IPADS IN THE EARLY CHILDHOOD SCIENCE CLASSROOM: AN EXPLORATION OF IPAD USE IN HANDS-ON SCIENCE ACTIVITIES

Catherine Wilson

BEd(EC) (CQUniversity), PgCertEd (ACU)

Principal Supervisor: Dr Linda Knight Associate Supervisor: Professor Lyn English

Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Philosophy (Education) Centre for Learning Innovation Faculty of Education Queensland University of Technology 2019 Keywords

artefact centric activity theory, augmented reality, early childhood, hands-on activities, education, iPad, motion, movement, science, social cognitive theory, mobile technology, thematic analysis, virtual manipulative

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page i Abstract

More than ever before, Australian educational efforts are focused on developing scientifically and technologically literate citizens. The types of learning experiences that occur from the earliest years of schooling, such as hands-on science activities, play a foundational role in this endeavour. These educational experiences must move toward integrating science and technology. The artificial boundaries between these learning areas often seen in schools, and in the Australian Curriculum, do not reflect real-world science practice. The growing ubiquity of mobile technology devices such as iPads in early childhood classrooms presents opportunities for learning experiences that fuse technology and science. There is a growing body of work on the increasingly significant role that technology, such as iPads, can play in contemporary science learning activities. However, much of this work has focused on using technology as part of the study of life sciences. Little research exists into the affordances and opportunities offered by the iPad when used in science learning experiences about the concept of movement in early childhood education. This thesis addresses this gap in the literature. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to explore the affordances and uses of the iPad in Prep classrooms during the study of movement. Teacher planning documentation, classroom observations and semi-structured interviews were analysed using a theoretical framework developed from Social Cognitive Theory and Artefact Centric Activity Theory. Placing the iPad at the centre of the hybrid thematic analysis revealed three key affordances the iPad offered to hands-on science activities about movement. The iPad offered observational and investigative learning positions; enabled miraculous transformations of time, space and materials; and offered the affordance of creative variation. The appeal of the iPad is high, and it was found to distract attention from hands-on activities on some occasions. The iPad was used to record hands-on science activities and then to view these recordings for various purposes. Virtual manipulative and augmented reality apps that represented the concept of motion were used on the iPads. Exploring the affordances and uses of the iPad in hands-on activities about movement revealed the means by which iPads enhanced and augmented these activities. The findings of this study describe the affordances offered by the iPad when integrated into hands-on science activities about movement. These findings suggest ways that educators may achieve greater integration of science and technology learning experiences in early years classrooms.

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page ii Table of Contents

Keywords ...... i Abstract ...... ii Table of Contents ...... iii List of Figures ...... v List of Tables ...... vi List of Abbreviations ...... vii Statement of Original Authorship ...... viii Acknowledgments ...... ix 1 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ...... 10 1.1 Outline of the problem ...... 10 1.1.1 Definition of terms ...... 12 1.2 Context ...... 15 1.3 Purposes ...... 17 1.4 Significance ...... 17 1.5 Thesis Outline ...... 18 2 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 19 2.1.1 Research Questions and Theoretical Framework ...... 19 2.1.2 Social Cognitive Theory and Science Education ...... 20 2.1.3 Artefact-Centric Activity Theory ...... 24 2.2 Science Education ...... 28 2.2.1 Science Education in Australia ...... 28 2.2.2 Inquiry Learning in Science ...... 31 2.3 Teaching the Science of Movement in Prep Classrooms ...... 34 2.4 Teaching with Technologies in Primary Schools (Practice) ...... 35 2.4.1 Teaching Science with Technologies ...... 38 2.5 Digital and material science activities ...... 39 2.5.1 Hands-on Activities in Science Education ...... 39 2.5.2 iPads in Hands-on Science Activities ...... 40 2.6 Implications ...... 47 3 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 48 3.1 Methodology ...... 48 3.1.1 Introduction and Overview ...... 48 3.1.2 Research Questions and Methodology ...... 49 3.2 Participants and research site ...... 51 3.2.1 The Researcher’s Role ...... 53 3.3 Instruments and Data collection Procedures ...... 54 3.4 Data Analysis ...... 57 3.4.1 Analysis Methods ...... 58 3.5 Ethics and Limitations ...... 61 3.6 Chapter Summary ...... 68 iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page iii 4 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS ...... 69 4.1 iPad integration into science lessons ...... 70 4.2 iPad as recording and replaying device ...... 77 4.3 iPad as enabler of virtual manipulatives ...... 80 4.3.1 Coconut Star App ...... 80 4.4 iPad as enabler of augmented reality apps ...... 87 4.4.1 Ramps Journal App ...... 87 4.4.2 Osmo Newton iPad App ...... 93 4.5 iPad as distractor ...... 96 4.6 Chapter Summary ...... 99 5 CHAPTER 5: ANALYSIS OF RESULTS ...... 100 5.1 The ways the iPad positions learners ...... 101 5.2 The iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations ...... 103 5.3 The iPad as enabler of creative variation ...... 110 5.4 iPad as distractor ...... 112 5.5 Theoretical Framework and implications for the iPad as a central artefact ...... 112 5.6 Chapter Summary ...... 113 6 CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSIONS ...... 115 6.1 Summary of problem and context ...... 115 6.2 Contributions...... 116 6.3 Implications ...... 120 6.4 Limitations ...... 121 6.5 Future directions ...... 122 APPENDICES ...... 124 Appendix A: Deductive thematic analysis categories using Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) ...... 124 Appendix B: Codes and descriptions used in data analysis ...... 125 Appendix C: Codes used including number of sources and references ...... 127 Appendix D: Teacher Consent Form ...... 128 Appendix E: Parent/Guardian Consent Form ...... 129 Appendix F: Child Consent Form ...... 130 Appendix G: Child Information Sheet ...... 131 Appendix H: Post Interview Questions for Teachers ...... 132 Appendix I: Observation Protocol ...... 134 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 136

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page iv List of Figures

Figure 2.1 Representation of key elements of Social Cognitive Theory...... 23 Figure 2.2 Understanding the ACAT system...... 25 Figure 4.1 Demonstrating how to use slo-mo camera function using iPad mirrored to IWB ...... 77 Figure 4.2 Video created by students in slo-mo mirrored to IWB for class viewing and discussion. .... 78 Figure 4.3 Screenshot of Coconut Star app showing “ghosted” coconut ...... 87 Figure 4.4 Photographing a tennis ball using the Ramps Journal app ...... 89 Figure 4.5 iPad directing user to film experiment using hands-on materials ...... 90 Figure 4.6 Osmo app showing balls collected in loop created by drawing on board ...... 94 Figure 4.7 Osmo app showing user drawing on whiteboard and small balls bouncing off hand ...... 94 Figure 4.8 iPad used as building block...... 98 Figure 4.9 iPad used to balance construction ...... 99

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page v List of Tables

Table 2.1 Important elements for design and content of apps (Falloon, 2013) ...... 46 Table 3.1 Case study timeline ...... 51 Table 3.2 Thematic analysis key themes ...... 59 Table 3.3 Project timeline ...... 66 Table 4.1 Data Reference Labels ...... 69 Table 4.2 Codes for planned use of iPads in hands-on science activities ...... 70 Table 4.3 Planned use of iPads in hands-on science activities from teacher planning document ...... 71 Table 4.4 Excerpt from teacher planning document including level of iPad integration ...... 71 Table 4.5 iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the movement of different living things ...... 72 Table 4.6 iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the way objects move ...... 73 Table 4.7 Teacher planning document Lesson 2 and field notes taken during lesson enactment ...... 74 Table 4.8 Teacher planning document Lesson 4 and field notes taken during lesson enactment ...... 76 Table 4.9 Teacher planning document - excerpt ...... 81 Table 4.10 Excerpt from field notes: Coconut Star app in use ...... 82 Table 4.11 Audio prompts used in Coconut Star app ...... 83 Table 4.12 Excerpt from field notes: Ramps Journal use in Classroom One ...... 88 Table 4.13 Excerpt from field notes: iPad used as a building block ...... 98

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page vi List of Abbreviations

ACARA Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority ACAT Artefact-Centric Activity Theory BYODD Bring Your Own Designated Device DER Digital Education Revolution OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PISA Programme for International Student Assessment QUT Queensland University of Technology SCT Social Cognitive Theory STEM Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics TIMSS Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study UHREC University Human Research Ethics Committee

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page vii Statement of Original Authorship

The work contained in this thesis has not been previously submitted to meet requirements for an award at this or any other higher education institution. To the best of my knowledge and belief, the thesis contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made.

Signature: QUT Verified Signature

Date: 1st September 2019

iPads in the early childhood science classroom: an exploration of iPad use in hands-on science activities Page viii Acknowledgments

Thank you to my supervisors Dr Linda Knight and Professor Lyn English. Your honest feedback and valuable suggestions have helped me grow so much as a scholar and writer. I have truly appreciated your wisdom, support and encouragement. You gently guided me back on track when I started to stray and helped me stay true to my goals. I would especially like to thank the teachers who so generously gave me their time and shared their classroom practice. Thank you also to the children who were willing to be involved in this project and to their parents for giving me permission to observe their children. I also wish to extend my thanks to the school and education system that allowed me to conduct this research. This study would not have happened without the kind permission of all of you. The support of my parents, friends and colleagues has been invaluable. Thank you for checking in and listening when I needed you. Finally, and most importantly thank you to Keith, Lucy and Andrew. Everything I do is made possible by your love, patience, support and unfailing belief in me.

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1Chapter 1: Introduction

This project was a case study of the iPad as a teaching and learning tool in hands-on science activities. In particular, this empirical study investigated how iPads were used in three Queensland Prep classrooms as part of hands-on science activities about the concept of movement. The study was guided by a theoretical framework informed by Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory and Artefact Centric Activity Theory. A hybrid thematic analysis was conducted on data gathered about the iPad in use, to explore both how it was used and what it was able to bring to the hands- on science activities.

Chapter 1 contains the outline of the problem (Section 1.1), definition of terms (Section 1.1.1) context of the study (Section 1.1.1), the purpose of the study (Section 1.3), and the significance of this research project (Section 1.4). Finally, it includes an outline of the remaining chapters of the thesis (Section 1.5).

1.1 OUTLINE OF THE PROBLEM Science and technology are currently key focus areas in education in Australia. Science and technology are promoted, along with the other STEM (Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics) areas of mathematics and engineering, as holding the key to Australia’s future prosperity. This view has been reiterated in major reports and recommendations to Government and informs current educational policies (Digital Education Advisory Group, 2013; Education Council, 2015; Office of the Chief Scientist Australia, 2014). The recent addition of the Technologies learning area to the Australian Curriculum, which includes the Digital Technologies subject, is part of a national strategy to improve student knowledge, attitudes and aspirations in this area. In keeping with this significant focus on technology in Australian education, digital technology tools are increasingly being used in classrooms across Australia, including in Prep classrooms. The use of the Apple iPad as a mobile digital technology device in classrooms has gained much attention as an educational digital technology tool partly because of the tens of thousands of educational apps that are available in the Australian Apple App store (Apple, 2017; Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). The features inherent in the design of the iPad including size, portability, internet connectivity and inbuilt camera with its recording and replay functions have contributed to a wide variety of possible uses for the iPad in primary and early childhood classrooms (Dezuanni, Dooley, Gattenhof, & Knight, 2015; Pegrum, Oakley, & Faulkner, 2013). In addition to a professional or school impetus to use technology in the classroom, teachers are required to

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teach the Digital Technologies subject as part of the Technologies learning area of the Australian Curriculum and to develop students’ Information Communication Technology (ICT) capability across all learning areas. The ICT general capability is expected to be taught and assessed where this capability has been identified in learning area content. Key aspects of the ICT capability include using ICT to create information, communicate ideas, work collaboratively and problem solve (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2019). Schools in Queensland, in which this study takes place, are currently working towards full implementation of the learning areas in the Australian Curriculum from Prep to Year 10 (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2014; Queensland Curriculum and Assessment Authority, 2017). Prep in Queensland is the first year of full-time schooling. Children are expected to turn five by the end of June in the year in which they are enrolled in Prep. Teachers of Prep children are expected to teach, assess and report on all the Australian Curriculum learning areas that have been implemented in their schooling sector, including the learning area of Science. Science as a learning area in the Australian curriculum is first taught, assessed and reported on in the Prep year in Queensland. The Australian Curriculum: Science aims to promote interest in and knowledge about science for all Australian students. The rationale of the Science learning area states that the benefits of science for all learners go beyond merely preparing learners for a future career in science since “the ability to think and act in scientific ways helps build the broader suite of capabilities in students as confident, self-motivated and active members of our society” (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016b). However, at a time when national initiatives around STEM are being promoted and discussed, student interest, achievement and enrolment in science is stagnating or declining, particularly for girls and students from non- metropolitan and disadvantaged backgrounds (Hackling, 2014; Office of the Chief Scientist Australia, 2014). This stagnation and decline becomes evident from the middle years of schooling onwards. There are those who argue that the formative years of education can make a difference to later interest in and aptitude for science and that quality early science education is important (Eshach & Fried, 2005). Quality early educational science experiences may therefore mitigate against this decline. The early years of schooling can play an important role in building students’ positive attitudes towards science, and effective science education in these early years lays the groundwork for future success in science (Eshach & Fried, 2005). Effective science teaching includes the use of the inquiry approach to learning. Indeed one of the key aims of the Australian Curriculum: Science is that students develop an understanding of and ability to use scientific inquiry and investigations (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016a). In the Prep year these investigations may include opportunities for learners to use science inquiry skills such as observing and exploring using their senses (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). Using their sense of touch implies that learners would engage in hands-on activities. An in-depth exploration of the

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meaning of hands-on activities is discussed in Section 1.1.1. Quality, effective science learning experiences in the early years are important as they provide students with a strong foundation on which they are able to later develop scientific concepts and learn more abstract scientific ideas (Eshach & Fried, 2005). Hackling (2014) asserts there is a risk that the current focus on direct instruction in other areas of the primary curriculum may be adopted more frequently in the teaching of science, to the detriment of effective inquiry approaches. Following on from these fears, it is possible that technology, such as iPads, may be used more frequently in science lessons as a substitute for important hands-on science activities (Wilson, Goodman, Bradbury, & Gross, 2013). Features of the iPad which may be used in the classroom include viewing videos that demonstrate hands-on activities that students may watch rather than do themselves, using engaging apps that provide ways for children to play with concepts of science in a virtual manner, and accessing websites that may include games and simulations of scientific processes and activity demonstrations. However, this fear of technology replacing hands-on activities is not universally held. Reporting on an iPad implementation trial conducted in three Australian primary schools, Goodwin states that “Technology can complement traditional hands-on activities but should not supplant them” (2012, p. 69). This study investigated how iPads were used as part of hands-on science activities and what the iPad as a digital medium afforded in terms of enhancing, augmenting or detracting from hands- on science activities about movement.

1.1.1 Definition of terms The terms motion, movement and hands-on science activities will be defined to clarify their meaning in this project. The terms motion and movement are used synonymously throughout this thesis. As the author of this document and researcher, the word motion is used when referring to the movement of objects, plants or animals. Motion is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as “the action or process of moving or being moved”. The OED defines move as “change the place, position, or state of” and movement as “the act of moving”. The terms move and movement are an appropriate language choice when describing the motion of objects, plants or animals, and likely to be a familiar, everyday language choice for the Prep teachers and their students in this study. It is important to note that this is the word used in the Australian Curriculum: Science Foundation content descriptors and elaborations for physical science (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). These are the elements of the Australian Curriculum that Prep teachers in this study were teaching. The word motion is used extensively in the Australian Curriculum: Science documents from Year 7 onwards but only occurs once in the Foundation to Year 6 Science curriculum, where it is used in

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an elaboration description for the Year 3 Physical science content descriptor. The terms move or movement are used much more frequently in the Foundation to Year 6 Science curriculum, appearing at least half a dozen times. To align this project with the Australian Curriculum content the researcher therefore used movement or move more frequently, as well as the word motion when appropriate to ensure that the meaning was clear to the teachers who participated in this study. The terms motion and concept of motion are used in the research questions as well as the theoretical framework. This positions the movement activities discussed in this document clearly within the domain of the broader scientific concept of motion and avoids any possible confusion with the understanding of movement as employed in other Australian Curriculum learning areas such as Health and Physical Education or The Arts. To define what is meant by hands-on science activities, it is important to note that there are two main views regarding exactly what constitutes a hands-on activity. Historically a debate about the definition of hands-on science activities goes back at least a century (Klahr, Triona, & Williams, 2007). Hands-on science activities have been described as learning experiences in which students work collaboratively to manipulate physical objects, ask questions, collect data and explain their thinking about phenomena (Satterthwait, 2010). Physical hands-on science activities provide a direct experience of physical phenomena and the opportunity for students to design and engineer physical artefacts. These activities facilitate learning about scientific concepts (Gire et al., 2010; Zacharia, Loizou, & Papaevripidou, 2012). Other authors define hands-on activities as a learning experience in which students physically manipulate real or virtual objects (Klahr et al., 2007). Klahr et al. (2007) describe real objects as actual physical objects such as ramps, balls, chemicals and other objects typically used in science lessons. Virtual objects are defined as those that exist virtually on a screen, such as a computer monitor or tablet screen. These virtual objects depict a representation of a physical object or process through means such as animations or videos (Klahr et al., 2007). Digital technology has been described as a form of manipulative that is hands-on, enables active use and can provide scaffolds to support the ways and ease with which children complete tasks. Digital technology and the associated virtual manipulatives are therefore seen as one of many valid ways that children’s learning can be supported (Bailey & Blagojevic, 2015). When examining the existing studies about physical and virtual manipulatives, most distinguish between physical objects and virtual or digitally produced objects. This distinction is useful as it enables an analysis of the possibilities that each type of manipulative can offer in learning activities. Most studies of virtual manipulatives in science education have involved older learners. One study of undergraduate students in the area of conceptual understanding of light and colour through laboratory experimentation found that using a blend of virtual and physical manipulatives

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was most effective in developing student understanding (Olympiou & Zacharia, 2012). A quasi- experimental study conducted on two groups of Year 11 students (15 to 16-year-olds) studying the gas law known as “Boyle’s law” found that while both physical and virtual manipulatives resulted in equal test results for learners there were differences in other skills that each type of manipulative developed. The authors found that those students who used physical manipulatives developed better inquiry skills such as how to plan, conduct and improve experiments (Chen, Chang, Lai, & Tsai, 2014), all important elements of science inquiry. Studies conducted by Kontra, Lyons, Fischer, and Beilock (2015) on college-age students found that physical experiences enhanced learning. They suggest that these experiences may be particularly important when learning about concepts that involve kinetics, also known as motion. Students learn about motion in classrooms primarily through the study of physics. Kontra et al. (2015) also suggested that physical experiences enhanced learning in the early stages of learning a new concept. Little research has been conducted on the effects of physical versus virtual manipulatives on young children. Evidence from the research that has been conducted in this area suggests that physical manipulatives are more effective for learning in early years classrooms than virtual manipulatives. For example, Lazonder and Ehrenhard (2014) suggest that the tactile cues experienced when physically manipulating objects have an important and unique contribution to make to learning about science. Their study of 60 primary school aged (average age 10.25 years) students found that the physical manipulation of objects was most effective in correcting students’ misconceptions about the effect of mass on falling objects. These authors suggest that where the concepts to be learnt involve gaining physical sensory input, it is necessary to include tactile feedback to learners through the physical manipulation of objects. This assists in the learning processes involved in revising misconceptions and replacing these with widely accepted scientific understandings (Lazonder & Ehrenhard, 2014). In a study of kindergarten children, Zacharia et al. (2012) found that only children who already knew how to use a physical beam balance to measure and compare weights were able to use a virtual beam balance to correctly compare and measure weights. The children who had incorrect or missing knowledge about how to use a physical beam were not able to use a virtual manipulative beam correctly (Zacharia et al., 2012). The results of these studies suggest that for learning activities in early years classrooms, learning to use a physical manipulative may be an important prerequisite skill to be developed before virtual manipulatives can be used to carry out scientific inquiry. The importance of physically manipulating objects as a precursor to developing symbolic thought can be understood through the lens of Bandura’s (1986) Social Cognitive Theory (SCT). Bandura asserts that through enactive learning processes, the development of cognitive skills such as symbolic problem solving in mathematics usually develop following an initial physical interaction with actual objects and

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receiving feedback on these actions. Pictorial representations are also considered concrete referents in these early stages of learning. The procedures experienced are then translated into symbolic processes that are independent of immediate concrete materials or referents (1986). It is possible that the pictorial representations on an iPad may contribute to these learning processes. Studies have been inconclusive about the relative advantages and disadvantages of physical and virtual objects in hands-on science activities (Gire et al., 2010). Given the debate about the definition of a hands-on activity, and the research that suggests that learning may occur by first manipulating physical objects before utilising virtual objects (Bandura, 1986), this project adopts the definition of hands-on activities given by Satterthwait (2010). This author defines hands- on science activities as those that involve physical objects that students can manipulate. Students engaged in hands-on activities usually work in groups, ask questions, collect data and through discussion attempt to explain the phenomena they are investigating (Satterthwait, 2010). Hands- on science activities that involve manipulating physical objects are highly effective and have been shown to improve learning and achievement, science skills and attitudes towards science (Satterthwait, 2010). Satterthwait’s definition encompasses many kinds of investigations with physical objects. For the purpose of this study virtual manipulatives are considered to be those that do not exist physically and materially and are therefore separate and distinct from physical manipulatives. In this study an additional type of digital manipulative called augmented reality apps were used. The debate in the literature about physical and virtual manipulatives did not include a focus on augmented reality. Therefore, this type of digital environment is discussed further in Chapter 2.4. It is not the intention of this study to compare the learning achievement gained from physical and virtual manipulatives. However, it has been established that the two types of manipulatives can contribute to learning experiences in different ways. This study aims to determine how the iPad as a virtual, mobile learning technology is used in the context of science lessons about movement that include hands-on physical manipulatives. In this study iPads were used before, during and after hands-on activities in order to determine what the iPad as a tool may bring to the implementation of these hands-on activities.

