar»k8il forests of liagseni range of Klshtwar dlTision which BV in bad shape and natural regeneration is not ooadnn up satiafaotorily. But the natural regeneration in the division on the whole has been eoning up satisfactorily except in patohea where due to heayy grasing and debris accttJBulation it is either abs«ckt or inadequate though these patches are not big mough and occur scattered in the eonpartatents. "^ These scattered eoapartoMiBts aentioned here to fore are of lafaeni and other ranges, liiisilarly in KaaraJ forest dlTlsion **••• deodar regenerates naturally -rery 22. Jaxnwal» n,ii,0 "Regeneration of Conifers in Jaouitu and Kashmir Btate", Unpublished Paper, p.7. 23. Karsinghia, f.S., Fourth Reviee^ Working i'lan for fi9,if,Fores r9rftt,„P|,T,l;ilpft Diwisiea. Vasant yyp» ««II In It* habitat tona. Thlokaat of raganaratlon are Ba«i «vary whara axoapt whara tha soil la not haavy> clayay and watar loggad and inoidcnea of gracing la not vazy high**. Henoa a warning againat high Ineldtoea of gracing for affactlTC raganaratlon. In BllXawar foraat dlirlalon natural ragacaratios of principal oonlfaraa apaelaa axeapt fir la not a problan.^ Thlolceat raganaratlon of d«odar la "•*. notioad whara aoil pa la poroua and vail dralnad vlth lov ineldanoa of gracing". sialXarly highar ap in tha daodar sona Icall la aaan raganaratlD profuaaly i^ara tha opanlnga hava baan draatle In tha paat and sany a flna patch of kail raganai«tlon can ba aaan undamaath tha daodar crop. ^ In Fir Panjal foraat diviaion tha natural raganaratlon of all tha principal eonifara* "50 daodar, kail ajcid fir is by and larga aatiafactory* Condition of daodar and kail raganaratlon in othar foraat dlvlslom la sora or l«aa tha aasa. fhua from tha abova diaouaalon axaaplifying tha condition of raganaratlon, it baoowia obvloua that ra^enaratlon 26. Mr, Inayat-^Uah, pffylfff, Woyl^^M ^Ijtft $^f ^ftmj oraat piyiaien. Praparad in Working Plan and f aaaareh CIrela, Orinagar, pp.22-25• 27. C.F«0., Billavar Foraat rivlalon. "Annual Adainlatration Baport for th« Yaar 1974-75". 28 and 29. Nattoo, £.K., |t«nifi ^9rl^lfif: ^^^ff, t9T f&f ^^M9% Foraat Pivialon. Fraparad in tha Working l>Un and Raaaarch Clrola, 3rinagar, pp.14-15. . Tlektt, C.L., Working Flan for Pir ?anial Foraat Mvialon. Typad Copy, p.24. 18 u of (l«odar»kall In Jaasiu and laatanir forests la not a problaa Drovidad tha manaca of orar gracing and othar inhibiting factor* ara oontrollad by tha nanagara of thasa forasta. It is furthar obaarvad that aa in tha eaaa of Sagaani TWRg% of Kishtvar foraat diviaion and nuoeroua othar auoh pXaeaa throughout tha Stata, man's halp in tha fora of artificial raganaration will not only bs hi^ily appraoiatad by natura but will auraly ba reoiprooatad. To eoneluda» tharafora, it can ba aaid that natural raganaration in daodar-kaii foraata, on the vhoXot 1® satisfactory but naada laan's halp particularly in ruggad and staep country* IffeotiTo closure of araaa vhara nav crop is coining up will ba an addad asaat to tha eatabXishnant of nav crop. Furthar, auatainad aupply of good foraat aaad is rsQuirad for incraaaing tha production of our forests and for raforaatation purpoaaa. Thua vhareTtr regeneration ia lacking it haa got to ba aacertainad vheather it is not due to the lack of seed aTailability. If it is so good duality aeed nay be procured and sown to help r^eneratioa proceaa. For lack of market dcffiianda for fir tlmber» the fir foreata remained quite unimportant aa late aa the thirtiea 71. Kir* Innayat-ullah* "Importance of Oenetic &esear<^ in Foreat of Ja&su and Kashsir btate". Unpublished Paper* fyfed Copy* p.9. 18 of this oftRtursr* Due also to inaeeessibillty v««t ar«a« of th«a« for««t« r«is«in*d un«xplolt«d. It !•« parhapSf da« to th««« reasons that natural rtgantratlon of fir did not i«at muoh attantlon from th9 foreat dapartmant of tha iiitata. But aftar world var II "••• tbay hara baan worked i&tanaiTaljr, tempo increaalnga with tha paaaga of timet for variety of purpoaea soat isportaot beixkg internal earpentzy* packing caaea, atruetural timber and railway aleepera eto".'^ fhe fir tisber la alao now uaed for Tarioua other purpoaea au^ aa in the air eraft industry. i^ith the increaae in the fruit product ion* shooka Industry needa greater ToluEia of fir to meet ita ever inoreaaine denand. Further# it ia very likely that the OovernBent of Jancu and Kaahnir will eatabliah a pulp induatry depending entirely on fir tinber. All theae facta go to prove that natural regeneration of ailver fir can not be i(gnored any mora. It, therefore, ia an urgent problaffi to create conditions favourable for natural ra^eneratioi and if neeeaaary reaort to artificial aethoda for obtaining required reaults. But like deodar->kail forests, there are varioua inhibiting faotora in the way of natural regeneration of fir in Jaatuu and Kaahmir and the knowledge about theae factors 32. i>ufi, O.R«, "Regeneration of Silver Fir and ;;>pruee in Eastern ili&alayaa with Special Reference to the atate of Juamu and Kashnir", t^ro. ijtate For. COP.. October, t970, p.85. 18u l8 tHistd 0& th« iiiT««tig&tioiiB eanled out hy a large nuffibar of vork«ra and foraatara ovtr a daoada and tha axparianoa galnad eetimlljr in tha fiaXd. ^ Tha faotora which Inhibit tha natural raganamtlon of fir araj Fir ^aa^> Fir la poor aaadar. Saad yaars In fir ara vry Infracsuant and Ita gamlnatlng eapaolt7 la aa Xov aa 23 per cant vhleh la 50 per oant in oaaa of deodar and 75 per cant'* in eaaa of kail aa »antlonad earlier. Acovfflmlation of Raw HmwiB: Due to low taaperatura in the fir foreata undecoapoaad raw huaua contlnuea to pile up on the foreat floor which i» detrimental to the germinating aeed and obatrueta roota of young planta froa penetrating in the aiineral aoil. Thia problea la aupMmted by the refuae left in the fir foivata beoause of higher rot pereentage. ^inoe the fir foreata are away from the habltatioua, the oonauaption of tha dabria aa fire wood by local people waa negligeble in the paat. Howeirer, due to the aeaircity of fire wood, particularly in the towna of Kaahsir Valley thia probiee haa mora or leaa been aolved* But in the Chenab Valley the probleu of remaina. fhua it becoffiea obligatory on the part of foreaten 3 3. Koul, P.K., "lletural Eegeneration of iJilver Fir and Spruce*, Pro* 3tate. For. Con* October 1970, p.80. 34. Jaawal, F.3., op. cit., p.7. 1 Cf u to bum thft felllBg refus*, vh«r« firt wood la not in dvisand, for tffactive r«^«c«ration. hlEht Conditionai iiilver fir i« a ahado deoandar spteiaa and Ita aaadUngs ean toXarata ooaaidarabla d9^r99 of ahada for quita aoaatlme. fba ahadOf if Xataral* ia highly appraolatad by fir than o-varhaad ahada. leaping in vlaw thia property of fir, tha fcraatara have davalopad a diffarant ayataffi for felling tha fir foraata. For axa«pla in L«da foraat diviaion a unifom elrola froa tha better regenerated fir areaa haa been created for vorklng u/iTcr concentrated fellin^a. i;>iiBilarly in isany areaa elaevhere* the fir foraata are ftejnaged ander'aelection ay at em*, a ayatea in which It la iioaslble to sanipulate the felXin^a in auoh a way that optifinuc eonditiona aa for aa light ia concerned» can be obtained for natural regeneration of fir. Koiatiure and teaoeratttrei SxceaalTe aoiature, oaualng vater logging oonditiona, ia injuriooa for natural regeneration of fir. luring the early atage of gexvination« the evaporation ia at ita aaaxiaua froa April to June reaulting in heavy oaaualitiea in Jamatu province. But in Kaahair province 35. Verbal Diaeuaaioaa with the Conaervator. Chenala Circle * a, aohan ^Ingh. i:^'^ Bolsturo oondlitioiui are generally favourable. Heavy anovfall during the vlntera provides contlnuoua aupply of aoiature due to gradual i&elti»e of snow In the suctaera vh«i naxijitta evaporation deaanda it froa April to June. In Jmma province» on the other hand* oertaln areas of ohenab valley do not have identical conditions and thus tender, draught sensitive seedlings get a set back.-^ As fir la a shade deaanding specie, high teaperature due to oveiiiead light drys up the Boil quickly which results in retardation of root aystea in young seedlings. Thus to maintain suitable teaperature conditions proper canopy aanipulation la indispensable for natural regeneration. Unwanted Underrreirtb: Certain unwanted weeds like ;jtrabitanthei and gregarious in nature Inhibit the geraination of seed and establishoent of seedlings. But fortunately, the fir foreats of Kashmir Valley do not have ouch of weed growth. Paaage ia however, oceasionalljr caused by aaabucus. Kbulus. Jkiaaia ^'^ l*aureala etc. '*here they occur in thickets. On the whole the daaage is not heavy.'^' 36. Verbal Disouaaions with D.F.C. Inuring field work. 37. isufl, G. E., op. cit., p.89. a i Unr»»trlctgd Qragimtt Fir forests lo Jweau and Kashnlr, alongvlth the vmst al?iii« meadova eaping tham, ara heavily erased. This unrestrioted graeing is perhaps singularly responsible for preventing regeneration, ^inee this probles has acquired soeio-seonottio inplioations, a gradual but fira change has got to bs affected, fhis is most urgent in case of Jasa&tt and Kashnir iitate where nomadic population of the Gujjars and the iiakarwals posses large cattle heards. Various voricln^ Flan Officers have acknowledged the truthfulness of these inhibiting factors in the field. For instance the working I'lan Officer for the I^oda forest division writeSf "Kegeneration of fir comes easily on well drained soils and is deficit on very gentle, flat and rerj steep grounds, completely lacking on badly drained very aoist and dasp sites* Density of undsrgrovth, particularly VibunauB. thickness of raw humus, intensity of grasing, presence of felling refuse determine, besides other factors, the presence of regeneration and where these are foui^ in lesser eruantitites, the regeneration has COBS up beautifully, host of the fir forests of fhakrai ••• Keshwan, SOBS of ^ 38. hersinghianghia, Y.a.t.^y , JfjiB^^Jj wofllM t'lffn fyy PH§^ yftrttl sa^nff^?it ^yi>»* copyt p»28' 1;'.^ B«sld«« th« Doda dlvittlon, judleioaa opening of canopy la oonaidarad an urgant naad aXongvitii raguletlng, tha ^rasing In fir foraata and In tha aaadova bordering thaaa foraata alaavhara alao. It la dua to alffillar raaaona that raganaratlon of fir in Blllavar foraat divlaion la vary defleiant. ^ain in Keaal foraat divialon. "Fir la ••• having very littla raganaratlon •••• With tha ineraeaa of cattia population in tha araa, raganaratlon vlll atlll ba a problae in th« naar futura* whlla a ataga of deplation haa already aat in at nav placaa**.^^ Conditlona In other foraat diviaiona of ^aateu provlnoe are no different ao far aa fir regeneration la eoneemed. For example In Bhadervah the regeneration of fir continuea to be a probXen. The regeneration of fir in the voricedout oompartaent le scanty. Thla la auggeated to be 40 tried artificially. Again in Eajouri foreat dlvlaion» ao far aa fir la concerned. It will not be out of place to mention that not even a alngle good patch of fir regeneration haa 8o far been obaerved* 4t Naturally the ;itate of fir regc«>eratlon in Kaahair la better ezeeot in the 3indh valley where becauae of high 59. flahri, K,3., op clt., pp.18«19. 40. D.F.O., Shaderwah Foreat Diviaion, Annual ^, A rainfall, broad leaved trcaa ara trying to ouat tha tir. I« tbt Plr i>anjal dlvltloo, howarar, fir ra^anaration ia no problam aa It la tha hoaa of fir par axcaUanea whara tha apaciaa d«aoanda upto 2000 » or avan laaa and ,c;rova laxuriantly with raganaration alnoat no problaa/^ But in tha i/augat foraat diviaion reganaratlon la ganaraily daficlant through patchea of it can ba B§m at plaoaa. fha lack of raganaration can apparently ha attributad to a thick layar of undeco&poaad humua and vaiy haavy incidanoa of auisBier ftraaing whidi hindara it a aatabliahaant/^ Aa atatad aarlitr oonditiona of fir ragenaration in tha Sindh foraat diviaioa i» unaatlsfactory due largely to, "the thick layer of haaua that uaually eovar tha floor of thaaa foreata" and which "KaJsaa tha aoila acidic to allow the reeeneration ooea in, v-harr/ar there is an axpoaura of new aoil and overhead light ia free, fir regeneration haa been tttm coaing up 44 freely. In the scamraj divlaion "within Ita altitudnal range on cooler northeni and north-eaatem aapecta fir la well growr-".*^ 42. fieicu, C.L.» op, cit.» p. 12. 43. Katto, R.K., op. cit., p.16. 44. fiaquahband, 0., ^fT4ft# ^yr^t^ftf^ flft|j9r ^|t I^P^^/omj PmH^yil* Karch 1958. p.ll. 45. tiir» Inayat-HiUah, opTelt., p.24. hu from the aboT« eeleeted exaBplee it nay be gathered that natural regeneration in fir on the whole is not satiefactory. It ia almost certain that the situation vill remain unchanged if left to nature alone. Thie is a dangerous trend in the face of ever increasing demand for fir timber. To meet this chalange the natural rei^eneration of fir is to be supplemented by artificial regeneration. In this regard sincere efforts are needed to collect the seed every year in general and good seed years in particular. Fir nurseries should be established at suitable selected places giving due consideration to its natural habitat. Thereafter! the planting site should be suitabily prepared by eleminating felling refuse and unwanted under growth. The new plantation should be closed for gracing to make it a success coupled with necessary after cares such as weeding and hoeing. Artificial regeneration should also be achieved by patch sowing wherever suitable sites are available. yH;p R^Q^E]^T;9y Unlike fir chir pine in the State regenerates easily because seeding in this species is more freouent which is further supplimented by extremely high seed fertility. But there should be a seed source and closure to grazing l.^^. for rapidity In th« natural raganaratlon. taiharever, in the chir pin« sona raganaration la daficiant it ia largaly due to heavy and unraatrictad graslng. In the Billawar foraat divlaion chir area aouth of the ^iwalik ia broken and inacoeaeible. Here patchy chir crop haa difficult raganaration, A raat continuoua belt of tviatad and ttalformad chir from havi to the vaetam and of the division suffers froia lack of regeneration. Certain forests like Pamala and Kandharnu raouire imoiediate closure for lack of regeneration which is due mainly to heavy frasing. Fire also damages the process of regeneration and here fire during sunmer is responsible for quite a 47 lot of danage particularly in 6arh ?angian belt. oimilarly in the Jai&Btu soil conservation division* which falls under lower or ulwalik type, the chir crop ia patchy, twisted and nalformad* chir patches are scattered for apart as is noticed in the Nagrota Khad catchjs^nt. In Mansar and ;>urlnsar belt regeneration is absent. In the Kaiidhar range, from Chouki-diaura to the line of actual control in the wast, one finds excellent patches of young chir in the belt. Fires destroy natural regeneration repeatedly. 46. aingh, 3ohan_, fia^epfri^tJlgft 9f mr nm l^P^ff n Unpublished Paper, Cyclostyled Copy, p.4. 47. D.F.O., Billawar, Annual Adttinistration Report L\> In the Udhanpur division w« find that the soil factor Is aioet unfavourable for natural regeneration. The Boil here la in the form of ahallow layer on the sandstone rocks lAich is being eroded avay. Regeneration is absent with discernible effect of sever© forest fire. The chir crop is malformed and trees are drying up in large patches such as in Tikri forests. In the fiajourl forest division the chir crop falls mainly under lover or i^iwalik type. The soil is shallow and heavily eroded. Regeneration is not uniform. The chir belt along the Bajourl-Kalakot-Keasi road seems to be arrested in the broad-leaved patches. Regeneration here seems to bs a real silvlculturaX problem. To achieve chir regeneration broad leaved trees will have to be cut in order to facilltable chir regeneration l^ artificial means or by sowinik- seeds. The Himalayan ohlr in this division is limited to the Kajouri range where reg«ieration is no problem. On the whole natural regeneration of chir plnet wherever the menanoe of gracing is lees, is abendant. The repeated fires and encroachments, particularly in higher sone, take a heavy toll of young generation. 48 Thus the extent of natural An, D.F.C., Rajouri Forest Division, Annual li'< regeneration differe from locality to locality. In lower areas where chir pice predominates and where there la no natural calamity the regeneration of chir le not a problea, 49 at places thick regeneration of chir pine is observed. Chir crop in the ?oonch forest division la found in the J endhar range only. If closed to grasing regeneration coaes up in encouraging aanner. In Surankote eoil conservatlt zone chir has regenerated excellently. Both the ^diwalik and the Himalayan type of cliir ia found in the Heasi forest division. The condition of Jiwalik type la similar to the corresponding localities in the Jaffiffiu and the Billawar divisions. In the Himalayan chir eone> on the other hand* the regeneration is diffioult becauije of annual fires. In the fiamban forest division Himalayan chir of good Quality is found. The natural reg«ieration of chir in this division is very good. But along the Eamban-Oool road where Kyraine Africans forme a dense mat which makes regeneration difficult. If the ground is cleared of this bush and the area is closed after patch sowing it will bring in chir regeneiration profusely. 49. E.F.O., hajourl Forest Division, Annual Administration ^0. iiingh, ijohan, op. cit.» p.S. 1;K, In the Bhad«rvah forest diyision chlr forests occur over small areas in ?ranu and Jan^alwar* The HiQ>alayac chlr foond here is of good ouality. Natural regeneration is no problem provided the area is closed for grazing. Chir in the Loda forest division is negligible although fev patches along the Chenab are comcion. Thus ve find that inspite of many positive aspects* like frenuent seeding and high seed fertility, chir re^'eneration is not satisfactory, uoil erosion seeme to be a forciidable problem in th© chir forests which need iir.ffiediate attention, '^orest fire is another inhibiting- factor in the n?»tural ropeneration. In fact fire is the most serious ain^^le agency of destruction in chir forests. Thus if soil erosion, forest fires and over grazing are taken care of chir regeneration will be natural all over the belt, in the Kaiaban division, however, I'iyreioc Africans needs to be eradicated and in the Eajouri division broad leaved invested areas in chir zone alon^ the Kajouri* Kalakot- Beasi road are to be cleared to give place to chir. It can, therefore, be concluded that Kail is a pioneer species which has been benefitted a^ore than other species as a result of conservancy xt-easures Introduced in Jamsu and Kashmir i^^tate during last century, >.any pure kail crops in both Jammu and Keshosir regions are a result oi liK, f'Xcellent conservancy operations. But unfortunately, kail is lifibie to attacks of two rsost formidable parasites i.e. An**f:i9e epeiTi (which is called Arcenthobiuta l inutiSBJirun) and a funrus called Forces i^lnii* These two pamsites in coabination hsive extenEinated kail over large areas. It is under the impact of these two parasites that kaii is bein^ re 'laced by deodar wr.erevor the deodar seed bearer is avaiiabxe. s-iany kwil forests in Chenab vnlley nave oeen cofAverted to deodar forests by this natorai. process. .«e have seen that jceil regenerates very freely in nature and there is no problesi about it. f.aii has £ot Suany natural advant'iges as compared to other conifers: (B] It is e stroni; light dec&nder (b) It it; o pioneer and hardier species (c) It can csnalize and bear slooes (d) It produces seed profusely alssacst pvery ;year. The seed is lirht and ie des^ersed over t reat distances. Ce) Tne seed is very fertile and a very via&le one. In case of deodar we have seen that it can ret enerpte f-nirlj in its zone without &n^ dilficalty, ?ne wrobiecs and difficulties of deodar regeneration can re 8Ui-4&ed up as under: 'ci (a) It is v0ry difficult to close deodar areas to £ rasing* I'eople of the area oppose it tooth and nail. Thie ie a sociO'-political problem which needs a similar solution. (b) There is no regular practice of doing subBi'^Jiary Bilvicultural operations in the deodar forests after fellings are over. Regeneration is relegated to very inferior position in the iranageicent plans, Pellinf refuse not only encumbers the forest floor but also beooR.es a fire hazard, AB a result thereof many valuable deodar forests have been burnt tDercilesely unfortunately, the forest department does not have any statistics of the forest fire losses. SI (c) The naturally regenerated areas over many parts of deodar forest have not been given treatments such ae cleaning and thining* particularly the remote forests of deodar areas where thinin^: Siaterials are not saleable. (d) lieuny deodar forests, where advance grovth ia present in large Quantity, are awaiting: their turn for felling. But many administrative difficulties £et tixia turn postponed, oohan oingh, conservator of forests Chenab Forest 52 Circle, opines that in recent years many deodar compartnente 51. Verbal Discusaions with many Forest Officer, . articulerV -.iiohan ;iingh, C.F, Chenab Circle. 5?. Verbal Liacusslon with ij.wOhan Singh, Conservator v'henab Forest Circle, 2y. have be«n uariced for felling only partly because of measures to change over froot the private to the public sector. The result is that the resainin^ part of the compart&ients remained without cultural opez^tions for many years becauee the public sector failed to fell the required deodar crop. This results in lack of regeneration, apart froos upsetting the a:anageiiient plans. In case of fir regeneration it can be concluded that natural regeneration is deficient all over the -Jtate yet greater portions of fir forests do not present any ailvioultural problem. This contradictory statement needs qualification as will be cleared in course of discussion that follows. The fir forests of Jammu and KashEir, froE the view point of natural regeneration, are divisible into three cate£ories: (1) Those forest where there is no silvicuiture problem and where if graeing is controlled routine regeneration measures would be sufficient. This category forms about 70 per cent of the fir area in Jammu and Kashmir. (2) Mr forests where protection has resulted in wet conditions, the fir is degenerating into broad leaved epecies. 33. Verbal Discussion with H.K. Kattoo, Conservator Research and working Flan Circle* 2i. .ibout 20 per cent of the fir forests of the utnte faij. in this category, 'xarriples jre: .'onsurarg valley in Jindh catc'icent of the windh forest division and many side valleys of the ihad*-rwah, the Toda and the i'ishtwar divisions. (3) Fir forest areas which have been under ^reat pressure of greginfi for laany decades and where the bioloeicai and physical balanoes of the soil have be«i altered due to continuous trajepllng. About 10 per cenf^^ of the forect area of the state fall in this category. l>uoh areas ctm be fre^Mently found around the behaks (i'astures) in the ai^n level fir forests. Cate^/ories 2 and 3 i^resent a real silvicultural problea because in these categories the regeneration of fir could not be brought in by routine and normal aieasures. iJpecial aeasures such as cutting' back of shrubs and buminf in the wet areas and Intensive soil working in over tr(i?-e(h trairipled areas will be necessary. These special ffieosares fare even necessary in the wake of severe erosion which hao started and has also deteriorated the pasture lands very laach. Typical examples of this devastation is the oana&ftr erea, high levels of the xthalesh range» Girgan behak in . ooncr arsd many other areas in Kashmir. 54. ^ercecta^e of 70, 20 end 10 quoted above are based on rough estiu-ates aade by w>, wohan ;iinfth. C.r. Caenab Circle. 9 CIlArTER V KXTiiACTIQK OF TI».B£fi AKD Aiionom.EM 9y QiiQ'm^ ^TVffK The forests may well be considered as the vealth of man deposited with nature's bank. The wise thing on the part of man is to withdraw the periodic bank interest on this wealth in the form of yearly Inoreament in the volume of these forests rather than draw the principal rtmount i.e., the total volume existing at a particular time. Apart from the principal object of scientific forest management, certain other factors seem equally important. These include the maximom sustained yield of timber which will ^ive the highest sustained revenue. It should also creete conditions for the reafforestation of bare areas. besides, the managers of the forests are also required to protect the forest for the conservation of soils, for fflsintaitting a regular flow of water and for avoiding land slips and land slides, x'reservation of scienic beauty and native fauna and flora are the other objects of scientific management of forests. Thus protection and conservation of the natural environment and the eco-systeme are the other important factors that attract the attention of the scientific forest mAna^ement• 2 To achieve these objeotiveet extraction operations are carried out in more than one way, depending ibainly upon local oonditions and taking into oonalderation the eilvi- cultural reouirei&enta of the forest which ie being i^orked out. iiinoe the beginning of scientific forestry in the etate many eyeterns of sanagement have been adopted acording to the need of the time, r.any forests in which tress of all the ages are well represented or the trees with exploitable girth are unevenly distributed and are mixed» need to be exploited under the selection system. In certain oonditions sany forest patches are uniform as for as their age and exploitatioi girth is concerned and have reached a stage where their further growth is hslted or there exists a silvicultural co&pulsion. ouch forests are worked under a uniform systeic which envisages the felling of the forests uniforaally to allow natural regeneration to costs up to tace its place. This is particularly true of deodar and kail ferects of .[aiiiQtu and ilashsiir atate. aoi&e tiaes a forest may suffer from diseases which kill many living tress and keep others in a dying process and malform still others. 3ueh forests need immediate attention under a hygelnlo cum improvement system. An important example of this system in Jammu and 2;'- Kashmir forests was that of Pathania*e hygeinio oua inproTSssnt fellings in Kail bearing areas in the early fifties. Under this system all malforiBed and diseased trees need immediate removal irrespeetive of any other consideration. Some times the forest manageffient wants to gradually convert the hitherto irregular stands to even aged one without sacrificing the iniicature crop« This is done under the conversion system which takes care of all the eilvioultural aspects. The conversion to uniformity is not obtained suddenly but ie spread over more than one rotation which ultimately achieves the desired results. Thus the extraction of timber from the forests is not an easy Job if it is done purely on scientific basis. Apart from deciding the system under which the extraction is to be carried out, extraction itself involves many practical difficulties. Important among these is the limited period of summers both for extraction of timber and its transport tation to the market. The sesired objective, therefore, can not be achieved without involving high cost of extraction. Inspite of the negative factors, extraction of timber from the forests of the state is by and lar^e done on scientific lines. Towards this end, working plans for every territorial 1. oingh, o., **A Note on Forest Management in Jamniu and Kashmir btate", groceedlngs of ^itate October 1970. Pub. Forest Department Jammu and Kashmir i3tate, p«42. 2 .. forest dlTlaions are clearly drevn and the annual yield of various apeciee are preeorlbed by voxiiing plan officers. The working plan officer* after taking all the eilTicultural »nd ecological factors into considerationt also reooomends the systes or the systens aa the case Bay be under which the extraction should be done. The discussion that follows will give an idea about the actual extraction of tlnber from the four main species i.e., Ccdrus deodara. Pin us wallichiana. Abieft p^ft^isw and Pinua roxbur«hii. of Jatamu and Kashair forests for a period of ten years ending 1975-76. TsttPoral Variation in Extraction of Deodar The total extraction of deodar has varied considerably from year to year from 1966 to 1976. The lowest extraction was recorded in 1969-70 whereas the very next year recorded the hi^est during this period, idince the extraction is declining continuously with, the exception of the year 1974-75. The temporal variation during this period has been 24.24 per cent as revealed by the co-efficient of variation (Table 5.1). Absolute variation in extraction has not been very high. The standard deviation, which is 25.66, shows a normal variation in the extraction when the r^ean is 96.35. The highest extraction during 1970-71 is attributable to the fact that the stock felled during 1969-70 could not be completely transported to the market due mainly to early 2(1 0no¥ fall, tbtreby maiclng th« transportation of tinbar Inpoaaibla. This was aapeclally tha caaa in tha Chanab foraat eirelc. Table 5.1 Tanooral Variations in Actual Outturn (Figures in 000 OU.ffi) Year Deodar Kail Pir Chir 1966-67 69.04 77.29 148.21 9.97 1967-68 69.04 77.29 175.21 27.20 1968-69 85.78 75.46 155.95 5.51 1969-70 59.57 122.01 159.71 52.13 1970-71 125.78 98.80 165.78 55.47 1971-72 125.74 156.32 175.57 21.87 1972-73 110.98 60.62 15t.77 16.74 1975-74 110.92 78.54 159.15 25.51 1974-75 115.59 94.54 125.22 50.68 1975-76 94.89 81.21 176.07 56.94 Kaan 96.35 90.18 150.84 25.96 iitandard deviation 25.36 22.08 18.48 15.07 Coefficient of vnriation 24.24 24.48 12.25 50.54 In the Chenab forest circle, the extinction of deodar in the Doda, the Bhadenrah and the iCishtwar forest divisions has rsaainsd more consistant than in other forest 2;^, circles of th« state. In this circle the Shadenrah forest diyisicm has recorded the highest degree of consistancy as revealed by the co-efficient of variation which aaounte to 13.02 per cent. It is closely followed by the Doda and the Kishtwar forest divisione with the co-efficient of variation amounting to 2^.6 and 39*03 respectively (Table 3.2). Table 5.2 Extraction of Deodar From 1966-67 to 1975-76 (Figures in 000 cu,.m. ) Division Mean ;itandard Co-efficient of devifttion variation KanraJ 12.50 6.94 55.5 JheluBi Valley 7.50 3.60 48.00 Langet 8.30 5.71 68.79 K>ind 0.27 0.40 140.00 Pir ?«njal Kashmir 3.21 2.10 65.42 Klehtwar 8.89 3.47 39.03 BhederwRh 10.06 1.31 13.02 DodB 12.35 3.19 25.80 Kanban 4.06 5.80 142.85 irieasi 0.45 1.10 244.44 Udhempur 1.54 1.67 104.54 bilXawar 5.38 6.39 118.77 2. .. 9 < < o 9 'J. or ll ^ i 3 \ >? J I ,: < .J *•* ^ ^It T X o '•i ,\ v** i J'' a w « •* g CD J » fm-^So?) f.i M>f'; Q: z < C o ^ O > o O 3 & O 1^ iu X BTOOTO mwwrrrrno Twncnr ' The high degree of oonsletancy in the Boda, the Bhadervah and the Hiahtwar divisions is largely due to the presMioe of larger voXuaie of overall growing stock: in general and in felling t'irth in particular (Appendix-^). Arother i^ason that can tie advanced for this high degree of oonsistancy in the extraction of deodar timber in these forest division is the fact that these forests are coo^arativel; nearer the market. Besides river Chenab provides cheap water transport upto Akhnoor which lies in the outer plains, although the major portion of the timber is collected at Hamban from where it is transported by road to the railhead at Jammu. In the Eeasi forest division of this circle, on the other hand, extraction has been least consietant as revealed by the co~effioient of variation which is as high as 244*44 per cent. In the Eeasi forest division there had been no extraction at all during the year 1969-70 and 1970-71. ijimilar conditions were also witnessed during 1973-74 and 1974-75. Similarly in the i>ind forest division of i^ashffiir north circle the consistency is very low with a co-efficimt of variation of 148.0 per cent. Here the year 1970-71 saw no extraction of deodar at all. The very next year had record extraction followed by a year of no extraction again thereby making the level of variation high. Sxtraction of deodar Is also less consietant in the Udhampur and the 2U Billavar forest diTlsion of Jaanu circle and the Hanbac dlvlelon of Chenab circle with the co-efficient of Yariation at 104.3> t18.7 and 142.8 per cent respectively. In the reaaining divifiions the extraction conditions hare regained sioderatel^ oonsistant (Table 3.2). The highest temporal variations in the extraction of deodar, recorded in the Heasi forest division, can be explained in terns of the record exploitation during the year 1968-69 (Fig.3.1). In the Sind division, on the other hand, the high degree of variation is explained by the record exploitation during the year 1971-72. Slailarly in the Blllavar forest division the total deodar extraction daring 1972-73 has been extra- ordinarily high. In the Kashmir north circle comprising of the Langet, the Kamraj and the «Jind forest divisions, teniporal variations, temimal VHristhm has been moderate to high. In the Kasra;} division extraction increased from 1966 to 1969. A similar pattern la evidenced in the Langet forest division also. The year 1969-70 has recorded the lowest extraction in both the Kamraj and the Langet divisions (Pig.3.1). i^xtraetion increased upto 1972-73 in the KamraJ division followed by another year of depression. Inuring the year 1974-73 it recorded the maxlsum extraction of 22.82 thousand cubic aetres. The year 1975-76 had a downward trend, Froic 21., 1969 to 1973 extractioo fluctuated froffl year to y%6.r in the Langet division, iifter that there had been a continuous increase upto 1975-76, The Kashmir south circle comprises of the Jhelus valley, the Fir Panjal and the Kashmir forest divisions. In the Fir Fanjal forest division there had been no extraction of deodar throughout the period of study i.e., 1966-67 to 1975-76. In the Jhelum valley forest division extraction of deodar remained more consistant as compared to the other forest division. This has clearly been indicated by the co-efficient of vazlations vhieh for the Jhelum valley forest division stands at 48.00 "^r cent where as it is 55.5 per cent for the Kamraj, 68.79 per cent for the Langet, 148.00 per cent for the iiind and 65.42 per cent for the Kashosir forest divisions (Table 5.2). In the Jhelim valley forest division extraction remained more or l^s constant from 1966-67 to 1968-69 followed by a year of low extraction. During 1970-71 extraction increased almost three fold. It again showed a declining trend upto 1973-74 whereas the year 1974-75 recorded the maxiionim extraction. In the KashBlr division extraction f;radually Increased upto 1969-70 Rnd thereafter remained fluctuating from year to year (Fig. 5.1). ?A^> The actual outturn of Kail has fluctuated coneiderably during the period between 1966-67 to 1975-76. hxtraction gradually declined froa 1966-67 to 1968-69 hut considerably increased in the following year. The year 1971-72 experienced the uaxiaum out turn but it declined by more than 50 psr cent during the year 1972-73. Thereafter extraction showed a gradual upward trend upto 1974-75. Thus the temporal variation in the actual extraction of Kail timber during 1966-67 to 1975-76 has been 24.48 per cent as rfjvealed by the co-efficient of variation. The absolute variations in the extraction has also not been vex^ high as the standard deviation which is 22.08 around the mean of 90.18 also showB a normal variation in extraction (Table 5.1). At the division level the actual out turn reveals erratic behaviour. In the Kashmir north circle the higheet degree of variation is found in the iiind forest division. The degree of variability is the highest in this division as revealed by the co-efficient of variation which is 84.65 per cent. This also reveals a very low consistancy in extraction of iiail. This high degree of variability is due to the fact that there was absolutely no extraction during the years 1970-71 and 1971-72. In this division extraction 2J * u \.? X. X Rnysbo Wi >iSfni!TO ^vAiBy w?raoDD wMiin 11/10 I*T3T i~T % i T KTT30W HI WKUittflWTTay 2io increased from 1966>67 to 1969-70 followed by two Buceeseive years of no extraction. From 1972-73 ocvardtt it has increased considerably. The highest extraction was recorded during the year 1973-76. The degree of variability is lowest ii the iisnget forest diTision of Kashmir north circle with a standard deriation of 2.24* 'the consistanoy is higher as revealed by the co-efficient of variation which is 36.01 per cent (Table 5*3)• The highest extraction in the Langet forest division was recorded during the year 1971-72 whereas the year 1973-76 recorded the lowest extraction of Kail timber. In the Kaaraj division of the circle Kail extraction decreased by more than 75 per cent in 1969-70 as compared to 1966~67« Thereafter it exibited an upward trend but only upto 1971-72. The year 1972-73 recorded the lowest extraction followed by a year of comparatively higher extraction only to show a declining tr«Qd thereafter (Fig,3«2). All these facts are clearly supported by the co-efficient of variation which stands at 31*97 per c^nt. In the KashiEir south forest circle the Fir Fanjal division has had maximusi variability, the standard deviation being 10.55. AS compared to the other two divisions of Kashmir south circle, extraction of Kail in the i'ir t>anjal division gradually Increased from 1966-67 to 1969-70. During the 21u Table 5.3 (Figures In 000 cu.a.) Division Mean standard Co-efficient of deviation variation jCanraJ 7.00 3.68 51.97 Jhelun Valley 4.77 2.43 50.94 Lancet 6.22 2.24 36.01 ^i^ind 5.93 5.02 84.65 Pir Panjal 8.96 10.55 117.74 i^nshmir 8.12 3.39 41.74 Kishttrar 9.67 3.98 41.15 Bhadervah 6.58 1.66 25.22 Loda 13.75 4.40 32.00 fiasiban 2.71 1.19 70.47 Keasi 2.98 1.63 54.69 Udhaapur 2.02 2.25 111.38 Billavar 0.53 0.50 94.33 Hajouri and Poimcta. 0.78 0.81 103.84 year 1971*72 n record extraction was obtained which was 500 per cent of what it was in 1969-70. The very next year extraction fell again to almost the level of 1969-70, •Thereafter it fluctuated year after year. In the Kashmir foreet division cf this circle the standard deviation was 3.39 for the sane period. There vas a gradual increase in 2C'l I th« out tuiti during; the period 1966-67 to 1969-70. The folIovln£ years showed a fluctuating trend. The degree of consistanoy in the Kashsir division is hiij^er than the other two divisions of the circle as revealed by the co-efficient of variation which ia 41.74 per cent. In case of the Pir Panjal and the Jhelua valley forest divisions the co-efficient of variation stands at 117.7 per cent and 50.94 per cent respectively. The actual out turn of the Jheluffi valley forest division reveals a fluctuating trend tbrou^out the period (Fig.5.2). In the Chenab forest circle the actual out turn of Ksil hae remained highly variable in the Ramban division where the co-efficient of variation stands at 70.47 per c«Qt, It 18 closely followed by the Heasi division with 54.60 i^er cen In the Bhaderwah and the Doda forest divisions the variations are very low »s indlcBted by co-efficient of variation which stands at 25.22 per cent and 32.00 per cent respectively. In the Kishtwar forest division variations had been comparatively high as is ehown by the oo-efflolent of variation which is 41.15 99T cent (Table 5.3). In the Ranban division extraction of timber Increased gradually upto 1969-70 after which downward trend Ic revealed. The year 1970-71 recorded no extraction at all. Extraction of Kail in the divlBlon during 1971-72 rose to about one and 21 „ a-half times the production of 1969-70. Thereafter It declined continuously upto 1974-75. In the Keasi division of the circle extraction shows an increasing trend upto 1970-71 and remains fluctuating at the lower level thereafter. In the Klshtwar forest division the actual out turn of Kail Increased upto 1969-70 followed by a declining trend upto 1972-73 (alg,5.2) after which It shows a fluctuating trend. The actual outturn of Kail has renalned rex&axicably eoneiBtant in the Bhaderwah division with the standard deviation of 1.66 around a mean of 6.362. In the Doda division too consietaney in extraction of Kail has bsen good with a standard deviation of 4.4 around a mean of 13.75. In JaffiBttt circle where Kail does not forea an important crop* the actual outturn is hl^ly variable in all the divisions as is revealed by the co-efficient of variation for different forest divisions. For example the co-efficient of variation of 111.38 per cent for the Jdhampur division^ 103.84 per cent for the Rajourl and Poonch divisions and 94.84 per cent for the Blllewar forest divisions clearly demonstrates the high variability in the actual outturn. In the Udhampur division the actual outturn increased by more than 800 per cent froa 1966-67 to 1969-70, thereafter it regained almost ocmstant although at a very lower level. In the kajouri and the j:'oonch divisions there was no extraction 2].. froffi 1966-67 to 1967*68. It lncr«a0*d gradually from 1968-69 to 1970-71. After this It fluctuated at a vary low leval. In the Billavar divlelon of the circle on the other hand extraction of Kail reitained fluctuating throughout this period with lov amplitude. Tettporal Variation in i.xtraction of Fir i.ztraction of fir in Jaamu and Kaahmir ^tate over a period of ten yeara ending 1975-76 hae been very conaietant Be compared with other epeciee. Thia is revealed by the co-efficient of variation which is as low RS 12.85 per cent (Table 5.1). The highest out turn was recorded during the year 1975-76 whereas the preceeding year recorded the lowest out turn. In Kashmir north circle extraction has been highly conaietant in the l following year had th« record extraction of 28.35 thouoand cu.iQ. It fell down to 0.71 thousand cu.m. in the very next year, thereafter it haa been gradually increaaing. In the A^nret foreat diviaion extraction of fir haa regained alHioat uniform from 1966-67 to 1974-75 but eubetancially decreaeed during, the year 1975-76. In KaahBir aouth circle variations in the actual out turn have reaained quite auatained aa revealed by the co-efficient of variation which ranges between 54.B per c«Bt to 65.29 per cent (Table 5.4). In the Jheluis valley foreat diviaion of this circle extraction decreaaed by more than 50 per cent from 1966-67 to 1968-69. After that it reiuained fluctuating. The highest out turn (15.52 thousand cu.ffi.) wes recorded in 1966-67 and the lowest (0.46 thousand cu.m.) in 1975-76. In the i*ir Panjai diviaion extraction decreased from 1966-67 to 1968-69 but increaeed during the v9ry next year and again decreased to the lowest level during 1971-72. thereafter it has been increasing eubstancially. The year 1975-76 haa recorded the highest out turn. In the K'^shasir forest division, on the other hand, extraction has fluctuated from year to year throufhoat the period. The lowest out turn (0,37 thousand cu.m.) waa recorded 2;: Table 5.4 Extraction of Fir from 1966«67 to 1975-76 ( Flgurea In 000 cu. n,) Dlvis ions Kean standard Co-efficieot of deviation variation &.Bmraj 5.73 5.99 104.53 Jhaluin valley 6.92 4.14 59.82 xianget 5.03 1.95 38.76 wind 10.32 7.47 72.38 Pir Panjal 29.30 19.13 65.29 Kaahffiir 11.74 6.35 54.06 Kiahtwar 8.78 3.95 44.98 fihaderwah 14.78 7.70 52.09 Doda 17.56 4.73 26.93 Hanban 4.01 2.67 66.58 Reaai 7.17 4.76 66.38 UdhaffiDur 2.72 2.71 99.63 Blllfiwar 8.27 12.23 147.8c Rajourl rnd Poonch 8.00 5.37 67.12 daring 1972-73 and the hl£he8t (20.52 thousand cu.m.) during 1974-75. in p^ll the dlvieiona of Knahmir south circle the amplitude of fluctuation has remained considerably uniforas (Fi«.5.3). In the Ch«n«b circle extraction of fir has remained aoet coneistant in the Boda foreet division. In the reet of the diTisione, variations have been icuch higher ae ie revealed by the co~effielent of variations vhich is 26,'^3 per cent for T^odR, 44.48 per cent for Kishtwar, 66,58 per cent for Reaslf 66.58 per cent for ha«bi»n nnd 52.0Q per cent for Bhnderwah forest divisions (T^ble 5.4). In the Dode forest division fluctuations have been very low as is revealed by the standard deviation of 4.73 around a isean of 17.56. The highest out turn was recorded in the year 1970-71 and the lowest in 1975-76. In the Keasi and the hassban divisions fluctuations have been adequately high, the amplitude resiaining alaost the same. In the Kamban division extraction decreased more than 60 per cent during the period 1966-67 to 1969-70. The year 1970-71 recorded no extraction. In the year 1971-72 there was a five fold increase with a further decrease of more than 80 per cent during 1972-73. Thereafter extraction haa gradually been increasing. In the Beasi forest division no definite trend has been observed in extraction of fir. Extraction fluctuated throughout this period. In the Bhaderwah forest division too fluctuation has been quite significant. The highest out tuna (32.56 thousand cu.o.) was recorded during the year 1970-71 whereas the lowest (2.69 thousand cu.B.) haa been recorded in the year 1974-75. In the Zu, FIR TEMPORAL VARIATIONS IH ACTUAL OUT TURM CHCMA* CIRCLE KASHMIR NORTH CIRCLE KASHMIR SOUTH CIRCLE PW PAMAL V M i -J 1 i> V"' •/ ** *• •» i1 t* "ri/jii " Ff^.s-.