1.2 CONTEXT This case study research project investigated how iPads were used as part of hands-on science activities that explored the concept of movement. This project also investigated what the iPad as a digital medium was able to bring to hands-on science activities about movement. This was a case study project that took place in a regional Queensland Catholic primary school. This school is located in a town considered to be a socio and economically disadvantaged area with over 48% of the population in the most socio-economically disadvantaged quintile, more than twice the number as the average in the rest of Queensland (Queensland Government

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Statistician's Office, 2017). In 2015, over 15% of Prep children in this town were considered to be developmentally vulnerable in two or more domains as measured by the Australian Early Development Census (Queensland Government Statistician's Office, 2017). The school is just above the average in the Index of Community Socio-Educational Advantage measure. Children from disadvantaged backgrounds are less likely to engage and achieve in STEM related areas (Hackling, 2014) and quality early childhood science educational experiences may be particularly beneficial to children from these disadvantaged backgrounds (Tao, Oliver, & Venville, 2012). The opportunity to engage in inquiry learning and to build domain specific knowledge in early childhood may positively affect later science achievement, particularly for students from low socio-economic backgrounds such as many of the students in this study (Tao et al., 2012). This study aimed to investigate how the iPad as a teaching material was used as part of hands-on science activities when learning through inquiry in Prep classrooms located in a low socio-economic community. The school in which this study was conducted was a relatively early adopter of iPad technology. In 2015, the single computer lab and specialist technology teacher were replaced by a Bring Your Own Designated Device-iPad (BYODD-iPad) program for students in Years 5 and 6, a key recommendation arising from an external school review and improvement process. This BYODD-iPad program was expanded to include students in Years 3 and 4 the following year. This change was led by the Principal in conjunction with the researcher and other members of the leadership team. Multiple professional development opportunities were provided for teachers in the school to learn about how to use iPads. Some of the professional development sessions were delivered by the researcher. The school employed an e-learning enhancement teacher for two years to support the introduction of the BYODD-iPad program. The role of the e-learning enhancement teacher included working one day each week in Years 3 to 6 to provide support for teachers as they developed the skills needed to integrate technology into the classroom. The researcher worked with the e-learning teacher to ensure a successful transition from a computer lab-based specialist subject to an integrated approach to using technology in Year 3-6 classrooms. A makerspace was installed in the school in 2015, initiated and run by the researcher. The materials available were chosen to encourage students to investigate making, science and technology. The makerspace opens for all students during lunchtimes. One of the school development plan goals for 2018 was to support teachers to increase both the time spent teaching science and the quality of science lessons by encouraging teachers to use the Primary Connections program (Australian Academy of Science, 2018). Professional development delivered by Primary Connections staff was presented to the school as part of a joint professional learning activity with other schools in the region. The school development goal was only partially achieved in 2018, and the school shifted its focus to improving teaching and learning in other curriculum areas the following year. The researcher has thus had a professional interest in

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science and technology over a number of years and has played a key role in school initiatives in these areas. The ethical implications of the researcher’s professional role in the school where this study took place are discussed in Chapter 3.2.1.

1.3 PURPOSES The purpose of this research project was to explore how iPads were used by three Prep teachers and their students when conducting hands-on science activities about movement. The project investigated what the iPad as a digital medium was able to bring to these hands-on science activities.

1.4 SIGNIFICANCE The integration of technology into science education in classrooms has received much attention (Campbell, Longhurst, Duffy, Wolf, & Shelton, 2013; Honey & Hilton, 2011; Kermani & Aldemir, 2015; Longhurst, Jones, & Campbell, 2017; Sun, Looi, Wu, & Xie, 2016). When looking specifically at the use of mobile technologies, much of the published research into mobile technology in science focuses on the positive cognitive and affective outcomes for learners and on designing mobile systems for learning (Crompton, Burke, Gregory, & Gräbe, 2016). While much research has reported positive outcomes, it is clear that simply introducing iPads into classrooms does not necessarily lead to a change in opportunities for students or a change in pedagogy (Wilson et al., 2013). Technology such as iPads may be used in a classroom in many ways. The literature around iPad use in classrooms is discussed in Chapter 2.4. While it is recognised that in practice technology use is dependent upon factors including teacher pedagogical beliefs and attitudes towards teaching with technology (Tondeur, van Braak, Ertmer, & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2017), these factors were not the focus of this study. It is also recognised that the technology itself performs the function of positioning the user in a variety of ways (Jewitt, 2006). This positioning capability of the iPad was investigated in this study. Education must move towards integrating technology and virtual learning activities into science lessons (Wilson et al., 2013), and students must have the tools to represent their understanding in multimodal forms (Hackling, Murcia, & Ibrahim-Didi, 2013). This raises questions about the place that technology and the associated digital learning activities may have in conjunction with hands-on science activities, as described above. Further discussion around the questions of why hands-on science activities are important, how the introduction of technology impacts on hands-on activities and the possibilities of the iPad as a digital medium are found in Chapter 2. As there appears to be little research into the questions raised here, this project will address this gap in the research.

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1.5 THESIS OUTLINE The introductory chapter outlines the background, context, purposes and significance of this research project. The following chapter reviews the literature around key issues relevant to science education and digital and material science activities. This begins with an outline of the key concepts of social cognitive theory, the theoretical viewpoint adopted in this study. The literature around science education is then explored with a focus on inquiry science learning. The subsequent section focuses on the literature about digital and material science activities. The literature review concludes by discussing the implications of the findings of the literature review. Following a review of the literature the research design is outlined. This chapter includes details about the participants, instruments, procedures and the study timeline. An outline of the analysis procedures, ethical considerations important to this project and limitations of this study follows. Chapter 4 details the findings of the study. Chapter 5 presents an analysis of the results of the study. Chapter 6 concludes this thesis, outlining the significance of the findings, limitations and recommendations for future research.

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2Chapter 2: Literature review

This chapter reviews the literature related to relevant key issues in science education and technology use in science education in Australian early years classrooms. The first section begins by outlining the theoretical perspectives adopted, Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986) and Artefact-Centric Activity Theory (ACAT) (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). The relevance of these theories to this study is discussed and a guiding framework for analysis is developed which incorporates key elements of these theories. A review of the relevant literature on science education then follows. This section begins with an overview of some of the factors that impact on Prep and primary school science education in Australia. The next section explores the concept of inquiry learning in science as a major influence on science education in Australia. A review of the relevant literature about technology use in early years classrooms follows. This literature review then presents an overview of digital and material science activities in primary education. This section specifically discusses hands-on and virtual science activities and how these are used in science lessons. A discussion of the literature around mobile learning technologies, such as iPads, and research findings about the convergence of technology and science lessons follows. These themes address the purpose of the research project and support the argument that this research will address important gaps in the literature. The final section highlights the implications identified from the review of the literature and the impact of these findings on this study.

2.1.1 Research Questions and Theoretical Framework The purpose of this research project was to explore how iPads were used in hands-on science investigations about movement in Prep science lessons. This study occurred within the interpretivist research paradigm, using a case study approach. Interpretive educational case study research is an empirical enquiry into educational programmes, activities, institutions or systems (Bassey, 1999). The research questions addressed in this study are: RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about movement in Prep classrooms? RQ2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about movement? The iPad as a tool in the early childhood hands-on science learning experiences will be considered in light of Artefact Centric Activity Theory (ACAT) (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016) . To do so one must first explore the significant role that technology tools play in a contemporary learning environment. In this study an understanding of the interaction between the iPad used in a classroom environment and learning processes is informed by Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and is discussed in this section (Bandura, 1986). The underlying aim of science activities is to

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accomplish learning. It is therefore necessary to establish the means by which learning occurs in a classroom. The researcher takes the view of learning processes explicated by Social Cognitive Theory. A description of the aspects of this theory relevant to this study of the iPad as a classroom artefact will be given in the next section. Following this discussion, the ACAT theory will be explored as a means to frame a study of the affordances of the iPad when used in the learning environment during hands-on activities about movement in Prep classrooms. The theoretical construct informing an understanding of the relationship between classroom resources and social aspects of learning in this study is the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) developed by Albert Bandura. Bandura originally referred to his “unified theoretical framework for analyzing human thought and behavior” (Bandura, 1977, p. vi) as a social learning theory. This theory postulates that thought, affect and behaviour can be influenced by the environment and by observation of ideas portrayed through symbolic environments such as technological devices. SCT recognises the dynamic relationship between behaviour, the environment and cognition (Bandura, 1977). Technology as an environmental tool enables learners to “transcend the bounds of their immediate environment” (Bandura, 1986, p. xii). Technology is therefore both a physical part of the classroom environment and through its affordances transcends the classroom. This influence of technologies on vicarious and observational learning processes has been transformational and extends to early years classroom science environments (Bandura, 1986). This study investigated how iPad technology was used in classrooms as an environmental learning artefact and what affordances it was able to bring to the physical hands-on activities present in the classroom.

2.1.2 Social Cognitive Theory and Science Education Social Cognitive Theory presents a framework for understanding how iPads used in hands-on science learning activities can promote learning from a social cognitive perspective. A key theme in SCT is the model of reciprocal interaction between environment, person and behaviour. Personal, behavioural and environmental influences in a social learning situation are reciprocally influential. This study focuses on the environmental influence of the iPad in hands-on science activities. It is important to study the iPad as an environmental artefact in order to understand the opportunities and affordances it brings to social learning situations. Learning occurs when information is portrayed by modeled performances, through instructions and from the information provided in a sensory way during physical action (Bandura, 1986). The key processes by which learning occurs from a social cognitive perspective are discussed here. Observational learning can occur as a result of observing others’ behaviours and modelled performances, as well as by viewing the consequences of others’ behaviours. Observing others’ behaviours includes viewing others participating in hands-on or digital activities either directly or

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through the iPad as a recording and replaying tool. SCT asserts that observing others is an efficient way to learn without experiencing the possible negative effects of trial and error (Bandura, 1986). Technology can amplify the power of instruction by altering the mode through which information is presented. In addition to directly observing physically proximal others, technology has significantly increased the potential to observe symbolically portrayed actions. These symbolic portrayals can enable observational learning to occur using resources beyond the immediate physical environment (Bandura, 1986). In early childhood science activities learning can thus occur through observational effects, where behaviour and performance can be observed both in the physical presence of others and through the medium of a screen. The iPad screen provides a medium through which the actions of others, and symbolic representations of information or action, may be observed. Information may be constructed through modalities such as verbal, pictorial, action and written forms (Bandura, 1986). The size of the iPad screen, which enables more than one viewer, may support opportunities for observational learning. The actions as well as pictorial, written and verbal information conveyed by an app on the iPad screen may be observed by both the iPad user and others. This may facilitate observational learning where the consequences of others’ behaviours may be viewed through the medium of the screen. Enactive learning can occur as a result of direct experience, such as with materials or technology, and the consequences of that experience (Bandura, 1986). In this study direct experiences include both hands-on and digital science activities. In hands-on activities the concept of movement is represented and manipulated through physical materials and their actions. On an iPad screen, the concept of movement is symbolically represented in an audio-visual way and is dependent on the design of the app or user created content. When an app is used, the design of the app is thus crucial in determining the capacity of the iPad to represent the concept of movement. When user created content about the concept of movement is symbolically displayed, it represents choices and actions made by the user. The choices and actions made by users to represent the physical reality of the concept of movement in the environment are constrained by the affordances of the iPad. Manipulation of these symbols is achieved through user input into the iPad. Direct experience, of physical or digital manipulation, results in informative feedback. This does not mean that learning occurs solely as a result of physical action. Social consequences of action, such as positive or negative feedback, play an important role in enactive learning (Bandura, 1986). In early childhood science activities that use iPads, the features of an app may provide this feedback symbolically as a result of direct action carried out on the iPad screen. It is important to examine the capacity of the audio and visual features of the iPad to enact these symbolic representations and feedback manifestations when used in hands-on science activities. Symbolic modelling, such as auditory and visual representations on an iPad in the classroom, influences social learning and enables the communication of information across almost any distance of space and time (Bandura, 1986). Symbolic transformations of information about

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activities, such as images and verbal representations, simplify and embody the essential features of these activities. Learning and action are guided by these transformations (Bandura, 1986). It is therefore necessary to consider the affordances that the iPad as a learning tool brings to this symbolic representational environment. This study will explore the ability of the iPad to symbolically represent the concept of movement. Within a dynamic and reciprocal interaction between the environment, behaviour and cognition, people act as agents of change. Social Cognitive Theory recognises that self- directedness and agency contribute to the system of reciprocal causality and play a role in regulating human action and learning (Bandura, 1986). The environment is shaped by people’s behaviour, which in turn shapes people’s responses to the environment (Bandura, 2001). In this study the iPads are a fundamentally important artefact in the environment and so influence the behaviour of students and teachers when conducting hands-on activities. It cannot be claimed that the environmental influences in a classroom lead to uniform learning outcomes, however the reciprocal influence of the iPad as an environmental artefact on learning is central to an understanding of the iPad’s affordances in this study. Behaviour shapes and is shaped by the environment (Bandura, 1977, 1986, 2008). Analogously the environment, and specifically the ways in which the iPad as an artefact is used, is influenced by the teachers and students. For example, in the past learning resources were limited to those human and material resources that were physically accessible. Now technology can be used to access vast amounts of information in many forms from resources virtually anywhere in the world. iPads can be used to access information from within and outside the classroom such as through the internet or the use of applications (apps). Self-regulation involves a learner seeking to control their own learning and to expand their knowledge and competency using environmental resources such as the iPad. Self- directedness, which utilises self-regulatory functions, includes exercising control over the external environment (Bandura, 2001). This quality of human behaviour may be seen in this study in the way that physical objects and the iPad may be used in multiple, repeated ways, in response to the self-directed input of the students. The iPad, through its portability, screen size, long battery life, ability to be instantly switched on and ready access to information is an environmental resource that does not constrain learning opportunities but rather can augment them, as discussed in Chapter 2.4. Another central tenet of SCT is self-efficacy, the belief that one is capable of producing a desired outcome. Self-efficacy affects the motivation to select, persist and achieve at tasks. Self- efficacy is developed through social learning experiences such as successfully engaging in tasks, seeing someone else similar to oneself succeed, being told that you can succeed, and through interpreting an event positively (Bandura, 1986). When iPads are used to augment hands-on science activities, the iPad enables the task to be repeated multiple times, such as by repeating a level in an app or rerecording a hands-on activity. Through repeated opportunities to persist at a

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task, the iPad may thus enable an experience of greater levels of achievement or provide the conditions through which an understanding of the concept of movement may increase. The iPad may better enable successful completion of an activity, thus contributing to a sense of self-efficacy. While investigating the self-efficacy of the learner is beyond the scope of this study, it is important to have some understanding of what the learner may experience when using iPads. This means that the affordances of the iPad can be evaluated in terms of whether the iPad is successful in representing the concept of movement and contributing to the social learning processes in the classroom environment. This interrelationship between key elements of Social Cognitive Theory is represented in Figure 2.1. As the focus of this study is the iPad, the environmental factor of SCT has been emphasised.

Key Elements of Social Cognitive Theory

Reinforcement: External Environmental Vicarious Self-generated factors

Observational Learning: Attention Processes Retention Processes Production Processes Motivational Process

Relationship is Personal characterised by factors triadic reciprocal causation

Outcome Expectations: Self -Observation Judgement of likely Self-Judgement consequence of behaviour Self-Reaction Outcome Expectancies Behaviour regulation Behavioural Efficacy Expectations – through self-evaluative factors Judgement of ones’ ability reactions to one’s own to perform an action: behaviour and to internal Past Performance standards Vicarious Experience Verbal Persuasion Physiological State

Figure 2.1 Representation of key elements of Social Cognitive Theory

These key elements of SCT provide a lens through which a number of issues in science education in Australia can be viewed. The personal and behavioural factors that influence teachers’

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science pedagogical practice and use of iPads in hands-on science activities interact in a model of triadic reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986) with the environmental factors that more broadly shape science education in Australia today. These factors are important to understand in order to develop a context around the use of iPads in Prep classrooms. The interrelatedness of these factors is explored in more detail in section 2.2. SCT provides a framework to understand how learners interact with and learn from the iPad when it is used as part of hands-on learning activities in the classroom. SCT also explains the system of factors and determinants that are at play in an early childhood science learning environment. However, as Bandura (1986) states, analysing an entire system of reciprocal causation is not necessary. Reciprocal processes occur within behavioural, personal and environmental factors. Studying the subsystems and their interrelations can advance understanding of how the entire system operates (Bandura, 1986). This study focuses on one element of the environmental domain within the classroom system, the iPad used in hands-on science activities. These activities by their nature involve human behaviour, action and interaction. The iPad depends on a user to operate it and offer affordances to as a learning tool. The user however is not the central focus of this study. The central focus of this study is the iPad. This study focuses on how the iPad is used and what its affordances are within the reciprocal relationship of the iPad used in hands-on activities by a user. The next section will discuss Artefact Centric Activity Theory, which provides a theoretical framework within which it is possible to place the iPad as the central focus of this study.

2.1.3 Artefact-Centric Activity Theory This project focused on what the iPad was able to bring to hands-on science activities about movement in Prep classrooms. While Social Cognitive theory provides a framework to explain the ways that virtual and physical hands-on activities in science are useful for learning, in order to analyse the uses of the iPad as an artefact it was necessary to combine SCT with a theory that recognises the centrality of the iPad and its functions. These functions include in-house applications (apps) as well as downloaded apps as a key resource in the classroom. Artefact-Centric Activity Theory (ACAT) was developed from Activity Theory (Engeström, 2011, 2015) by Ladel and Kortenkamp (2013) who recognised that multi-touch devices, including mobile technologies such as iPads, enabled more activities and affordances in the classroom than any previous type of technology. Ladel and Kortenkamp (2013) moved the artefact to the centre of their observations. When describing ACAT these authors state that “…the fundamental concept of ACAT is the activity between subject and object. We moved the artifact into the center of this relationship and into the center of the activity, as we want to analyze the impact of the artifact as the mediator between subject and object” (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016, p. 2). Furthermore,

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The children’s use of an artifact, in our case a virtual manipulative, influences their activity and the processes of internalization and externalization. The subject externalizes mental representation through the artifact and in turn internalizes specific knowledge that is represented by the artifact as feedback to the subject’s actions. The artifact (i.e., the virtual manipulative) itself externalizes the object (i.e., the mathematics) as a psychological reflection of the programmer’s (or designer’s) knowledge (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013, p. 31).

Ladel and Kortencamp’s explanation of ACAT refers to mathematics as the object they were studying. In this present study the object was the concept of motion. An adaptation of the system of ACAT can be seen in Figure 2.2.

Understanding the ACAT system The subject-artefact-object line is the main axis of interaction. The subject in this study is the iPad user in a classroom. The subject externalizes their understanding of an object, in this study the object is the concept of movement, via an artefact. In this study the artefact is the iPad. The object is externalised by the representation or visualisation present in the artefact. The object is encoded into the artefact and the artefact is limited to the object’s properties (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013).

Figure 2.2 Understanding the ACAT system The rules and group elements that were present in the original construction of the ACAT system were omitted in this study as its primary focus is the iPad as an artefact. This study explored the affordances of the iPad and how it was used in hands-on science investigations to externalize the object, the concept of motion. The rules element of the ACAT system utilises design principles to guide the design of the artefact which is beyond the scope of this study. The group element includes a consideration of the teacher’s role in the instrumental orchestration of implementation. Pedagogical practices of teachers are not considered in this study. The iPad is a multi-touch environment, one or more touches create gestures that act as input channels (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013). Direct input via the screen as gestures combines with the applications (apps) to create the artefact. As described by Ladel and Kortenkamp (2013) this artefact is understood conjointly as the iPad and the apps that are used on the device. In this study the iPad as artefact refers to the inextricably linked physical hardware of the iPad and the apps used. The digital affordances of the iPad can only be realised by the user within the limitations of this symbiotic relationship of hardware and apps (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013). The iPad mediates between the user and the conceptual object being represented, in this case motion.

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In this study the iPad is the centre of analysis, and the actions of the subject and representation of the object are considered in an interdependent relationship with the iPad as a tool. The analysis of the iPad as an artefact in this study focused on these three areas:  The iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016)  The ways that the iPad positions learners (Jewitt, 2006)  The affordance of creative variation enabled by the iPad (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016)

The iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations ACAT was initially developed to provide a means to analyse primary school mathematics learning environments (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013). An adapted model of ACAT has been used in this project to analyse the iPad as mediator between the activity of students (the subject) and the scientific concept of motion (the object). ACAT provides a framework within which it is possible to analyse virtual manipulatives that make possible events and actions that cannot take place in the physical world. These are described as miraculous mathematical transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). This study explored the ways that iPads, used as part of hands-on science activities, make feasible events and actions not otherwise possible in the physical space of the classroom. These events and actions are referred to in this study as miraculous transformations.