^ 2:: BLiahtwar forest dlvieioc» on the other hand* verlation has been a little lees than the Baasban* the Reasl and the fihaderwah divisionst the co-«fficient of variation being 44.98 per cent. The year 1970-71 was the year of no extraction whereas the year 1973-76 was the year of highest extraction. From 1966-67 to 1970-71 no definite trend ia indicated. From 1971-72 to 1975-74 extraction declined considerably. Thereafter it increased to a larger extent. Thus in this circle as a whole the out turn had high fluctuations in the Bhaderwah, the Bamban and the J^easi divisions. It remained moderate in the Kishtvar and low in the Loda divisions (Fig.5*3)• Variation in the actual extraction was highest in the Stat© in the Jamau circle. The co-efficient of variation of actual out turn of fir was highest (147.88 per cent) in the Billawar forest division followed by the Udhampur foreat division with Q9.63 per cent and the fiajouri and Poonch division with 67.1? per cent In the Billawar division extraction of fir decreased from 1966-67 to 1969-70 and reached a very low ievel of 1.50 thoiuiand cu.m. From 1969-70 onwards extraction increased to 43*92 thousand cu.m. in the year 1972-73. After that it again declined to 0.07 thousand eu. m. in 1975-76. This fluctuation is clearly deBionstrated by the 2 .. co-effldent of variation which le aa hl^ aa 147.8b per cant. In the Udhanpur foreet dlTlalon no particular trend has bewd establlahed in the extraction of fir. The hl^heat extraction waa recorded in the year 1970-71 and the loweat in 1973-74. The co-efflclent of variation (99.63 per cent) la conaiderabl^ high. In the Hajourl and x'ocmch dlvialon extraction has been more conelatant aa conpared with the UdhBffipur and the Billavar foreat dlvialon* a fact which ie aupported by the co-efficient of variation of 67.12 i»er cent. In the Bajourl and i^oonoh foreat divlaiona extraction of fir aloiost doubled in 1966-69 aa compared to the out turn of 1966-67. This waa followed by a year of leae extraction which again rose oonaiderabl^' in 1970-71. Lxtraotion reached an all tlae high during the year 1971-72 in this division wiMn it stood at 18*50 thousand cu.s. The foUowicf year recorded an all time low extraction with en out turn of 0.74 thousand cu.tr.. Thus in Jaffisu circle as a whole fluctuations In the actual out turn has been considerably high with the FJlllawar division showing aaxlmum variation. Teaporyl Variations In Extraction of Chlr Temporal variations in the actual out turn of chlr experienced the highest degree of variation during the period of study (1966-67 to 1975-76), From 1966-67 2\ ^> to 1972-73 extraction fluctuated from year to year. Thereafter there had been a gradual increeuBe. The lowest out turn of 5.31 tbouaand cu.m, was recorded in 1966-69» followed by the year of naximuiB extraction of 52.13 thousand cu,m, (Table 5.1). These variations ere hi^h—lightened by the co-efficient of variation which stands at 50.34 per cent, i'Ue to the constraints imposed by nature, chir pine in the state is lii£ited only to Chenab and JazniLu lorest circles. In the foroer it is found only in the Heasi and the x^aBban divisions with some very insignificant areas in the Bods and the Bhaderwah forest divisions. In the hauiban division the degree of variability in the actual extraction of chir is very high in cMBparasion to the heasi forest divsion whidi is revealed by the co-efficient of variation of 127.7 per cent ^nd 87.45 per cent respectively (T^ble 5.5). In the Raasban forest division rccxiinuai extraction of 3.94 thousand CU.E, was recorded duririt the yenr 1969-70, followed by a yesr of no extraction. In the heasi forest division on the other hand, tht? actual out turri decreased from 1966-67 to 1968-69 and remained fluctuating thereafter. The year 1969-70 recorded ajaxiaiuai extraction of 7.88 thousand cu.ic. whereas the aainimuin extraction of 0.62 thousand cu.ic. was recorded during 1974-75. In Chenab forest circle extraction of chir ie carried out only in 2.:< Table 5.5 Extraction of Chir Fine from 1966-67 to 1975-76 (Fifures in 000 cu»m.) Division i" ean utandard Co-efficient deviation of variation Hamban 0.90 1.15 127.07 heasi 2.71 2.37 67.45 Udhampur 2,92 2.71 92.08 Billawar 1.80 1.40 77.77 Kajouri and t'oonch 10.08 5.69 56.44 (jansaiu 0.72 1.01 iA0,2l the Hamban and the heaai forest divisions and here too fluctustlon Is of high order,as can be seen from Fif.5.4. In tTaoiau circle chir is extracted froic all the divisions. The tejBporal variation in the actual oat turn is exceptionally high in the southern part of Jatauu circle and comparatively low in the northern divisions. The Highest co-efficient of variation, 140.27 per cent, vas recorded in Jaxumu circle. The degree of variability is the lowest in the Kajouri and Poonch division which stands at 56.44 per cent (Table 5.5). In the Jamaiu division there was no extraction during the years 1966-6/, 1966-69 2 CHIR JlHPOhAL VARIATIONS IN ACTUAL OUT TURN CHENAB CIRCLE MASt RAHBAN »»5r?f •H-rt T?-'»« JAMMU CIRCLE RAJOURI-HX>NCH i»**-ti «> «•••• *97» 7c a5,Aa5-7« »-»5 »»•>• >•-»» '* '• ^'r^^'"^ 2 , and 1970-71. The maxlmuffi out turn vaa recorded during the year 1975-76, with an out turn of 3.21 thousand cu.ic. In the tldhampur division extraction of chir declined froc 1966-67 to 1968-69. The year 1969-70 experienced the highest extraction of 10.76 thousand cu.m,, followed by a year of low extraction with only 0,85 thousand CU.B. Thereafter extraction fluctuated considerably as ie evidenced by the co-efficient of variation which stand at 92.' per cent In the Jaillawar forest division extraction of chir uas fluctuated regularly throughout the period froE 1966-67 to 1975-76. The high degree of variation is highlighted b> the co-efficient of variation of 77.77 per cent. In the iz'oonch azui the Kajouri forest division extraction of chir has regained relatively consietant which is evidenced by of the co-efficient of variations which IB 56.44 per cent. Chir extraction in the hajourl and ir'oonoh division fluctuated from 1966-67 to 1972-73 hut showed a continuous inct-ease thereafter. In the circle as a whole fluctuation in extraction has been well marked, more so in the Jaiasiu division. The level of fluctuation in almost all the divisions of the circle can be understood from the Pig.5.4. Having seen the pattern of temporal variation in the -quantity of timber extracted from the four major coniferous species of Jamcju and Kashmir forests for a 2.. • period of ten years ending 1975-76, projectiooa for extraction of the timber froa theae speciee lo the year 1985-86 can be made. In the following linee theae projections are drawn by varioua icethoda. Taicing into consideration the actual out turn of deodar timber both in 1966-67 and in 1975-76 we CHn project its approximate volume in the year 1985-66. «e have seen that in 1966-67 the actual out turn of deodar timber was 69.04 thousand cu.m. which rose to 94.89 thousand cu.o;. in the year 1975-76, thereby registring e net increase of 25.85 thousand cu.o:.. which when expressed in percentage comes to 37.44 per cent. The projected net increase for the year 1985 will therefore, be 37.44 per cent of the actual out turn in the year 1975-76 i.e., 37.44 per cent of 94,89 thousand cu.m. Thi& amounts to 35.52 thousand cu.o.. and if this is added to the actual out turn figure of 197t then in absolute teraie the projected extraction for 1985-B6 will be 130.41 thousand cu.m. (94.89 + 35.52). but if we take into consideration the total growing stock and total extraction during this period, the projected extraction for 1985 will differ from the earUer 2... entlBsate. The total growing atock of deoder 1B 1966-67 vaa 18,614.20^ thouaand OU.E.. and tha total axtractlon from 1966-67 to 1975-76 was 963.3 thouaand ou.m. which ia 5.17 per cent of the total growing; atock of 1966-67, The total grovinr atock of deodar in 1975-76 stood at 25,6Q8.66^ thouaand cu.ic. end tha projected total extraction apto 1985-86 will be 5.17 per cent of this grovixxg atock which a^ounta to 1,328,62 thouaand cu.m. The average yearly extr-ictioc will, therefore, he 132.862 thouaand cu.m. If we get the itean of both the projectiona made above, which comea to 131.63 thouaand cu.m., we aoay be much nearer the truth. Kail Adopting the eame raethoda for Kail alao we can project ita extraction for 19Q5. The actual extraction of Kail in 1966-67 waa 77.29 thousand cu.oi. which roae to only 81.21 thouaand cu.m, in 1975-76, showing a net incre&ee of 3.P? thouaand ou.ir., which when expressed in percentage cofflee to 5.07 per cent. The projected net increase for the year 1985-e6 ot the rate of 1966-67 will be enual to 5.07 2. The total of growing stock of all the coniferoua epeclea refered to here and here after for 1966-67 haa been obtained froE A Digest of Forest Jtatietics. itW^ ^P4>pff^°^^T ^Qf^ftt Rffcpyd p^^U ^rina^ar, 3. The total of growing stock of all the coniferoua speciea refered here and hereafter for 1975-76 have been collected by the eiithor fro© the varioua eourcea of the Jaaoniu and Kaahi&ir forest Department, 2.... per ccmt of 31.21 thousand cu«m. afflounting to 6.24 thousand cu.Qt, and if this extr«iction is added to the actual out turn of the year 1975-76 then the absolute projected extraction of Kail for the year 1985-86 wlU be 87.45 thousand CU.L.. (81.21 + 6.24). Taking the total growing stock and total extraction of Kail for this period into consideration* the projected extraction will show a different position. Thus in 1966-67 the total volume of growing stock of Kail was 20219.48 thousand cu.ai. and the total extraction in the decade ending t975-76 was 901.08 thousand cu.a. This is only 4.46 per cent of the total g^rowing stock which stood in 1966«67. The total growing stock in 1975-76 stood at 25698.794 thousand cu.ni. The projected total extraction froa 1976-77 to t985'-6G will be 4.46 per cent of the arrowing stock of 1975-76 which, as indicated, stands at 25698.794 thousand cu.a,, and will be equal to 1146.18 thousand cu.nr., therefore the projected extraction for 1985-86 will be 114.613 thousand cu.a. Now if we take the mean of the projected extraction of Kail obtained by the two methods, it will coBe to 101.03 thousand cu.m. This figure, therefore, represents fke projected extraction of Kail for the year 1985-86. 2.^-. Fir iiittilarly the projection for fir can be drawn ae under: Total extraction of fir timber in 1966-67 » 148.21 thousand cu.a.. Total extraction of fir tiuaber in 1975-76 » 176.07 thousand cu.it. 3 het increase in the extraction « 27.66 thousand v^i f'ercentage increase in the extraction » 16.79 per cent. Therefore, the projected net increase of fir for the year 198^-86 will be equal to 18.79 per cent of the 176.07 thousand cu.ic. or 33.08 thousand cu.m. Thus the absolute projected extraction for the year 1985-86 will be 209.15 thousand cu.is. In t^^^riDS of the total growing stock and total extraction, projection of extraction figure for the year 1985-86 will be as under: Total growing stock of fir in 1966-67 « 50812.36 _ thousand tL% Total extraction of fir froK 196fc-67 to •» 1508.4 , lqf75-76 thousand i.^, i?ercentage of total extraction to the = 2,96 per cent total growing stock Total growing stock of fir in 1975-76 » 48581.371 thousand cu.or.. The total projected extraction of fir in 19&?-86 will be 2.96 per cent of 48581.371 thousand cu. m. which aniountB 2i to 1433*00 thousand CU.JD. This giv«8 143*80 thousand CU.ES. as sm average yearly projected eztraetion, 7he mean value of the tvo projection coiEies to 176.47 thousand ca.m. This cnn be taken as the projected extraction of fir in the year 1985-86. Chir Total extraction of chir timber » 9*97 thousand cu.m. in 1966-67 Total extrriction of chir timber » 36*94 thousand ca.s^. in 1975-76 Ket increase in extraction » 26.77 thousand cu.ffi. ir'ercentage increase in the s270*^1 J?BT cent, extraction The projected net increase of chir for the year 1985-86 will, therefore, be 270.51 per cent of 9*97 thousand cu.a. (chir extraction for 1975-76) and which eauals to 99.92 thousand cu.m. Thus the absolute projected extraction for the year 1985-86 at the rate of 1966-67 is equal to Q9.92 thousand cu.m. plus 36.94 thousand cu.m. (extraction of chir in 1975-76), The total comes to 136.86 thousand cu.m. The second method will give the following result: Total growing stocic of chir in » 2199*62 thousand cu.£u. 1966-67 Total chir extraction from « 259.6 thousand cu.ic. 1966-67 to 1975-76 (t«.'' i'ercentage of total extraction « 11,80 per cent to the total proving stock lotal growini? atoclt in 1975-76 -4053.1M thousand cu.m. The total projected extraction of chir till 1985-86 will, therefore, be 11.80 i^'&T cent of 4053.134 thousand cu.m. which amounts to 475*90 thousand cu.i&., t^iving 47.5^9 thousand ou.ot. as average yearly extraction in this period. Thus the projected extraction of chir for 1985-86, according to this oethod, is 47*59 thousand cu.ir,. In the previoue cose w« obtf'ined 136.86 thousand cu.nri. as the projected extr- ction of chir for 1985-86. The mean for the two projected figures of chir extractions for 1985-66 BBiounts to ^7%Z2 thousand cu.m. It should be made clear that projections about extraction of timber of viirious species discussed above are purely hypothetical and n>ay not wholy COEC true but they certainly indicate a trend which may be witnessed in future. nfter observing the pattern of tenifXirnl vnriatione in the actual out turn and projecting the approximate extraction figures for 1985-86 it will be both interesting and worthwhile to asses the growing stock vis-a-vis prescribed yield and actual extraction. An exercise in the 2. ^> following page* is, therefor*, made to aaaes the growing etook and drsv appropriate conclusioKia. Aaaeaeaent of l/eodar Growing a took The total growing atock of deodar in 1966-67 waa 18614.20 thouaand cu.m. which roae to 25698.66 thouaand cu.ffi. in 1975-76 thereby regiatering a net increaae of 7084.46 thcusand CU.K. or 38.05 per cent. Extraction of deodar in thia decade, on the other hand» atood at 963.3 thouaand cu.m. a^ninat the preacribed annual yield of 150.20^ thouaand cu.m. According to the preacribed yield, total extraction of deodar for the period under diacuaeion should have been 1502,0 thouaand cu.m. Thia, therefore, meana that the actual extraction of 963.3 thouaand ca.a. vaa only 64.13 per cent of the total preacribed yield. Thia auggeata that the reiuaining 35.87 per cent of the total preacribed ^ieid ahould be available in the foreata in addition to the total volume of 1966-67. Thia 35.87 per cent of the total preacribed yield cornea to 538.76 thouaand cu.su, which when added to the growing volume of 1966-67 givea a figure of 19152.96 thouaand cu.m. (538.76 + 18614.20;. This /reacribed yield for 1966-67 of deodar and other ooniferoua apeoiea have been taken froc A ligeat of Foreat Statietice. Jacau and Kaehcaiy Poreat Record Ko.1, brinagar, 1969, and the preacribed yield for 1975-76 froE the lateat recorda of the foreat department, Jaanru and Kaahoiir GoveraiBent by the author. 2;., volume is accepted to be present in the forests but the volusie actiially avBilable at i,»re8ent is 2^69&«66 thousand cu.Q.. This is a satisfactory position. The conclusion that effierges froK the above discussions is taat the over all position 01 deodar forests in the state is no quite satisfactoiy, and their {Q&nagei&ent is more or less based on the principals of scientific forestry otherwise the picture that has emerged should have been quite different. /tasessHient of Kail Growinit btoclt The total growing stock of Kail in 1966-67 was 20219.48 thousand cu.m., which after ten years stood ot 25698.79 thousand CU.IB. in 1975-76. This shows a net increase of 5479.31 CU.E. or 27.09 per cent. The annual prescribed yield of Kail for this period, on the other hand, was 159.33 thousand cu.m. which should have given a total Kail extraction of 1593.3 thousand cu.m. durin£ the period 1966-67 to 1975-76. But actual extraction of Kail during this period was only 901.8 thousand CU.HS. or 56.59 per cent of the total prescribed yield. Thus the remaining 43.41 per cent of the total prescribed yield, which axcounts to 691.65 thousand cu.m., should be available in the forests in addition to the total growing stock of 1966-67 or 20911.13 thousand CU.BD. in all. But the actual growing stock of Kail in the forests available at present is 2:^.- 25698,79 thouaand cu.a. This clearly proves that lik« ctrtT the fflanageffient of kail forgets is also in a satisfactory etate and en re ie taken to maintain a balance between a sustained yield and forest growth. Assessment of Fir Growing otock The total growing stock of fir in 1966-67 was 30812,36 thousand cu.m. This had been reduced to 46581.57 thousand cu.m. in 1975-76, giving a net reduction of 2230.99 thousand cu.m., which when expressed in percentage comes to 4.39 per cent. The annual prescribed yield for fir in 1966-67 was 544.15 thousand cu.it. and Bccordin^ly the H)Ctujr.l extraction should have been 5441.5 thousand cu.c. during 1966-76. But actual extraction during this period was only 1508.4 thousand cu.m. which is only 27*72 per cent of the total prescribed yield. The balance of 72.28 per cent, BBiOuntin^ to 3933*11 thousand CU.K. should, therefore, be present in the forests. If we add this balance to the growini^ stock that existed in 1966-67, the total cooies to 54745.47 thousand cu.c. This then ie fir growing stock which should exist in the forests but the actual growing stock which exist in 197'7-76 was only 48581.37 thousand cu.ai., which frlls short by 11.25 per cent of the required volume. This means that the missing 6158,36 thousand cu.m. has been ffiie-utilised. This is ?> sorry state of affpiirs and the C t^ »/ forest dep&rtment must see to It that the loopholes for the Bisuse of valuable timber resources are plugged. This becomes all the more important when we consider the fact ti:iat the t&isused or the oaismanaged quantity of timber during the decade is four times the actual voluoie extracted. Again in view of the strong posaibility of estallishing a viable paper industry in the state, the necessity of conseming this valueable natural resource becomes even core urgent. iiBseseiaent of Chir Growinit ^tock In the case of chir the total growing stocic of the Jaaittu and Kashcsir i^tate in the year 1966-67 was 2199.62 thousand CU.IE. which increased to 4033*13 thousand CU.IL. in 1975-76. This represents a net increase of 1833*51 thousand cu.si. or a 83.35 P«r cent increase in the growing •tock as compared to 1966-67 figure. The annual preocribed yield for this period (1966-67 to 1975-76) was 59.vB5 thoueand cu.K. which 80aid noriaally have given a total extraction of 598,5 thousand cu.m. but actual extraction was only 25.96 thousand cu.m. which constitutes only 4.33 per cent of the total prescribed extraction. This, therefore, means that remaining 95.67 per cent of the total prescribed yield, aajounting to 572.5© thousand cu.m., should stand in the forests in addition to the total growing stock of chir in 2.i-< 1966->67 thus the expected chir volume In the forestst aocording to the above calculation, should be 2772.2 thotuiand cu.m. But the volume actually existing (4033*13 thousand cu.r..) ie isuoh higher than this figure. It can* therefore, be said that chir forests of the state, on the whole enjoy a satisfactory position. The assessment of the growing stock of various coniferous species made above reveals that except fir all other species seen, to be in a satisfactory position. Unfortunately fir forests are being depleted as a result of Oiisuse and aisCiSnagieroent. This runs counter to the national forest policy of India. 7he managers of tnese forests, therefore, should tatie necessary steps to reverse this hariEful trend. 24 CHAPTER VI PQR,:bT B4^MD IMDUSTBIitS The iBjportance of foresto for man's economic development can hardly be over-emphaelded. Hood ia a part of man's every day life, froa toothpicke to ttaaaive furnishing and the very etructure in which he dwells are all dependent on wood. "The forest has eponaored civilization as a source of aiaterialB and an environmental heaven...". Farther "from the view point of variety wood is used for not lees than 4,500 purposes... Its properties give it a versaiity poseeeed by almost no other ajaterial, Affionfc these workabililjr coaibinea strength and light weight, colour and rrain, inaulatinc ability, response to sound vibrations, bending strength and odor have been appreciated and used for centuries' In the preceding chepter an asBeasBient of the forest resource of Jammu and Kashmir haa been made. These resources» therefore, provide the basic raw material for the forest baaed industries in the state. In the forest product Industrie for which basic raw mrsterial according to Guthrie is the lofa and the major processing consists of converting these logs 1. vicLery, iu^., plants for Kan, rub. x^rentice- Mr-11, Inc., hnglewood Cliffs, Kew Jersery, ^econd .-d., p. 142. 2. nlien, c,^., ^n Introduction to /vaerican Koreatrv. i.ac Grsw- iiill iiook Cospany, Inc. New tork, 1950, p.53. 3« Guthrie, J.A. and Armstrong, G.i<., oestem Forest industries, ijaitl&ore: John Hop iking !^r ess, 1961, p.51. 2-1.- into such product8 as lumber, pulp arsd paper. But if we examine the existing industrial clii&ate of Jaisciu and Kashmir l^tate we would De at a loss to find any large scale forest based industiy such as paper and pulp, although sufficient raw siaterial for the purpose is available in the forests of the state. The researches made by hegional Research i^aboratory at Jammu has developed a technioue for the first tise in the world to manufacture hard boards froffi the pine needles for making packing cases to release pressure on the wood. But benefits of this valuable research are not bein^g reaped by either public or private Bectoi« in the state, uome thinking in the public sector to establish pulp, paper and hardboard industries ie goint: is on but when this thinking/^oing to be translated into action can hardly be predicted, .lowever some iasportant forest based indjtstries of Jaaaau and Kashair iitate are discussed in the following pafcss, These include joinery mills, KashBiir willows, Hosin and turpentine factory and Government thsrKacentical and match factory. Government joinery mills, a public sector unit of Jamiau and Kashmir Industries limited, is situated at 4. Information is based on the verbal discussions with the scientists of hegional Kesearch A Psopore OB iirinagar- Jammu highway about 10 kas. froE orlnbgar cit^. *jiince moat of its products find a maricet outside the etmte it seeme that location of theinill ie governed isore b;^ the availability of raw asaterial than by the Karket for the finished products. <^nother important locational factor is the eJiistance of a well ionit system of inland waterways which greatly facilitate the tranaportatiox of bulky raw materials to the factory site. In addition cheap and plentiful supply of both skilled and eeasi-skilled Itibour is available from nearby areas. :',stabli8hed as early as 1954 the Government Joinery Kills is the first of its kind in the country. The plant eoneisting of a wide range of latest semi-autonsatic wood working machines iiBported froiE Jweden end Cerniany was installed and commissioned by Swedish experts. Initially the factory was being run by foreign experts who were gradually replaced by local technicians, operators and supervisors trained by them. At present the entire complex is self sufficient in every respect and is capable of producing in bulk a large variety of wood products. inftw f>it,yrial Deodar, kail, and fir which are available plentifully in the state are two principal sources of raw material for the factory, bome items such as doors, windows, shutters 24 and framea arc asanufactured from deodar wood only which i8 fanaouB for its »tr»ngth durability and fine texture, horeover deodar yields the only available coniferous tirber in the country which ia next to teak in its physical and other properties. For other itesus kail and fir tinaber is also used. The raw aiaterial need at the factory is entirely met by the JaiEaiu and iiashmir Forest Corporation, icnown previously as Govemnsent -umbering Undertakings. The table 6.1 shows the consuiaption of various species of wood tofether with the value, used as raw material in the factory. Table 6.1- GonauffiDtion of raw material (Voluffle in cu.a.) (Value Es.in Lakh) -^P^cies ..m?