The ways that the iPad positions learners The iPad, the artefact, was at the centre of this study and of classroom observations. Ladel and Kortenkamp (2013) suggest that the virtual manipulative can be used as a demonstrator or model, although they point out that used in this way the learner misses the opportunity to engage with the manipulative and experience the major affordances of the technology. Bandura (1986) however, recognised the important role that modelling can play in observational learning. The iPad used in this way can provide for vicarious experiences of the scientific concept of motion, which although generally weaker than direct experiences, can prompt action and direct the attention of the learner (Bandura, 1986). The ways in which the technology and virtual manipulative are designed to be used offers the student a position as a learner that they may accept, adapt or reject. These positions depend on the design of the artefact and the ways that the learner deploys their agency in varied ways (Jewitt, 2006). The iPad as an environmental influence interacts with the behaviour and cognitive elements of the learner in reciprocal determinism (Bandura, 1986). A learner may be positioned by a software application on the iPad as passive observer or active investigator and exercise an agentic choice in their response to this positioning (Jewitt, 2006). In a study of a science application software tool, it was found that there were a variety of ways for the design of software to position the learner including the “suggested potential for interaction”, the design-embedded levels of activity or ability and “the degree of instruction made explicitly available” (Jewitt, 2006, p. 101).

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This study explored the ways that the iPad was used as a tool in science lessons about movement, including the ways that the iPad provided modelled, vicarious and manipulative experiences to the learner and in doing so positioned the learner in different ways.

The affordance of creative variation enabled by the iPad Affordances, a term coined by Gibson (1986), is defined as what an object offers or provides to the user. An affordance is invariant, it is always there to be perceived and used or not by the user. An affordance can be positive or negative, but in order to influence a user it must be perceived by the user (Bullock, Shumway, Watts, & Moyer-Packenham, 2017). The affordances that the iPad can offer is an emerging area of research, and one which has not received a great deal of attention in terms of science learning. In a study by Klopp, Rule, Schneider, and Boody (2014) that did consider creativity in science education, gifted students from grades 2 to 8 learnt about fossils. The study measured the creativity scores of student artefacts created using computer technology compared to student created hands-on crafted artefacts. Students in the study used iPads to access eBooks and an app, as well as other desktop computer technology software. The results showed that students scored higher on creativity measures when using the computer technology but felt more creative when creating the hands-on crafted artefacts. The hands-on artefacts were shown to incorporate more scientific knowledge than the technology products (Klopp et al., 2014). Although iPads were not the tool used to create student work in this study, it does highlight the potential for technology to contribute to creativity in science investigations. The affordances of the iPad have been closely examined in studies of mathematics learning. Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2016) conducted two meta-analyses of studies investigating the effects of virtual manipulatives on mathematics learning, reviewing over 150 reports. These authors identified five affordance categories empirically supported in the literature that promoted student learning in mathematics. These categories were motivation, simultaneous linking, efficient precision, focused constraint, and creative variation. A thorough search of the literature failed to reveal a similarly comprehensive meta-analysis of studies investigating virtual manipulatives in science learning, therefore the findings of the Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2013) analysis were used to inform the categories of affordances examined in this study. It is possible for the affordance categories identified by Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2016) to inform science learning situations. Indeed Tucker, Moyer-Packenham, Westenskow, and Jordan (2016) suggest that their framework be applied to future research into the uses of virtual manipulatives on touch screen devices. Of the five categories identified by Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2013), in this study only the affordance of creative variation was adopted. The importance of creativity in science education and the future of the scientific field of endeavour has been discussed by Klopp et al. (2014). To solve the problems facing our world now and in the future, scientists need to be innovative and creative. Ghassib (2010) places creativity and the

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‘creative leap’ at the centre of scientific knowledge production. Social cognitive theory recognises the importance of creativity as “one of the highest forms of human expression” (Bandura, 1986). According to Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2016, p. 202) “this category of affordances allows students to generate their own representations, encourages creativity and novelty, and prompts experimentation.” Indeed, creative behaviour of this type has been described as, “…changing the very nature of the manipulative” (Sarama & Clements, 2009, p. 148). The affordance of the iPad as an enabler of creative variation was therefore considered a key area to investigate in this study. Furthermore, the affordance of creative variation was uncommon in the empirical study conducted by Tucker et al. (2016) and these authors suggest the need for further research into identifying apps and tasks using virtual manipulatives that enable the affordance of creative variation.

2.2 SCIENCE EDUCATION 2.2.1 Science Education in Australia To understand the current emphasis by Government and science groups on the importance of science education for all Australians it is important to broadly understand the state of science education in Australia. A brief history of science education in Australia during the past 60 years will set the context for understanding major influencing factors shaping science education today. The provision of science education has changed markedly in recent decades in Australia. Prior to 1960 two thirds of students did not complete secondary school and of those who did, only the students who were planning a future career in engineering or science fields were likely to have studied science (Dekkers & De Laeter, 2001; Jones, McKim, & Reiss, 2010; Tytler, 2007). More recently the goal of science education in Australia has shifted and now endeavours to provide all students with the opportunity to benefit from the development of their scientific literacy (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016b). There have been many iterations of the exact meaning of the term scientific literacy (Hodson, 2014). The definition of science literacy used in this project is defined by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) Assessment and Analytical Framework as “… the ability to engage with science-related issues, and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen” who should be able to “…explain phenomena scientifically …evaluate and design scientific enquiry and …interpret data and evidence scientifically” (OECD, 2016, p. 20). It is important to note that this definition refers to knowledge of science and science-based technology. The importance of scientific literacy is reflected in the statement that possessing scientific literacy is central to a young person being properly prepared for life (OECD, 2016). This shift to understanding the importance of scientific literacy for all students became much more prevalent as a greater percentage of students completed secondary schooling to Year 12 and politicians voiced their beliefs in the importance of science for the future of Australia

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(Dekkers & De Laeter, 2001). In 1989 the Hobart Declaration on Schooling (1989) (Ministerial Council on Education, 1989) was published, stipulating that all students in Australia participate in science as a key learning area subject for up to 10 years beginning in primary school. This was a particularly significant event in the history of science education in Australia because prior to 1990 the only compulsory science education in Australia was during the first 3 or 4 years of secondary school. Students in primary school in that time, who did have exposure to science education were likely faced with teachers who lacked the confidence, skills and knowledge to teach science comprehensively (Dekkers & De Laeter, 2001; Rennie, Goodrum, & Hackling, 2001). The historic lack of focus on science education appears to be evident in Australia’s science results in international measures such as the PISA tests. PISA carries out testing of 15-year-olds from over 80 economies in key subjects of Science, English and Mathematics. While Australia’s 2015 mean performance in science literacy was higher than the Organisation for Economic Co- operation and Development (OECD) average, Australia’s results actually showed a significant decline in scores since 2006 (Thomson, Bortoli, & Underwood, 2016). In the same timeframe eighteen countries showed statistically significant improvement in their scores (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 2014) suggesting that reforms in Australian science curriculum have not had an impact on changing the success of our students in this international assessment. Other initiatives aimed at improving science achievements of Australian students have not been successful. An analysis of the 2011 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) results for students in Years 4 to 8 showed no overall improvement in science results in the 16 years since the inception of TIMSS in 1995 (Thomson et al., 2012). The results of these assessments of middle primary and secondary students are important to consider in light of recommendations that students must have the opportunity to experience quality teaching of science from the early years of schooling (Hackling & Prain, 2005; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). Young children form ideas about scientific concepts which make sense and can successfully be used to explain phenomena. These ideas can be remarkably persistent and difficult to change despite years of schooling, even if these ideas do not align with those that are widely scientifically accepted (Allen, 2014). This reinforces the important role that science education plays for very young children in ensuring those children are given opportunities to learn scientifically supported ideas during science lessons and hands-on learning activities. Research suggests that quality science education in the early years of primary school may positively impact on student conceptual understandings in science by the end of primary school, particularly for students from low to middle socio-economic schools (Education Council, 2015; Eshach & Fried, 2005; Tao et al., 2012). Improving science education in the early years may play an important role in improving Australia’s performance in measures such as TIMSS and PISA. Over a decade ago, Tytler (2007) declared that Australian science education was in crisis, reflecting the concerns of industry, educators and government that fewer students were engaging

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in science study after the compulsory years. Tytler (2007) outlined concerns about the mismatch between the teaching of science in schools and the changing nature of science in society. One of the many major changes to affect contemporary science in the past 60 years is that scientific practice has become significantly more linked with technology. The skills and capabilities needed by contemporary scientists should be reflected in the way that science is represented in the school curriculum (Tytler, 2007). Additionally, Australia’s population is increasingly being called upon to engage with and understand technological, science-based issues. Science education has a vital role to play in preparing informed future citizens as well as science experts. Tytler (2007) argued that school science needed to be re-imagined in order to keep pace with these demands. It seems that these concerns remain relevant today, despite exhortations for change. A recent report for the Australian Academy of Science revealed declining levels of science literacy in Australian adults and young people (Wyatt & Stolper, 2013). While the report found that most Australians have a basic understanding of key scientific facts, many important scientific questions were answered incorrectly by those surveyed. For example, the report highlights that only 6 out of 10 Australians, a decline since 2010, knew how long it takes the Earth to orbit the Sun. Significantly the highest rate of decline in knowledge about this key concept was among young people aged 18-35. Those most likely to answer this question correctly are those with higher levels of post school education and men. Recent changes to the science curriculum documents in Australia have attempted to address this decline however positive effects are yet to be seen. Prior to the formation of the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA), national curriculum and assessment frameworks were developed for learning areas, however each state and territory differed in the degree to which these frameworks were adopted (Rennie et al., 2001). Concerns that led to the establishment of ACARA and the development of a nationally consistent curriculum included the poor performance of Australian students in TIMSS and that the variability of the curriculum was seen to disadvantage students who moved between states (Lowe & Appleton, 2015). The shaping of the national curriculum was informed by the common views adopted by State and Territory ministers in the 2008 Melbourne Declaration on Educational Goals for Young Australians (Ministerial Council on Education, 2008) as well as a framing paper for each subject which provided broad direction and guidance for the curriculum writers. Stakeholders contributing to the framing paper which aimed to shape the nature of the science curriculum stated that the primary concern appeared to be the lack of science being taught in primary schools, rather than the type or relevance of any content being taught (National Curriculum Board, 2009).

Contemporary science and technology topics One of the possible factors in this continued poor performance is the continuation of traditional, discipline specific focus on science content in Anglo-American school systems. The

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Australian Curriculum: Science segregates scientific knowledge into traditional disciplines of physics, chemistry, biology and earth sciences. The Australian Curriculum contains a separate Technologies learning area which includes the Digital Technologies subject. In addition, the Australian Curriculum requires ICT general capabilities to be addressed where identified in learning area content, including in the Science learning area. However, the ICT general capability is not stipulated in the Foundation Science learning area content descriptions or elaborations. In the Science learning area, the ICT general capability first appears in the Year One content descriptions. Contemporary real life issues and problems being addressed by science and technology transcend these disciplines and could be used to deliver an alternative, contemporary way of teaching science in schools (Rennie, 2011; Tytler, Symington, & Smith, 2011). Although this approach poses challenges for teachers and the professional knowledge they require, Rennie (2011) argues for a move away from traditional discipline-specific science teaching to a more balanced approach to science teaching in schools. Indeed it has been argued that it is critically important that science education from the early years blurs the “...boundaries between science and technology and between different branches of the sciences themselves” (Duschl, 2008, p. 274). This kind of science education is engaging for students because it focuses on interdisciplinary, meaningful and relevant science that builds the capacity of students to be scientifically literate citizens (Rennie, 2011). Developing scientific literacy requires opportunities for students to plan and conduct technology integrated inquiry-based investigations that are meaningful and relevant to the real world and the problems and discoveries of real scientists. It appears that despite efforts to change policy and curriculum as far back as 1989 efforts to improve the state of science education in Australia are yet to show evidence of success. This brief history of science education in Australia helps in understanding the changes that need to occur in science education in the future. Science topics across traditional boundaries must be integrated with technology to ensure students can participate in meaningful inquiry-based science investigations in the classroom from the early years. This study focused on how the iPad as a technology tool was used in science investigations in early childhood classrooms and more specifically what affordances the iPad was able to bring to science activities about movement.

2.2.2 Inquiry Learning in Science The Australian curriculum informs and shapes the science content taught and how children learn science in primary school. This is particularly the case in Queensland, where this study takes place, as Queensland is one of the few states that implements the Australian curriculum uniformly across sectors, without modification (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2014). The Australian Curriculum: Science emphasises inquiry learning as an appropriate and recommended approach to teaching science (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016a), an approach usually based on constructivist theories of learning (Palincsar,

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1998; Poon, Lee, Tan, & Lim, 2012). While this theoretical approach to teaching and learning recognises the importance of hands-on learning activities for students to learn, it does not adequately recognise the nature of vicarious learning. This type of learning occurs by observing others and noting the outcomes of their activity (Bandura, 1986). Defining what is meant by the term ‘inquiry learning’ is not a straightforward task. A review of the literature on inquiry learning reveals that there is not one clear, singular definition of this term (Poon et al., 2012). Indeed the complexity of understanding inquiry learning becomes apparent when the work of several different authors is considered. Leonard and Penick (2009) suggest that most authors agree on the sequence of inquiry stages to be conducted in the classroom but differ in their understanding of the role of the learner and teacher when carrying out inquiry. Other factors that impact on the level of inquiry include the materials available (Blanchard et al., 2010). Particularly relevant to this project is that inquiry learning is understood as a contrast to a knowledge transmission approach that is teacher-centred (Hmelo-Silver, Duncan, & Chinn, 2007; Minner, Levy, & Century, 2010). Traditional school science practical activities involve teachers delivering information using a lecture-style transmission model (Linn & Eylon, 2011) and following a teacher determined, structured recipe-type experiment in which the correct answer or results are already known (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1993; Kim & Tan, 2011). Inquiry learning is commonly understood to be based on a constructivist theory of learning. Constructivist theorists state that learning occurs through a process of active construction of knowledge and understanding as a result of direct experiences and interactions with others (Poon et al., 2012). It could be argued that SCT can also explain why inquiry learning using both physical and digital materials can be an effective way to promote learning in early childhood science activities. In inquiry learning approaches a knowledgeable other supports and guides learners to devise questions, explore and experiment using physical or digital materials (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). The iPad, through the medium of apps, may take on this role of knowledgeable other. By providing audio and visual prompts the iPad may stimulate these same behaviours in users. An iPad app is created for a specific purpose, and science apps are designed to support learning of scientific concepts. This generally occurs through the audio and visual digital material design features that externalize the concept of motion. The interactive design features of apps shape the ways that the iPad is used and the apps in turn are responsive to user input. The iPad, apps and user interact in a system of reciprocal causation (Bandura, 1986). The iPad’s capacity to be directed and manipulated as a responsive tool and artefact in hands-on science activities can promote learning by building learners’ self-efficacy as an agent who can influence the environment (Bandura, 1997). Haussler and Hoffman (2000) argue that teachers of science in the primary school should aim to improve the self-efficacy of students as this will increase students’ interest in science at school. The importance of increasing student interest in science, particularly in the primary school years,

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is discussed by Jocz, Zhai, and Tan (2014). These authors found that interest in science is positively related to a range of learning outcomes and suggest that a lack of interest in science may impact negatively on the development of scientifically literate citizens and the number of students choosing to pursue careers in science (Jocz et al., 2014). Furthermore, SCT’s view of the ways that people can learn by direct experience as well as by watching others and by using symbolic thought to plan, create, imagine and inquire (Bandura, 1986) fits well with the features and goals of collaborative inquiry learning experiences. A number of studies have established the importance of inquiry learning in primary and early years science classrooms (Hackling & Prain, 2005; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). The relevance of a discussion of inquiry learning for this project is that this approach to teaching science is understood to include hands-on learning activities (Goodrum, Hackling, & Rennie, 2001). Merely including hands-on activities however does not constitute an inquiry approach. The structure of the learning tasks and the materials available must provide problems that can be solved, some degree of choice and promote reflection on the activity undertaken (Potvin & Hasni, 2014). The inherent features available on an iPad in relation to enhancing learning are discussed in detail in Chapter 2.5.2. These features may present problem solving opportunities and promote reflection on learning. Additionally, these features may facilitate a range of choices about how the iPad may be used to record and represent learning activities in a form that is more accessible than traditional tools. It is likely that the diversity of understandings of inquiry (Poon et al., 2012) can partly explain why not all studies result in a positive view of inquiry learning. Results of these studies have caused a great deal of debate, although some argue that researchers who criticise inquiry learning confuse and conflate many different approaches to learning, including inquiry (Crawford, 2014; Hmelo-Silver et al., 2007). For example Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006) criticise unguided learning experiences, which they name variously as inquiry, discovery learning and constructivist learning among others, as inefficient and unsuccessful learning methods. Despite these debates, research does support the use of inquiry learning as an effective approach to science learning as well as increasing interest, motivation and attitudes towards science (Potvin & Hasni, 2014). It has been shown, through analysis of international data from TIMSS results in primary school, that student interest in science is related to positive learning outcomes in science (Martin, Mullis, Foy, & Stanco, 2012). The goal of educational endeavours in science is to enhance learning. It is therefore important to understand the role that technology such as iPads play in contributing to learning when using these effective learning approaches. The findings of research into inquiry learning exert an influence on important policy documents, as can be seen in the explicit emphasis on inquiry approaches to science teaching evident in the Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016a). However, it is worth noting that while these curriculum documents are important guides,

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teachers make choices about the way they approach teaching for reasons other than those presented in formal curriculum documents, including their science content knowledge and attitudes towards teaching science (Boschman, McKenney, & Voogt, 2014; Lowe & Appleton, 2015). In this project teachers were asked to consider what the iPad as a tool could bring to hands-on science activities as part of the choices they made about inquiry learning and purposefully planning for the use of the iPad in science lessons. These insights were gathered as interview data and are analysed in Chapter 5.

2.3 TEACHING THE SCIENCE OF MOVEMENT IN PREP CLASSROOMS The scientific concept of motion is introduced in the Prep Science curriculum through investigations into the way things move. The expectation is that children will develop the understanding that “the way objects move depends on a variety of factors, including their size and shape” (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). This content descriptor is further unpacked through four elaboration statements. The science lessons that teachers planned and implemented as part of this study included a focus on two of these elaborations: “observing the way different shaped objects such as balls, blocks and tubes move” and “observing how the movement of different living things depends on their size and shape” (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). Typical approaches to teaching this concept in Prep classrooms can be seen in the work sample portfolios on the curriculum website. These approaches include reading books about the topic, investigating with real objects, drawing and writing about observations as well as verbal discussions (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017) The researcher made the decision to focus on the concept of movement in early childhood science lessons because this project was focused on the way that iPads could be used in hands-on science lessons. The concept of movement, or how things move, presents a range of opportunities to use the inbuilt features of the iPad such as the camera as well as slow motion and time-lapse video recording. Objects that move are often moving too fast to see with the human eye easily, the camera features of the iPad can make this movement easier to see, discuss and analyse by allowing teachers and students to pause, replay and slow down motion. In Exploring the Use of iPads to Investigate Forces and Motion in an Elementary Science Methods Course (Wilson et al., 2013) preservice teachers designed and built a moving vehicle using the iPad as part of their project. The study found that using the iPad to record and replay video of different stages of the project was reported by students as helpful for enhancing their ability to observe and analyse the scientific concept of force (Wilson et al., 2013). Other uses for the iPad in hands-on science lessons include the use of apps that can be used to analyse and annotate the motion of objects such as Playground Physics (New York Hall of Science, 2016) as well as apps that enable students to record their

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observations digitally to present to others. The iPad thus creates opportunities for learning to occur by watching others both in real time and after the event and to engage in discussion about what is observed. The iPad provides opportunities for children to create records of their learning that allow them to share their thoughts and reactions to their observations. This is especially useful for children too young to write fluently. They may for example instead speak on camera, and this provides them with the opportunity to exercise more control over their environment and to express their learning in ways that are only possible with the assistive power of the iPad (Dezuanni et al., 2015). The use of iPads in hands-on science activities may augment hands-on learning activities and provide opportunities for students and teachers to access scientifically supported ideas through internet searches and well-designed apps.

2.4 TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGIES IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS (PRACTICE) Digital technologies are rapidly changing the nature of knowledge, communication and connectivity in our society. Teachers have a responsibility to respond to and embrace, through changes in pedagogy and learning opportunities, the transformation that the use of digital technologies can mean for students now and in their future (Digital Education Advisory Group, 2013). In 2008 the Australian Government invested $2.1 billion in the Digital Education Revolution (DER), delivering computers to secondary students and developing changes to other aspects of education including teacher training and curriculum to reflect the need for improved technology education and greater technology integration. The DER computer scheme was aimed at secondary schools; primary schools were not eligible to use funding to purchase computers. Even in the secondary schools who received funding for computers, changes in teachers’ pedagogy progresses slowly (Beale, 2014). Financial constraints have led to the popularity of the Bring Your Own Device model for primary schools to enable students to access technology in the primary school classroom (Stavert, 2013), although this approach is still in its infancy in Australia (Maher & Twining, 2017). However it is clear that it is not the introduction of digital technologies into a classroom that improves learning, it is the changes to pedagogy utilising the technology that improves learning outcomes (Digital Education Advisory Group, 2013). Using technology in classrooms is a key feature of twenty-first-century pedagogy. The actual approaches to pedagogical practice using technology have been found to vary according to several factors. These include teachers’ training in using technology in the classroom, their beliefs about the effectiveness of technology use in the classroom as well as their attitude towards, confidence and self-efficacy in relation to using technology (Celik & Yesilyurt, 2013; Saudelli & Ciampa, 2016). Just equipping classrooms with technology does not necessarily mean that teachers are using technology to enhance learning. For example a large scale survey study of over 35,000

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teachers found that technology was most frequently used as a replacement for traditional tools or for practice type activities rather than extending and enhancing student learning (Project Tomorrow, 2011). Furthermore, teachers who receive the same access to technology, professional development and collaborative support when experiencing technological and pedagogical difficulties do not necessarily integrate technology in the same way (Kim, Kim, Lee, Spector, & DeMeester, 2013). Teachers’ underlying beliefs about the nature of teaching and learning are strongly correlated with how technology is used in the classroom, whether that be as a substitute for traditional practice or in a transformative way (Kim et al., 2013). Technology can often be used as a mere substitute for traditional paper based tasks rather than as an integrated tool to enhance and enable active learning (Prestridge, 2017; Sun et al., 2016). Traditional tasks that may be merely transferred, without modification, from paper to a technological device include those that focus on teacher delivered content and those that involve a teacher-centred approach to using technology. These traditional tasks include activities such as teacher directed searching of the internet for information instead of searching in a book or typing a piece of writing rather than handwriting (Prestridge, 2017). It has long been held that technology should be used to enable learning with the tool rather than learning from the tool, in other words the technology itself should enable learning to occur (Ertmer & Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2013; Jonassen, 1995). Technology such as the iPad has created new ways of interacting with both on-screen objects and the physical world. Virtual manipulatives can be used to manipulate digitally created objects on the device screen. Virtual manipulatives were discussed in detail in Chapter 1.1.1, in relation to developing an understanding of the distinction between physical and virtual manipulatives. Augmented reality enables substantially different ways of interacting with virtual digital objects and the physical world. iPad apps utilising augmented reality create digitally altered experiences that enable new interactions between users and technology across time and space (Zimmerman, Land, & Jung, 2016). Augmented reality is the superimposition of 3D virtual objects onto a real-time image of a real-world environment. Virtual environments supplant reality, while augmented reality supplements reality (Chang, Morreale, & Medicherla, 2010). Mobile devices such as iPads are particularly well suited to context sensitive augmented reality learning applications due to their portability (Zimmerman et al., 2016). When reviewing the literature on iPad technology use in education, it is clear the iPad can offer affordances to enable learning in the classroom that other technologies do not. One study by Fisher, Lucas, and Galstyan (2013) of college age students studying mathematical concepts found that the iPad could transform the classroom space available for students to work in, and therefore the student interactions within those spaces. They compared the ways that students used laptop computers and iPads. The study found that the iPad offered users both a private space, where just the user was able to see and interact with the screen, and readily offered a public space to users through the screen size, portability and tactile nature of the touch screen. The benefits to the

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students due to the public learning and collaboration space offered by the iPad in the study led to the authors arguing strongly for the inclusion of iPads in education and to suggestions for further research in this area (Fisher et al., 2013). A study by Falloon and Khoo (2014) investigated the ways that five-year-old children utilised the public space affordances and content creation apps, described as open-design apps, in literacy and numeracy tasks. It was found that the combination of open-design apps and the public work spaces afforded by the iPad supported exploratory talk between young students and appeared to assist students to collaborate on tasks. This interaction between the affordances of the iPad and the open-design apps provided a medium through which teachers could improve the quality of student talk. The affordances of the iPad to shift the learner from private to public spaces increased the potential for students to engage in talk that enabled them to appreciate the perspectives of their peers and engage in justifying perspectives and ideas (Falloon & Khoo, 2014). One of the overall aims of science education in Australian schools is to ensure that students develop the ability to justify their scientific understandings by communicating with others (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016a). The study by Falloon and Khoo (2014) was not intended to explore the use of justifying skills in science. However, it is possible that the affordances of the iPad in increasing the ability of students to engage in talk that includes justifying perspectives could also apply to science learning situations. A literature review of teachers’ technology use in preschool to grade two revealed that while not all studies identified a relationship between stated beliefs and integration of technology in the classroom those that have found a relationship attributed this to the increased professional development opportunities for teachers present as part of the study (Fenty & Anderson, 2014). Conversely, Kim et al. (2013) found that despite participating in professional development and acquiring the relevant knowledge to implement technology integration, teachers utilise technology differently according to their underlying beliefs about the role of the teacher and student in the classroom. The way that teachers see their own and students’ roles form part of their underlying beliefs about effective teaching and learning and these beliefs are associated with the way that technology is integrated into the classroom (Kim et al., 2013). Although teachers may state they believe that they use student-centred, interactive instruction this is not necessarily the case when their classroom practice is observed as Morgan (2010) found in a study on interactive whiteboard use in classrooms. Some teachers are described as early adopters of technology. They spend time incorporating and adopting new technologies more frequently than other teachers (Aldunate & Nussbaum, 2013), even though the pedagogies required to effectively integrate technology into classrooms are not yet evident to many (Prestridge, 2017). It is likely, as Kim et al. (2013) suggest, that these early adopters hold beliefs about teaching and learning that are more conducive to effective technology integration.

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The present study did not intend to evaluate teachers’ attitudes towards and beliefs about using technology in the classroom but sought to determine how iPad technology was used in hands- on science activities. Prestridge (2017) suggests that teachers who are given freedom to explore technology in the classroom for a substantive period of time are more likely to evolve in their beliefs and orientation towards teaching with technology. The teachers in this study have had iPads in their classrooms since early 2015 and show evidence of already effectively integrating technology into student centred, innovative pedagogies. They are thus not typical of many teachers such as those described by Prestridge (2017) who are yet to develop the skills to effectively integrate technology into the classroom. This study was conducted with a group of teachers who already possess technology integration skills. This is an important consideration when addressing issues of the generalisability of the findings, as the purpose of the project was to study the application of the iPad as a technology tool used as part of hands-on science activities rather than to evaluate the pedagogical skills and beliefs of the teachers.

2.4.1 Teaching Science with Technologies While the number of studies involving iPads in science education is growing, there is not yet a significant body of literature in this area. A recent systematic literature review of research about mobile learning in science education by Crompton et al. (2016) provides some insight into the trends and focus areas of current research. This review found that only 49 studies that met the authors’ criteria for inclusion in the review had been published since 2000. These authors defined mobile learning as using a device in learning that is portable and has a prompt on and off switch. They therefore examined many types of mobile learning devices and found that iPads were reportedly used in 5% of the studies. Over two thirds of the studies involved life sciences, with only 3% of the research involving physical science. In half of the 49 studies reviewed the researchers had designed their own learning system for use on the mobile device. The remaining areas of focus for researchers were evaluating the impact on learning and investigating the affective domain when using mobile learning systems. The use of iPads in the physics domain of science education in the early years has not yet received a great deal of attention, and further research is therefore needed in this area. This study used a case study approach to investigate the ways that iPads were used in Prep hands-on science activities that focused on the concept of movement. This concept sits within the physics domain of science. The affordances of the iPad were investigated in order to explore what the iPad could bring to these hands-on activities. The results of this study thus contribute to this gap in the literature. To understand the research that has been conducted in this area, the next section will explore the literature about hands-on and digital learning activities in early years science education.

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2.5 DIGITAL AND MATERIAL SCIENCE ACTIVITIES This section will explore the types of hands-on and virtual activities that are used in early childhood science lessons and the relative advantages and disadvantages of each. It concludes by considering the possible ways that technology may be used in hands-on science activities in the classroom.

2.5.1 Hands-on Activities in Science Education Educational research has shown that there are many advantages to using physical hands- on science activities in science lessons (Gire et al., 2010; Haury & Rillero, 1994; Satterthwait, 2010). This view has been supported by research over a long period of time. For example Bredderman (1982) reports that when analysing the results of more than fifteen years of research on hands-on activity-based science programs students performed better on many measures including creativity, attitude and science content knowledge than those who had been taught using traditional non-activity based programs. More recent studies have also found positive learning outcomes for students when they can carry out hands-on activities (Fogleman, McNeill, & Krajcik, 2011; Grimberg & Gummer, 2013). This approach has therefore long been recognised as an effective teaching strategy in science and is influential in science curriculum design and development in Australia (Satterthwait, 2010). Children are naturally curious and instinctively observe and explore the world around them. Hands-on science activities should build on this experimentation as an effective approach to learning (Haury & Rillero, 1994; Satterthwait, 2010). Important characteristics of hands-on science activities include peer interaction, object manipulation, asking questions, collecting data and generating explanations (Satterthwait, 2010). While these skills and characteristics are similar to those used in inquiry learning, it is important to note that hands-on learning experiences are not the same as inquiry learning, although they may and often do form an important element of this approach (Crawford, 2014). The importance of an inquiry approach to learning in science for both teachers and students is discussed in Chapter 2.2.2. Of the possible attributes that contribute to the effectiveness of hands-on science activities Satterthwait (2010) identifies peer interaction, object-mediated learning and embodied experience as three significant factors. Interacting with peers during hands-on activities provides opportunities for learners to discuss observations and share knowledge through dialogue. The opportunity to interact with and manipulate objects in object-mediated learning experiences leads to the learner questioning the experience and triggers curiosity in an engaging and enjoyable way (Satterthwait, 2010). These types of enactive experiences lead to outcomes that may be successful, neutral or negative, giving the learner feedback and reinforcement on the most effective course of action (Bandura, 1986). One of the ways in which people learn is through the sensory information that they receive as a result of bodily movement (Bandura, 1986). Embodied learning, in which learning occurs when the human body moves or manipulates an object, is closely related to object-mediated

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learning. The physical experience of movement with objects and how we make sense of our actions and perceptions is linked to our ability to build new understandings and ideas (Satterthwait, 2010). This study will consider what the iPad as a mobile technology tool can bring to these hands-on science activities in Prep classrooms.

2.5.2 iPads in Hands-on Science Activities The use of virtual learning experiences is increasing in all educational contexts, and it has been suggested that increasing levels of technology in schools will increase these virtual experiences, even where inquiry-based science learning is strongly supported (Wilson et al., 2013). iPads used in science education are potentially more useful than other, similar technologies for a number of reasons. The screen size of the iPad allows for small group work and can foster collaboration and discussion. The portability of the iPad means it can be easily used to record physical experiences such as hands-on science activities, in formal and informal learning environments. The large number of science content-based apps and easy internet access enables information to be available via the iPad to users. Digital materials that can be used in science lessons include virtual and augmented reality iPad apps. Using apps may assist learning, but only if the apps are high quality and accurately represent the science content being addressed in the lessons. To evaluate the quality of science apps available for use on the iPad, there are a number of factors which must be considered. Section 2.5.2 will discuss the literature about evaluating apps. The use of mobile learning technologies, including iPads, in science education offers affordances that may enhance hands-on activities and science education. These affordances include the instant accessibility of information, the communicative facilities of the iPad and an increasing number of apps considered to have educational value (Geer, White, Zeegers, Wing, & Barnes, 2017). In the affective domain, much research has found that iPads in science education enhance student learning and engagement in various educational settings including early childhood and primary classrooms. iPads in particular are well suited to active and student centred approaches to learning (Pegrum et al., 2013). Consequently, when used in these ways, there is a generally positive view in the literature of using technologies in science education. Much of this research has focused on the use of mobile learning technologies in the life sciences in primary school settings however, more research is needed on the use of these technologies in other areas of science such as physical science (Crompton et al., 2016) which is the focus of the present study. Technology used as a tool in science education offers the user a discretional position in a learning situation (Jewitt, 2006). Viewed through the lens of SCT, this positioning depends on the artefact’s design, in this case the physical design of the iPad and the apps used on the device. As discussed in Chapter 2, this study will explore the ways that iPads initiate active investigation and passive observation. The iPad offers active investigator or observer learning positions through its affordances, the actions on the screen and the physical properties of the device (Jewitt, 2006).

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Qualitative and quantitative studies have reported on ways that the mobility, accessibility and versatility of mobile learning technologies in science education have enabled students to observe and record the world around them (Looi et al., 2011; Wilson et al., 2013), to represent their thinking in multimodal ways (Burden & Maher, 2014; Dezuanni et al., 2015; Looi et al., 2011) and to share their learning with others (Looi et al., 2011; McQuiggan, Kosturko, McQuiggan, & Sabourin, 2015). The iPad can be used to virtually simulate physical science experiences that may not otherwise be possible in the real world (Wilson et al., 2013). Technology used in these ways can support hands-on activities, extend these activities through offering a platform for the expression of creativity, and enable children to engage with the world and the people around them (Kleeman & Wilder, 2015). When viewed in light of the work of Jewitt (2006) iPads used in science learning activities can be understood to offer active investigative learning. Capturing and later sharing images, videos, audio files, data and user-created artefacts enables the extension of a learning activity from the original setting to a later place and time (Zimmerman & Land, 2014). The inbuilt camera on the iPad provides even young children with a means to photograph and video record the world around them, enabling them to actively represent their own understandings. Although there often needs to be explicit instruction in how to use the recording function, once learnt the iPad is a very portable recording device. In the study conducted by Dezuanni et al. (2015) the iPad camera enabled young children to record objects and places and the resulting images were then used to create digital media in multimodal forms. In one iPad creation task in the Dezuanni et al. (2015) study children created a multimodal poster about the classroom chicken raising project. In the vignette described by Dezuanni et al. (2015), a researcher first assisted children to use iPads to take photos of chicken s in an incubator before importing the images into a poster-making app. The researcher then typed in captions for the photos as dictated by the children. The generation of this multimodal text required the presence and assistance of an adult, particularly to type the captions used in the posters (Dezuanni et al., 2015). While adult scaffolding was needed to teach children how to use the app and to add the literacy elements to the posters, the iPad made it possible to generate a creative, digital representation of a physical science learning activity. The children were able to independently choose what to photograph using the iPad and to select the photographs they wished to use in their poster. The size and light weight of the iPad means it is easily passed between students and this, along with the screen size, has been found to enable diverse opportunities for interacting and collaborating as students use the iPad. This portability facilitates the extension of the action on the iPad screen from an individual activity to one where groups of students work in a positively interdependent way, both synchronously and asynchronously (Wang, Towey, & Jong, 2016). Fears that using iPads in education will encourage solitary, static use and discourage collaboration (Walmsley, 2014) have not been upheld in research studies (Dezuanni et al., 2015; Sharapan, 2015). The ease with which lightweight, portable technologies such as the iPad can be transported

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by students and used in informal learning environments such as outdoor settings is seen as one of the benefits to using technology in science experiences (Boyce, Mishra, Halverson, & Thomas, 2014). iPads, like other technologies, may be viewed as a ‘digital assistant’ which can optimize skills such as problem-solving and critical-thinking among other important outcomes. iPad apps contain a variety of digital scaffolds to provide supports such as guidance, hints and feedback (Zydney & Warner, 2016). One study used an app to personally guide elementary school users through a process of observing and classifying plants outdoors using location aware mobile technology. The app adapted its guidance and responses based on user input. The personalised assistance and scaffolds provided by this app led to increased student achievement and attitudes towards learning (Chu, Hwang, Tsai, & Tseng, 2010). Apps used in this way are central to the ways that science activities are enacted in schools. Instead of using technology in a peripheral way, an approach that recognises the potentially transformative power of technology and the importance of digital fluency is called for when educating students in the twenty-first-century (McQuiggan et al., 2015). In one study it was found that having university-age students use technology to gather data may have allowed them to focus on the scientific concept being investigated rather than on the mechanics of gathering the data (Wilson et al., 2013). Thus, technology such as the iPad may contribute to learning by enabling a focus on the physical experience of the hands-on activity and audio-visually recording the data or experience for later review and use. A study in which fifth- grade students were given iPads to use in their outdoor science learning experience found that students used the devices as a reference tool as well as to collect data (Boyce et al., 2014). Wang and Tseng (2016) studied third grade students to evaluate the effectiveness of hands on and virtual manipulatives on students’ conceptual understanding of evaporation and condensation. They found that the combination of physical and virtual manipulatives was the most effective way to impact upon student understanding. Given the benefits of hands-on learning experiences, it is perhaps concerning that quantitative research has shown that students also benefit from virtual learning experiences alone in science. In a study where fifth grade students used virtual web-based science equipment such as microscopes in place of actual equipment, students achieved higher results than those who experienced more traditional teaching of the science concepts. The authors attributed the success of the virtual simulations in part to the increased interest, individualised learning and the opportunity to repeat the experiments virtually (Sun, Lin, & Yu, 2008). Results such as this can strengthen support for using virtual manipulatives alone, supporting the possibility that teachers may replace hands-on learning activities with virtual experiences and suggests further study is needed in this area (Wilson et al., 2013). Mobile technologies enable students to record and replay hands-on science experiments for later review and reflection. Students learning about the digestive system recorded an experiment

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on a mobile device in the home and later replayed it to discuss their findings with the teacher and other students at school. Having access to digital student artefacts enables teachers to review and assess student work after class and inform subsequent teaching and learning opportunities (Looi et al., 2011). In one early childhood classroom an iPad was used to record, review, pause and analyse the experience of hands-on investigations. This enabled teachers and students to revisit and reflect on what they observed and experienced when conducting these activities (Preston & McKie, 2018). Augmented reality science apps have been shown to prompt hands-on experiences in outdoor learning environments. In a study involving 42 nine to twelve-year-old children participating in an outdoor summer camp, iPads were used to enhance learning about tree life cycles. Augmented reality tools were used on the iPads to promote context sensitive interest, engagement with physical objects and to increase scientific understanding of the life cycles of trees in the environment. The authors found that it was often the hands-on experience with an object that prompted engagement with the iPad app. The iPad prompted learners to engage in more hands-on experiences rather than replacing them. The iPad app fostered focused observations and further engagement with the physical environment (Zimmerman et al., 2016). This key finding is particularly interesting and relevant to the research questions of the present study. The focus of this study was not on the learner experience but on what the digital medium of the iPad brought to hands-on science activities in early years classrooms. As discussed in this literature review, iPads have been used to capture and record scientific artefacts and investigations, to enable users to create multimodal representations that can be shared with others, to virtually simulate and augment real-world scientific phenomena and as a reference tool to access information about scientific ideas. The symbiotic relationship between the iPad, the apps used on the device and the user is discussed in Chapter 2.1.32.1.3. When considering iPad use as central to the focus of analysis, as is the case with Artefact Centric Activity Theory, the quality of the apps that are used as part of science learning activities is important. A framework to evaluate app quality should encompass an understanding of how digital resources aid learning. In this study the learning theory used is the Social Cognitive theory, applied to digital resources. A framework which incorporates key elements of SCT and research-based understandings of what makes a quality app will now be discussed as a means to evaluate these apps. For early childhood teachers who are integrating technology into their classrooms, there is little research to support and guide them as they make decisions about how to choose quality apps to use on a tablet or mobile devices in the classroom (Lee & Cherner, 2015). The vast majority of apps for young children are marketed as educational, however the educational value of many of these apps is questionable (Kucirkova, 2017; Papadakis, Kalogiannakis, & Zaranis, 2017). Many apps for example do not allow users to change or extend the content and thus are considered closed- content apps (Flewitt, Kucirkova, & Messer, 2014). These types of apps consist of drill and practice

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type activities which gamify content and do not promote deep understanding (Hirsh-Pasek et al., 2015). There are many sources of reviews of apps such as popular media, blogs, websites and ratings on the app stores which market the apps. These are not based on research studies and are subjective indicators of quality only (Papadakis et al., 2017). A limited number of research-based evaluation tools exist for teachers to assess the quality of apps developed for preschool students (Papadakis et al., 2017). Some, such as the recently developed rubric tool designed for preschool teachers created by Papadakis et al. (2017) are limited in their applicability to iPad science apps. None of the apps used to develop the Papadakis et al. (2017) rubric were science apps and the focus in the rubric on content knowledge does not allow for an evaluation of the ways an app could support the development of inquiry skills. To make the situation more complex, many of the apps used in research studies are not accessible to the public, generally because the apps were developed and evaluated by the researchers as part of their study. More research is needed on assessing the quality of commercially available apps as these are more likely to be used by teachers in classrooms (Zydney & Warner, 2016). One of the most comprehensive app evaluation rubrics, developed by Lee and Cherner (2015), consists of 24-evaluative dimensions and is intended specifically to analyse instructional apps and their educational potential. These authors define instructional apps as those that are intended to provide a learning experience that develops a student’s skills or assists them to learn information. The rubric is comprised of three domains: instruction, design and engagement. Each domain is further expounded into the 24 dimensions. While comprehensive, there are multiple elements of this rubric that are not relevant to early childhood contexts and it therefore may be seen as unnecessarily complex. Important features of apps such as sound, graphics and text are conflated into one category to be rated, which does not provide the ability to distinguish ratings between these elements of an app. Additionally, the intended use of the app, such as whether it is intended to be skills, content or function based must be first decided by the evaluator to enable scoring on the rubric (Lee & Cherner, 2015). It could be argued that apps that comprise two or more of these functions would be very difficult to score. Similarly, the actual integration of the app into classroom practice and alignment of the app to pedagogy ultimately determines its value as an education tool (Lee & Cherner, 2015). For these reasons this rubric, while considered comprehensive (Papadakis et al., 2017) was not used in this study. At least one rubric has been developed specifically for evaluating apps designed for preschool aged children. The Rubric for the EValuation of Educational Apps for preschool Children ( REVEAC) assesses the content, design, function and technical quality of an app and is intended to be comprehensive in its scope and dimension (Papadakis et al., 2017). However, as the authors state, there are several limitations inherent in this study and the design of this rubric. Only a small number of apps were tested, and these were limited to those with mathematics or literacy-

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based content. The authors recognise that the rubric is perhaps overly comprehensive and therefore too dense to be useful for teachers. A further limitation is that its development was based on evaluating only free Android apps available in the Greek language. While promising, the authors suggest further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of their rubric for free and paid apps used in different operating systems including the Apple operating system iOS (Papadakis et al., 2017). Using an existing rubric is problematic, as discussed above. Instead a set of guiding principles was adapted to enable an evaluation of the apps used in the present study. This set of principles was derived from a study of the ways that iPad app design and content features affected the learning pathways of young children in one classroom using 45 different commercially available iPad apps (Falloon, 2013). The apps were selected by the class teacher and focused on literacy, numeracy, thinking and problem-solving skills. The study utilised a screen recording approach to classroom observations to capture natural student app use rather than having a researcher video record students. While novel at the time, this recording tool required ‘jail breaking’ the iPad. Jail breaking means making unauthorised modifications to the iPad operating system (Apple, 2018). This is now more easily achieved using the inbuilt screen capture recording function that was used in the present study. The key to the importance of the study was that the data collected revealed student use of apps without adult guidance and so enabled a clear analysis of the ways that the design and content of the apps supported and impeded learning. As a result of the study Falloon (2013) identified six key elements that should be present in apps if they are to result in productive learning experiences. These elements are listed and described in Table 2.1. These elements are not intended to be rated in the way a rubric would be used. Instead the presence or absence of each expected feature (listed in the right-hand column) contributes to an evaluation about the overall quality of the app. The findings of Falloon (2013), represented in Table 2.1 were used in this study to evaluate the quality of apps used in the Prep science activities in classrooms.