-??, 19p-74, i?74-7^, 197S-76, ,1??^"T7, Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Vol. Deodar 2228 n.a. 3598 n.a. 2262 n.s. 1405 n.a. 2789 15.26 Kail 578 n.a. 801 n.a. 597 n.a. 173 0.71 677 3.22 Fir 1843 n.a. 2379 n.a. 1815 n.a. 1280 4.02 2112 7.84 5. source: annual Balance i^heets of the Factory for Respective Years. 9 ^ i^lnoe deodar behaves very veil in the tropical cll&atea and is not norEually attacked by white ants and other ineectst it has been used more than any other species. Further as the table reveals the use of deodar has been increasing except 1975-76. A siailar pattern is also revealed in the case of other tvo species, Ueasoniniif of Timber In a climate like ours proper seasoning of wood is the first necessary step in the efficient utilization of ticiber. This is because various species of tiicber are- supposed to develop defects particularly after drying, if big logs of timber are allowed to dry under the sun, they will ^et such defects as end splits, surface crack.8 etc, in a coaparativeJy short span of time. In order to provide adequate protection against rapid drying the factory stores the logs in a spacious log pond, 'fh^rs ^f^^ e€ seacoping.. This type of seasoning is knovn as water seasoning. The desired level of moisture in the sawn timber, like sleepers and scantting, is from 8 to 10 per cent. But the logs froc! which the sleepers are asade contain 100 to 200 per cent ffioisture. Thus the reduction of aoieture from 100 to ?00 per cent to 8 to 10 per cent under controlled 6. Information is based on verbal discussion with the .'Manager of the factory. 24 conditions la another typ« of seasoning, oawn timber ie etacusd on pre-bullt b«de in the spaoiouG tiaober yards for 0ir aeaeonln^ which reduoea the noisture contenta front 100 to 200 per cent to about 60 per centt thereafter the tlffiber ie charged into seasoning kilns. This factory poeseseee BiRny isodem kilns which are used for seasoning timber to the desired moisture. This is done under most scientific find hygienic conditions. At present the factory is hivinc B seaaoninir capacity of 5660 cu.m, timber per annum wnich is beinr expanded by another 2830 CU.E. Impregnation of wood protects it from fungi, attfic«i of termites, borers snd marine organisms thereby increesini the life of timber. To meet this requirement the Joinery Jr'actory is equiped with a modem iiLpr^nation plant which has a capacity of treating about 113K)0 cu.m. of tiiLber per annuo:. The impregnation of timber bein^ an expansive process, only that much wood ie impregnated for which specific orders has been received. The factory produces joinery which includes doors, windows, furniture such as sofa sets, tables, chirs, file racks, trays, stools, beds, alimirahs etc. The mill is designed to produce annually 36000 door and window ohuttere 24. I ten of i^roductlon 1979-71 1971-7? Quantity Value Quantity Value Joinery 11190 3.20 9358 4.06 Tongued and grooved ^.^g^.g.67.96^ coardinf, 4.05 rm.227994 4.37 ^avn and finished 1.20 timber 323 1.45 152 Furniture 8325 5.27 7805 5.46 Field Work - 2.03 - 1.05 Other Products « 1.55 - 1.05 Grand Tot©l 17.55 17.19 Item of Production 1977-78 197g-79 •ia79-99 antiy Value ;uantlty Value Quan- Va2 ue tity (anding ucx.i ^l^i Joinery 25636 18.11 35913 34.25 18387 16.03 Tongued and grooved Boardings 631 9.31 214 3.44 198 3.05 oawn and finished timber 159 2.07 371 5.35 84 1.00 Furniture 18201 11.85 20673 15.65 8715 5.59 Field '»oric 0.94 1.88 0.49 Other froducte 0.94 4.40 1.81 Grand Total 43.22 64.97 21 ,°n 3 our I 2-\^> 7 With frames and about 30,000 pieces of furniture. Apart from this the factory le capable of producing annually 2830 cu.iE. of tongued and grooved timber, profiled decorative timber and prefabricated timber hutments. Table 6.2 shows the production of vfirioue items with their value in h£. The table shows that production of almost all itece fluctuates from year to year. The lowest production of Joinery pieces was in the year 1975-76, a nu&ber even less than that of 1966-67. The maximum production of joinerj' products tooic place in the year 1978-79 when the production alsDoat touched 36,000 pieces, the maximum capacity for which the factory is designed. The .production of joinery units on the whole shows an upward trend with clnor deflection froc. the normal here and there. The production of tongued and grooved timber also remained fluctuating and moreover no estiiiiatlon is possible for the years 1970-71, 1976-77, 1977-78 and onwards for the data is available only in cubic atetres and for rest of the years it is in running metres (without other dimentione such as thickness and width). However, the year 1968-69 seems to be the year of lowest production and the year 1973-74 with 4,24,400 runnlnr metres the year of maximum production if the data flven in cubic Bietres is i^^nored for there can be no estiniation or conversion 7. Information is based on the verbal discussion with hanag^r of the factory. 24>> in running ffi«tre8 in the absence of other epaclficatione like width and thioknesa. In case of sown and finished timber there is a descending trend from 1966-67 to 1968-69 followed by two years of coasparatively high production and then again a fail to a all tiiae low production Ir. the year 1971-72, except of course the year 1979-80 for which the data is available upto the end of October 1979. Furniture products, too, docs not show a definate trend but the yeare 1972-74 r<»ffiained the best years of production touching all time high in the latter year. The production of furniture, therefore, alao remained fluctuating. Fluctuations in the production of different items in the Joinery Kill are no doubt linked with market demand and varies in direct proportion to it. Larket The products of the Joinery hill have a ready market becawise the items produced are of superior ouality as compared to similar items available in the market. The factory has been a re^-ular supplier of joineries to varioue housing projects in different parts of the country. Important among the customers which deserve mention arc the Central Public Works Department (C.P.^.D,), the lelhi ievelopment Authority (D.D.A.), and the Housing Boards of iiaryana, Kajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The factory also 2v) supplies its products to the Ghaslabad XmprovMtent Trust and the Military iin^lneering dervio* (K.K.S.). Truck body buij^ding industry, dock yards, railways, hotels and theatres are also regular custosers of the factory. In Jaosmu and Kaehalr the products of the factory are supplied to the ngineering Dfoertaent and other constructional agencies. Table 6.3 shows the sale of various products of the factory, although the aajor item of production in the factory is considered to be the joinery, it appears that tongued and grooved boarding, sawn and finished timber and field Jobs are alao no less important. In fact some of the items like furniture earn more than the Joinery, field jobs, which are concerned with sanufscture and fabrication of iteos like cabins, shopes and barracks etc. in the field earned considerably suore than joinery and furniture from 1966-67 to 1968-69. Thereafter the joinery has taken a lead in tertos of earnings but nevertheless field jobs have mana^red to Hisintain the position, iiawn and finished tiaber is ased in making planks and karries. The position of sawn and finished timber is no less important. Tong^ued and grooved boarding is used for ceilings, floorings and cornices. These iteas have shown an increase in earnings since 1966-69 as eompsred to income from field jobs. Initially 2[)i Item of irroduction JXlrl 1212=21, ty Value QuantityValue Joi&ory 85 4.O0 19539 9.50 Toiifciued and groo 3.59 277661 5.50 ved xJOardinfc m uavn and Piniahed Item of t^roduction fe-79 iq79>8Q ( Kndlag Oct .80t ;y Value Quantity Value Joinery » 33.23 20139 18.93 Tongued and ITTOO- h P.73 279 5.29 ved Bonrding m ..awn «»nd riniehed c 5.36 78 1.08 Timber -'uroiture I 15.63 9046 6.75 /ield AorkB 2.22 «» 0.5a ether irToducte 3.70 « 1.56 Grand Total 69.87 - 34.19 21). furniture was not an important item ot production bat since 1970 the factory has embariced upon an anbitioue prograoiBie of production of furniture from treated soft wood and the well known Kaahadr walnut tiaaber. The value of the production of furniture has gradually but steadily increased from K8.5.27 lakh in 1970-71 to its. 15.65 lakh in 1978-79 (Table 6.2). This increase has been priicarily due to the fact that the entire requirement of furniture of government offices and educational institutions of the fitate is fulfilled by this factory. Labouy The number of persons finding emoloyment in the factory also fluctuates widely from year to year even from month to month. This is because the factory has to adjust the iaboiAr fore* according to the volume of producticm in hand which has been shown to vary from year to year, i'reoaent recruitment and retrenchment, therefore, is a conspicuous feature ot the labour situation, while this system has the advantage of being very economical, it, nevertheless, fails to attract good workers who prefer to seeK jobs with greater security of tenure. But of iste the situation is being rectified to some extent by hiring the skilled and semi-skilled workers on a permanent or semi-permanent basis. The strength of the labour. Including 2 17 O E€magerlel etaff wae 545 in 1972-73 and remained almost unchanged upto the end of 1978-79. At present the factory pifiployeB 563 peraonc which includes 395 skilled and eeffii- Bkilled workers and 158 managerial staff. >.lthoagh the labour force has not increased much during the present decade, there has been a phenoaenel increase in the wegee paid to thest. In 1972-73 fis.6,86 lakh were paid to 450 workers where as in the year 1976-77 Es.16.38 lakh were paid to only 514 worker©. Table 6.4 will show the detaile of workers and wages paid to them upto 1977-78. Table 6.4^ Labour, coaponeat PUisbers &&d wajces paid Year So. uf ^ages paid Managerial oalBry paid workers (Rs.ic Lakh) litaff (&o.) (ne.in iakh 1972-73 450 8.88 95 0.68 1973-74 550 15.01 96 1.16 1974-75 550 17.69 98 1.39 1975-76 488 16.94 97 1.66 1976-77 514 16.38 77 1.34 1977-78 517 n.a. 96 n.r.. 8. source: Official Records of the Factory, 2r; t iis mentioned earlier except the managerial staff all skilled and eeiBl-ekllXed labour are not pensanent govem&ent enployeea. « The factory which produces ouality products and is the only cme of its kind in the country» has earned a good name in the siarkets of Delhi, liaryana, Hajasthan, r'onjab and Uttar Pradesh. The fact that it not only produces articles of its own standard specifications but also provides the castoiLers, with the articles cf their specification gives it an additional advantage in the market. According to the atma^er, architects, engineers, designers and builders can fully depend on this factory for their entire requirement of wood products. KAi^tii'4& WILLOW;, ^U^ ;^AH£# i^cetipfi Kashmir willows, as it is known today is a presiler cricket bat jE«mufaeturing industry of the country. It was established in the year 1938 as a semi-government sports factory at Talab Tillo near Jammu city. The factory was initially started with a capital inveatnient of liS.25,000.00, 80 per cent of which was contributad by state ^overnrcent, the reoaining 20 ner cent caoe from K/B Oberoi Liitited, oiylkot (now in Paiastan). ^ year after its inception the factory was shifted to Rajbag, Srinagar. This decision was influenced by the fact that the raw csaterial for the Industry - the willow clefts caice primarily from the Kashcir valley. It was, therefore, thought fit to shift the industry near the source of raw material. But the decision to shift the fnotory to the valley was subsequently proved wron^r when complaints were received that the bats manufactured here had the defect of openin^^ out of epiicc joints between the handle and the blade. The siatter was referred to the Forest Research Institute, Dehra lun in April 1940 for expert advice. P.R.I., Dehra Dun submitted that the defect was due to the enon&ous differences between humidity of the Kashmir valley and the warmer plains of India where the bats were mostly used. The management was left with no alternative but either create artificial air-conditioned woriclng accomodation In the factory or to shift it back to Jammu which enjoyes climatic conditions identical to those of the warmer plains of India. The 9. Information is baaed on the verbal discussion with the Manager, Sh. uaxman Dass. 2i)v, latter altematiye was thought proper as the first one was too costly. Consequently the Kashmir ^lillow Factory was again shifted to Jamoiu and located at Mi ran daheb, about 15 ka. southwest of JaasBu city. Besides the environmental suitability the factory caase close to the market it had to capture. Buyers fron Punjab and other states could easily turn up for makinis; the purchases. Ho doubt the factory has to pay greater transport charges on raw material froc Kashmir valley, bat this is more than compensated by bein^ near to the market ATA the ease with which the buyers can reach here. It can* therefore* be said that location of this factory is determined by climatic factors more ttwa by any other sin^gle factor. Kaw platerial The basic raw material used in the cricket bat manufacturing - the main item of production in the factory are (a) isillow clefts» (b) Cane sticks, (c) Hide-glues (d) sports twine no.50., (e) Olass paper, (f) Rubber s^ieets and many other items like ropes, chemicals etc. but uost important of the raw materials is willow clefts. The willow clefts are procured fr<«a the Kashmir valley which is supposed to produce willows most suited for bat Danufacluring. But the factory now has to compete 2i)< with other cricket oanufacturin^ concercs in the private sector both within and outside the state and in the face of stiff ooapetiOB, it is no longer easy for the nanageaent to procure the raw material cheaply. Three types of willow clefts are purchased hy the factory vis. let class, 2nd clase and 3rd class. The specificationa each class are as under: Class Length Width Depth, i>ide thicknesl^l let Class 76 cm. and above 13 ost* 9*cm. 2.33 cm. 2nd Clasa 71 oa. and above 12 cm. 7.6 CK. 2.53*oit. 3rd Class 66 cic. and above 10.6 cm. 6.4 cm. 2.53 cs;* Besides the above specifications, the timber of first Glass blades should be free from sap-wood, creeks, knots, rot and fungus. Its grains should are required to be stz^ight and parallel to the sides. Ho yellow or red coloured clefts can find place in the first class, ^^econd class blades should also be free from sap-wood with 75 per cent whiteness. It should also be free from cracks, knots, rots and fungus. Grain should bo straight and parallel to the sides. Blades of red, yellow and black to, Infonaation is based on verbal discuasion with the Manager of the factory, Kr. Laxman Dasa. 2b- colours ere not to \m included in tb» 2ai claaa. Tht 3rd claas bladss should have at least 30 par cent ¥hlt«n«Bs and 30 psr e«nt li^t brovn ooloar. It should aleo be fr«s from shakes, eraeks, knots» rot and twa&ia. Black, yellow and red coloured blades have no place even in the third class category, Tmble 6,3 shovs the quantity of willow clefts purchased and consumed. The table 6,3 shows a trend though a weak one, both in the procurement of the willow clefts and the production of cricket bats. The procurement of willow clefts increases and decreases in alternate years and so does the quantity of these clefts used for producing cricket bats, the highest difference in the procurement of willow Table 6.5 11 Tear Opening Quant ity Total Quantity ^iale of BalarK^e Balance if* ur chased1 issued willow for pro clefts duction 1966-67 25723 52594 87317 44633 50 33634 1967-68 33634 39761 73395 47450 6200 19745 1968-69 19745 67439 87184 45290 21100 20854 1969-70 20854 66016 86870 69673 - 17197 1970-71 17197 65277 102474 62288 40136 1971-72 40186 49561 89747 47276 5500 36971 1972-73 37126 28536 65662 42410 10000 13252 1973-74 13252 76431 89683 55891 20500 1974-75 13292 13292 71077 81369 55866 20200 5303 1975-76 5303 84468 89771 87895 1876 2b« clefts IB 8«en b«tve«!i th« years 1972-73 and 1973-74. But th« quantity issued for production shows aiore or less a normal Increasing trend with the exception of the years 1969-70, 1971-72 and 1972-73 when the production fell donn from the previous year's mark. The sale of the willow clefts has shown wide ranging fluctuations. This is due to the fact that the factory prefers to sell finished product! rather than the raw material* But when the purchase made is greater than the quantity to be consumed in the factory selling of raw clefts becomes profitable. Among the other raw materials cane sticks which are used for manufacturing bat handles are the most important. These are procured from the cane forest contractors of south India, for these are the only cane sticks suitable for cricket bat handles. The procurement of cane sticks alongwith their consumption is shown in table 6.6. Other raw materials like hide glues, powder, twine thread no.30, rubber sheets and glass paper axH> of minor importance and are procured directly from the producers 80 as to minimise the cost. This cricket bat manufacturing concern is the onV one of its type in the public sector in Jammu and 2u Table e.e"' i^roouremattt and conBUaotlon of Can* Stick* Year Cpening Cane pur Total Cane issued Balance Balance chased to factory (in Ho.) 1966-67 3115 15320 18435 14303 4132 1967-68 3167* 15875 19042 10497 8500^ \ 1968-69 8500 21875 30375 16895 13460 1969-70 13480 7000 20480 19701 779 1970-71 631* 16750 17381 16906 475 1971-72 475 6925 7400 6950 450 1972-73 450 9995 10445 9445 1000 1973-74 1000 13025 14025 12225 1800 1974-75 1800 8960 10760 10760 nil 1975-76 nil 15705 15705 13393 2312 Kashmir 3tate. The production in the factory both in nuality and quantity ie not upto the level expected of euch a concern. The produce has ready market inspite of the stiff coffipetion from the private sector which is coming up fast. The production and sale of the cricket bats with their values is shovn in table 6,7. This table 1 2. uouree: Annual i^alanoe Sheets of the factory for respective years. 13. All the figures aarked by sign x show a disorepeney in the total. This is due to the loss of sticks which include bracking up of sticks during the process for that period. shovs that Si^le of erlcmt bats •xo««d8 production from 1966-67 to 1969-70. Thla la Inrg^ls du« to tfa« military conflict with Pakistan in the year 1965. Tha production bats during this pariod did not slov dovn but tha market becaffia dull due to war ao that the huge stocks of bete piled up which was cleared in subsequent years. Table 6.7'* J:>roduc^f9fi ap^ a^le 9^ 9rA9^^ft fe'^lf" Year Ko. of cricket Value in Ko. of cricket Value in bats produced ita. bate/clefts sold Ka. 1966«>67 37502 169097.04 48136 206781.00 1967-68 41812 181805.45 46588 224619.35 1968-69 41277 184642.22 43950 215916.56 1969-70 47025 244109.68 47711 240399.56 1970-71 53744 297539.05 53400 324612.83 1971-72 33174 202536.30 31625 180006.00 1972-73 38112 257310.23 31614 17?41U|? 10000 clefts 44417.50 1973-74 51207 348483.60 i«X 1^cleft s 115440.00 1974-75 51717 393000.00 clefts 1fl^%!^8 1975-76 53566 438000.00 14. source: .innual Balance ^heeta of the factory tor the respective years. 2;. The experienca gained during the 1963 war was properly atiii&ed vhon th« ffiasageJBaat envisaged a dull Biaricet a^ain in 1971-72 for the same reasons and reduced production consequently the production of cricket bats was the lowest In the year 1971-72 but gradue.lly picket up and reached almost the 1970-71 level in the year 1975-76, This factoryt which enjoyed monopoly before 1953 now has to face a stiff competition not only trotu newly established email scale cricket but sanufaoturing concerne in Jaamu and Kashmir itself but also from well established sports goodB manufacturing units in Punjab* particularly Julluadhur. .upart from this competition the factory faces many otxxer ills. The cost of production is high and quality is poor* the standard of worksmanship is low and above this labour working on piece wage system desires to do as little work as possible and are not aocusto&^ed to control.1 ^ Given these handicap8» it is easy to estimate the difficulties that the factory is facing. But these problems are not very difficult to solve and can easily be corrected to face the stiff competition. It was in the year 1915 that pex^iapes the first rosin distill'ition unit in the countzy was established at 15. A note submitted by Kr. Laxman Dass» i^-ansger of the I'nctory to the General Managert •fammu and Kashmir Industries} >.imitedt •-»rinagar vide his letter I 0.357/72-73 dated 2'3,9.72. 2; Jallo in Lahore district (now in Pakistan}. This vaa followed by Indian Rosin and furpsntinfl Factory eitabliahcd in Cutterbuck^anj in th« year 1920* The Hiaaohal c'radaah Hoain and Turpentine Factory at Kahan was atarted in 1949 and in the year 1969 another factory at Balaapur wae inetelled. The ioBin and Turpentine Factory at Kiran v^aheb (Janmu), first in Jaoma and Kaahicir ^tate» was eetabliahed by P.H. Clatterbuck in the year 1939'*40. It vas baaed on the simple of 'rench ayste&i of distillation, Aa at present, it was a purely public sector concern even at the tise of its inception. The production was started at the end of the year 1940. The Hosin produced during 1941-42 was 3034 quintals vhich fell considerably in the following years. The reason for the fall in the production are more than one. In the first place* unlike the easly years of the concern* eundays and all facetted holidays are how declared non working days* thereby affecting the production. iocondly the nachinary has now becoice too old nnd defective to give desired results. To add to this the fire that broke out in the factory in 1971-72 halted ell productiotu The already worn maohinary wae further 16. >.'Ourco: < reject report subsitted to the Govemfflent by the VitknAger of the concern in the year 1962. 2i daBagtd by this fire and was d«olar«d usalaaa. This was followed by Inatalatlon of n«w and iaprorad maohinary, th«raby rejuvinatln^ the ooncem. ^mother Roaln and Tuipentine Factojry in the utate vae establiahed at uunderbani on the Jaaau'-fooneh ToeA in the year 1974. But this ill fated factory va« burnt down within a year or so of its inception. However another such factory has bean eetabliahed recently at Hajouri about 160 kas. fros Jamau and has now gone into production. Location The ..Iran ^aheb £o8in and Turpentine Factory derives ite name from the place of its location i.e. Mrax. oaheb. This small town ie about 15 ions, south-west of Jasomu city on the nain road to Ranbir ^ingh Pux«, a tehsii headquarter about 8 ksa, from Kiran ^aheb. The Jaacu- i'athankot road linking the state with the rest of the country is right under the nose of the factory - about 6 ion. from the factory site. The railway station of Janau from where finished products are exported either to other partB of the country or to Pakistan via Amrituar ie only 12 kiB6. from Piiran aaheb. Before the partition of 2 .) the country rIran aah«b lta«If was a railway station on Janmu oialkot (nov in Pakistan) line, .^part froiQ enjoying easy transport facilities Kiran ^aheb is close to the source of the rav^naterial* The resin which is the main rav sate rial comes froo nearby' the JaajEui, the Billavart the Udhaspur and the fieasi forest divisions, i-.oreover the plain area of Miran iiaheh has i^ood alluvial soil and a network of oannals exists i&ainiy for irrigatin£ paddy fields. Due to these canals the water table around Kiran i^aheb is quite high and this oakee water for factory requirements easily available. Labour for the factory is locally available at cheaper rates. Uome technical and managerial stafft however» has to be procured frooi other parts of the state. The main raw material for the indvuitry is Jleo~ resin or Chir*. ine-f^Am which is exuded from the pine trees found in abund^^nce in various forest divisions of the state (Chapter III). Of all the conifer species the ^:enu6 pinus is most versatile. "It is probably one of the few ^:enera of plant a in which the tree is utilised oompletely, the wood, the bark, the leaves, the fruit. It is utilised living: as well as felled".^ 17. ^in^t w., "uome Facts and Figures of Kssin Xapjin^ from j^ines" Unpublished raper, CycloBtyled Copy, p.1. V' Kesln which la an important industrial raw material ie ^i renewable resource* It is used In number of industries which are engaged in aanufaoturiag of soap, paper, diainfactonts, paints and vaxtilshes stc. etc. Koain which is one of the end products of resin is mainly used as a baee in the preparation of cheaper grades of varnishes and resinate (i^nVers in the manufacturing of 8oap. Other indaetries which use rosin include rubber* glues, cemectlm/ material, dry battery, insecticides, disinfaetants and lubricating coBpositions, hair fixing, nail polish preparations bows of musical instruments and IB brewing and mineral benification. It is also used in the mfinufecture of rosin sprit which is used as en alluffiinant ond substitute for turpentine in varnishes, painter inks, in ridultration of boiled linseed, olive rape nnd spena oil. Turpentine oil, another end product of reein is used in boot polish, pharmacentieals, synthetic camphor and various other industries* Kzperiments are also bein^ made to find its v»ilue as human food. 16. ;^eth, C.l ., "iiosin An Important Industrial lii'^turE 1 naw i'laterial*'* Unpublished xaper, Cyclostyied Copy, p*5. acientlfic extraction of reain started in India from chir pines in the year 1696 in Uttar Pradesh.^ But in Jasmia - nd Kashmir the history of resin tapping does not go brrtck beyond 1912 vhen it started in the Mirpur forest diviBion (now in ir'akistsn occupied area of In tiaiusnu and Kashmir iutate resin is tapped i&ainly from chir pine (Pinue roxburghii) although it can also be tapped froir kail (l>inus wallichiana). In case of the latter species the yield per blase is considerably lower, xperiffients show that from chir pine resin exuded per blase is 3.S if. while from kail it is only 0.9 kg., althou^'-h reein obtained from kail is superior in quality, nnother drawback with the kail is that its natural habitat i8 at least 1600 m. above sea level where round the year extraction la not possible. This tm. the other hand ie not the case with c/ilr pine. It hae been shown (Chapter III) that chir pine cfrowB coffifortaoiy in the Jafimu^the liillawar* the Keasl* the Kajourit tne j:^conch, the Udhaapur and the ha&ban forest 19. ibid., i).t>. 2{>^' aivislonB wh«r« as it is also reprtsectsd* although Insignificantly In the Doda and the Bhaderwah divisions, registering a total absence in the Kaehair valley and the Klshtwar forest division. Thus the areas of resin tapping entirely lie in the above tcenticmed forest divisions of Jammu privince. Tapping of resin does not adversely affect the health of the tree, iiohan tsingh states that in the ^^iwalilc range of the Billawar forest division chir pine trees under continuous tapping for 50-40 years are still growing vigorously, oimilar observations have also been made in the Kangra division of Hlmaohal i-'radesh. i-.ost of the resin produced in India comes froe three states: aimachal iPradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Jaiamu and KashiLir. Table 6.8 shows the yearwlse production of resin in various states of India. In Hiaachal it>radesh and Jttar i'radesh production fluctuates greatly fros. year to year but in ease of JaiiiiDu and Kashmir this is true only upto 1970-71. Thereafter extraction of resin has registered a phenosenal increase of icore than ten times. This £reat increase in resin extraction is due to the fact that till 197? only 40 per cent^^ of chir forests eainly 20. Ueth» C.I., op. dt., p.9. 21. ^brol, II. L., "^me Thoughts for Expenslon of fteain Based Industries in Jaaeu and Kashmir". Unpublished Paper* Cyclostyled Copy, p.2. 2bo in the Udhaffipur, Billawar aod Jaimi.u forest divlBione wer« being tapped where about 50 per cent of chir foreet occur in rajouri and ^oocch with considerable portion of tneo. in Table 6.8^^ ^D,^roxHaate Production of heain in India (OOP tona) Tear Hisachal Uttar JattKU X Total i'radeah Pradesh kaahciir 1966-67 17.19 24.83 2.74 44.76 1967-68 14.90 25.83 2.16 42.39 1968-69 10.41 25.45 2.34 47.20 1969-70 13.17 26.01 2.54 41.72 1Q70-71 n. a n.a 2.43 - 1971-72 n.a n.a 2.47 - 1972-73 n. a n.a 4.77 - 1973-74 10.50 25.17 9.16 52.63 1974-75 It. 50 25.10 17.20 60. dO 1975-76 n.a n.a 36.00 - the rteasi and KaiDban forest diviaions where resin tapping was previously not in practice. It was only after 1973 when the forest department changed its policy of departaiental 2 2. r.brol, ii,L,, "^offie Thoughts for hxpeneion of heain Based Industries in Jaaa&u and Kashmir", Unpublished Paper, Cyclostyled Copy, p.2. 2^ > working and allowed contractors working that large Inoraaae in extraction of raain was eada possible. There is further scope for increasing the production of resin in Jsaam and Kashmir. Prodiiction can further be increased by exploitii^ kail forests of the state. Korecwer turpentine oil froHs kail resin is far mor^ superior in Table 6.9 will show the divisionwise extraction of resin for a period of ten years* The table will support the arguftsnt ^iven for the phenoieenal increase in the extraction of resin after 1971-72. Ihe extraction of resin, as shown in the table, froffi the hajouri and the j^oonch divisions in the year 1971-72 was only 10.3 tons which increased to 2299*7 tons the very next year and reached 15365.0 tons in 1975-76 due i&ainly to change in the system of extmotion. The highest increase is registered in the najouri and the Foonch divisions although there was an overall increase in nil the divisions. The extracted resin comes to the factozy where it is distilled to get mad products in the form of rosin ?:•'. Tabl« 6,9^' (yipwres in ton») fear Ud ham pur Rajoari % rilllawar beasl Jaxoffiu Total Foonoh 1966-67 1597.70 42.30 1117.20 15.90 162.20 2'?35.3« 1967-66 1287.20 ti.lO 770.27 2,25 100.60 216S.4I 1968-69 1212.00 17.80 1024.20 - 90.80 2344.a(i 1969-70 1429.10 16.50 943.80 6,80 140.30 2536.^^1 1970-71 1429.30 25.00 979.50 n.a 114.00 254/.ad 1971-72 1378.50 10.30 975.90 n.a 114.00 24':3.70| 1972-75 1455.80 2299.70 846.30 84.30 86.20 4774.30 1973-74 1304.50 6159.00 814.60 73.20 614.60 916^.. 93 1974-75 1830.00 10409.20 1632.80 483.70 2880.00 17235.70 1975-76 5940.00 15365.00 5431.00 n.a 3881.00 30617.OC and turpentine, nesin distillation is a simple procesB nnd 1© described here under; .^rppege 9f j^f^ piy^illa^^on The resin which comes firoa the forests in 17 litres tins is of two fradee via. "grade good" and "grade bad" as they are known in the factory. "Grade good" is white and soft and "grade bad" is hard and dirty find full of wood 23. ->ource: official Heoords of the Forest LepertroentB of jRitmu and JCashicir L^tate. 2". .. pieces. The tine containing reein are all closed but pOBsee h. 31 aiE. holt on the top. »>mfiil trolliee transport these tins to the effptyinf shed which has a capacity to handle forJ^ such tlr.r j^t a time. Here the tops of the tins are cut and resin is allowed to cove into « trough. In winters tins are first carried to a softening chf^^mber for they become too thick to coae out of the tin, roic the trough a screw conveyer takes the reein upward to the mixing vat alongwith all the dirt and chips, it is here in the mixing vat that sotse turpentine is added to dilute the reein before it is heated to 1000*^ through the heating. coile laid at the bottoffi of the vat. The vat with reein is stirred and heated for four hours and then the stirred reein is allowed to settle for an hour. Thereafter the resin passes through autoclave filter where coarse impurities are recoved before it lands in decantation vats where tneee vats separate the dirty resin, water and muck from the ^jottom. this dirty resin is again distilled to ^^et ^rade •ii* rosin and inferior quality turpentine oil. The clean gai& which is left in the decantation vat ±B sent to overhead tank by puaaps from where resin flows by gravity to the coluffin through the preheaters heated by steaa. This distillation coluam is three sectioned with siji valve trays, each containing four calves. Keheeting chest and spargers are provided at the bottom of the column to strip out last traces of turpentine from the rosin. The turpentine which is obtained in this way is of three grades viz. quality I» co&aercial oil and ordinary oil. Kosin on the other hand ie collected in wooden trolleys froB^ which casks are fiixed. Boein and Turpentine Oil rroduction uut of the total resin distilled 74 to 75 per cent becooiea rosin out of which 40 per cent is x, t,i.t ^G and t: grade, 55 psr cent is K, K and h grade, 25 per cent is G, I, Ci, C2 and B grade.2^4 Turpentine oil is obtained at the rate of 18 litres ptir quintal of resin distilled 90 er cent of which is ouality 1, 6 per cent cojoBercial grade and the remaining four t>er cent is called ordinary oilf' 24. These ^;rade8 fore different Dualities of rosin. There are five nualities of rosin distilled in the factory. These are ir'ale. Medium Dark. Black and sweep in order of superiority of the ouality. X, Table 6.10^ uantitv of Resin Distilled and jiosin (of all tradesj Produced (Figures in Metric tons) Year feein distilled Bosin produced 1970-71 1865.029 1361,900 1971-72 rroduction remained suspended 1972-73 2643.1B3 1991.400 1973-74 2567.972 176^.500 1974-75 3483.800 2597.200 1975-76 4514.200 3340.200 FroE the above table few things are discemable. i^inee the whole factory was hurt during the year 1971-72 resultinr in the suspension of the production. Thereafter a new distillation plantt with oil operated boilerst was installed which gives new dimentions to production reauitin^- 26, hefers to the year 1977» because in the year 1978 (:.ay-June) the entire factory was accidently burnt down. The entire store of the factory was also greatly daiuaged. Eetimated loss due to this fire according to manager of the factory was about a crore of rupees. The factory, however, has started production again but data from the year 1976-77 onward la not available, AS indicated earlier the factory was also daasaged by fire in 1971-72. 27. jource; Annual Balance Sheets of the factory for the respective years. 2;., in sore than two fold increase in the production o. ftleo above the 1970-71 level. This Inereafle may/be ettribu. to the Increase in the extraction of resin. The rosin produced» as indicated earlier, la of various grades. Table 6.11 shove the .»}roduction in percentage of various grades of rosin. Table 6.11^® uantitY of keein Distilled and gradewise Production Year Reein distilled Percen- i'ercen- Percen- ir^erccntage (in met. Tons) tage Pro- tage ta^-e :;roduction duotion produc- produo- of islack of Fale tion of tion of grade grade !> edius dark g^rade grade 1968-69 2119.09 34.50 52.50 8.28 4.72 1969-70 2344.08 21.80 56,00 11.80 10.40 1970-71 1865.00 11.00 54.00 25.00 10.00 1971-72 Production re stained suspended 1972-73 2643.20 21.00 52.00 16.00 11,00 H c^xreful study of the table clearly indicates that M>re than 70 per cent rosin produced belongs to pale 28. Jourcet Annual Balance sheets of the Factory for the respective years. Data after 1972-73 is not available. 2' and m«dlum grades. Althoxagh the cattgoriee of grades are more than three, the Kanagement has grouped these into three ffiejor divisions (pale, aaedtuB and low) on purely economic Rnd adminletrative considerations. It is in these three grades the ttanageoient sells its products. The everage price per kg. of rosin obtained by the factory in the year 1977 was Rs.3.13t Re.2.35 and lis.2.05 for pale i^ediua and low ifradeo respectively on bulk purchase of rosin by any single party the aanageiaent allows a 5 P«r cent ciscount. It will not to be out of place here to compare the quantity and value of resin purchased with that of rosin produced. Table 6.12 illustrates this. Table 6.12^ Position of resin viz»a-»vis ro^in (value K«. in Laichg: Year Resin t'ur- Value of Resin Value Rosin Value Rosin Value chased in resin disti- of prod- of sold of .\et. Tons, .^urcha* lied in resin used rosin in let. rosin sed Ket. disti- in f rodu- tons sold. t ons. 1 led .' et. ced tons < 2 \ i f. k 1 k g— 1971-72 Production remained suspended 1972-73 2803.3 51.86 2643.1 48.89 1995.0 59.96 1847.6 e>2.50 1973-74 4063.6 75.17 2567.0 47.50 1904.3 62.33 2047.6 n.a. 1974-75 6434.8 n.a. 3483.8 64.45 2597.2 76.11 1700.7 49.10 1975-76 2816.1 52.09 4514.2 83.51 3340.2 98.53 2b31.4 87.03 1976-77 5230.2 91.52 5302.8 9?.89 3989.5 103.72 4423.5 99.1c 29. Inforoation relating to grades is based on discussions with the Manager of the factoiy in February-March 1977. 30. Value of resin purohaaed includes the cost of t rans po rt at ion. oourcet /innual Balance sheets of the Factory for 2\ , Certain interesting points emerge froa the table. In the first instance it makes it clear that the value of rosin produced is never less than the value of resin distilled or the value of resin purchased except the year 1973-74. This shows that factory is in a sound position provided the aanageiBent is able to sell all the end products, the oiarket for whi After rosin* turpentine oil is the iRost important end product of the fvictory. Turpentine oil produced here has been divided, as mentioned earlier, into three categories; ouHlity I, cocucercial nuality and inferior quality. . lthou£:h the production of inferior and codDercial quality turpentine oil has always been substancially less than the let quality turpentine oil, this trend vas further boosted after t972-75 with the introduction of isiproved macninery. Now the position is that there is no lon^'er any need to classify turpentine oil into various grades as the entire production is of Ist class; m examination of table 6.13 shows that, except 1973-74, there has been a gradual upward trend in the production of turpentine oil, Proo: 4,74,306 litres in 1972-73 the production went upto 9,36,607 litres in 1976-77 31. InforBiatlon is based on the verbal discussions with the Manager of the factory during February-Karch 1977. z Table 6,13'^ ProcmctlOD and aale of Turpentipg oil and Its vaUt (Ha. in Lakha) Year Turoentine Value of Turpentine Value of ol." .-rofluc- production Bold in turpentine tiOYi iO litres sold. litres 197?-73 474306 - 471976 5.43 1973-74 467524 - 493524 3.31 1974-75 614179 6, 24 601853 6.19 1975-76 791271 10.44 823682 14.65 1976-77 936607 14.94 889650 14.27 almost a 100 per cent increase which in itself is a more than aatisfactory ^:ain. uisilarly in terms of money value, turpentine oil fetched only ftp,5.43 lakhs in 1972-73 but thie value increased to Be.14.27 lakhs in 1976-77 a little lees than three fold increase. It ia acknowledged that under normal conditions, ae tiiTi€ advances, a corresponding advance in industry and standard of living is inevitable keeping in view this principal, perhaps this rosin and turpentine factoiy ha© attained new diifieneions in its output of finished products and their sale value. 32. source; annual Balance iiheets of the factory for the respective years. 2'^. The table 6.14 givea a befitting finale by giving a comparative study of the cost of resin distilled and sale value of end products from 1972-73 to 1976«77. The cost of resin distilled In a particular year has alwaye been less than the combined sale value of rosin and turpentine oil or even the sale value of rosin only excepting the year 1974-75. ixjoklnt' at table 6.12 we fina that durlnff this year rosin produced was worth Ke,76.11 loichs but due to dull market sale was liinited to only tA.8.49.10 lakhs, thereby explainirK the difference. Talil e 6.14^'' C9^t of Hesin distilled and sale value of end aroducte (Value Ea.in Lakhs) iear Cost of Hesin aale value oalue value Totnl oJ distilled Turpentine h and i Ull 1972-75 4b,89 52.52 5.43 57.95 1973-74 47.50 n.a 3.31 n.a 1974-75 64.45 49.10 8.19 57.29 1975-76 83.51 87.03 14.65 101.e- 1976-77 92.89 99.18 14.27 113.45 33. -^jource: /.nnual Bnlance sheets of the factory for the respective years. fdo The economlce of tb« factory cBn not be fully underBtood ulese other aapecte, like salary of ffiana«rerial staff* labourfVages, power, fuel charges and expezidlture on chen:icf;l8 and transportation are aleo taken into Bccount. According to the manager, annual expenditure on salary, wa^es and other benefits to the employees of the factory conses to Re.7.26 lakhs? The ffactory spends KB,6.76 Ipkhs annually on fuel and electricity. Pnckin^ find forwarding charges for 1976-77 were R8.3.31 l»kh8 while R8.56,000 were spent on the purchase of cheiciCBls ocd t'ener^i store. Jtationary, printing charges snd postage etc. cost the factory Rt.62,000. Charges for trensportint resin to the factory were Rs.56,000. Insurence preiciuai aionounted to HB.67,000 and depreciation on the machinery was estiitated at IVB.94,000. Besides KB.1.70 lakhs were spent on Siiscellnneous items. These figures however do not give 8 true picture because at the end of the year a considerj^ble stock of both rosin and turpentine remains uncleared. This uncleared stock has to be t^^ken into conaideration before assesslnf- the economic health of the factory. Unfortunately data for the same is not available. 34. Pirures pertain to the financial year 1976-77 and can not be considered valid for all years because expenditure differs from year to year. Some idea about these Iteass of expenditure, however, can be obtained from these figures. 2. Froffi the discuBsioxuB and tables given earlier it becomes clear that production for the last 3 years has increased almost ten tic^is* i^fter Sieetlng the home decaand a hu^e surplus is left vhich can either be conswr^ed by si&all scale industries or exported. This rapid increase in the production of resin has created a slump in the ciaricet. Hu^e stoclcs therefore have to be kept in storage and if resin is kept in storage for any oonsidereble length of time, its quality deteriorate, specially the turpentine content evaporates. It is, therefore, imperative on the part of the goveroRent to encourage the establishment of SBiall scale industries such as 'Hardened Resin*, •Phenolic Kesin' and •Chorinated turpentine* etc., which use resin as a basic raw material. Educated unemployed people can be helped financially and thus encouraged to start snail ecale units to oanufacture these items. Juch a course of action will have triple benefits: stabilisation of rosin and turpentine industry, increased revenue to the forest department and greater employment opputunities. QOVi!:A&^.i^T J'ui.KinACi^UTICAi. teOMB AMD KAfCH FACHOkY This public sector undertaking is divided into two units^one is engaged in the production of santonin which foms basic raw material for the manufacture of mate rials 2i. r U>.f m i.^::^ ^ J— O a: Q 0 X < J/! < £0 ^: o o c ^ 2:2 A' < r- '-ot -j < O o -J 3 i '^ • !_.„..,,... ..-.¥ ...i, 2^ >.• » of ffiedieines like antipar, the aantonin oanufaoturlng unit enjoys a countrywide monopoly being- the only one of its kind in India?^ The factory was eatablished in the year 1928 in the private sector by Raja Upinder Kriehan Koul. It reniaiced in the private sector till 1961 when it was purchaeed by the state govemaient for Ka.one lakh. The location of this industry is determined mainly by the availability of raw siaterial. iirtiaeaia, a minor forest product, is the main raw material used in the eantonlB factory and is available in the Guree valley near Barasuila. at the tiiae of the establishment of the factory Artimesia was also obtained fross Muto which now lies in Pak occupied Kashffiir. Kuto produced superior quality Artimesia which hae now been substituted by a comparatively inferior quality produce from the Kishtwar forest division. The principal raw naterials for the match fnctory are poplars and willow timbers. The former is used for making match boxes while the latter is used for making c.atch 8ti< ics. Both types of timber are available in plenty throughout the valley. Moreover at the tiae of the 33. Infoz^m&tion based on verbal discussion with the Deputy General Manager of the factoiy at Baramulla (Kashmir). 'ci'. establiehfiiient of th« faotoxy th« BaraffiuHa-Kohala-E&walplndl route provided an easy outlet for the finished producte to other pnrts of the country* Keeping these two important locational factors in consideration the factory seemed to hare been suitably located. As mentioned eorlier snntonin is derived frois artiJBeeia through a simple process. Artiisesia is kept in H percolator soaked in sprit for about 24 hours. This dissolves the santonin contents vhich is then extracted. Then it is brought to a still through a pipe for distillation which yields santonin in a crude form in the pane. The crude santonin is then boiled with lime to get calcium santonin. The process of acidification is used to free santonin of caloiun but sons impurities still remain in it which are removed by treating it with amonia and activated carbon. The table 6.13 e^ows the consumption of raw material in the santonin factory. AS the table indicates no definite pattexn of consumption of raw material emerges, .iinee artimesia crows only in Gurez end Kishtwar over limited are^s* it production remains fluctuating. Moreover the entire production of artimesia is not supplied to this factory by the forest 2c-^ Table 6,15 36 Year /irtlBtesls Hate per kg. Total value consuised ineluslTe of ( in RB.) (In Kg.) forest roya lty 1972-73 70286 2.17 152,520.62 1973-74 69421 2.17 150643.57 1974-75 106666 2.50 266665.00 1975-76 113333 2.50 283332.50 1976-77 97000 2.70 261900.00 department, i'art of it le also sold In the open sarket for various other purposes (chapter VII). 