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Table 2.1 Important elements for design and content of apps (Falloon, 2013) Design and content of apps should: Expected features of high-quality science apps about the concept of movement  communicate learning objectives Learning goal and/or science content is clearly present and communicated in an understandable and accessible way for young children. The app uses one or more of these:  audio prompts  text-to-speech function  scientifically correct visuals The app instructs the user on how to interact with the app to achieve learning goals. The app provides a sequence of steps to teach about the concept of movement. The app correctly enacts the laws of physics when representing motion through animations.  provide a smooth learning Absence of pop up advertisements or other distracting pathway, with no distractions, features such as web links that take the user outside of towards learning goals the app. Absence of culturally specific terms or accents that are difficult to understand.  lead users towards learning goals The app includes the ability for the user to test a through the use of instructional response before submission. elements The app restates feedback or instructions after a period of inactivity. The app includes the ability to click on speech function to restate feedback or instructions (modelling-on- demand). Visuals support progress towards learning goals.  provide timely, corrective and Formative and corrective feedback is given for correct formative feedback and incorrect choices and responses.  provide an engaging user Blend of game, practise and learning components to experience promote thoughtful engagement for extended periods of time.  provide appropriate parameters Parameters are matched to the characteristics of young (embedded constraints) that assist learners. Parameters include: the user to maintain focus on app ‐ restricting users to interactive elements by learning objective including non-responsive space ‐ Time constraints imposed on entertainment or games ‐ Difficulty level or content options can be set ‐ Form of learning purpose and feedback provided

iPads require the use of apps to make the most of their affordances. These apps include those that simulate physical experiences virtually and those that generate an augmented reality. Using iPads requires in most cases the selection of appropriate apps that represent the desired learning concepts and enable the digital affordances of the iPad to be used towards learning goals. Evaluating the use of apps in science activities involves an evaluative choice, which is supported by the framework described here. As discussed in this literature review, technology used to support

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learning should enhance students’ ability to observe and record physical events, promote interaction and simulate experiences they could not otherwise engage in rather than merely replace physical elements of learning activities (Smetana & Bell, 2012; Wilson et al., 2013). This study investigated how iPads were used in hands-on activities and what the iPad was able to bring to these learning experiences. Further discussion of the ways in which the iPad was able to enact the features described above can be found in Chapter 5.

2.6 IMPLICATIONS Reviewing the literature around the key themes of science education in Australian early years classrooms, teaching with technologies in science education and digital and material science activities sets the scene for this study. The use of mobile technologies in early years classrooms, specifically the iPad as a digital medium, in hands-on science activities about movement is an under-explored area of research. In particular, the potentially transformational, positioning and creative affordances that the iPad brings to these activities is important to explore in an educational environment where science educators can access little guidance about how and why these devices may be used in hands-on science activities. Placing the iPad at the centre of this research study, within the framework of an amalgamation of the Social Cognitive and Artefact Centric Activity theories, provides a clear lens through which the potential integration of iPads with hands-on science activities can be viewed and analysed. This is an area of research which requires further attention. This study therefore makes an important contribution to the literature.

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3Chapter 3: Research design

This chapter describes the design of the research project and the methodology used to investigate the research questions: RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? A case study design was used to achieve the goal of exploring the ways that iPads were used in three Prep classrooms as part of hands-on science activities about movement. The purpose of this project is discussed in more detail in Section 1.3 of Chapter 1. Section 3.1 of this chapter discusses the appropriateness of the methodology chosen to investigate the research questions. Section 3.2 describes the study participants and the site of the study. Section 3.3 lists the instruments used in the study and justifies their use. Section 3.4 outlines the procedure used and the timeline for completion of each stage of the study. Section 3.5 discusses how the data were analysed. Finally, Section 3.6 discusses the ethical considerations of the research and its limitations.

3.1 METHODOLOGY 3.1.1 Introduction and Overview A qualitative case study investigation was conducted to explore how iPads were used in hands-on science investigations about movement in Prep classrooms, and what the iPad as a digital medium was able to bring to these activities. Qualitative research is indicated when the researcher is exploring a problem and attempting to develop an in-depth understanding of a phenomena (Creswell, 2014), a goal that aligns well with the aims of this study. Data were collected from teacher planning documentation as well as from classroom observations and teacher participant interviews. In accordance with the aims of qualitative research the breadth of data collected enabled an in-depth understanding of the ways that iPads were used. A case study approach is particularly useful in seeking to answer ‘how’ questions (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011) about contemporary events which the researcher is not able to control (Yin, 2014). The alternative methodology of action research was considered in the design phase of this study. However this project did not seek to investigate changes in pedagogy, as is common in action research, thus the action research methodology was not adopted (Creswell, 2014). A case study takes place within the real-world context of the contemporary phenomenon, or the case, and seeks to explain how or why a phenomenon works. By investigating the case within

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its context the researcher is able to retain the real-world, holistic perspective of the case (Yin, 2014). Hamilton and Corbett-Whittier (2013) state that a case study approach can provide contextualised understanding within real contexts. A case study thus stands in contrast to the kind of decontextualized evidence provided by the experimental approaches which have informed much educational policy and were particularly esteemed in education research in recent years (Yin, 2014). This study investigated real-world classroom approaches to using iPads in hands-on science activities about movement. A contextual, holistic understanding of iPad use in three Prep classrooms, treated as a single case study, was enabled through the collection of multiple forms of data.

3.1.2 Research Questions and Methodology The research methodology used in this study enabled an investigation into how iPads were incorporated into Prep science classroom lessons and what the iPad as a digital medium brings to hands-on science activities. A qualitative case study method was chosen to investigate the two research questions: RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? A case study focuses on a single unit or “bounded system” as the focus of the research project (Stake, 2008). A case can be an integrated system of people or programs (Stake, 1995). Case study research has also been used to study technology systems, technology tools and online digital artefacts such as websites (Oates, 2006). In this study the case consists of iPad use in hands- on science activities in Prep classrooms. The use of iPads takes place within a teacher planned unit of work about the concept of movement. Using a case study in this project involved making a deliberate choice about the case or unit to be studied (Flyvberg, 2013). This case study, about the use of technology in classrooms, has a similar focus to a recent case study by Sahlin, Tsertsidis, and Islam (2017). These authors investigated how technology was used, and its contribution to student outcomes, in three Swedish elementary schools. The authors analysed the combined classroom observations and unstructured interview data collected from three schools as part of their case study. These authors argue that a case study enabled the formulation of a rich, deep understanding of a real life context (Sahlin et al., 2017). However, as stated elsewhere, the current case study focused only on the uses and affordances of iPads, not on student outcomes. In this study iPad use in three classrooms located on one school site was investigated. Data collection occurred during five classroom visits over a 10-week timeframe. The case studied was purposefully selected due to the potentially rich information that the case could provide about the research questions (Patton, 2015). It was thought that this site could potentially provide rich information due to the prolonged engagement with iPads present in these classrooms as discussed in Chapter 3.2.

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While a case study does not claim any one particular method of data collection (Merriam, 2009), it is a characteristic of case study research that multiple sources of data are collected to develop a deep understanding of the case (Creswell, 2014). To gather data from multiple sources about the research questions this qualitative case study utilised classroom observations, teacher planning documentation and interviews to yield thick description about the case being studied (Patton, 2015). A thick description of a case involves providing a detailed description of the site and context to enable the reader to compare the case to their own context. Thick description is also understood to include a detailed description of the findings, such as evidence provided in the form of quotes from interviews and notes from field observations to enable the reader to draw conclusions about the similarities and differences between their context and the findings of the study (Merriam, 2009). A detailed description of the findings is included in Chapter 4. This case study was designed to investigate the ways that iPads were used in hands-on science activities about the physics content descriptor from the Australian Curriculum: Science Foundation Level, namely that “The way objects move depends on a variety of factors, including their size and shape” (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). An initial meeting between the researchers and three Prep teachers was convened to discuss the purpose, stages and timeline of the project. Teachers were asked to consider how they could use iPads as part of their planned unit about the concept of movement, and specifically in the hands- on science activities they intended to use as learning activities. During this initial discussion teachers asked for examples of apps they could use. The researcher directed the teachers to the Apple App Store search function to assist them to explore the available apps. The researcher suggested using relevant search terms including science, movement and motion. The teacher and researchers discussed the filters available on the app store search function including the age range and category options. The teachers were able to ask questions about the project at this meeting. Once consent was given, teachers were given two weeks to plan for the use of iPads in hands-on science activities in the classroom and to load any apps required. This was an appropriate timeframe given that apps needed to be approved, purchased and downloaded to each school owned device and teachers needed to request that parents downloaded the apps to student owned iPads. During this time the researcher arranged for additional planning time to be allocated to the teachers to facilitate this planning process. The researcher, as is common practice in her professional role at the school, offered to release each teacher from their class responsibilities for an extra hour each week to ensure they had time to plan for the implementation of the iPads in hands-on science activities. Teachers were offered three opportunities to meet with the researcher to ask further questions and discuss any concerns. The participants did not utilise these additional meeting times. At the end of the two weeks the researcher collected the teacher planning documentation as a source of data. It was initially determined that a two-week time frame was appropriate for the teachers to use the iPads in science lessons in the classroom. However, in

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practice the reality of a busy school term and personal circumstances of those involved meant that classroom observations occurred over a time frame that spanned one school term. During this time the teachers used iPads as they deemed appropriate as part of their hands-on science activities about movement. Finally, two semi-structured, voice recorded interviews were conducted with the three teachers in the study. Due to extenuating circumstances one of the teachers was unable to attend the first scheduled interview. The researcher met with this teacher later during the same day, and classroom release for teachers was provided in recognition of the time taken to participate in interviews. Two interviews were conducted instead of the one that had been planned. An overview of the data gathering timeline is shown in Table 3.1.

Table 3.1 Case study timeline Time Phase Activity

May 1. Initial meeting with teachers to discuss the purpose and timeline of the project. 2018 Phase (two One weeks) 2. Teachers planned for iPad use in hands-on science activities about movement. Researcher collected teacher planned use of iPads in hands-on science activities about movement.

3. During a 10-week period teachers used iPads in the classroom May - during hands-on science activities about the concept of movement. Phase September Two 2018 4. During this period the researcher observed in classrooms and took video recordings of teachers and students using iPads in hands-on science activities.

5. One pair interview and one single interview of Prep teachers was September Phase conducted. The interviews in this phase focused on determining 2018 Three how the iPads were used in hands-on science activities and what the iPad as a digital medium brought to the hands-on science activities.

3.2 PARTICIPANTS AND RESEARCH SITE Data about how iPads were used in hands-on science activities were collected from three Prep classrooms in a regional primary school. The participants and site were selected using both purposeful and convenience sampling. Purposeful sampling is used when the researcher intentionally selects the participants and site in order to understand the central phenomenon of the research (Creswell, 2014). The researcher “must select a sample from which the most can be

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learned” (Merriam, 2009, p. 77). This school site was chosen as there have been iPads available to teachers for classroom use for at least two years. The length of time that iPads have been used in classrooms at this site has allowed time for teachers to become familiar with the device and to explore ways to use iPads to enhance student learning. Teachers have differing levels of confidence in, and tolerance for, using technology in the classroom (McQuiggan et al., 2015). Additionally, teachers have different beliefs about how technology influences learning, and these beliefs are reflected in teachers’ perceptions of the impact of technology in learning. In fact teachers’ beliefs about pedagogy have a considerable impact on the possibility of changing teacher practice to include technology (Ertmer, 2005). Teachers who lack training or understanding about the possible uses of technology in the classroom tend to use it as a supplement to transmission models of teaching, including in science lessons (Rodrigues, 2006). Teachers in this study do not lack training in or understanding about the use of technology. They have a level of experience with iPads in the classroom which is not commonly reported in research studies. This research project aimed to investigate the application of iPad technology in the classroom as part of hands-on science activities. Other factors at this site contribute to the frequency and type of pedagogical choices that teachers make regarding the use of iPads in the Prep classrooms. At this site the internet capability is adequate and enables the iPads to access Wi- Fi inside and outside of the classroom as needed. There is an on-site technical support person who can assist with technical difficulties and arrange for apps to be installed as required. In addition to the reasons for selecting this site outlined above, there was also an element of convenience sampling in selecting this site and participants. This site enabled easy access for the researcher to the classrooms and teachers due to her role in leadership at the school site. It must be recognised however that the researcher’s insider knowledge of the schools in this regional town indicates that other schools in the area do not have a similar history of iPad use and access to iPad technology in Prep classrooms. Being a regional town, it is relatively isolated in terms of distance from other towns where schools with a similar set of circumstances may exist. This in part explains the pragmatic approach taken when choosing both site and participants. The researcher chose to collect data about the use of iPads from these teachers specifically because they are already competent in using technology in the classroom. Flick (2007) states that the goal of sampling techniques can be to select a sample that demonstrates the most developed case of the issue under study or to select those who are in a position to implement the professional practice that the researcher wants to study. The goal in this study was to investigate how iPads could be used in hands-on science activities, suggesting the selection of a site where students and teachers already had experience in using iPads in the classroom. The teachers in this study have a history of using iPads in the classroom. In addition, they have been observed to use iPads in the classroom for complex tasks such as content creation, uploading to online e-portfolios, digital coding activities and transferring coding instructions via Bluetooth to physical robots. It is

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important to consider the current state of technology use in early childhood classrooms in Australia to understand the importance of the technological skills that these teachers already possess and the importance of these skills to this project. Despite the prevalence of computers in Australian schools (Beale, 2014), technology use is not ubiquitous in classrooms in schools across Australia (Newhouse, 2014) . One important factor which impacts on this state of affairs is physical access to technology. Technology, and particularly mobile devices such as iPads, are obtained at considerable cost either to the school or parents and little support is provided to schools in the form of Government funding to purchase technology (Beale, 2014). In the site of this study, a compulsory BYODD-iPad program has been in place for students in Years 3-6 since 2015 with the option to BYODD-iPad in Prep to Year 2 classrooms introduced in 2017. In addition to these student owned iPads, each classroom in Prep to Year 2 has continual access to a set of iPads which can be supplemented to provide a full class set by borrowing from other classrooms when needed. Blackwell (2015) conducted a longitudinal study of technology use in American classrooms with over one thousand early childhood teachers. It was found that even with increased access to technology, professional learning and perceived levels of support to use technology, the frequency of technology use had not increased over the two years of the study. Additionally, it was found that teachers who did use technology tended to use it as a substitute for traditional tools rather than to supplement and enhance student learning. This suggests that the teachers in the current study are not typical of early childhood teachers in terms of their pedagogical technological competence. Social cognitive theory and particularly the notion of self-efficacy predicts that competency in the use of technology is important to ensure that teachers are likely to adopt technology use in the classroom (Bandura, 1997). Prior to beginning the study, the researcher’s existing insider knowledge of this site allowed her to assert that the participants have demonstrated pedagogical technological competency. This suggested that teachers would be capable of using iPads in conjunction with hands-on science activities about the scientific concept of movement, although this use of technology had not been previously observed by the researcher.

3.2.1 The Researcher’s Role The researcher collected data about iPad use in hands-on science activities about movement from three sources. Data were collected by observing and video-recording classroom activities, gathering teacher planning documents about the use of iPads in hands-on science activities as well as by conducting a group semi-structured interview. The researcher conducted the classroom observations and interviews. Using a range of data collection methods allowed for triangulation of evidence from different data sources (Creswell, 2014).

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3.3 INSTRUMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES During this study data were collected to answer the research questions using observation and video recording in classrooms, collecting teacher planning documents and by conducting semi-structured interviews. Data were collected during Terms Two and Three. This was deemed the most appropriate time for the teacher participants, as children were familiar with the routines and expectations of school, and staff had developed an understanding of the children’s learning needs and behaviours. A change in teaching staff during Term One meant that the researcher judged data collection to be unnecessarily intrusive at that time, and so the decision was made to wait until all teachers had the opportunity to become familiar with their classes. Teacher planning documents were prepared late in Term 2 for implementation early in Term 3 and were collected prior to beginning classroom observations. The teachers felt that some activities in the science unit of work could be delivered prior to Term 3 and that the order of delivery was not important. They suggested dates that would suit their schedule when the researcher would be able to observe their class lessons. The researcher was able to observe in classrooms on a total of five occasions, including some lessons that were delivered over a two-day period.

Observation The researcher observed in the classrooms as a participant observer (Creswell, 2014), watching and recording field notes of the activities in the classrooms. This role enabled the researcher to move around the room or outdoor area to view the lesson experiences from the perspective of the teachers and students using the iPads. Field notes were taken of lesson sequences to record information about context as well as details about events occurring in the classroom or learning space that may not have been captured on video. Semi-structured observations of the activities were made, in which there was flexibility to observe intently for short, intense periods as well as to engage with events in the classroom as needed (Mertler, 2012). These observations were recorded as field notes using the observation protocol in Appendix I. There has been some criticism of the notion of an objective and unobtrusive observation as the researcher inevitably brings their own background to the interpretation of what is being observed (Angrosino & Rosenberg, 2011). A researcher cannot separate oneself from the research; the findings of the research are influenced by the relationship of the researcher to the participants as well as the procedures used (Pelias, 2011). Additionally, according to Angrosino and Rosenberg (2011), it is important to view those being observed not as subjects but as active partners in the research process who have an understanding of the research goals and can contribute to and help the researcher conduct the research plan. Taking field notes of activities that were being video-recorded contributed to a more coherent picture of iPad use in hands-on science activities than would have been possible using video recording or observations alone. Field notes taken during observations enabled the researcher

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to capture the sequence of the lesson and the ways that iPads were being used simultaneously in multiple areas of the learning space.

Video Recordings The components of the lessons where teachers or students with ethical consent used iPads were video recorded for later transcription and coding. Where children or adults without consent moved into the view of the camera the recording was stopped. This allowed for data to be gathered about the ways that iPads were used in hands-on science activities in the Prep classrooms through taking field notes, direct observation and video-recording the activities. The researcher adopted the role of participant observer in the classroom. An advantage of being a participant observer is the ability to learn about the use of iPads in hands-on science activities by experiencing the activities from the viewpoint of the participants (Creswell, 2014). The children in the classrooms were very familiar with the researcher and so at times they would seek assistance or direct comments towards her while she was video recording. The researcher made the decision to assist the children when another adult was not close by to ensure that they were able to continue with their learning and explorations. The consequence of these interruptions meant that some videos were not useful for data analysis as they were too short, or the recording did not capture iPad use during activities due to the camera being switched off. This also meant that during some class observation sessions multiple short sequences of video were taken to capture a lesson rather than one continuous video. To facilitate the recording of iPad use, a Swivl (Swivl, 2017) device connected to an iPad was used to video record the hands-on science activities about movement as they took place in the classrooms and outdoors. In some cases where the action was outside or involved frequent movement around the learning space the iPad and Swivl were difficult to physically hold and manage. In these cases, an iPhone was instead connected to the Swivl and used as a recording device. This helped to avoid instances of dropping the device while filming. Using a smaller device also meant that the researcher’s activities were less conspicuous. The Swivl is a device that tracks a small microphone. It enables constant recording in the direction of the microphone by rotating an iPad or iPhone as the microphone is moved around the room or outdoor area (Swivl, 2017). The Swivl microphone allows for clearer capture of audio and a more responsive way to video record some of the events in a learning space. A Swivl microphone (Swivl, 2017) was taped to one of the iPads being used in the learning activities, this iPad then formed a focus point for the video camera. Both the audio and video were recorded together using the Swivl app and device. There are some authors who criticise the use of video recorders in research studies because of the potential change in behaviour the video camera can cause. However it has been argued that any research situation potentially changes participant behaviour and that the effects of the camera on participant behaviour have been exaggerated (Blikstad-Balas, 2016). More pertinent limitations identified by Blikstad-Balas (2016) are the ways that video recordings are limited in scope and

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perspective and that they can amplify some potentially insignificant perspectives. When considering the scope of the video recordings to be taken it is important to remember that events can be happening outside the view of the camera that both affect and are affected by the actions of the participants. Similarly, a recording of events that is too broad may mean that important details that require a closer view are missed. This is not just a consideration of camera angles and placement but a broader consideration of context which informs the researcher’s choices (Blikstad- Balas, 2016). In addition to the Swivl assisted recordings, screen capture recordings were made of the iPad being used in the science activities. This is where the screen recording feature of the iPad captures all events that occur on the iPad screen as well as the accompanying audio. These screen capture videos were analysed and compared to the audio and visual recording made by the Swivl and associated recording device to build a more complete picture of what was occurring on the iPad screen. To ensure that ethical considerations were adhered to, all recordings were downloaded from the devices at the end of each observation session and removed from the device.