100 kg. of artlsesia yields about 0.30 kg. of santonin. Table 6.16 shows the amount of artimesia used and the quantity of santonin produced. The table shows that the production of santonin gradually increased from 1972-73 to 1975-76 but went down in 1976-77 due mainly to certain defects developed in the Btaehineiy which halted production for soi&e tiKe. 36. source: Annual Balance Sheets of the factory for respective years. Table 6.16 37 P9fiiiw>pUffp 9t hw%P^n\^ Pyoduction of ban^onin Year ConsuBitlon of Total production Artlmtaia of L>astonin (in kge.) (in kgs.) 1972-75 70286 246.00 1973-74 69421 264.00 1974-75 106666 320.00 1975-76 113333 340.00 1976-77 97000 291.00 ;;;>antonin produced here finds a ready market throughout the country. In fact, it ie difficult to meet the entire demand for this product. Table 6.17 gives the Quantity of santonin sold and its value in Re. It is clear fros the table that due to hu^e denand there has been a 25 per cent increase in the price since 1972-73* Table 6.17 38 a»ale of Santonin Year oantonin marketed Bate per kg. Total ralue (in kgs.) (in Rs.) (in Ee.) 1972-73 246.00 1200.00 295200.00 1973-74 264.00 1800.00 475200.00 1974-75 320,00 2500.00 800000.00 1975-76 340.00 2700.00 918000.00 1976-77 291.00 3000.00 873000.00 ^7. SourceI Annual Balance Sheets of the factory for z«spectiye years. 38. Jource: Annual Balance Sheets of the factory for the respective years. 2('.. However* It may be pointed out that a corresponding Inoreaee in produetion has not taken place during the aaae period. This Bay largely be attributed to the general ehortage of raw material. Another reason for low production ie that the machinery* being old and worn out haa outlived ita utility. The replacement of the old naehinery haa beooae en urgent neoeeaity which will certainly inoreaee production and reduce ita ooet* Ae already mentioned the aantonin factory and the match factory are under the a erne management but unlike the former* the latter ie not in a good eViape. The coat of production in this factory is high which aometimea aaaumee auch proportiona that it beoomea necessary for the management to stop production. The factors responsible for this are more than one* In the firet place the factory is registered as a medium scale industry and has* therefore, to pay central excise duty, thereby raising the cost of production, in comparison to this, the match industry in south India is largely registered as small scale industry and is, therefore, exempted from the central excise duty. ;>eeoQdly the machinery la old and is, therefore, not expected to give the deslr«d results. Besides this sisteh factory is the only forest bssed industry which fsces difficulty in the proouriment of x«v material* This is prinerily because of stiff coBii>etition it has to face fron the fruit industry vhich also needs poplars and willow tiaber for making fruit packing oases, Q^ even rsjgular availability of the required amount of raw material at cheaper rates is not ensured. All these factors adversely affect the economy of the factory. But taking into consideration pressing social and eoooomioal factors* the government has decBMBd it desirable to keep the factory alive and hopes that in course of time its ills would be overcome. Table 6.18 which shows production of matehea together with their value makes it clear that production has gradually decreased from 52380 gross in 1966«-67 to 25280 gross in 1976*77. This ie a large fall in production but on the other hand the value of products has increased from Ra.4.41 lakh to HB.5.06 lakh during the came period due mainly to an increase in the price. A steep fall in the production is again registered during the periods 1967-69 and 1971-75. Since 1975 the fall in the production has been gradual but eonsistant. Unlike the aantonin factory which enjoys a market monopoly» the match factory has to face a stiff competition Table 6,18 39 ^r9^Hfi^j^ft|i 9g M\9^ bffy«<( n^^ y^^^*§ Aft Pt' Year i*roduotion ValM in gross la Ra, 1966-67 52380 441563.40 1967-66 55675 508691.34 1968-69 43111 411398.97 1969-70 46435 417915.00 1970-71 39678 340286.00 1971-72 41020 336364.00 1972-73 31641 269448.00 1973-74 33407 245947.00 1974-75 28010 246488.00 1975-76 33725 591000.00 1976-77 25280 506000.00 and often finds the market flooded with cheaper products froas other parts of the country. According to the Manager of the : production is regulated in such a way as to ffliniffiise hardships to ths workers. This soaetiffiee necessitates halting of production end paying the iddle labour rather than continuing production when it becomes uneconomical to do so. Thus it is only when ths Bsnagenent 39. i'oureei Annual Balance Sheets of the factory for the respectiTC years. feele that th« narkat is favourabia that prodaotion la started. It la, th«rafora» Inpllad that produetloB la the factory dapanda on tha ordars It raealTaa for Ita produott provided raw material la available. The mana^Best has ao for been able to narket aore or lees all Its produeta. The sale of natch boxed with their valuea In rupeea la given In table 6.19. Thla table alao ahowa a graduftll decreDBee In the ealee of match boxea from 43100 ^roea In 1966-67 to 17740 groaa In 1976-77. Pluctuatlona In the frtble 6.194 0 'ft?>t 9t M^ff^, ^ffi Year quantity sold Value (m groaa) (in Re.) 1966-67 43100 363336.00 1967-68 55930 501119.00 1966-69 35235 336232.00 1969-70 35791 329320.00 1970-71 39084 327946.00 1971-72 66660 546744.00 1972-73 28710 235764.00 1973-74 40710 234513.00 1974-75 16870 186000.00 1975-76 37975 425000.00 1976-77 17740 189000.00 40. i^ource: Annual Balance ;lheeta of the factory for respective yearn. 2? 8ale are quite high« The mazliDiuB eale was achieved in the year 1971*72 both in teres of value and quantity and the sdniffium in the year 1974-73* These ills of the factory can be cared by proper planning and rationalisation of production. First of all the replaeenent of old mechinery auet be effected as soon as possible. This will lead to a substantial increase in production and a reduction in its costs. The aanagenent should also enter into an agreeaent with forest department in order to ensure a regular and uninterrupted supply of raw material. This would do away with cms of the greatest handicaps faced fay the factory. I would also be sound step to run the factory as a cooperative unit in the ssall scale sector. This would renove the great burden of the central excise duty. •d Intioc j.ctlon k& explained in chf iter III the coaffierclally is portent foreete of Jaajrau and Kaehti^ir .'itate are compoeed almost ©ntlreiy of conifer species like deodar (Cedrue deodara), kail ( Vinus vellichiftna), fir (Abies pindrovr arid chir (Pinup roxburghii). 'ther iaiportant species lixie Apacifi Cfttechu. lialberria sieaoo. Acacle aodestat nc-'Cia Mrabica. i^snnea f^randict Cedrela topnat -^u^enia .1 ac.be 1 ana. etc. extending froffi the foot hills of oiwalika to the foot Mil© of the .iiiaalayas* have defexaded to the extert tr-at tiie;,- should be included in the scrub forests of the state. part froQi these, species liice bird caerry, walnut, elm, ast^f horse-chestnut etc. occur in patcnes in nallas, shady depressions and aoist areas, ngain, certain under^ i-cvrth of shrubs pre associated with different conifer foroiations such as IridjgQferi^ and i'lactranthue yu^osus in deodar-kail forests and Vibumua and opiroea- sorbifolie in fir forests. .11 these forests belong to various groups of Chaapion's forest tyoes of India (see chapter II), Further, these foreiete extend over the areas lying between 300 a to nearly 3^0 ir and enjoying; from ironsoonic to temperate and even alpine type of climates. 'd. It is in these altitadlnsl end clitatlc variRtions t-.Ht the herbac* oue flora in very rich in variety and nuc.fcer of speciee ran in to aundreds. The fieneral climete of <08hi..ir ia conducive to tiae growth of wide rane e of Iwcte cf Eiedicinal and other value. ihue the forests of the st^te are not only iii-.^ortant for ^ieidin£ lar^e voluBxe of co!i It is |. eneraily reco^^nised that r.ll the toreet products, other thar tlcsber, are rcfered to as ' inor "orest roducte' or l •', \ as they re conttonly called. These ."'. ',, *:ipart Irom bein^: valuable, give eaployuent tc i&n e nuuber cf people, pi^rticulHrly to the lari^e section cf pOtmlatlon living Ir rnd * roan<^ forest areas w.'io ^et ^ yart tiK.e joos in the collection of c»inor forest products, '^hus the irocese of collection of » ,K,*'. froc. the ioreots 'lelpe in feneratlr.^ a considerable volume cf ea-ploynent potential 01 various cate^ cries both in and outside the fcrests. 2 . at too, ix.».., "The i inor I-'orest products of ..ash»tir Valley", ^rPt „ v11,,\:9F<, VgPf Vl^ff" ^^9 itxa8hs.ir ».-tete. October 1970, p7255. .Hli, V..O., ; ^P9r F^yys^, ^JQpXi^ pf ^^^^ ^^ . aeh&^ir^-^lts Potential and Use. Cyciost.. Ice Copy, T), t. 2. These i . F,x. re ained onrecocEiBed for ;>retty iont tia*e in the history of Jajria-u and /vashtair forestry bat now they nave become e profitable enterprise dae largely to the cleirond from various ouRrters of indoetry. But, stixl the iiiinor forest products usually ? et low -^riority due to their negligible eortrlbation to the over all revenue cf the forest depart:aent. The \'Rlue of such ninor forest ^redacts, however, can rot be lainicdsed because these constitute is'.»ortant raw aateriale for various industries. TWt rrceK*- popularity rf nyar^'edic and '.'nani systeir. of cedicines -.;.ve Incre^tsed tfcie deinand of these products in India. :'aeir icj,-ortance, therefore, cannot be judged by the r:.oney t..ej fetch but by the service they render to the society. ihe Elinor forest products of the state can be cote^^orised as follows: 1. i.ericinal plants 2. nroE-atic and essential oil bearir^^; .^roducte 3. GuoB and fcUffi-oleo-resins 4. - -Ices and candiisents 5. Cutch and leather ternint ir.ateriaJB C. . 'lible raatarials '7, ; il 8ee<^s 3. ^nrin, Y.'., . inor rorest Products As Raw :.eteria3 For L'ru^T Pharfflaccr.tical and i^rfw er.v Indactrj.:. Cyclostyled Co:>y, p.1. 2r. Althou^;h a large number of plants of medicinal itn.^rtance are found in JaiBar.u and Kashmir utate, only those serving as raw materials for drug and phantacetttical incJastry or consumed on large scale in the Indian aystem of medicineB have been taicen into account. Aromatic and eesentiai oils enjoy a considerable itsuortanee in aroma-cheiaicsls and as ingredients for perfume, flavour and cosmetic indastries. similarly ^UEB are used in confectionery, in cotton and textile and in paper ind^iStry for sizing the paper. nly certain iroBt iisportant / um yielding plants have been discaesed. There are auite a nunber of plants growing wild in the forests of Janiru and .• sstiirir /ieidin^ Bpices end condiiTenta bat only th<» two most iffioortant amone their have been diseaseed ..ere. This io "ar^ely becfjuse of the non-evailability of reoaired data fro" any source about the other plants such as keer, sifih-Kire etc. 'ccordini. to investigi^tions carried out by the ne/riormi hesearch laboratory, Jamttu, the states flora ie luite rich in vejetabl© tannin^ rateriais, but it has not yet beer* jossibie to assess this forest resource. ..owever e nuiuber of plants which serve as raw inaterials for leather tanninfe 4. Infor&ation based on verbal diocaa<*ion with 1.^, ^arin of h,l\,^,, Jammu. 2.' units in Jaiaaiu and Kashmir otate and are aaion^ the important trees yielding cutch and taimin<5 aaterial have been discuasect, rtithou^h there are nuite a great nujsber of plants eroirin£ wild which serve ae edible s«aterials, the forest department has not yet been able to asaee their potential. The following table (Table 7.1) will show the trade and botanical naaee of the plant categories mentioned above and tj;;e parts of these plants which are used. Table 7.1 edicinal Plants Trade Kas-e Part Used iotanical I'.amfe y. oh and or Johri F.oot AcotinuEi Chasttanthua. beeki iJerb ArteEiieia g'.aritii::a -''©lladona Foot/.eaf Atropa accuadnata Raseunt Eoot Beyberis lyciua Zaiihif-oi-.^ayat Khi aome Ber^:epia cfulata .^huran jBR Coras ColcfaicaiB leteua I^hetura oeed/l .ierb t en^hfi lonfl folia Kour khissoa'e t'icroyhlza kurrooa 3an«.aAri f.evand Lhififot&e I.heun. eaodi *?''t> Vrota pderata ..roKatic affd i'.'saentlal Oil Chura ihiaoBie Archanf:eiica officinalie 1eodar W--JW duet CedrujB cleodora i atttsr or iJ:.'rr8 -ueaf ..jj-iffiaia Ibuyoula AUtt hoot ufMneear^a lao^^a i uahktale i\oot Valeriana u&ixicai T itt.ro o Fruit :^anthftx.ylugi alatuia Gmte i.eein Acacia Eiodeetff jiinf r.esin •^"erula narthex Kcitrbal ('•am Lannea corocandelica * esin . ifi^6ro^b^r^ hii 2:'^' uplcea and Candiaients Badian Fruit t'TBfr.<^B D&bularia iinsrdena 7ruit seed ranioa fsranstuai Cutch and TanniRfJ: ineteriale I^r-^tha Xtract iCaola catechu AK. la '-'ruit •mfc^t^c^ p^f^cip^34f Taru Fruit rind lunic^ ^<;ranatuni 1 hayi lowers ^.oodfordia frecticofa ndible : atf rials rtjj'.loi Fruit DiosDh/roe kaki G ucchi (ihole ^uehrootB r.orchela eeculenta Gil oeede Chiirsndi i^eed i^itaaea uo^b^'osa Kamila Lieed >.alIotu8 PhiXiPDeoeni^is Taruin Iruit .^apiuffi jBsbiferuf Table 7,2 and 7.3 will show the average oat turn and occurance of these Binor forest products respectively. The details of their description as gathered froa various «e; r:3 03 5> > gS P f8 9 r*- o O 3 t a O 3 o • •i o ffi a O C3f -, Oft 3 3 o o sr a O 9 Hi o «< o 3 •1 O 9 t3. *1 3 9 o (X 9 9 3 3 o o N O i o a o O « Off 3 o a, H. << 13 3* i m ?J O IB 03 as I 9 O » 3 hi *1 CB P 3 3 IK M 09 O (3*- O Ok 3 9 3 H- B 9 .1 H a H a «•• (B HI (0 c o •*• 3 f. 3* o » o & o 09 & <• I— Q» t¥ O a* 3 3" H H" 3 a. a IS 3 (8 3 « C. < « c ?4 »• *r5' tr !? P«5 KJ OC i^-l » CC *... 3* if O O 03 tb H » p » ® 9 <» O <•% PS § < 3 ^' tr. (* <* pr » H* 80 3* its •a t-- M CP cc 9 *1 3 is S p a 3- o H «• •39 a. o 1 « « •*• 3 3 3 s »i 3 B ?» !B H" 3 9 o I o cs a 0 BS cs 9 t^ 1 3 a a or o. »• er » H- «• o CO (B »1 3 3 1 3 M •1 3 9 3- »3 39 99 O r c O X :.!• 9" c o o ^ o a: 9 9 '^ 9 ib 3- 9 o 3" o 9 o n c a o o » o % •* ^ < •* *i 9 (t H- 9 *1 •* o 8 1 o c «• «• H^ e*- < •* ct 4 cr e c & O a cr H 9 O 9 a. s O s m § 9 a & B B S w • H> B 9 9 9 9 9 • a« < 9 • • 9 O O «• 9 c c a 3 0 ..» 3 ^ 3 3 3 tSi .^ >jn 1^ 3 lu 3 3 3 — 3 9 »-t' • • vn • O • • • ui IVi • •. • • • • ^ • • • < H 9 a *a O »-< •-•1 9 a o: i;'^; pi 3 H. 1*9 9 *^ 9 H- *i 1 a fi 9 • « 9 3 9 3 O X «< § 9 K B 9 *1 3 9 9 O « 9 • H cf »4 ct 9 Q. 1-^ 13 •© K 9 9 9 <• P9 9 9 3 .5. P C H» (B o •o 9 9 tJ- 9 cf 9 9 • H B 3 H-t* 3 9 •O "I 3 % •O 3 9 9 H- O 3 O O •1 O 9 o 9 9 a 9 9 9 «• Q> 3 3 O 3 o 9 9 9 »* H 9 H- et HI 9 O 6 f* 9 B •If ef O 3 W o 3 O 0 < 9 c • C9 S 9 g; 3 o p 9 O 3 Cu *i o o » V •1 & 9 O. 9 »o <+ •O as 9 "O t--: 3 • C 9 9 H-9 **• 9 K 3 V 9 ® •O 9 < Ss H- O. 9 9 0> O «• ^ <• c; 09 9 P- o c^ 9 9 « H- a • O a 9 f H- 9 3 O 3 0 i3 O O 9 H- 9 o g S9 3 9 C ^ P SD 9 p tt O. 3 H, 3 a. 9 9 O 3 9 a. 9 9 •1 *^ •1 €•• M OL «• 9 t O •O 9 » O H> 9 3* M- Ob 3 e* 9 O •1 o b o a O 9 O 3 o a O B 3 9 P 3 3 9 3 9 B 9 9 ct ef- et 0. O. V ct 9 O 3 3" :i *•*> g P 9 ,•«•*(*; O 3 a. O 3* 9 9 i O H 9 o V: o. c+ f» 9 9 9 3 < r< u •1 Cb 3 o 9 o P 9 ct 1 O s r*- 3 O o p 9 H 3 9* P C a, P^ o 9 •1 9 3 O tr K I o g a H" ?» 9 H- «+ 9 9 9 3 H 9 • 9 O g a t; a 9 p 9 3- c+ • H- 4 a 9 * 9 H 3 .'3 < O 9 c m 9 9 o O 9 09 H- ft- o o cr 9 *D 3 V; O «• f* 3 0 •© P 1> 9 "O 3 3 9 •CJ 9 O a 9 B H) 3 O 9 o o 0 «M •o ^5 o +» o •f IB •H • (3 33 a « eg OJ tf> o^ fv* SO NO • • O • • • • • K\ a a a vo • c$ o • C6 a ^ •^ • "^^ *• • a• 1;s • • CS 0 0 •H a 0 41 4> a 0 0 a •p a -p a •p P 0) •rl -ri +3 •H fn •H iK •H H a o a a a a o g t; 2 ^ 1 zs *J a: O O «o fj. a? & &^ CM r^ « fH tJ •H 0 •H 0 a ^a a •H 44 A a H Ha t^ ta u •H Ja0 5* o U »4 a w 0 •H •H "O e p Ha ^ »4 H O t\ -H a •H a ^ a a a ^ a d ^ <0 % K s < M 0-3 a a a a a •H o o a H a 0 a -5 a •H p a •H •H M •H <3 c •P 0 a, •a •H « ^ 3 t-4 •H O |4 a a ^4 H 0 x: ;<4 a 3 ^ ^ O •H H a -H pa « 54, books and unpubliehed literature, annual administration reoorte, official records and a dictionery listed in the bibiiotraphy are fiven in the foilowing pages, AS regards their distribution over the territories of Oammxi and Kusu&ir, the fflain sources of inXoraation have been the livlslonai Forest Cft'icera ('. .J>'.C.} and their official records, I-edlclnal ^^lants /i^cotinuBt chasaanthuic. known as iohand in ..ashciri, and I ohri in Hindi and Acotinuffl- hetroohvlluai. known in Hindi and Kashmiri as atis, belcmr to the family of hanucluieceee. The ilant is 30-90 cm tall. These plants occur overla^jpint, each other in sub-alpine to alpine zone from ?100-4000 E. The important areas of their occurance being Ganderbal- Amameth and above Culmarir. The rhizoEes of these plants yield an ali£Hloid Hconitine uused inainly as an external applicant for t eural, la. it effects adversely when used orBiV a^d, therefore, oral use IS >rescribed only by homeopaths under specific concitione Arteiaisia BiaritiB.a is called beski in Kashmiri, K^artonin is its trade naae. The plant is about 0.5 xo tt., in tiei^ht and naa whitish leaves. It ^^rows wild in the Garaiz valxey in Kashmir and the kishtiiraj' forest division (1 Cnenab forest circle in JainiBu province between idOO ui tO 2''^00 t? o bD te 3- o H- o <» no J* o o « « O « a a o O o «• cc S9 (ft a 9 •c s» 3 o n Qi o B {3- o o «B O P O «< H- 03 « 9 O Q. h^ p: M & 3 to 9 0 m O H » o f: o M P O 9 >1 o 4 O S H- t3 H o » 51 9 0> 9 S> « B « i e o o Cr •X tp ?^ ?«• ^ U: > 3K o ^ » JP 58 O OV 35 ^ 9 O << P a. » £aB a?« 0m 1 H" P 0 to SB ® Hs »1 *i 9 g- 9 a. ts o tJ- »i S a" m a- (D 93 H- o o » es *1 C IT o •1 P o --3 O t33 » ^5" t, e- *i3 J» ac* ^ e? o 8 » ^:, 9 « •1 9 9 9 » & i 9 9 fcJ < a at {5 M H o 9 t)«»-« « t^ 9 •*o« «< *< B •< « « Qi o o> « « a» • B 9 o •tr »o<» « 9 9 • O B B •v-O W &: O • B •*• 9 *c CC "B*& o o « 9 9 C'- r § BT< 9 «a> c« 9 •i J* tr 9 § 9 Q 9 9 o > •3 5t> O c •-9 •1 O H- c H H 9 if B* 9 IE •O B •a ^-^ o »c I c c+ O 9 ^ t B I P 3 O 3 3 «• O a 9 9 9 • B 9 SI (S o 3 c O 3 9 9 o o C. a. »1 o •1 O I 9 9 •1 9 t 9 H- 2 •^ C 2 o o OB I o o O cr cs H 3 1 o 9 2 a 9 -* -» fo w IV -* W CD o o ^ B g vn -» O O grv -• o o O o o o o o s O O O o o O o o o o o o O o O o o o 1 1 t I I I I I I I 0 o o o I » (X •6> ••* VJ4 vji •Ilk 1 t t I h o o O O o ^ !^^ ^ o o o o O o O o o o o^ o o o -^ o O O o O o o o o o o o 8 9 > *5r 9 ^ 9 9 9 •1 V! •1 9 S t 1 1 1 I « a 1 a a. 9 Cb & «• o o o B O I O ? t 1 1 t > K i O • ? 9 o M o A 9 cf » O o cr o cr 4 9 ef o 9 9 *i a CO t3 »o I» HI 9 M r M I* 1 S I *i S I O 01 : £- o 9> 3 M o » o IB HI S H cr li s s K J? & »-* B O o HI pr b9 o P»^ w » H tS »e H •SJ- P«S »c ^ B % or s* (i • C H- fi p B IS H • H » A • c: B • «•' «• O IS O ^ fi •-• 2 »* H N er tr B 1^ »* H a9 H s cr t s t it B H HI « *4)B WtB M*tftjE>B a ««B« B >• r • 1 i-*r #08 • • Br -4 IH »* Ob • «4 B a.0> • B C O i 9* B B o »ti B o B B« B ««• te B I - B I I •4 tf, >• H^ Ci. 1^ B H O e I* B S •& ^ e» B«f B • o> » a cc k e to B 0 o o I 2 • 3 B B 1 I I O. B lO GD O s O O O 8 o S 8 f I I t ot 1 1 1 • 1 1 lO NJl 19 -* KM o 8 O ^. o o o i^ 8 o o o o 8 § o o 05 • 5 & 1 i *4 1 1 1 g • I I H 1? « 1 Q, • H 1 «* B Cb 0> 1 1 ^ > 1* s 8 f B f f ? ? 0 ^ • 8 i 6 • ^ ^ ? I I B •o « c» O c» «f I < s o • o B tr • • ? •I CO 3 . The plant containe santonin contents upto 1.^ o^r cent in its youni; leevee and flower heads. The main use of santonin le as a verKifUf^e but it is also effectively used as a heart stimulant. Atropa accuicinata is itnoim njostly by its trade name of Melladona. It occurs widely between 2000 m to 3000 a. elevation in the Bhaderwah the Toda, the Aishtwar division of the Chenab valley and r*ooccfa {..oil coneervetion; division of t^aBJiiU circle. It is also found in the Jhelun. Valley forest division of Kashaiir >rovir)ce. .iiitaloids hi'oscyaine and atro,>ine are derived from AtroJSi acffUEJnata leaves and the roots of the plant are ^ieed for sedation and antispaSBiOdic purposes whereas atropine has opthslmlc uses. The roots of the jlant on the other uand are also osed as ansdyns for rheuinatieic, neuralgia and for local infla5, atlOR. Berberis Ivciue. is known coEiaonly as has aunt and Berberis is its trade narne. This is a medium si^ed tnom;y shrub. It occurs between 2000 to 3000 m all over the valley in general and Kamah and Frawah in particular it alao occurs in the 'Jfiham 'ur and t::e Hillswar forest division in iar^e f>u»ntitite8. 3.^ The stei&» the oark. and the roots of the plant yield an alicalold which ie used in the treatment of eye ailments, r>ile8 and malaria* liergenie IJgulata is a small plant which has leaves about at ,25 ». It grove between 2100 m 5050 m above sea level. It is found throughout the state in its natural habitat An alkaloid derived from the rhlRomes of the plant is used in fevers, diarrhoea and cough. Colchic\iffi luteuiB is known as Suranjan in Kfishmiri and its indi ecuivalent is flrantotia. It is a herb xiavlnt nnrrow leaves which broden towards the tip with corae of browiish colour and conical in shape. This herb occurs between 1500 to 2400 r. above sea level in Jajaaa and Kashtt-ir 't?=tte near ^rina^^ar and Tra^bel. It generally grows in ^rase aedows and around forest margins in Chenab and Kashmir circxes, paarticularly in iow oak-coniferous atone. An alicaloid is derived from the cotvu ^eeds of Colchicuffi luteugi is also used for the treatuwxt of gout, Latura straxponium. which is called uatur in AJiShndri and Datura in -.indi, happens to be a oush attaining a height of 1.5 ic. Leaves are ovate and toothed. It ie generally found between 1600 to 2400 m elevation costly in ^nahiuir 3; u valley bat is also collected from Billawar and all the forest divieione of Chenab valley. The plant yield two alialotda, naitely hyoecyaaine and a amall 'Quantity of atropine. They are put to the i^i&ixar usee 88 the alkaloid derived trot, ^troaa accuffiinata. CioBCorea deltoidee. known so ^tina or xreaKe, is a cliniber which occura in cluetree or solitary but in abundance in ^'Vrojtpur ?.allah in Culitare. It ie elso found in *.'ah«il^aK between 1600 rr. to 2400 E elevation. It also occura in the Chenab valley forest circle. The plant yields diost'eJ^ii^ content to the extent of 5-£i r''I* cent, which ie ^^oite hi^ h. The content is highly useful ior preparing sex haricones and oral contraceptives. Kpfaedra ^:erardiana is known as Asitanl Jbuti both in iiindi and Kashn.iri. it is about one metre hl^h and is a Liuch orBr.ched shrub. It occurs in the ^iheluc valley icreat division and in Ladakh at an elevation of 200C' to 400D ii<. 1 phedrine aUrloid derived from the plant is used in ti.e trentcent of asthca and sinsilnr other respiratory troubles. It is wlso used as a heart stiitiulant. aeracleuc; cs^dicans. known locally as Kiinda^, IB a EK-all herb with pinnately divided leaves. The pi'^.nt occurs 3: m blankB in deodar-kail son© of Chenab foreat circle and in the whole of the Kaehosir valley in its natural habitat, particularly in the Jheluai valley forest division, lar^no- coumarine ie obtained from the plant to be used as a baee for the synthesiB of xanthotoxin, a medicine which cures leucoderma. It ie also used in the sun-tan lotions, Uj/OBcyaBiua niaeri known as Bajjarbane in Kashiriri and Ajwain Khurasan! in lindi, is a bad steelling buea. It in both an annual and biennial herb which is sparsely braKcned. It occurs throufchout the Kashmir valley between 1600 c to 2700 01, particularly on the forest blanks, r.yoscaniine ie derived froc! the plant which posseaseB antiseptic, sedative, anodyne, Eydriatic and narcotic properties. It is ueed in asthama and whooping* cough. It alao has spaauodic properties in addition to the ones mentioned above. Mentha lom;ifolia. known both in Kashmiri and idndi as i'odina, is 15-30 ca.. high, hairy plant usually found near wet areas Irom 1500 n. to 3000 as throu^;hout «iaaaBU and > ash&ir ^^tate. It is a source of loedicinal oil, particularly itenthol or pe?perir.int oil, iicrorhiga kurrooa. called kour in Kaehciri and ^athi in lindi, is e small herb with setute shaped leaves 5 to 10 CE lone, '^he herb occurs between 3000 m to 4000 a in i.olohai :i.o and Zojpal and other marge in Kashmir and throughout th« Chenab forest circle in its natural habitat. Bitter tonic obtained froit. the rhieoce of the plant i8 useful as an antiperiodic and pjrosBotes bile secretion. It is used in fever end dyspepsia. It is also used in the preparation for treating scorpion sting. ^Hstacia inte<.:errin8. known as Kafcarsinghi in Kashcjiri and tar in nindi, is nearly a glabrous and tail tree. It attains a height of cK>re than ^2 metres. It occurs between 350 c to 2450 m elevation above sea level. In Jamau and i^ashttir otate it is found growing on hot slopes in the r>.ishtwar the Jdhaiapur, the biilawar and the najouri forest divisions in particular and other forest divisionE of Chenab and JajnKu forest circles in general. in the leaves of the plant, hard ru^-'ose, hallow, Irrerular ^alls are found in the acnth of Cctober which are used for dyeing and tanning-. These flails are aedicinally icportant too as they are considered to be a tonic and expectorant and are useful in astrusa, fever and ns an r^ppetise; PodoohylluK heaandrac. known as Bankakri or banwa^on in Xashiriri end Ben-Haigan or Psprl in ..indi, is a succulent, errect herb. It occurs throughout the forests of the ..asiiitir tJl .' valley frois 1800-3000 ffi» particularly in Culmarg and Gurals areas, in Jaaacu province it ie collected from the »haderwah, the kaciben, the Klohtwar, the Keaai and the Biilawar forest dlvieions. Keein podophyllum is obtained froci the rhizoneB of the plant. This drug is used in maxiy dieeaees of aiiin and also in tu!i.erou8 froirth. KheuBt eaaodi. called revand in KaahEiri and Kevand Chini in .iindi, ia a tall herb havine a etout etem and roots. It occurs froa 3000 to 4000 m throughout Kashmir valley and also In Jamian and x-anjtari areas of ?oonch. It is chiefly used in the treatment of diarrhoea, Arromatic and seseatial Oils Archaii^elica officinalis, locally Known as Chara, occurs throughout the Kashmir valley over fir and alpine zone in general and In the Jheluia and the Kashnir forest divisions in particular, ^.ugel oil derived froin the roots of tne plant is used in wine and brewery industry and is readily acceptable by various essential oil distillers, CedHrwood- .^awduat and ..aete is the source of cedarwood oil used as industrial perfume. The oil ie derived both from cedarwood saw duet, off^cuts and stump chips after distillation. At present the oil is produced by a nus.ber of sr^all scale Industries in the private sector in various 3i parts of the state of Jaflucu and Kaohasir. Jurlnga macrocephala. known as I hup both In i indl and Kashndri, is a perennial ateKleea plant havint woody roots. It generally occura above 3000 m elevation in all the forest divisions of Chenab circle, in the Udhampur the iJillavar and the Poonch soil conservation divieions in JaiKTiJii province and the jCashKir, the i'ir i'anjal and the Jhelua valley forest division of the Kaehiiir valley. The roots of the plant are used in the nanufacture of incense atickb and burnt in temples and other religions places and functions. It i& well known for healing wounds. o&iflagia lauroBla. called i'atar in .-.ashuiiri and Barra In Hindi, is an evergreen arooiatic and ^la::.orou8 shrub, 90 CB to 1.5 ffi in height. It occurs froffi 2000 a to 2700 t: throuf;hout JansKU and Kashmir utate. But its collection betwewi 19/1-72 to 1976-77 haa only been reported froE the Billawar forest division and that too for the year 1973-74. an eBB«mtial oil is derived froa the leaves which may be used in the perfucrery industry and for the manufactui^ of soap. Like dhup (Jurinee macrocepfaala^i it is also used in rindi rituals due to its fragrant leaves. >^ausBurea lappa, called Kut both in Hindi and Kashmiri, ie a perennial herb, about 1.5 to 2 m. in height and having*- very large leaves. 3li it is generally found growing between 2500EI and 4000 JB on well drained soils. In the Kaahs-ir valley it grows ir the rir ^^anjal, the ^anget* the Kaeiusir* the Kamraj and the oindh loreet divielona ae well as the entire Chenab foreet circle. It is also found growing in the Billawar and the i'oonch (woil conservation) divisions of Jaaffiu circle. The plant XB put to a variety of uses. The oil derived fros» the roots of the i:jlant has a insect repelling property which helps in storing, woolens without tamlshinf the iold craid or embroidery on them. But its chief use lies in its luedicinai value. It has antiseptic and disinfectant properties. It gives relief to bronchial asthaaie patients. Valeriana wallichil. known as Kushk-bala both in lindi and Kashseiri i8» a plant having yellowish brown rhiaoaen, It occurs between 1800 m to 2000 m throughout the KaBhc4.r valley. It also grows throug;hout the Chenab forest circle and the Jdhaapur the iSillawar the /oonch (w.C./ end the Jaciiuu (w.C.) divisions in the Jajmntu province. Volatile oil is obtained from the roots of the plant. These roots also posses stimulative, can»inetive end antiseptic properties which are useful in hysteria, e. ixepsy and neurosis. 8!.. /.anthoxylum alatuB 1B a sffiall tr«# with dense folia^i-e» poeeesaing a punrent* aron.atlc taete &nd small. It is coiwnonly knovn aa Pimroo, It generally occure in hot vi%lleye in aub-tropical .limalayae between 600 ED to 900 ID. Its collection has not been reported by any forest division of the state but it occux^ in the rvajourl, the Foonch (^,C., the '.HiXlawar the Udhampur, the ioda and the Ramban forest diviaion of Jamt&u province. ^>n essential oil can be derived from carpels and fruits which act ae a valuable antiae.^tic and disinfectant. ii9aci<^ jEOdestfa or f^hulal as it is called in 'unjabi, is a moderate si7.ed thorny tree. It attains a naxiniuffi hei£nt of about 9 Si, It's bark is rou^h, the wood is very heavy, straight ^rrained and fine textured. In Jnmaiu and Kashair It occurs on the lower .ortions of the Billawar, the JamiKU, the Uehampur tlrie iteasi and the sjouri forest divisions, graduaHy decreasing froo east (rillawar) to west (P.ajouri). Its translucent and pale y©Howieh fuir is mostly used in aedicines and confectionery. It*a tender twinge are used as Uatun* for desnin^- teeth. 31., Ferula narthex is a herb with circular iraes of foliage. It ctajT grow to 1.3 o In diameter. In tiamasa and Kashair it grows in ^^adaKh area. The oleo-gui&resin ie collected from the aten in June when the fruit la unripe and tTom the roots in July-Au^'ust. The guoa la ueed for aisin^ paper and cloth etc. .. 8ort of gum, coBffltercially known as aeafoetida, is obtained from the roots of the plant which i.i used HB an antis )oen,odic, nervine BtimuleBt, digestive, sedative, expectorant, diuretic, anthelffilntic and eocienagog-ue etc. Lannea cQroKandellca« known in Kashmiri and -indi as K-.inibal or Knircil, is a deciduous tree having atout branches which nontally attain a height of 24 ir, it occurs in the f-easi the Udhacnpur the Kajouri and the JanmiU (-.-.C.) and the iiillawar forest divisions between 600 to QOO a. it's wood is put to various uses but its ^um which is yellowish white when fresh and turn brown and finally blacit on drying, is also used in various industries. Fresh gui& which is soluble in water oossessea good adhesive properties. I he gum is also used in calioo»printing, paper and cloth eizine, inferior wamiahes and inks. It is also used in plnsterin^ and white washing apart from being used in confectionery end for preserving fishing nets. 31 Plnue roxburghii. coiniLonly cnlled as chir pine. Is a lar^e ^repsrious tree. It occurs In outer &nd drier Himalayas between 500 K to 1500 m. In JauiKu and Kashmir ..tate it occurs throughout the Jaaimu forest circle and the liacban, the neasi, ard the Joda forest divisions of Chenab forest circle. It ia totally absent in the Kashmir VHlley, The Oieo-reein is ^eneraily procured fro© the tree by ^ivini,, an incision. The oleo-resin further releases many important by products used for a variety of purposes (see chapter VII) in various industries manufacturing soaps, disinfBctant&i paints varnishes, paper etc. ^Pices and Candiaents Prag:no8 pat>ularia known locally as Badian is a perennial herb. It occurs between 1800 to 3350 m throughout the valley of Kashmir, Its collection has also been re^jorteo from dhaiapur and : illawar forest division of Jainffiu forest circle. The roots of the plant are considered BB diur*»tic and ercffiena ruplca Mn^atup. known locolly as taru, is a sffiaii tree which Bometiujes caai be described as a large shrub. It grows wild in stony ground in the I-oda, the Ramban, the IJhaderwah, the Kishtwar, the i-.easi, the iiillawar ^^ooncii (.;,C,,, the Jdhaoipur and the Eajouri forest divisions. The fruit usually as large as an apple has a i.ard rind of brownish red colour. It contains numerous yellowish seeds which are universally eaten and much esteemed. The seeds of inferior quality fruit are dried to be used for preparing a delicious sauce, The rind of the fruit contains a noderate ajEount of yellowish colouring:: matter which ifl fiven un easily in the toiling water, giving colour from dull-yellowish rr««n to bright reddish. It contains large quantity of tannic acid which is capable of producins black dye on wool when treated with salt of iron. CatQh and Tafmin/.^ Kateriala Acacia catechu. atha is a wood extract of .^cacia catechu, which occurs throughout the Jaautu forest circle with in its natural habitat. The Katha from Acacia catechu is derived in uaoimu (w.c,), Udhaapur, itajouri and ^illawar forest divisions. The product ie used primarily for chewing with petal beats. Catch is also obtained by boiling the softer part of the wood which ie used as valuable dye in industries. aj- KmbBtlcs officinallB. known locally as /imla, ie a sBiaXl or cedluffi alzed deciduous tree* Tha bark which ie sKOOth haa fraanleh-z^rey colour. '. hereaa the foliate i» featherly lifht ^rear.. It occurs in the Billawar, the Jasjffiu, the UfJhampur the liea»l, the ajouri and the .-"oonch forest civlBions. hile its wood ie used for a variety cf rar^joses each aa furniture jsakine a as cheap building material, for caKin^- a^ ricultural iBpliiiients etc. Its leaves and fruit contain 22 ,>er cent and 2; per cent of tannin respectively, it's bark and twinge contain 8 per cent and ?1 ..>er cent tannir respectively. All this is uainiy used for tannine leataer. feoodfordia fracticoaa. called Ihayi in .indi and haehmiri, ie a small, auch branched shrub owint to its flowers all alon^^ its branches it looks briantly purple, it occurs in acnib forest of Jajxsniu, particularly in the l.easi forest division upto a hei^^ht of 1500 m. It also occurs in the : riharopur and the . illawar forest division. The flower of the sJrub contain large quantities of tannin. ?h© dry flower of the shrub is stiaulant ar.d astririf'ent and nre used in bowel corcplaints and haoDorrhafes. Idible I'lants giosp.yros ka^:^. locally known as AIEIOK, is a tree f:rowin£- throughout the Chenab valley and Upper reaches of the 31. Blllawar, the fJdhaiapur, th« t^oonch (W.C.) and the Rajouri forest division. It also frowe in the Kashair valley the tree is? also cultivated, apart frons growing wild, in its natural habitat, on account of its fruit which is delicious end often Rade into preserves. The fruit is exported to JaicciU and other cities in India in a dry state, io statistica data pertaining to its production or collection is Bvaiiab^e either froK the forest or froia atriculture departmente. I.orchela eaaoulenta. known as Gucckie, ie in great demand, particularly in turopean nnd Arab countries due to its fjuality cf bein^ a fine, though a costly vegetable. It occurs throughout the Cheneb forest circle and u \o(pr reaches of the nifhaapur the billawar, the rajouri and the roonch forest divisions. In these are^e many famere have started growing it under artificial conditions with very food results. Bein£ a costly ve^retsble it can be a source of revenue for the state. J.tfcaea uabrosa. known coKs^only as chiriindi, is a sa-all tree, it occurs throughout the tem.erate iorests of Janrniu tund Keshair between 900 a. to 2100 in. The seed of the Jlant yields an oil which i£' used for bumine in iecips. 3^, Kallotvia phlil3>>«p»n6iB. kno%na locally ae tvaitila, i& a tree ooourlng In th« Billavar and parts of the Cdhaiapur forest divisions. Oil Is extracted from the seed of the tree is suitable for oee as &n ingredient of vamish und other surface coating Etaterials. The seed yields ^'j-3'3 per cent of fixed oil. jC»apiuK» eebiferuffi. called mon-china in l.indi, it a ?ii;iall ^li«»brou8 trae introduced in India froE China. It rrowB throughout the hotter belt of Jammu province. The seed of the tree la coated with a white t^easy eubstnncet celled 8 veretable tallo*. This substance ie used frr making- candif>8. ^^'urther, frorr. the shell and eeod an oil i& extracted which is burnt in lanrps. i.o otf,ti8ticai data is avsilabia with the forest departr.,ent pertyinin^. to the production or collection of various oil seeds found in the forests of Jaexu and Kashmir. ihe above described are only a afiail nur..oer ol plants constituting the xinor forest products. taer plante of lirii>ortance have either r^ot been studied, surveyed '-ir.6 ^naly8ed or .,re not collected on a large scale. The atter include aftifroor., batiboos, catoterl», fcerti.eri. kaadeti, l'^«ratar^, posr.^ar. reyil and sagEul to nm.e only & few. lUe forests of .Jamr.u and Kashair, therefore. , oeseee a #cr«at potential for rinor forest products. >rovidin, raw 3)., materialB for a nuaber of Industriea. Froa the coaaerclal point of view reein (chir resin) is the t-oat important atd which ie feeinf dealt with separately. ! edlcinal plants seetE to occupy the second icost important place aaonf the .^, '. of the Jans, u and Kashclr ..tate. ;lthouf;h syr.thetic dru^B can be a suitable substitute for the various rrediciral plants, a sustained supj/ly of these will certainly be preferable for it is well linown that nature can neither be surpassed nor natched. For maintaininfe- a t'ustained supply of the n^edicinal plants the forest depart.T.ent should carefully survey the .jotentiais and find out the wayc for maintaining the growing stock at a uniform level, ^a tne department lays down working aians for the exploitation oi ti^-ber, taking into cot»8ideratlon all aspect of forestry, similar woritlnc, plane can a^so be drawn for tne explt.itatior. of c.inor forest products. This will help in obtaining the maximum yield with proper natural regerieration which will not allow the resources to deplete, tn the other hand thie will help the departu-ent to get information about the etocii and quantity available for supply on a sustained yield basic, and if the necessity so arises cultivation of some medlcinax plants can also be undertaken in drug forni as is done at Present at certain places. Research faciUties aval lab] e *t the ?efdonal Hesearch laboratories, JaMu and .rina^ ar, :i. should suitably be exploited for the benefit of society. oome druf: plarts of great commercial velue like rioscorea. eracleuffi. Belladona, ArteRlaea and Kuth etc. are indifiieous to the state. Their cultivation at present iB not being allowed in the private eector under the f Ail these factors will not only go a-^on^, away to aagaent the Production of i'.»l',£^, they will also be en instruuent of increaaini,- the esnpioyaent potentitils in a poor and backward stete like Jaiumxi and Kashuir where new avenues of employment have to be created and existing ones eXi^anded in order to raise the incoice of the poor irissses* > ,-•..,, which as we have seen, are distributed throu^thout the atate right frott the foothills of ciwaliko to the ,adsKh region, can Jrovide jobs tc meny thousands and aide business to even n larg-e nuiuber. If the industrial sector csn be r^asared of a sustained sup,,ly ofl,i\.\, various industries procea. ing tnese products can be established, giving em^loyient to many thousand people. ..oreover, many aiore people particux. rJ J tne noiL-dic tribes roatting in these forests, will undoubtedly 3 . ^et part time jobs of collecting the i\,F,sf, Thua these weaker erctione of society will fereatly be benefited ecoroadcftliy, H i^roceiBs developed by the Ke^ional i esearch -aboratory, oan^snu, for the first tiae in the world^ for icakint hard-bord out of fibree aade from the pine r.eedlee can fvenerate considerable eK.ployffient potential, Ht present there is only one pharmaceutical industry at Baramulla which proceeaes Artettieia a^aritica for santonin, i any aore siaiilar indue tries based on .*'.F. r. can be established for the welfare of society. Timber waste, such as saw dust, end parts of the timber and left over tiabtr in t^ie forests, particularly deodar timber, can sustain mary industries manufacturing deodar oil and thus creating eciployojent op-urtunities. ..e have also se«i that Jafiutu and ivsshBir forests alec posies a rich vegetable tannin^- material. I any tannine units can be setup* These are only a few exaiBiJles but ir^any more avenues are open for econotricaUy exploiting of the &lnor forest products of «ls«iitiu and » ashaiir. i information based on the verbal discussion with Y,A, oSTin of b.K.i.., JamiEU. 3. r" JAMMU&KASHMIR STATE DISTRIBUTION OF IMPORTANT ^MINOR FOREST PRODUCTS t»79 / \ KAMRAJ DIVISION ') Oi.H»i,Ph.R«.Sl.Pp«.M« / ItLANOE* t DIVISION AiB. A«.D i Aneh«ik,-"~. I ^ Lah* OulL OiVlSIO?* Srlnagai s3^ .. TRAL \(G«ni«)_.' PIR PAHJAi DIVISION KtSHTWAR DIViSlON Aa.H^Ph,Jm.bl.P()^lM• yAc,Cl.Dd,HM»k.PlU Am,Aa.Cl,0».Od.Plt,Pi.Jra.SL ') KASHMIR DIVISION V, ^^^ RAJOURI DIVISION • REASI DIVISION '• PAMBAN /OODA DlVtSIOt^ / .'DIVISION,' Pi.M»*Mo<-'^ A4.0«.Pk.Pi,Ph.J«t!.Sl <' - ^. / A8,Cl,0»,O(!.Pk,Pi. v ^ *'^i' >:pt>.p.,ph. N ''"•s'*c«t, J Hm,SlAM« 3r "* j ; SHAOE^WAH OiVISION JLINE OF AC V Is Aa.O«.0 Th« pr«»«nt study h&« r«v»al«d that the diatrlhution of for«8t types In Jaasiu and Kaahoilr State* aa elaevhere, depends oainly on climate* altitude* aoiXt geology and aspect etc. etc. 3ince the oiwalik hilla posaea eandy aoila and oonparatively leaa height* these are covered by Tropical Dry Deciduous Forest* k>ub*tropioai Dry i^vergreen Forest and the oivalik Chir pine Forest. The effect of climate is clearly discernible vhen ve find no chir pine in the Kashmir valley because chir pine seeds germinate only In the monsoon season. This is not posaible in the Kashmir valley because of the absence of good and sustained monsoon rains, i^lmilarly deodar which does not like vet and waterlogged soils does not h&ppily stand on the northers side of JPir Panjal range where due to gentle slope well drained soils are absent. Champion's group 12* 13t 14* 15 and 16 extensively exist on the higher reaches of middle and inner Himalayas. The distribution of these groups and their sub-groups is again influenced by the various locality factors. km regards the distribution of important forest species the present study reveals that more than 64 per cent of the area under deodar species lies in four forest 3; divlaions only (Langet, KanraJ, Bhadarwah axid Doda) thtreby ahovJUo^ quite an unevan dlatrlbutlon of this apaoies in tha atata* ^aiaiXarly nora than 68 par cant of daodar population Xiaa in thasa four diviaiona wharaaa danaity p9r haotara of daodar ia tlia hi^haat in tha Bhadarwah, UdiisBpur and Jheluoi rallay foraat diviaiona. It ia furthar ahovn by tha atudy that about 40 par cant of trea population at and on about 28 par cant of araa undar thia crop in tha Bhadanrab, tha Udhanpur and Jhalus vallay foraat dlTiaiona. In caaa of kail (Plnua wallichiana). tha diatribution is again unavan. Mora than 39 per cant of total araa undar kail liaa in tha tvo foraat diviaione of tha Kaahnsir and tha Doda. Tha Langatt the Kaaraj, tha ^ind» tha fir Panjal, tha Kiahtvar tha Bhadarwah and tha Raaban foraat diviaione extending diagonally from North* Waat to iiouth- i!;aat» together occupy 51*59 per cent of total area under kail. The re&aining areaa are atill unevenly dietributed in other foreat diviaione of the atate. Similarly the tree population of kail la alao unevenly diatributed 53. ?6 per aenl of kail population atand in the three diviaione of Bhadervah, i:oda and KaahKir which together occupy 43*33 per cent of the area under thia crop. The Langet, the Kanraj and the Jind foreat diviaiona accoisodate 14.89 per cent of kail population on ?2.84 per cent of area under thia apeciea in 3; .. the 8tat«. The study further reveal* that 17.68 p9r cent of total kail population stande in the KaiAsir forest divieion alone. The reaaining 13*29 per cent population Btands in the Jhelum valley and Pir fanjal forest divisions. It has further been shown that kail ia less isportant speciea in Jeamu forest circle except the Udhaapur forest division. The highest density of kail per hectare is seen in the Udhaapur and the Coda forest divisions where 153 and 162 trees etand respectively on a hectare of land. The lowest density of 11 trees per hectare of area is seen in the 3ind forest division. The L&nget» the Kanraj» the Kashmir, the Kishtvar and the Raaban forest divisions stand out as a region where density of kail pmr hectare varies between 50 to 100 trees. Out of the total area of about 2.66 lakh hectare under fir in the state 37.62 vr cent lies in the three forest divisions of Pir Panjal, Kashair and Code avowing thereby an xaneven distribution ot areas. The Langet, the Eejourl and the Poonch forest divisions on the other bend together occupy 17.22 per cent of the areas under fir in the state. The results show that even su<^ important forest divisions like the Bhaderwah, the Kishtwar and the oind individually occupy lesa than 7 p9T cent of the total area under fir. The analytical study has brought another interesting point to light which shows that although the 3: .