Interviews The researcher conducted two semi-structured interviews (Brinkmann, 2014) with the teacher participants one week after the conclusion of the classroom observations. A list of the semi- structured interview questions is included in Appendix H. Interviews are considered an essential source of information in case studies as they provide a means to gather insights from participants and can corroborate evidence gathered from other sources (Yin, 2014). The use of semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to guide the interview to focus on the aims of the research and in response to the points that the interviewees raised (Brinkmann, 2014). One of the disadvantages of open-ended questions in a qualitative interview is that the interviewee may give responses that they believe the interviewer wants to hear (Creswell, 2014). This was particularly pertinent to consider given that there was an existing power imbalance between the participants and researcher due to her role in the school. It was important to recognise how this power is accessed, constructed and distributed within the roles and relationships of the researcher and the teacher participants. The researcher made it clear to teachers that this project focused on the iPad’s contributions to hands- on activities and was not concerned with student learning or teacher pedagogy. The interactional dialogue practice of member reflections through reassurance and mirroring during the interviews facilitated the process of participant reflexivity (Way, Kanak Zwier, & Tracy, 2015). These strategies were used as it was recognised that the participants were able to offer unique perspectives on how the iPads were used in ways that the researcher could not directly observe. The teachers were able to state how the iPads contributed to the hands-on activities. In this way the perspectives of the teachers enriched and enhanced the data gathered through observation. This assisted each

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member involved in the study to recognise the importance of each person’s role and the value of their contribution (Somekh, 2006). As well as asking questions the researcher used statements to prompt the teachers during the interviews. These statements can be perceived as emanating from another person and may assist in reducing the possibility of the interviewee saying what they think the researcher wants to hear when answering questions (Macintyre, 2000). The use of both statements and questions in the interviews provided a wider range of responses and helped to address the concerns about interviewees described by Creswell (2014). The evidence gathered during the interviews provided additional data for the purposes of triangulation, a process of using several different sources of data, not necessarily three as the word triangulation implies, to establish the trustworthiness or confidence that may be placed in the data collected (Mertler, 2012). The interviews were audio recorded and the researcher took notes during the interviews.

Planning documents Planning documents were collected as a source of information to identify the teachers’ intended use of iPads in hands-on science activities. Creswell (2014) describes the value of collecting documents as part of qualitative research studies. Documents such as these are created by the participants, usually with some care, and are already in a form that is easy to analyse without needing to be transcribed. A potentially negative impact of collecting these documents is that teachers may have felt that their planning was being evaluated in terms of thoroughness and professional standards rather than as a tool to help the researcher understand the answers to the research questions in more detail. It was important to be open and honest with the teachers about the purpose of collecting their planning documents. It was also important to share the research findings with them to ensure they had the opportunity to reflect on the coherence of their intentions and the researcher’s interpretations of their documentation (Tracy, 2010). This was achieved through the assurance strategy in the interview process described above (Way et al., 2015).

3.4 DATA ANALYSIS This project was a qualitative case study, where the case was the use of iPads in hands-on science activities in three Prep classrooms within one school. The data from the semi-structured interviews, teacher planning documents and classroom observations were analysed using thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This approach to data analysis is described by Braun and Clarke as a means of analysing data using an inductive, data-driven approach or a ‘top-down,’ theoretical approach in which the theoretical viewpoint the researcher adopts in the study drives the analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Extending on this description of thematic analysis, Fereday and Muir- Cochrane (2006) describe the use of a hybrid thematic analysis which incorporates both an inductive and deductive approach. In this hybrid approach, coding using a priori codes driven by a

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theoretical framework is combined with inductively naming and analysing important themes emerging from the data (Mintz, 2013; Rubenstein, Ridgley, Callan, Karami, & Ehlinger, 2018). This hybrid approach to thematic analysis was used in this study. Analysing data in this way allowed the researcher to identify, code, analyse and report on patterns or themes in the data using the theoretical framework developed for this study as well as including themes arising inductively from the data. The theoretical framework informing the a priori codes has three key themes. These themes were developed by integrating key psychological processes involved in learning from Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) (Bandura, 1986) and the centrality of the iPad as an artefact that mediates between the learner and the object, taken from Artefact Centric Activity Theory (ACAT) (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). The thematic analysis used these themes: the iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016); the ways that the iPad positions learners (Jewitt, 2006); and the affordance of creative variation (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2013) to answer the research questions: RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion?

3.4.1 Analysis Methods Braun and Clarke (2006) describe the six stages of thematic analysis. The first is data collection, when the researcher begins to look for patterns in the data. Following this a recursive process is undertaken that continues through the stages of coding, identifying, refining and naming themes. The analytic process ends with reporting the analysis in relation to the research questions and literature (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Thematic analysis allows the researcher to consider the different perspectives of research participants and other data and can therefore generate unexpected insights into the data. This approach requires the researcher to use a well-structured approach to analysing data, which is useful when analysing large amounts of qualitative data as was the case in this study. Thematic analysis does not have a large set of rules and procedures that must be followed, and this method can be easily learnt by a novice researcher. In addition to the advantages outlined above, thematic analysis was chosen over other methods as it offered the ability to highlight both similarities and differences across the data set (Braun & Clarke, 2006). This was important as this case study collected data from planning documentation, interviews and observations in different classrooms. This range of sources offered varied perspectives on the use of iPads. Thematic analysis enabled the researcher to determine what the similarities and differences across these data sets were in order to answer the question of what the iPad as a digital medium was able to bring to the hands-on science activities about movement.

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The first of the research questions asks: How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? To begin to answer this question, the data were coded to label categories of use. These categories included the type of app used on the iPad and the positional learning opportunities offered by the iPad. The entire data set was initially reviewed and coded using these codes. Following this initial coding, a second reading of the data was made. This reading focused on the second of the research questions which asks: What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? The following codes were then applied to the data to identify these themes: the ways that the iPad enabled learning spaces; and the level of iPad integration into hands-on activities. The codes used to categorise the intended level of iPad integration into lessons were adapted from the work of Sias, Nadelson, Juth, and Seifert (2017). A list of code names and their descriptions is included in Appendix B. Coding the data in this way developed a detailed insight into the affordances that the iPad could offer during these activities. These codes were then organised into the broader thematic categories identified from SCT (Bandura, 1986) and ACAT (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016), which places the iPad’s affordances at the centre of analysis. These themes were developed by first considering the central processes of learning described by SCT. These were identified in Chapter 2.1.2, along with the relationship of these processes to physical and virtual activities. This initial thematic framework is included in Appendix A and summarises the connections between learning processes, hands-on activities and iPads in hands-on activities. These themes were clarified and further refined based on the centrality of the iPad as an artefact described in ACAT. The virtual manipulative features of an iPad can create new, unexpected possibilities as well as constraining or limiting aspects of tasks (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). Existing research literature on iPad use in classrooms also informed these final three key themes used to describe the affordances of the iPad when used in hands-on science activities about movement. The initial thematic framework was thus refined, and the final version of the themes used to organise the findings can be seen in Table 3.2. The first column shows the link to key processes and factors affecting learning from SCT. The central column shows the key themes used for coding and data analysis in this project, the final column expands on and explains these themes.

Table 3.2 Thematic analysis key themes Theoretical thematic Theoretical thematic analysis iPads in hands-on activities analysis analysis category from category from ACAT (Ladel theme SCT (Bandura, 1986) & Kortenkamp, 2016) Environmental factors The iPad as enabler of Virtual manipulatives using iPads There are many miraculous including features of iPad such as potential influences in transformations apps, materials, space and time to the environment. The transcend physical limitations of the part of the potential classroom. environment that becomes actual environment depends

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Theoretical thematic Theoretical thematic analysis iPads in hands-on activities analysis analysis category from category from ACAT (Ladel theme SCT (Bandura, 1986) & Kortenkamp, 2016) upon the behaviour of people, and these environmental influences in turn affect the way people behave. Vicarious The ways that the iPad iPads position users in different processes/Self- positions learners (Jewitt, roles such as that of an: regulatory processes 2006)  observer who has the (self-directedness) opportunity to experience The capacity of people modelled exemplars of hands- to learn by observing on activities through the others, directly or medium of the iPad through technology,  active investigator through the who model behaviour. design of the manipulative and Behaviour is self- suggested potential for directed, and much is interaction motivated by reactions to one’s own actions. People exercise self- directedness by influencing the external environment as well as their own internal self- regulated functions Symbolic processes The affordance of creative Virtual manipulative features of the Symbols are the variation enabled by the iPad iPad enable the generation of vehicles of thought and (Moyer-Packenham & representations and prompts represent events, Westenskow, 2016) experimentation relationships and cognitive operations. With time and experience, these thought processes become independent of concrete referents, enabling creativity of thoughts and ideas that transcend the bounds of reality.

In addition to these themes derived deductively from the amalgamation of ACAT and SCT an additional code labelled iPad as distractor was applied to the data. This was an emergent theme from the data and thus was developed inductively. This code was used when the iPad was seen to distract users from the hands-on activities. The code of iPad as distractor did not align with the three key themes identified above however its prevalence warranted inclusion in a discussion of the findings of this project. Further discussion of this theme is included in the results and analysis chapters of this study.

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3.5 ETHICS AND LIMITATIONS Ethics This project received ethical approval from the University Human Research Ethics Committee (UHREC) for review of negligible - low risk research involving human participants. The UHREC Reference number is 1700000978. In addition, to conduct research in a Catholic school within the Diocese of Rockhampton the researcher gained permission from Catholic Education Rockhampton using the Application to Conduct Research. An imbalance of power exists in the relationship between the participants and researcher due to the researcher’s role in leadership at this school site. Conducting research in this situation raises ethical issues that need to be addressed in the design of the study. Due to this imbalance in power, teachers may have felt coerced into participating even if they had only been invited to participate. This study focused on the iPad as an artefact in the classroom, not on pedagogy or the impact of iPads on children’s learning. In this way, the design of the study did not depend on the relationships between the participants and researcher. Instead the participants were the operators of the iPad technology in the classroom. Teachers were asked to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the iPad from a pedagogical point of view and were able to add additional insights by describing iPad use that the researcher could not gather first hand by observation. The iPad as an artefact was thus the focus of discussions, as an inanimate object. It was made clear to teacher participants that the way they used iPads as teachers was not being evaluated in this study, but rather the interviews sought to explore what they thought the iPad could and couldn’t offer to classroom science activities. This clear focus on the iPad, and not on the teachers’ pedagogy, was a critical element of the research design intended to address the ethical issues of the power imbalance due to the researcher’s professional responsibilities within the research site. The researcher works in a curriculum leadership role in the school where this study was conducted. The researcher was seen as a knowledgeable insider by the participants and had insider knowledge about the ways that technology and science activities were enacted in the school. Illustrating the complexities of researcher roles, she also remained an outsider to the group of Prep teacher participants, as she did not work in a teaching role in the school and had not previously taught in a Prep classroom. The researcher’s personal and professional interest in technology is long standing. She completed one year of computer programming training in the early 1990s before commencing teacher training. In 2016 she was able to draw on this knowledge to lead teacher professional learning about using iPads to teach basic coding and algorithmic thinking. The researcher’s responsibilities in the school include ensuring that teachers have access to suitable teaching and learning resources by coordinating the purchase and organization of resources through the school library. The Prep teachers operate somewhat independently of the rest of the school in this regard. The Prep teachers manage a Prep resource budget each year. They independently select the

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resources they wish to purchase and use. The researcher has purchased technology resources such as sets of iPads, iPad apps, robotics and other peripheral technology to be shared across the school, including Prep, as part of the school’s aim to develop technologically literate students. It is important to explore the researcher’s position of power due to her leadership role and its potential influence on the participants. The researcher’s professional role includes supporting teachers to understand and meet curriculum, assessment and reporting requirements. The researcher shares information with staff about new apps, websites and ways to use technology in teaching and learning. Following the introduction of the BYODD-iPad program in 2015, the researcher played a significant role in approving the use of apps selected by teachers, as well as overseeing the iPad loan process for families unable to provide their own device. The researcher is recognised as knowledgeable about, and professionally interested in, science and technology by members of the school community. The teacher participants were thus aware that the researcher’s interest was in iPads, and it was made clear to the teachers that the researcher was not assessing their pedagogical practice or student learning. The teacher participants were also accustomed to seeking advice from the researcher about curriculum matters and so it was important to be clear to the teachers that they were in control of how, when and if they were to meet the researcher’s request to observe iPads used in hands-on science activities. As discussed in Chapter 3.2.1, the initial meeting with teachers provided an opportunity to discuss the purpose and possibilities of iPad use for the research project, the science area they were planning to teach and to explore possible apps to use. The teachers planned for and implemented their lessons without further meetings with the researcher. In this way the researcher was careful to avoid any further influence on the teachers’ decisions. As discussed, it is possible that the teacher participants felt obliged to participate in the project and modify their practice due to the more powerful leadership position the researcher held at the site. It was clearly stated to the teachers that they could withdraw consent at any time and that their participation or non-participation would have no impact on the professional relationship between the researcher and teachers. The introduction of the school’s BYODD-iPad program in 2015, and the subsequent range of tools and experiences that teachers began to explore, was a significant catalyst for this research project. The researcher had observed that iPads were being used in an integrated way during Mathematics and English learning activities, however there was little integration of technology in science learning experiences. Pursuing this idea further revealed little information was available for teachers about how to integrate technology into the types of hands-on science activities that are used in primary classrooms, prompting the initial proposal for this research project in 2016. While the researcher holds the view that technology integration is important and valuable in primary school classrooms this is shaped not just by personal interest and professional experience, but by a thorough knowledge of the requirements of the Australian Curriculum. As discussed in Chapter 2.2.1, there is a requirement from Year One onwards to incorporate ICT general capabilities into

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the Science learning area. This attests to the importance the Australian curriculum writers attribute to integrating technology and science from the early years of schooling. To the researcher it seems clear that it could be appropriate to incorporate ICT general capabilities in science from the Prep year onwards. This omission could possibly be attributed to lack of research in this area, as discussed in Chapter 2. However, as the researcher’s personal and professional background suggests, factors other than curriculum requirements shaped the researcher’s interest in and design of the study. Acknowledging this bias towards the value of technology integration, and particularly iPad technology given the researcher’s professional experience, is important. As Ogden (2008) states, subjectivity and bias are present in a study from the moment one topic is chosen over another. To manage this bias, it is important to recognise the researcher’s assumptions and values, in this thesis these have been outlined clearly. When interpreting data, the researcher must be open to alternative interpretations and look for contradictory data (Ogden, 2008). In this study the researcher analysed and discussed all aspects of iPad use including those which contrasted with the researcher’s positive viewpoint of technology use. The researcher was wary of projecting her own views on to the participants or data analysis. The teacher interviews provided data based on the teachers’ own experiences and views. This added important perspectives that in some cases contrasted with the researcher’s own observations about the value of the iPad use. Permission was obtained from the participants, school, students and parents of students in the classrooms. As data were collected from classroom observation, images and recordings of the students at work formed part of the data to be analysed. Participants were informed that they may withdraw from the study at any time. The teacher consent form is included as Appendix D. The researcher informed participants about the purpose of the research, respected the site by disturbing the classroom routines and planned activities as little as possible and guaranteed privacy and confidentiality for the participants (Creswell, 2014). A description of the research project and a list of interview questions was provided to the participants prior to the interviews with the intention of the interviews being perceived as non-invasive (Creswell, 2014). The parent/guardian consent form is included as Appendix E. Children with parental consent were asked if they wished to be involved in the project. Their assent or dissent was recorded on a child-appropriate form, see Appendix F. The researcher showed the children a copy of the Child Information Sheet, see Appendix G, and discussed the details of the project with the group of children. This Child Information Sheet had previously been given to parents/guardians to discuss with their child along with the parent information sheet. The children each completed their own Child Consent Form after this classroom discussion led by the researcher. The responses from children indicated their consent or non-consent, with the majority indicating consent. Children were reminded that they could change their mind about participation at any time during the project when the researcher was filming the learning activities. The researcher recognised that children indicate dissent in other ways such as behavioural means (Dockett, Einarsdóttir, & Perry, 2012)

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and was alert to the possible indicators that children did not want to be video recorded during the hands-on activities. As stated in the ethics documentation, children and their parents were informed that they were free to decide on their child’s participation, and that non-consent would not disadvantage their child in any way. There were a number of families who chose not to return the consent forms, indicating they did not wish their child to participate. No reminders or any other means of coercion were used by the researcher to follow up on these forms. The researcher was careful to check the children’s own consent forms. The researcher noted the children who had been given parental permission to participate but indicated on the child consent form that they did not consent to being involved in the project. The children’s requests to be included or not included in the project were respected by the researcher. All children participated fully in all classroom science activities using iPads that the researcher observed. In this way no child was disadvantaged or advantaged based on their participation in the study.

Limitations The limitations of this study include those that potentially impact on the findings of this study or the researcher’s ability to effectively answer the research questions. The inherent design and purpose of case study research means that there is a focus on particularisation rather than on generalisation (Stake, 1995). The potential lack of generalisation can be viewed as a limitation of the design of this study. Conducting interviews in this site where the researcher is in a position of authority carries potential limitations in data gathering. For example, participants may feel obliged to agree to participate or to continue involvement in the project due to this professional relationship with the researcher. There are also ways that the researcher may potentially influence participant responses such as through the use of conscious or unconscious body language or by comments made during interviews (Creswell, 2014). There are also potential limitations to the authenticity of the findings due to issues around power and the relationships between participants and researcher noted above (Boser, 2006). It was important to use thick description in the final report to enable the reader to interpret the results of the study (Stake, 1995). The small number of participants and the use of purposeful and convenience sampling also has implications for transferability of the findings of this study to other cases (Creswell, 2014). The ethical considerations and potential limitations of this study have been outlined above. Issues of transferability and the importance of using thick description have been identified. It was anticipated that the researcher’s supervisors would act as knowledgeable, external, disinterested auditors of the study to contribute to the confirmability and dependability of the findings. Considerations about credibility have been addressed in the discussion about triangulation.

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Procedures for gaining ethical clearance and the importance of gaining participant permission have also been discussed.

Project timeline Table 3.3 outlines the timeline of this research project with milestones and key dates noted.

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Table 3.3 Project timeline

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3.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY To explore the ways that iPads were used in hands-on science activities and what the iPad as a digital medium brought to these activities, this study adopted a qualitative case study research design. A rationale for this choice of methodology was outlined in Section 3.1 Methodology. This project applied case study design to investigate the use of the iPad as a digital artefact in hands-on science activities. Details about the context of the research project and study participants were presented in Section 3.2 Participants and research site. Following this was a discussion of the multiple data sources used, as is typical of case study research. These data sources were teacher planning documentation, classroom observation and participant interviews. The data collection procedures and time frame of the study were explained. This was followed by an explanation of the thematic data analysis approach used to analyse the data based on the work of Braun and Clarke (2006) and Fereday and Muir-Cochrane (2006). The themes used for coding the data were detailed, as well as the links between these codes and the two theories informing this study, Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and Artefact Centric Activity Theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). This chapter concluded with a discussion of the ethical considerations and limitations of the study followed by a detailed overview of the project timeline.

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4Chapter 4: Results

This qualitative case study was designed to answer two research questions How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? and What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? This chapter will present the results of the observational, documentation and interview data collected from three Prep teachers and their classrooms. Data were collected by the researcher over a ten-week period beginning just before the school holiday period in one term and finishing just before the school holiday period of the following term. The researcher began by collecting a teacher planned unit of work which was used by all three teacher participants. Classroom observations were undertaken on a total of five occasions while taking field notes and video recording iPad use in hands-on activities. At the conclusion of the classroom observation data collection period two interviews were conducted with the teacher participants. Results from the field notes and video recordings of classroom observations, interviews and teacher planning document are presented in this section. The results of the field work are presented under five headings which illustrate the key ways that iPads were used in these Prep classrooms. These five key themes are 4.1 iPad integration into science lessons, 4.2 iPad as recording and replaying device, 4.3 iPad as enabler of virtual manipulatives, 4.4 iPad as enabler of augmented reality apps and 4.5 iPad as distractor. Results in this chapter are supported and substantiated by transcripts of dialogue, events from video observations and interviews as well as from the researcher’s field notes. A reference system used to label each data excerpt is explained in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 Data Reference Labels Data Reference Labels Element One Element Two Element Three Speaker or Actor Data Source Reference point T1 Teacher 1 Vx (Video number), 1 2 or 3 (Class) Row ID T2 Teacher 2 T3 Teacher 3 SC(Screencast), 1 2 or 3 (Class) Row ID S Student P iPad Inx (Interview number) Row ID R Researcher FN (Field Notes), 1 2 or 3 (Class) MM/DD (Date)

PD (Planning Document) Lesson number

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4.1 IPAD INTEGRATION INTO SCIENCE LESSONS In this study the iPad was used as part of hands-on science activities about movement. The teachers planned to use three different commercially available apps as well as the inbuilt iPad camera and photo apps. This planned use was recorded in the planning document provided to the researcher. Teachers chose to use the camera and photo apps as they thought these would be easy for the children to use and master. The teachers chose the three commercially available apps for two reasons. They felt they could readily set up physical activities that matched and complemented the virtual representations of movement symbolised by the chosen iPad apps. The apps were also considered to be appealing to Prep students. The hands-on science activities about movement using iPads occurred at different points within the structure of lessons. The anticipated use of the iPads evident in the teacher planning documents differed from the actual findings from lesson observations and teacher interviews. The iPads were used before, during and after the hands-on activities by both teachers and students during classroom observations. The teacher planning document was coded according to the intended level of iPad integration. The codes used were adapted from the levels of technology implementation evident in lesson plans described by Sias et al. (2017). These authors define technology integration as the level to which students are given the opportunity to actively use technology tools in lessons. In this study, the level of integration is described in terms of what the planning document reveals about the intended level of iPad use in the hands-on science activities. The codes used are shown in Table 4.2.

Table 4.2 Codes for planned use of iPads in hands-on science activities

Integration of iPads Level of implementation of iPads in hands-on science activities described in planning document No iPad integration No evidence of planned use. Minimal iPad integration Lesson plan integrated only a small amount of iPad use that wasn’t related to the hands-on activities. Partial integration of iPad Lessons plan gave iPads a larger role, but it wasn't key to completing the hands-on activity. Large amount of iPad integration iPads were an important part of the lesson and planned use in the hands-on activities was clear. Complete integration of iPad iPads were a vital component of the lesson plan and the implementation of hands-on activities.

Coding the data showed varying levels of iPad use and integration into lessons. The levels of use ranged from no iPad integration to a large amount of iPad integration. No lessons were planned that could be considered to require the complete integration of iPads. The results of coding the planning document are summarized in Table 4.3.

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Table 4.3 Planned use of iPads in hands-on science activities from teacher planning document Integration of iPads Lesson numbers No iPad integration Lessons 3 and 6 Minimal iPad integration Lesson 4 Partial integration of iPad Lessons 1 and 2 Large amount of iPad integration Lesson 5 Complete integration of iPad No lessons

The teacher planning document revealed the intended level of iPad use in hands-on science activities. To illustrate how this intention was recorded in the planning document, excerpts of lessons that included a partial and large amount of iPad integration are shown in Table 4.4.

Table 4.4 Excerpt from teacher planning document including level of iPad integration iPad Lesson Activity integration Exploring Human Movement I can identify multiple ways people can move

Go outside and place 2 markers on the grass. Explain that we will be talking about different ways people can move. Allow students the opportunity to think and share with a partner before sharing with the 1 class. Invite students to demonstrate a movement choice. Partial Experiment by using a gym ball. When we apply a different force how does it change the distance the ball travels?

Technology: Using the app Coconut Star students complete the same experiment on the app and compare how much force is needed to make the ball move. Exploring Movement I can identify multiple ways that objects can move Have a table set up with a tub of different objects that can move (cars, trains, playdough rolling pins, bouncy balls, blocks etc). Students are given the opportunity to explore the way that different objects move.

Rolling or Sliding 5 Have objects set up with ramps (wooden blocks) and get students to test Large whether objects roll or slide down the ramp. Complete roll or slide worksheet (cut and paste objects).

Technology: Use the app “Ramps Journal” to set up a rolling experiment. Students predict which object will go further. They observe the ball rolling on both the iPad and in real life. Students can record this experiment to play back.

Use Osmo in classroom.

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Field notes of observations and video recordings of lessons in classrooms revealed that the iPad was used at different points in the structure of observed lessons, including the introduction, body and conclusion (FN:2:06/19, FN:1:06/18, FN:3:06/18). The iPad was used in conjunction with the Interactive White Board (IWB) in the classroom. iPad features were used in multiple ways in the observed lessons. For each relevant content descriptor of the Australian Curriculum: Physical Science, Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 summarise the stage of the lesson, where the iPad was used, who used the iPad and what features of the iPad were used. These findings are summarised from field notes taken by the researcher while observing in classrooms.

Table 4.5 iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the movement of different living things iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the movement of different living things

Introduction Body Conclusion

Inside Outside Inside Teacher models how to use Children film each other Teacher uses iPad via slow motion function of iPad moving on playground using Bluetooth connection to using iPad connected via slow motion function. laptop and IWB screen to Bluetooth to laptop and IWB Students also used time-lapse play and replay videos screen. Teacher models how function. Children replayed created by students. to replay video using photos videos using photos app and app. Teacher uses same watched their videos multiple connected iPad to show times together or in pairs. children a recording sheet to be completed during their task. Inside Outside Inside Teacher models how to use Children film each other Teacher uses iPad via camera function of iPad using moving on playground using Bluetooth connection to iPad connected via Bluetooth camera. Children replayed laptop and IWB screen to to laptop and IWB screen. videos using photos app and play and replay videos Teacher models how to watched their videos multiple created by students. replay video using photos times together or in pairs. app. Some children rerecorded videos or created multiple videos. No iPad used. Outside Inside Children film each other Teacher uses Airdrop acting out an animal’s function of iPad to wirelessly movement in the playground. copy videos created by They watched and re- children to her own iPad. watched the videos, some Teacher plays children’s show the video to the teacher videos to whole class using while still out in the Bluetooth connection to playground. laptop and IWB screen.

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Table 4.6 iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the way objects move iPad use in lessons: hands-on activities about the way objects move

Introduction Body Conclusion

No iPad used. Inside No iPad Children used the virtual manipulative inherent used. in the Coconut Star app as they solved the problem of how to get the coconut to the target at each level of the app. Inside Inside No iPad Teacher used an iPad, Children used iPads to photograph objects, video used. opened at the Ramps app record experiments of objects rolling down to demonstrate to ramps, and document and compare results of children how to use this experiments. Children used app to watch videos, app. including slow motion videos, they had created. Two children used the iPad as a building block and incorporated it into a structure they built. Inside Inside No iPad Teacher used an iPad, Children used Osmo Newton app on iPad. They used. opened at the Osmo drew lines on a whiteboard which caused the Newton app to balls on the screen to bounce and reflect. demonstrate to children how to use the apps.

iPads were most commonly used in classrooms in the introduction and body of the lessons. Teachers used an iPad to demonstrate to children how to use the iPad as a device to record hands- on activities. They also used iPads at the conclusion of lessons to share the images children had produced with the class (FN:3:06/29). Children used the camera, photos and three different educational apps during and after the hands-on science activities about movement (FN:1:07/17). An advantage of using the iPad as part of hands-on activities is described by one teacher in an excerpt of interview transcript T1T3:I1:39-46:

Speaker Action/Speech (T1T3:I1:39‐46) R So what did you find were the advantages if there were any, to using iPads in hands‐on science activities?

T1 I just think being able to film it and also the apps, that you know, you can use to consolidate their understanding.

R So when you planned to use the iPads, had you planned initially to use them to consolidate? Was that something that you noticed?

T3 I had, yeah

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T1 No, yeah, I hadn't planned to use them and I will use them in future for that unit.

R But you thought, in terms of consolidating rather than introducing,

T1 Yes

T3 Yes

Teacher One identifies the ability to consolidate student understanding as an important use for the iPad, indicating that the iPad apps were useful after children had experienced the hands-on activities. This interview transcript excerpt also demonstrates that the actual use of the iPads in the lessons differed from what teachers had planned for. iPads were used in the introduction and body of the lessons as well as the conclusion or consolidation stage as discussed above. Lesson observations showed that actual iPad use was more prolonged than indicated by the planning documents. The persuasiveness of the iPad kept children persisting with and engaged in the iPad activity, and so influenced the direction and timing of the lessons. The attraction of the iPad determined the progress of the lesson and on some occasions became the mode by which the lesson progressed. In Table 4.7 the field notes reveal that iPad use was more pervasive than the planning document (PD:2) had indicated. The planning document stated that some children were to use the iPad to video record movement in the playground. Instead, the teacher demonstrated how to operate the slo-mo function of the iPad and asked all children to use this feature during the body of the lesson. The intended conclusion of the lesson was to complete a paper-based activity; however, this was replaced by a review of the iPad videos and classroom discussion of these recordings.

Table 4.7 Teacher planning document Lesson 2 and field notes taken during lesson enactment Lesson plan from teacher Excerpt from Field notes (FN:2:06/19) planning document (PD:2) Lesson 2 Teacher asks students to show ways they can move and Moving in the Playground discusses parts of bodies that are used in movement.

I can identify ways to move in Teacher mirrors iPad screen to IWB using Bluetooth the playground capability via Windows laptop. Teacher models how to video in slo-mo while iPad is mirrored on screen, a child Go outside and play on the is chosen to demonstrate two different actions moving playground. As children are from one marker to the other in front of the class while the playing, get them to think teacher records in slo-mo, shown on the IWB. The teacher about how they are then replays the video of the child, discussing the slo-mo moving. What body parts are video. The teacher then displays, on the IWB from her they using? iPad, a worksheet about movement.

Students to demonstrate Teacher sets up the task – children in pairs, one recording different movements. Some their peer demonstrating a movement on the playground students to record movements using the slo-mo camera then swap roles. Children are to on iPads.

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mark on their sheets the body parts they were using in Return to classroom and each video. complete playground worksheet. Children moved in different ways on the playground while their peers recorded them in slo-mo. In the playground, children used the photos app to re- watch the videos they had created in slo-mo. Some children watched these outside in the playground when they had finished recording all of the videos, others watched after each recording before swapping and recording the other member of their pair. Back in the classroom the teacher used iPads to mirror up on the IWB for the class to see the videos created by the children. The teacher discussed with the children the movement and body parts of each child’s video. Students noticed and named body parts moving and added further details as they watched such as, “Her hair is moving”. After packing up the children were observed to act out movement in slow motion as they moved from the carpet area. The worksheet was not referred to again at this point in the lesson.

On other occasions the iPad was used by teachers in a modified version of the planned lesson. In one classroom observation of the Exploring Animal Movement lesson (PD:4) the teacher allocated an iPad to each pair of children. The children were taken outside so that they could take turns to film each other acting out an animal movement using the iPad camera app. The teacher asked the children to keep the type of animal they were enacting a surprise so that when the videos were later shown to the class their peers could guess the animal portrayed in the video (FN:3:06/29). The lesson plan (PD:4) shown in Table 4.8 did not contain this iPad activity, instead the only planned use for technology was to view a YouTube video of animals moving. iPads were not explicitly included in the original lesson plan. This suggests that planned lessons of work were modified due to the potential of the iPad to be used in a wider range of activities than had originally been conceived by the teachers.

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Table 4.8 Teacher planning document Lesson 4 and field notes taken during lesson enactment Lesson plan from teacher Excerpt from Field notes (FN:3:06/29) planning document (PD:4) Lesson 4 9:30am After discussion about the way that animals Exploring Animal Movement move, class watched video on IWB from laptop about animals moving. I can identify different ways animals can move Teacher discussed differences in movement with class, including ways animals move: run, jump, hop, ooze. Watch a YouTube clip about animal movement. Discuss Teacher explains activity to children – they are to work in how animals move. pairs with an iPad and film each other moving like an Complete worksheet about animal. They are to keep their animal and video a surprise to how animals move. show later to class.

Move like an animal: Circle 9:40am Children are in 3 groups. One group works with Game class teacher outside. Children are allocated an iPad for Use animal movement flash each pair. Children take turns to film each other acting out cards. Students identify an animal moving using the camera app. They whisper to animal and then must move each other before filming to keep their animal a surprise. like that animal. 2:00pm Teacher reminded children about the activity they Complete animal sorting did earlier in the day where they filmed each other moving worksheet: cut and paste the like an animal. The teacher had airdropped some videos animals into movement boxes from the iPads used by the children to her own iPad and used Bluetooth capability to mirror the videos from her own iPad through the Windows laptop to the IWB.

She asked the children to watch the video, played from the photo app, and then led a discussion about the way the Re-watch YouTube video. child was moving and what animal it could be. The Discuss which body parts children guessed different animals. The teacher described animals use when they are the movements they could see on the video and the moving. Complete worksheet movements that the animal represented would make. The ‘Moving Animals’ and colour teacher asked questions and encouraged children to the moving body parts. describe the movement they saw on the video. The class

watched several animal movement videos created by the

children including crabs, jumping birds, kangaroo, and a crocodile.

The iPad was therefore used as a prompt to a hands-on activity. In a teacher interview, Teacher Two describes using the iPad to access the videos of animal movement from the internet, referring to the IWB as ‘the screen’:

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Speaker Action/Speech (T2:I2:68‐70)

Yeah, and things where they explored more freely. Yep. And we did like the researching of animals, like when we were looking at animal movements we went on T2 and, they're still too young to be able to like google search on their own and stuff but we did it together up on the screen, like watching the way animals move and then doing it ourselves, so we still bring in that physical...

So when you did that research as a teacher did you use the iPad [yeah, yep] for R YouTube [yeah] and so then you would have shown that on that screen?

T2 Yeah do it on the screen, yep

In this way the iPad enabled videos found by the teacher online to be shown to the class using the Bluetooth connectivity of the iPad to wirelessly connect to the IWB. The teacher’s comment that they searched together suggests that the teacher used the iPad to model how to search the internet for information. In this instance, the iPad was used before the hands-on activities, which involved children physically acting out the movements of animals seen on the iPad.

4.2 IPAD AS RECORDING AND REPLAYING DEVICE The iPad was used in hands-on science activities as a still and video camera, enabling the recording and replaying of physical activities performed by children and objects. The iPad was used in this way both inside the classroom and outside in the playground. The camera and the photos apps, used to replay the videos or photos created, were utilised by the teacher to model ways to record hands-on activities and by students as an integral part of the hands-on activities. The camera and photos app were also integrated into the design and function of some apps such as OSMO and Ramps Journal, discussed further in Chapter 4. In Figure 4.1 a still image from a classroom video observation (V1,2:06/19) is an example of the iPad being used to record a student’s movement in slow motion.

Figure 4.1 Demonstrating how to use slo-mo camera function using iPad mirrored to IWB

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The teacher used the slo-mo feature of the iPad camera, while the iPad was connected via Bluetooth to the IWB screen, to demonstrate to students how to record their hands-on activities. The accompanying teacher talk introduced the term slow motion and demonstrates the camera and photos functions of the iPad (T2,S:V1,2:3-7):

Speaker Action/Speech (T2,S:V1,2:2‐7) T2 Let's see if Ch1 can cartwheel and we'll put that in slow motion. Let's go [teacher presses record on iPad as child demonstrates a cartwheel across carpet. Recording is shown on IWB as teacher has iPad mirrored to IWB screen] Are we ready to watch it?

S Yeah! In slo‐mo

T2 Here it is ‐ are we ready to see it in slow motion? [teacher moves to seat near IWB holding iPad and presses play to play cartwheel video in slow motion from iPad mirrored to IWB] Wow! Whoah. [teacher swipes to previous video on iPad] And we'll watch Ch1's skipping in slow motion too. [teacher swipes to and plays skipping video in slow motion] There she is bouncing off the ground.

In this lesson the slow-motion function of the camera was used inside the classroom as well as outside in the playground. The children were asked to act out different movements on the playground and film each other in slo-mo. The iPads were used by the children in the playground after the teacher had used the iPad inside to model and demonstrate. After the outdoor hands-on activity some selected videos created by the children were later mirrored to the IWB screen for class viewing and to prompt discussion about the movement of people as can be seen in Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2 Video created by students in slo-mo mirrored to IWB for class viewing and discussion.

In other lessons, children used the iPads outside in the playground, where they video recorded each other moving in different ways on the playground equipment as well as acting out animal movements (FN:3:06/18, FN:2:06/19). The way that the iPad screen becomes the camera viewfinder enabled children to watch the screen to view the action being recorded as well as being

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able to see around the iPad while filming to see the real-life action. The iPad enabled children to track their peers as they moved around and speak to them as they filmed. While still outside in the playground students used the photos app to replay, often multiple times, the videos they had recorded of each other using both the video camera and slow-motion camera function on the iPad.

Speaker Action/Speech (P,S:V1,3:63‐66) [Ch22 moves close to her left side, puts hands on the iPad, then lays left arm flat under iPad as Ch23 holds it in both hands at chest height] [They watch Ch22's video together, Ch23 turns her head to look at where other children are. Ch22 has her right arm across Ch23's back and is holding her right arm. They have their backs to the other children who are still filming each other]

Ch22 Now your video. [Ch22 steps away slightly and points at the screen. Ch23 swipes the screen to change to the first video. Ch22 then swipes the screen with her right first finger as the video comes into view and Ch23 presses the play button] Your video.

[Both Ch22 and Ch23 hold the iPad, standing as before, with Ch22 reaching her right arm behind Ch23's back and holding her right shoulder, watching the video]

The camera and photos app enabled children to re-record based on suggested changes to the physical action being carried out by their peers:

Speaker Action/Speech (S:V3,3:42‐45) Ch21 Do some more movement, do some more movement, do some more movement, do some different ones. [continues to film ch24]

Ch21 [Presses red button to stop recording] Ready. Do you want to have a look at it? It went for 30, 10 minutes, 30, 100 minutes. [Ch24 jumps down from playground to watch iPad]

Ch21 Do you want to see it?

[Ch21 holds iPad to show Ch24, presses play on video. They watch it together. Ch21 points to the screen during parts of video.]

During the interviews the teacher participants described the ways that the iPad recordings created by children during hands-on activities enabled students and teachers to view the activities, both immediately and at a later time. They ascribed one of the benefits of the iPad to being able to watch and listen to recordings of children’s actions.

Speaker Action/Speech (T1,R,T3:In1:2 9) T1 We used them to film the kids, so for filming purposes that was useful.

R So for yourself?

T1 Yeah, and the for the kids ‘cause they could, if they wanted to watch it, and we could have a discussion about it. T3 I used it just for them to observe different movements and replayed it back.

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For one teacher this was useful in informing the planning of future lessons and affording insight into children’s understanding:

Speaker Action/Speech (T2:In2: 18, 52, 56, 62) Well I think the playback and being able to re‐watch things that we did even like at the T2 beginning of other lessons we'd go back and look at when we went on the playground or you know we could always refer back to previous lessons. T2 So we watched I think a few all together, but then I went back later and listened to them all, ‘cause you always get some good little conversations happening!

T2 Yeah, and then in following lessons I would like, cause when I watched them on my own I picked up a few things that I was like oh I want to show them this and talk about this and we'd watch it in the, at the beginning of a different lesson.

T2 In the hands‐on you can't go over and hear every single conversation that's happening all the time whereas the iPads, you know I was able to hear things that I wasn't near but I could pick up on little things that they'd said.

The photos app, used in conjunction with the iPad camera in these lessons, was used in multiple ways during the hands-on science activities. Both inside and outside the classroom the photos app was used to replay videos, including slow-motion videos recorded by both teachers and students before and after the hands-on activities. The camera and photos apps were also an integral part of the Ramps Journal (First 8 Studios, 2016) and Osmo Newton (Tangible Play Inc, 2014) apps used in the classrooms. The use of these augmented reality apps is discussed in Chapter 4.4.

4.3 IPAD AS ENABLER OF VIRTUAL MANIPULATIVES The iPad was a medium through which the concept of movement, in particular basic representations of force and motion, could be explored using virtual manipulatives. In one classroom the virtual manipulative Coconut Star app (Coconut Star) was used after a hands-on activity about force.

4.3.1 Coconut Star App In one classroom observation Coconut Star was planned to be used as a consolidation activity (PD:1). In the introductory hands-on part of the lesson, the children kicked and rolled a large ball with hard and soft kicks and practiced aiming to land the ball on a target. Following this activity, the children used Coconut Star as described in the section below (FN:1:06/18). The teacher had planned for the app to be used after the hands-on activity and before recording their thinking in a paper-based activity as can be seen in the teacher planning document Table 4.9.

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Table 4.9 Teacher planning document - excerpt Week Activity Resources Exploring Human Movement Markers for I can identify multiple ways people can move movement outside Go outside and place 2 markers on the grass. Explain that we will be talking about different ways people can move. Allow students the Worksheet opportunity to think and share with a partner before sharing with the to record class. Invite students to demonstrate a movement choice (run, walk, movement 1 skip, hop etc). Experiment by using a gym ball. When we apply different force how does it change the distance the ball travels?

Technology: Using the app Coconut Star students complete the same experiment on the app and compare how much force is needed to make the ball move.

Following the movement activity outside, the Coconut Star app was opened on two iPads inside the classroom. The class was divided into two large groups with an adult and iPad at each group. After approximately six minutes of use, the teacher introduced three more iPads to the room to enable the students to access the Coconut Star app in smaller groups and pairs. The children were then free to form their own small groups or pairs based around an iPad and in these groups continued to interact with the app. They took turns to experiment with and successfully complete the required adjustments of elements on the screen. Coconut Star was used in this way for at least 30 minutes, with children taking turns and watching each other manipulate the app. The proximity of lunchtime meant that the teacher stopped the activity, at that time the children were still engaged in using the app. There was insufficient time for the paper-based activity planned for the conclusion of the lesson to be completed due to the time spent on the virtual manipulative. One of the iPads in the room screen capture recorded Coconut Star in use for later observation by the researcher. On this iPad the children successfully completed all sixteen levels of the app and then opened the initial level again to continue playing (SC:1:274). An excerpt of the field notes (FN:1:06/18) presented in Table 4.10 reveals details about how this app was used after hands-on activities by groups of children in the classroom.