- maxlBum ar«&8 under fir Il« in th« fir Beaiiml, the ICashBir and tht jDoda forest diTiaions but the conoentration of i)OpuXation ia in the Bhedenrah and the Doda foreat diviaiona which together aoooaodate 39*32 per cent of total fir population. It haa also been concluded that in the Langet, the KaaraJ and the ^ind foreat diviaiona fir population ia nuite thin vhioh ia evident fron the fact that in theae diviaiona 4.17 per cent of population atanda oyer 18.94 per cent of the total area under thia crop in the atate* The denaity pattern of fir per hectare reveal a different pattern in vhich the Loda foreat diviaion* which accounte for 21,67 per cent of the population, haa 94 treea per hectare while the Udhaapur fonat diviaion, which poaaea only 3*90 per cent of fir population aocoffiodatea 129 treea p9T hectare, iitill higher denaity per hectare ia evidenced in the Bhaderwah foreat diviaion vhere it ia found that 149 treea exiat over a hectare of land which ia the hi^heat in the atate. The Beaai* the Pir l^anjal the Haaban, the Billawar, the Kajouri and the Poonoh foreat diviaiona individually poaaea leas then 50 treea per hectare. In caae of ohir pine the atudy reveals that thia crop ia totally abaent in the Kaahnir province and further that in JaoDU province too it ia extreately unevenly diatributed. Thia la supported by the fact that 43.31 per cent of the total area und^r thia crop liee in the 3: Hajourl and tho foonoh divlsloiui. Another 42.46 p«r c«Dt arva undrr this crop lias in the Blllavar* the Udhaspur and the Keaal foreat divlalone* The Uiaalajran ehir pine exifita Ineignlf leantly on the lover reaohea of Bhadervah and the Ooda foreat dlviaioiui vhlle it eziata aore or leae ooatfortably ormr the areaa of Raaaban foreat divieion* The study bringa out that although more than 43 ?*T cent of the area Ilea in the Rajouri and the Poonoh foreat diyiaione, theae diviaiona contain only 21.99 P^r cent of the tot&l population while the Billavar foreat divlalon which poaaea only 14.91 per cent of the areae under thia crop accosaodatee 41.40 per cent of th« total population thereby showing the hi£;heBt density per hectare. The Reaei forest diTiaion, which accomodatea 23.54 per cent of the population, ahowa the second hig^hest density per hectare with 32 trees. The Hajouri and the Foonch foreat divisions» possessing siaxisuK areaa under the crop accoaodate the least number of trees per hectare. If there is no natural regeneration, the forests would vanish in due course of tise. The present study reveala that aa a reaalt of foreat conaervancy aeasures introduced in Jassiu and Kashmir :itate during the last century» the kail crop has got the aaziinuiB benefit. This has largely been due to certain natural advantages that icail enjoye. These include the production of seed er^ry 3; .. year w^ch is light and gets dispersed over greater distances easily besides bein#; fertile and very viable one. It has been observed that kail regenerates fairly veil in its natural habitat seme without any difficulty. The condition of deodar regeneration is much the ease as in the case of kail but it will not be out of place to mention certain sueasures which need to be ta^en in order to facilitate the natural regeneration in deodar - kail sone. These include* as the study reveals, the urgent necessity of closing the forested areas for greying Inspite of the fact that it would involve Berlous socio-political problemt ^ilvioultural operations such as removal of falling refuse and cleaning and thinin^ ot deodar forests should get due consideration and attention of the caanagers of these forests, artificial regeneration is suggested in those areas which show deficient natural regeneration. It nus been observed that little effort is being made to get these forests regenerated which is a negative aspect of scientific aanagesient of the forests. Further, It has been found that advance growth particularly in deodar forests, is not bein^ cleared of late due to certain policy matters but the policy makers must tlxnt see the larger interest of forestry i& general and the people of the state in particular rather than narrow political considerations. It is, therefore, a;,. aug^eeted that th« for«»t managesmnt should &irold political considerations while talcing scientific decisions. in the fir foreate, se has been brought forth by the present study> biological and physical balances of the 0oil have been altered on nearly 10 per cent of the area under this species due to continuous grazing for many decades, un about 70 per cent of the areas under fir, routine regeneration measures would be sufficient for achieving the desired results if graging is controlled. fn the whole it will be worthwhile to take special Biivicu-tursl measures such as cutting back of shruos, burning in the wet areas end intensive soil workinji in over grazed and tsampled areas. In the absence of these seaeuree, nntural regeneration of fir, at present, is far froto satisfactory and, therefore, needs to be supijli&ented by artificial rei^eneratlon. sincere efforts on the part of managers of these forests ere, therefore, needed, ihese efforts include the collection of seed every year in general and during good seed years in particular, hstabiishttent of nunneries at proper places and plantation of seedlings should be preoeeded by eleffiination of felling refuse and unwanted undergrowth, A total bsm on grasin# in these new plnntetiona should be strictly enforced. Thus nature should be helped to f^9t these forests properly regenerated otherwise a.: it wiil be difficult to meet the ever increasing demand of fir tiaber. lue to frenuent eeeding coupled with high seed fertility chlr plae ia Ito aatural hehitat regenerates easily. This has been clearly brought out by this study, but soil erosion in these forests is & serious problec which needs iio&ediate attention. It has further been established that if forest fires» which are a serious inhibiting factor in natural regeneration in chir foreste, soil erosion and over gracing in these forests are taken care of chir regeneration will be satisfactory all over its natural habitat in JBKIBU and Kashmir i?tate. It has further been concluded that conditions of UBtural regeneretion in the scrub and degraded forests of outer hills in general and bamboo forests in particular are in B pretty bad shape, k comprehensive plan to get them artificially regenerated will be ouite viable from the economic point of view, ilegeneration and reestablishiaent of frpa^^^ 9etfyhu« Acacia modesta and Dalber The bamboo forests, for inetance, which used to occupy the entire belt of outer hills and olsins have now been restricted to the Jasrots range of the hillnwar forest division. If gracing and other foras'Of biotic interference is checked along with measures to regenerate them rirtificially this whole belt can again bear a luxurant growth of these forests. Once this objective is r^chieved many bwmboo b^sed industries csn be estftblished. Important among the© include the paper f*nd pulp industry which can entirely depend on these forests for sufficient and consistant supplies. Kuny small scale indim tries, drawing their raw material from bamboo forests can also be established. These include the bamboo furniture induetiy, the basketv and packing cases industry and many industries making decorative articles from the bamboos, wimilarly the regeneration and rehabi litation of Acacias in this region msy give rise to the Hath^if making industry. Thus if a master plan on these lines is envisaged and properly executed, the whole Kandi belt can be transformed into an industrial belt of great importance. This will go a long way in removing the deep rooted poverty in this region. After carefully analysing the actual extinction for the last decade certain projections for the level of future extractions have been made. It has been found that the approximate expected extraction of deodar in 1985-86 li..'. %fouldi COB* to 131*63 thousand cu.is. wh«r«as for kail th^ > figure stands at 101.03 thousand OU.B. for tht year 1983-B6. wioilarly projected extraction for fir stands at 176*47 thousand cu.a. for the year 1985-86, In the case of chir extraction 92.72 thousand eu.m. of tiaber stay be expected in the saaks year. Although all these projections are purely hypothetical in nature, they are certainly indicative of a trend. Further froai the aesesssent of the growing stock of various coniferous species it has cone to light that except for fir, the position of all the species seema to be satisfactory, the fir forests, which occupy ©bout 33 99r cent of the total areas under the four coniferous species are being rapidly depleted. 7hi3 is largely due to misuse and miimianagefflent of these forests. Managers of these forests, thsrefore, should take necessary steps to r»mov9 this negative trend by plugging the loopholea, fhie becomes even sBore Important when ve consider the fact that the misused and aisaanaged voluse of fir tiaber during the decade is four times the actual voluBie extracted* Poreet based industries do not enjoy that position in the econoiny of the state which is expected of them, this in short can be the logical conclusion. It has been found that baring the Rosin and turpentine factory and The Govemoent Joinery Mills, there is no healthy forest 3, , baa«d indu8tx7- if at all th6r« are any. 7h« Kaahnir *ilIow8 " a crickat bat manufaoturlng unit In public saetor and tha GovemiBent Match factory ara not giving the azpectad raaulta. Thaaa two oonoeme have tha potential to ravolutioniaa tha production of aupparior quality products if propar attention ia paid to thas. All the geographical pre-reousitea are there for farther iasproveaent and developnaent of both theaa induatriea. The only thing needed is the neceaaary viU and action. Tha condition of tha aantonin industryt which enjoys a oonopoly in the country, aeame aatiefactory but etill the production of aantonin can be Ineraaaed by laying down proper working plana for the areas which produce artiaaaia, tha main raw material for this industry. Besides these industries aany sore forest based industries, both in the SBall scale as well as in the large scale sector, can be established. The paper and pulp industry ie the glaring exnsple which ie long over due in tha state. Tha preaent atudy will aaite the work of the planners of thia induatry eaaier by giving n clear picture about the forest resources of the atata. Further, tiaiber waate auch aa aaw duet, end parte of timber and left ovar tittber in the fcreate can sustain many induatriea, particularly the manufactura of deodar oil. Many other induatriea baaed on minor foreat produota can aleo aucoaaafully be eetabiiahed in the atata. It will not be out of place to aention few 3, such indxuitries h«r«. It has b«0n established by this study that Jamou and Kashadr forests are rich In vegetable tanning material which can supply raw material tor ©any tanning unita. Medicinal pleddts have come out to be the moBt important minor forest products of the state. l£ these are properly worked and managed acientifically they oan provide sustained supply of raw icaterlala to nany more industries which oan substitute synthetic drugs to some extent, Herdboard nanufacturing units drawing their raw material fro» the fibre of pine needles, can also be estsblished in various parts of the state. P'or this industry there will be no dearth of raw aaterial. ^though B great potential for the development of minor forest products exist in the state they have not bean properly surveyed so far. A careful survey of minor forest products is, therefore, an urgent need. These minor forest products get almost no attention from the working plan officers. In view of their importuaoe, both economic and ecological, it is suggested that a separate working plan cell for the minor forest products may be created in the forest department to aases these resources end manage them on scientific lines. It has been brought forth by the Btudy that these resources are slowly but surely depleting. Their conservation and regeneration should, therefore, get top priority before It is too late, kiome important medicinal 11.., plants, such as £isiS£2S&» £SISSltH£f MUS^SJ^* M^l^fili ^^'^ i^utb* cix^ indigneous to the state. Their cultiratlon at present ie not beln^ allowed In the private sector* This situation needs careful consideration and if it is found that the public sector is unable to cultivate thea on larger scale then there seeas to be no ham in allowing private enterprise to take up the cultivation of these plants under the supervision of forest department. Economically this will be a very visestep. O \ X > Bim99u^m B9QIU Allen, b.iiii.. 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JC'JRBA Abrol, li.L., "i^ome Thoughts for Expension of Resin Based Industries in JaDwu and Kashmir", Unpublished. Bali, L.S., "Minor Forest Products of Jauroa and Kashsjir - Its Potential Jee" Unpublished. Bhatna^rar, 1. , "future of aporte Goods Industry in Kashmir", Kashmir Today. Vol.2, No.10, and 11, 1958. Bhai, oher Jingh,, "The Effect of Climate on Conifers of Kashmir", The Indian Forester. Vol.55, 1929. — ijauBiann, B.B., "The Botanical inspect of ancient .^gyption iimbalancing and Burial" Kcon. ijot.. Vol.1 A. iiuchholz, J.T,, "The i?ine j^mbryo and the jiir.bryo of Related Genera", Trans. Ill, ut. Acad. L>ci.. Vol.2?. 3i Carlil«» km'p»t "The laiportaBce of Foreet rToducta In Katioaal Defence", The Indian Forester, Ko.10, 194t. Choudhury, K.C., "The Urgent Keed to Conserve Forest wealth", The atstestt&n. New Delhi, Dated: 12.7.1<»65. lana, •>.?., "Forest Influences", *orld Geography of Forest Hesources". A.G.a., i^ubllcation, ivo.33. 195^. 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Division iTyp9d Copy). bingh, ^>«, Revissd ixorking Plan for Doda Forsst Livision. Ticku, B.L.. Working Plan for Pir Pan.ial Forsst Division. JaiDcu and Kashair Govemaiant Forsst Departmsnt, A tigsst of Forsst Statistics. Jaj&mi and Kashmir Forest Record No.1 (3rd Edition), 1974. Jsmmu end Kwahmir Goveraiaent Forest Department, A Pigeat o| Forest atatisti^s. Jammu and Kashmir Foreet Kecord No.1 (2nd idition), 1969. ( i;ccordiiif to u... Ch^mpior. and ^-.K. ^eth) c.roup 1- Tropical ^et ver^reen ."'oreats ut)-f:rouj> 1i.- .oathem tro,)ic- 1 n^et evergreeri foroete: (.1 (Giant evergreen forests; C? i^ndamene tropical evergreen forest ?J (..ndfisnanfi itoist deciduous foreets) C3 southern hilltop tro^jical ever^-reea fcreet C4 '•ost Coast trcplCBl evevgreer forest ub~^roap 1/~ forthem tropic??! wet ever,i reen forests: CI i^BBHCi Valley tropical wet evergreen forest (Ej iJtcrocorpas) C? J.jp^-r As&Hta Vnliey tro:>icaI evergreen foreet KH) i^ayeB forest ( b) "i esua forest C3 Caesar tror^ical evergreen forest General edajhic and serai types of wet evere^reen foreats; 1 Cane brakes -? wet baffiboo brakes ?-1 pioneer i.uphortiaceous ccrub Group ?- Tropical oemi-tveri recn Forests ub-.^'^roup ?A - outhern tropical eetLi-everfreen forests: C1 f,ndau.ajrt» seal-everfreen forest -? «eet Coast eensi-everfreen forest '•5 Tirurelveli sec i-ever? reen forest ?v1 Wf8t Coast second-iry evergreen lipteroc'-srp forest ub-j.rou;> 2tj - r^^orthem trojicel eeml-evergreen forests: Cl nssam Veliey semi-everf:reen forest Ifa jiSSfiBi hiluviui plains seaii-cvfr^reen forest 1 b t astern subaioctaue 8ea*.i-ever^ reen forest 1 <1 ..ub-.-isLfilayan light aliuviial eeffii-evergreer forest 1-2 ..yss^tiuti. pMrklBnd 2^} (lioneer .UiJhorbiaceous scrub) 2^,2 astern alluvial secondfery setri-ever^ reer. toregt i\/J ^ ub-riiaialfcyar. secondsry wet cixed forest J? Cechar semi-overt reen forest '?? .. riesH Ben-i-t^veri-reen forest General ed!» Jhlc and serai types of seai-ever^reer toresto: '1 (Cone brakes) '? { »ft bfitr.boo brnkes) "5 "• '">it-t bptrboo urakes 4 j-at Group 3 - royicpl .^oist 1 eciduoue orcets ub-(7roup 3A - nd'-ffifms coiat deciduous forests: i ,inc'arr.pn8 moist declduouB forest ?. 1 rtTsi-'tcs'nr BecoDdpry itcist decidaous forest u.>-^. rouD '5^-i - » outn In"i'.n .coist deciduous forests: Cl I olst teek-be- rln^ forest la very aciat tenk forest \h . oiet tea^ feres t 1c ^ lij/htiy xoiat teuk forest C2 woutfiern moiot u-ixed decidaoue .'oreet S'., 1 wouthem secondary «oist liixed dfci-^uous -oreet ub-^ roup 5C - North Indian K-oist deciduous forests: 01 Very sr-oiat sRl-beerin^- forest 1R tsterti hill sel forest (i) HBX ''im-^lay^n es'l (ii) J-h'-^si hill erjl lb HStern bh'^i'^r SPI forest t i, '-St is.5ilayan upper bh.-ibar sal (ii; *i8t '.ASBIH^BXI lower bhabar sal 1c aetem tnrai sal forest M -'eninBuIsr (coastal; sal forest •.r . oiet sal-bearinc, iorest ?*i . oist -iwalik sal forest ^b J oist bbabar sal forest :ii. (i; bhabar-dun sal {li; I aniar sal 2o . oifit tarai sel foreBt 2d , oiat plains sal forest (i, -esteni light alluvluia plains eal {ii^ i.y?* Chandar sal (iil) wstem heavy alluviuir. ^laine eai ( iv ] A jp. i? ac ruti sal ?e i oist oeninsular eal forest (i) ; oist :ieninsular hi^th levei sal (ii) i.oiet penineular low level aai [Hi,, i'oist j^eninauiar valley sal ,. 1 Loist sal savannah ::3 . oist iiixed deciduous forest (without aal^ '5a ».©et aangetic irtoist mixed deciduouc, forest 3b ..aet iliiDalayan :t.oi8t aixed deci'-aousi! forest 2. 1 : orthem secondary .oist a.ixed deciduouu tores*. <-2 ( .econdary - aphorbiaeeoue scmb) enertxl erta >hic and serai ty ;ee of aoict dticidaoue feres-,: 1 T«»trninalie toirentosa forest ^^ 'Oi* alluvial savannah woodiand (.ialrr Tilia- i.lbijjjiia) 1 ? .-Rstern hollock foreota (TeruJnalia tryriccrra 2s rercir>ali0-l.a^,^er0troeiria 2h 7ers.ina.lia-'"uobHn^a ;io 2wi (Dry bamboo brakes) Grou.. 4 - wittorai end ^^W«BJ,' ioreete u.ub-^roup 4H - Littoral forests: 1 Littor«il forest .-.ub-£roup At - Tidal swaap forests: T^ 1 . an^^rove scrub T^2 'jnf-rove forest Tw3 vtiltwater rtixed forest (ileritiers) ?^4 -rockish water nixed forest (I'critiera; K1 s -iliL swamp ^ub-f-;roup 4C - Tro deal freshwater awanip lorests: : K: 1 yristica swamp forest f^2 wabELontaine hill valley swajap forest K^ -if c: rt epe r ©was. p fo re st -•ub-^roap 41 - T^o^dcai seasonal swaap forests: ,.u ^ LSistern seasonal swausp forest w^2 isfArrin^ tonia swacLi forest -"-•^ ^yL'.ygiuiu cuiLini e-wfmp low forest w.^4 --.aetem seasonal swamp low forest (ceph£.lantRus u-^v5 iiastera llilenia ewaicp forest ?.«1 (k-yzy^'iuir* pprklend) 2o? ( ostera wet alluvial #;rae3laKd; ..ub-^rouo 4!f. - Tropical riparian fringim forests: i-1 liuarian fringing forest 3... 11 - LHY TKUrlCai- /tkivoTu Group 5 - I'ropicul Try leeiduous oreets ub-froup 5.' - - oath em tropical dry deciduouB foreete: Ct 5 Tj tPiik-beArinr forest la Very dry teak foreBt lb I ry teak forest ? "r^' red sanders-bearlni? forest C3 woutherri dry Jrixed deciduous forest iub-frouc 5B • : ortnerr. tropical dry decidwccus i'oreets: ^^^ ; ry sai-bearing- forest 1,'j s ry wiwaliit sal forest lb i ry ijlairj© sal forest 1c : ry peninsular sai forest M^ *,ortaern . ry sixed deciduous forest i©i:rRd&tion 8ta£es of tropical dry decioaous forests: lul Iry deciduous scrub 1^2 Lry savannah forest r.'3 (.a>hcrbia scrub) ru4 dry f-rassland) General ednohic types of diy deciducae fort'Sts; \ .''no^^eissus jendulo forest I 1 '-rof eisaus penduia scrub :2 i-oawellia forest 3. .3 Hebul forest i.4 .tJ^'rdwickia forest •5 utcB forest ; 6 ..e^^je forest ,•.7 LPiterite thorn forest 1^ .'R line/alkaline scrub envannah 8fi hoenix eavannah .' b Vnbul savannah i,c ...aivadors-Xaruftrix Gcrab q 1 ry baicboo brake vJeneral eeral typeo of dry deciduous forests: 1w1 i,ry trO()ical riverain forest U 2 Kb.'iir-sis^u forest t.-3 Iriuntiatioii babul forest 2->^ .secondary dry deciduous forest iT*ou,.» t - Tropical Ihora Forests • ub-j roUf. 6^ - . uuthem tropical thorn forests: CI Jouthem thorr forest C? Aarnatak uosbrelia thorn forest I.>1 ..outhem thorn scrub U:2 . cutherrs aj^horbiu scrub ub-^-rouf) hh - Northern tropical thorn foreets: C1 )esert thorn forest t? nevine thorn forest 3;.. Iw,1 Zizyphue scrub '„? Tropical -uphorbla scrub •r.er-erBl edajhic, degraded and eerHl tyf.>«8 of thorr forests: 1 (Eaohorbia scrubj •2 Acncia eersefal forest 3 Hann saline thorn forest ,4 wslvadora scrub :\j\ vassia • uriculata Bcrub 1,1 i;esert dune scrub Uroup / - Tropical I'-ry ''.vergreen Foreete 01 rropical dry evericreen forest i\A Tropical dry evertreen scrub ill - .X:>.T.-; £ ^UhlRCi'lCA^ /1.J:\£.OTK Group 6 - cubtropicai f-roadleaved ..ill Forests ub-froup S/» - .'Outhem subtropical broedieaved riiii foreets; 01 lil^iri subtropical hill forest !\'1 3outh Ir»dian sub-tropical hill 8avanr»tth (woodland) . 1 heed brakes ( ., chlardra' '? -.estem subtropical hill forest C3 Central Indian subtropical hill foreat i- ( :.eerBdatioc sta^-s of -outhern s-ibtro,>icH-! broad-leaved hill forests) 3. ub-group Qii - Northern eubtropic®! broad ieavsd wet hill forests: CI Kaet ilimalayac subtropical wet hill icrest C2 dhQBi subtropical wet hill forest rvil (Asaaa eubtrouical pice forest) ]v.l ( ABsain subtrc^lcal hill savannah woodland, Croup 9 - oubtropicol Pine l-'oreata n liiffislaysn subtropica] pine forest 1R - ower or ...iwalik chir pine forest lb 'pper or .timelayan chir pine forest ;.1 uiEialayan aubtrouicai gcruD l->2 subtropical luphorbia scrub C? Hasam subtropical pine forests L^l ii-aBBLBi subtropical pine eavanmii^i Group 10 - v-ubtropical Iry i ver^ reen .'oreste Ct ^ubtroplcwl dry evergreen forest \B lea cusv^ldata scrub forest lb ACHCia HiOdesta acrub forest i 1 Iodonaea scrub IV- • f.;CTAK.-i Thi .'-JLATl-; .-%'. i.hbTo Group 11 - Tor-tane viet TeBipirate Forests ub-^ rou:? 11>\ - .outLem nontane wet temperate forests: <"^ ^outtiertt nontane vet temaernte foreat "'1 -cuthem liontan© wet scrub '- ? .southern contane wet crassland ub-^froup 11B - Northern aontane s^et temperate iorests: CI Kaet liimalayan wet teEperate forests 18( Laureceoua forest lb j-ak oak forest Ic JiKh-level oak forest C2 h»i:B hills wet temperate foreete Group 12 - HiEalayan ^oiat Teaperate Forests CI *«ower western IliKalayan tcnspersite loreetsi la •an o«k foreet ( ,. Incana) lb / oru octlt forest ( • dilatata) u'1 O^'k ecrub 1c ; oist deodar forest (Cedrus) Id neeteru mixed coniferous forest {syruce, blue )lne, silver fir). 1e .oist temperate deciduous forest 1f (;x5w-iovel blue pine forest (i .wallicuiHna 1 V ak ecrub ;x.2 llinalayen teeperate secondary scrub C2 Jpper ..est iiiBialayan temperate forest 2a .'.h rsu oak forest ( .seo.eci'.r.jifolia} ?b .est iiiosaiayan upper Ofck/fir forest 2c (Joist temperate deciduous forest, ^^'3 r:ast iliisslayan xi.oist teaperate forest 3«i ast uir-Rlayan a.ixed coniferous forest 3b Abies delavayi forest 3; ie^r^dfjtioE stages of .In.^il'jyen aoiet temperate forests: '. 1 !• ortane baBiboo br»='ke3 ". ? iiffiilayan tetr,:>pr»^te pariilr.nd '. "'Imalayar t0tn?)er''-te pceturee ueneral edRphic "Kd ser^ii types of .liftfclayan roi&t tea. )erate forests: 1 C^ press forest 1>J1 Alder forest 1. ? Kiverain Dlue pint^ forest 2v 1 iX)W«levei blae ,)ine forest uroup 13 - iiiffialsyan Iry 'leirsprrate forests (i) siestem types CI iry broad leaved and coniferous: forest ( uercus ilex-sf, ferardianaj C2 Lry temperate coniferoue forest ?a r eosia pine forest (i ,f erardiana) 2b Lry deodar forest (Cedrus) ;^ 1 ohu Bcrub lii? : ry temperate scrub C3 (.est ixralfiycn dry teicperate dpcidufue f o res t) C4 ,."Bt ..iiLHl'y (P.ffiQCT-oiJOda) (ii) astern types C6 ast Himalayars dry tetaperate coniferous tcrest iil Larch forest (i.,£riffithianay C7 Kast HiEialayar dry Juniper/birch forest ( F.. aliichlaJia). Ganem'i eeral types of dry temperate forests: 11 Hippophae/ yricarie scrub 12 t'opulus/dalix lorest 1^3 ( . estem hi^;'h-level dry blue pine forest. 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