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Table 4.10 Excerpt from field notes: Coconut Star app in use Date: 18/06/2018 (FN:1:06/18) Time: 10am – 10.45am Focus Physical Science concept (Australian Curriculum): The way objects move depends on a variety of factors, including their size and shape

Movement represented on iPad. What App/features are being used?

Children took turns to change the ramp height or kick strength to move the coconut. Some of the levels required changes to more than one ramp or kick.

Children were observed to repeat the trials multiple times, even when they had just observed the child next to them use the same conditions unsuccessfully. The app showed a ‘ghosted’ coconut indicating where a previously unsuccessful attempt using that particular ramp or kick strength had landed, the children did not appear to make use of this information. The children were able to choose to ignore or heed this hint, or they didn’t notice this feature. The iPad app did not prevent them from making the same error multiple times.

As the app progressed through the levels, children were required to successfully manipulate multiple features such as two or three ramp heights or kick strengths. Each child was permitted to make one or two attempts at solving a level. Therefore, children were able to build on or modify their peers’ attempts. Some children watched others quietly, some tried to make suggestions to the child using the iPad by pointing to the option they thought should be selected or by verbalising their thoughts. The child with the iPad sometimes brushed their peers’ hands away, physically moved the iPad out of reach or expressed to the other child that they would not follow their advice by saying things like ‘no’. At other times they implemented the suggestion of their peer.

The nature of the App meant that children could build on other children’s ideas and attempts or change the variables in the trial according to their own ideas. The small size of the screen, fitting easily into a child’s lap, with no wires needed, meant that several other children could observe the child’s attempts. They could choose to learn from the mistakes of others, although they did not always exercise this choice.

Coconut Star contains sixteen manipulative levels of increasing complexity. In addition to these levels, an explore function is available. This function was not observed in use during this study. A menu option enabled the selection on any of these sixteen levels to be played independently, although in the observed classroom the successful completion of a level was used to progress the app rather than the menu option. The levels in the app consisted of one, two or three interconnected platforms, each of which required an adjustment to a ramp or boot. The aim was to

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get the coconut to stop at a target spot or gate. In some levels there were both boots and ramps to be adjusted. Additionally, at times the app presented a stack of blocks to be knocked down by the coconut before reaching the target spot. The virtual manipulative features of Coconut Star prompted the user to adjust the height of a ramp or boot to change the force at which the coconut is set in motion. Instructional demonstrations by the app enabled observation of modelled examples of how the coconut rolled in response to changes made to variables. The users could virtually alter the force applied to the coconut by means of up to three predetermined starting ramp heights or kick strengths. In some levels of the app the platform surfaces on which the coconut rolled varied. The surfaces were grass, dirt and metal. Nico, the animated character guiding the user, made an audio comment to the user about the surfaces when a level contained platforms with differing surfaces. In the initial levels, the target spot was moved closer to or further away from the ramp after a successful attempt. This was accompanied by a comment from Nico to change the ramp or boot height. In this way the app instructed the user on how to change the distance travelled by the coconut. When an attempt was made that landed short of the target, or past the target in some levels, a faint image of the coconut, referred to as a ‘ghosted’ coconut, was shown on the screen. This was subsequently shown when that same ramp or boot was selected again on that level. The app thus suggested to the user that the variable selected would not successfully allow the coconut to reach the target. The app provided other visual and verbal prompts to direct attention to various elements of the app such as celebration sparkles, animations and voice over comments. Verbal feedback was provided after both successful and unsuccessful attempts. The language used included specific phrases about force, ramps, kicks and suggestions to the user. After multiple unsuccessful attempts on a level the audio feedback suggested specific changes that the user should make such as “We need to lower the ramp so the coconut will stop sooner” (SC:1:161). However, it was not made clear which of the three ramps on the screen needed to be altered. The most common feedback phrases used in Coconut Star are listed in Table 4.11.

Table 4.11 Audio prompts used in Coconut Star app Coconut Star Audio Prompts Prompts at start of level Successful attempt feedback Unsuccessful attempt feedback A big kick has more force the ramps were just right not far enough than a small one the lowest ramp did the job too far A steep ramp rolls the here coconut further than a try something different gentle one great job, we needed a big force that ramp is too steep

That kick needed more force

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Grass has a bumpier A small force was just right for texture. How far will the this one coconut go?

Let's see the coconut move on different textures. What will happen on dirt and on grass?

The coconut needs more force to crash through the blocks and still reach the star

Specific examples of the ways that the iPad was used with the Coconut Star app will be discussed in the next section. In these transcripts [dings] indicates a coconut falling through a gate, [splash] indicates a coconut falling into the water, [chimes] indicates a successfully completed level and “select” has been abbreviated to (s.). The iPad screen size and multi-viewing angle meant that more than one child could view the app action on the screen. In the Coconut Star app, the user could take as much time as desired and make multiple choices and changes to selections before choosing the start button. In some instances, this unlimited time and ability to make multiple changes to variables meant that the iPad enabled more than one child to touch the screen and suggest changes. In most cases the child holding the iPad ultimately controlled the final selection before pressing play. Although the iPad enabled the virtual manipulative to operate in, and be viewed as, a shared space, ultimately only one user controlled the action of the manipulative. The ways that the iPad enabled a shared space for viewing and using the virtual manipulative can be seen in the details of a sequence of the app in use by a small group of children (S,P:V5,1:235-262):

Speaker Action/Speech (S,P:V5,1:235‐262) Ch13 [a child kneels beside a group of 4 children] [Ch15 makes two different selections of middle level ramp height then presses play] Try a little one.

Ch13 Try a little one, a little one is (?) Yep! It's gonna fall down, see?

iPad [Ch15 passes iPad to Ch13] We need to lower the ramp so the coconut will stop sooner. Ch13 s. ramp heights on middle and bottom levels] [Ch15 offers a suggestion, pointing at screen.] [Ch13 presses play] [Four other children are leaning over, watching screen] [chimes] [Ch13 passes iPad to Ch19]

iPad Great job, the ramps were just right.

iPad [Ch19 presses arrow to move to next activity] Boots, blocks, ramps and different textures, this has everything. [Ch19 s. boot height on top level, Ch13 points to top level and then play button.] Go ahead roll that...[Ch19 s. play, interrupting iPad speech.]

iPad oops, too far [Ch19 s. ramp height on middle level]

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Ch13 that lower, yeah [pointing to middle level]

Ch11 choose that one, choose that one [Ch11 points at ramp on middle level, Ch19 brushes her hand away] [Ch19 presses play]

iPad oops, not far enough [Ch19 changes ramp height on bottom level, Ch13 points to the same ramp, Ch19 brushes his hand away] [Ch19 presses play]

iPad [chimes] Hooray [Ch19 s. arrow to move to next activity. Passes the iPad to Ch10]

iPad Are you ready to roll? Get the coconut to the star.

iPad Yes, how will you get the coconut to this star? [Ch10 passes iPad to Ch18] [Ch18 s. ramp height on bottom of screen, then presses play] iPad [child comments on ramp height] oops, not far enough

Child That's too low [Ch18 changes ramp height on bottom level. Ch10 points at boot on top level]

Child Choose a littler kick. [Ch18 presses play]

iPad That kick needed more force. Try something different. [Ch10 leans over and changes boot height on top level, Ch18 reaches for play button, then Ch10 presses play, Ch18 nods]

iPad [splash] Oops, too far [Children tell Ch18 to pass the iPad on. Ch18 holds the iPad away from the other children by twisting away]

Coconut Star enabled the user to make the same, incorrect variable selections multiple times, again only providing the audio and visual prompts discussed above. The teacher participants described this as a distracting feature of the iPad as part of hands-on activities. Teachers commented that some children just wanted to press the buttons rather than engage in the science concept present in the virtual manipulative:

Speaker Action/Speech (T1,T3:In1:20‐25) T1 Yeah, but I think for some of my kids Coconut Star they just kept doing the same thing over and over again because they couldn't work out how to get to the next stage and they couldn't work out that they had to change different parts on the levels that the coconut was rolling and they often just kept pressing the button over and over again.

R I did see that

T1 And they couldn't seem to demonstrate their understanding ‘cause they just wanted to press buttons.

R And did you find something similar?

T3 Yeah, with some.

T1 Not all of them, but some of them.

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The excerpt of a transcribed screencast of the app in use below appears to validate this observation. The prompts, both visual and auditory, provided by the iPad do not appear to be heeded by the children using the app. The corresponding classroom observation video reveals that this sequence of boot and ramp height selection on the iPad was the result of five different children successively using the iPad. Although the iPad provided auditory and visual prompts and suggestions, successive children using the app continued making incorrect selections. They replicated the errors their peers had made even after watching and making suggestions as each child used the app. This excerpt is taken from the screencast video P:SC1:126-167 and represents four minutes of app use from the beginning of a new level until it is successfully navigated. Some lines representing sounds made by the app have been omitted.

Line Action and Audio/visual prompts by the iPad (P:SC1:126‐167) 126 Get the coconut to the star. There's so much smooth metal. [s. middle ramp on top level]

130 [splash] oops too far [s. top ramp on top level] [play]

132 oops, too far.

133 [s. bottom ramp on top level] [play]

134 Our ramp wasn't steep enough. [A 'ghosted' image of the coconut showing where it stopped appears on the screen] Try something different. [s. top ramp on top level] [play]

135 Oh, oh! Too far. [s. middle ramp on top level] [play]

137 [splash] Whoah! [s. bottom ramp on middle level] that ramp was too steep. Try something different.

138 [s. bottom ramp on top level. 'Ghosted' image of coconut appears on the screen] [play]

139 Oops, not far enough. [s. middle ramp on top level] [play]

142 oops too far!

144 Whoah! That ramp [s. top ramp on middle level] is too steep. Try something different.

145 [s. bottom ramp on bottom level] [s. bottom ramp on top level] ['Ghosted' image of the coconut appears on the screen] [s. bottom ramp on middle level]

148 oops, not far enough. [s. middle ramp on top level] [s. top ramp on middle level] [s. top ramp on bottom level] [play]

152 [splash] oops, too far.

155 [splash] Whoah! That ramp is too steep. Try something different.

156 [s. bottom ramp on bottom level] [play]

158 [splash] Oh, oh, too far.

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159 [s. bottom ramp on middle level] [s. top ramp on middle level] [play]

161 [splash] We need to lower the ramp so the coconut will stop sooner. [s. low ramp on middle level] [s. top ramp on bottom level] [s. bottom ramp on bottom level] [play] [dings]

A screenshot of the “ghosted” coconut visual prompt described in the excerpt is shown in Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3 Screenshot of Coconut Star app showing “ghosted” coconut

The researcher observed the virtual manipulative app Coconut Star as it was used in one classroom during this study. The data revealed that the app was used in a more prolonged way than had been planned for. In Classroom One multiple small groups of children used the app as an engaging consolidation activity after a hands-on learning experience. Despite this engagement, it seemed that the app was also used less constructively, in a way that was described by one teacher as just pressing buttons. This was due to the tendency of some users to make multiple incorrect selections despite the auditory and visual feedback provided by the app and watching their peers’ unsuccessful attempts.

4.4 IPAD AS ENABLER OF AUGMENTED REALITY APPS Two augmented reality apps were observed in use in one Prep classroom, the Ramps Journal app (Ramps) and the Osmo Newton app (Osmo). In addition to the classroom observation, teacher interviews provided additional insights into how these apps were used in other classrooms.

4.4.1 Ramps Journal App The augmented reality Nico & Nor Ramps Journal app (Ramps) (First 8 Studios, 2016) was observed in one classroom where it was one of three simultaneous activities being undertaken about the concept of movement. Through Ramps, the iPad was used as a digital tool which directed

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the physical actions of children in a hands-on science activity. Ramps was used in this way to direct, record and display the results of the children’s interactions with the physical equipment of a ball and small wooden blocks. Ramps was designed to be used in conjunction with physical balls, toys and ramps to record, document and compare results of experiments. In the classroom observation, where children were using the Ramps app for the first time, the teacher introduced the Ramps app and demonstrated to the whole class the various features and stages that the user would progress through. Later in the morning, three stations were set up by the teacher to use with the Ramps app, each with two ramps of different heights, a ball and an iPad. Two children were allocated to each Ramps app station. The remaining children in the class were using either the Osmo Newton and iPads, described in 4.4.2 Osmo Newton iPad App, or experimenting with physical materials such as ramps, toys and balls. The field notes excerpt in Table 4.12 details the way that the iPad was incorporated into the classroom hands-on science activities. The Ramps Journal app was one of three activity stations set up in Classroom One, where the science focus was on the way things move. The field notes document the researcher’s notes on how iPads were used as well as how the concept of movement was represented digitally and through physical materials in these activities.

Table 4.12 Excerpt from field notes: Ramps Journal use in Classroom One Date: 17th July 2018 (FN:1:07/17) Time: 10am Focus science concept (Australian Curriculum): The way objects move depends on a variety of factors, including their size and shape. Overview of lesson Teacher and children discussed the activities set up in the room. There were three different stations. The largest area contained blocks, ramps, toy vehicles and balls of different sizes where children were directed to explore rolling, sliding and bouncing movement. The Osmo station consisted of marker pens, whiteboards and iPads. The three Ramps Journal activity stations consisted of iPads, small wooden ramps and tennis balls.

Earlier in the morning the teacher had explained how to use the iPads in each activity. Today was the first day children had used the Ramps Journal app and Osmo Newton app. Pairs of children took turns to use the iPad stations. Movement represented on iPad. Movement represented on both iPad and physical materials.

The Ramps Journal iPad app directed the The iPad was used to record experiments of children to predict the movement of a ball balls rolling down ramps of different by dragging the digital image of the ball heights and then to re-watch the videos (photographed by the child with the iPad) to created. represent the distance it was predicted to travel on a steep or gentle ramp. The app directed the children to photograph the ball they were using and then drag that Digitally the iPad app represented, by image to predict and record the distance the means of a dragged digital image of the ball travelled. ball, the relative distance each ball travelled. The small screen of the iPad Children were able to photograph the balls required children to understand how to and move the image of the ball on the

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scale the length that each ball had travelled, screen to predict and record the balls’ in order to show that one travelled further movement multiple times. than another. There wasn’t a direct iPads were also used to record ‘slow it relationship between the balls moving down videos’ of the ball rolling down a several metres on the ground and the short ramp. These videos could then be replayed. distance that the image of the ball could be In one instance when watching the ‘slow it dragged on the screen. down video’ on the iPad the child moved the iPad as if they were following the Although Ramps Journal gave verbal movement of the actual ball to record it instructions to the user about how to use the rather than watching a video that they had app, these were often not listened to or not just created. understood.

The Ramps app directed children through a series of steps, each using a different function of the iPad. On the initial menu screen the options were Slow it Down Videos, Results, Steep and Gentle Ramps Experiment and Smooth and Rough Ramps Experiment. When children selected the Slow it Down Videos the voice over prompted them to tap the video button to record experiments in slow motion. These videos were then displayed at the bottom of the screen and could be opened for later viewing or deleting. When the Ramps Experiment menu option had been selected the top of the screen showed a navigation menu containing five tabs: Set up Experiment, Predict, Observe, Document, and Compare Results. In this way the iPad app provided a model of how to carry out a sequential scientific experiment that the children engaged with in order to complete the investigation. Although Ramps was prescriptive in terms of the steps that needed to be carried out to use the Experiment menu option in the app, the portability of the iPad meant that it was continually moved around the room to take the required photographs and videos. To begin, the animated character Nor prompted children to photograph an object. The students used this function to photograph the tennis ball at their station, as can be seen in Figure 4.4.

Figure 4.4 Photographing a tennis ball using the Ramps Journal app

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The app opened to a new screen and Nor asked, “Which ramp makes the object go further?” In this Predict stage of the app children were asked to predict which ramp would make the object go farther. As in the Set-Up Experiment stage, the question was supported by the same image of the two ramps. The photograph created by the children appeared in a round ball-shaped frame at the top of each ramp. In this way the app augmented reality, by bringing the photograph of the real object onto the app screen as a manipulable image. Additional information was added to the screen in the form of three vertical lines. The lines were equidistant from each other, with the first being placed at the edge of the ramp. The children were asked to predict by selecting one of two arrows labelled with the words, “This One”. The children were able to change their prediction as many times as desired before selecting the Next button. The Observe screen displayed the same image as the Predict screen, with the addition of the word Prediction and a small star next to the ramp chosen by the user. Nor asked the children to select the video icon, opening the camera function within Ramps to video record the objects rolling down the ramps. One video was created. It was intended that two of the same objects be used on both ramps and released at the same time so that the action could be video recorded, although this is not explicitly stated, and the app was not observed to be used in this way. The iPad required the user to follow this sequence of steps in order and so directed attention between itself and the hands-on materials as can be seen in Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5 iPad directing user to film experiment using hands-on materials

Once the record button was pressed a new screen opened and the app counted down before the camera was operable by verbalising and flashing the words Ready, Set, Go! The children were observed to re-record the video multiple times in this part of the app. The Document screen, then asked the children to document how far each ball went. The Document screen retained the same images of ramps and child-created photo-in-ball as used previously. On this screen Nor demonstrated how to move the image of the ball by dragging it across the screen to document the distance each ball had travelled. The children appeared to drag the balls in the same way modelled

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by Nor by moving the ball to the edge of the screen and then back to rest somewhere in the middle of the screen. In this way the purpose of this stage of the app was not translated into an action that showed an understanding of the concept of movement by the children. On the Compare Results screen celebration sparkles appeared above the ramp that had made the object go further. This was determined according to the children’s placement of the photographed object. An arrow labelled Farther! pointed to the corresponding ramp. A voice over exclaimed ‘We did it, look at our results!’ The children then selected the All Activities menu in the top left-hand corner to repeat the experiment multiple times during this classroom observation. Despite multiple repetitions the focus appeared to be on using the video record function of the app, as the other investigative stages were moved through quickly. Results of the interviews indicated that the teachers’ views about the ways that the Ramps app contributed to learning activities in the classroom were not consistent. The Ramps app was seen by one teacher to direct children’s attention towards the hands-on materials and prompt further experimentation with physical objects:

Speaker Action/Speech (T2:In2:25‐26) R So do you think there were any ways where the iPad directed the students’ attention towards the hands‐on materials?

T2 The, is it ramps journal, the ramps journal, we would do it physically as well as the iPad, so that one definitely direct, and then even just at that play table that we set up then they are just hands‐on there and they have the option to record it and play it back if they want but I find most of the kids just put things on there and see if they roll and that was all from playing with the ramps journal.

This teacher also expressed the belief that hands-on activities were an essential part of learning activities in Prep science lessons, and that the iPads would not be sufficient as a learning tool without these physical experiences.

Speaker Action/Speech (T2:In2:57‐60)

Excellent, ok so I'm interested in your thoughts about this statement some research has suggested that science concepts can be learnt through virtual learning activities such as R activities just on an iPad rather than hands‐on activities. What are your thoughts about that?

I think just with the early years they get so much out of that hands‐on that I can't see them benefiting as greatly without that hands‐on. You know they're still exploring and T2 even like gravity they don't understand, I don't think an iPad would give them that yeah that knowledge or even just being able to explore and investigate like the iPads were great, but it still doesn't give them that hands‐on

R It's not the same?

T2 Yeah, it's not the same at all, and even just being able to supplement and change the

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activity just a little bit by like, you know putting different things to roll and stuff like that, whereas with the iPad it was just generally a ball and that's the activity but you can't really change it as much. Even like the kids if you listen to them, they change the way activities are done, whereas with the iPad there's generally like they can explore but there's a set of rules and this is the way that you do it, it's not as open as a hands‐on activity would be, and even the you know discussions between the children wouldn't happen as much if it was just iPad orientated.

In contrast, two of the teachers considered the iPad and Ramps app to be a distractor when it was used as part of hands-on activities and expressed the view that the physical materials provided more valuable classroom learning activities:

Speaker Action/Speech(T1,R,T3:In1:55, 58, 60‐64)

… So when I was reading around this topic, I came across some, you know, debate that about hands‐on activities and virtual manipulatives so the coconut star would be an example of a virtual manipulative that they can see how far it rolls. And some R studies found that kids can learn science concepts from those virtual learning activities rather than hands‐on activities. So what do you think of, what are your thoughts when I say that some people found that, what do you think?

... I kind of disagree because with most young children who have little exposure to technology prior to school they're more interested in a bright screen and the ability to touch and press buttons rather than learn [yep] yep, just for those particularly T1 kids who aren't used to using iPads. I said conversations that the students had while using the hands‐on material were far more valuable for gauging their understanding rather than the conversations that occurred whilst using the iPads.

T3 I don't think they could be, yeah, be used in isolation without hands‐on

T1 No

Cause kids that had the blocks and had set up ramps they were talking about oh let's build it up like this, let's you know try this whereas the kids with the iPads they were T1 just kind of arguing about what button to press and no, give it to me, I want to have a turn and you know it just distracts from it I think

Ok, so what, what work or what things did the students produce on the iPads when R they were using them in the hands‐on activities?

I've got to be honest, I really used it for filming and the Coconut Star, and then the Ramps one didn't really work so I didn't have it, yeah, I just didn't have a proper T3 understanding of it myself, before I started it and then I didn't have the other activity set up…

One of the limitations of the data gathered in this study is that the Ramps app was observed in use in one classroom only. The teacher interviews provided additional information on how this app was used in classrooms and what it was able to bring to hands-on activities. The data gathered about the Ramps app resulted in inconsistent findings about how this particular app was used as part of hands-on activities.

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4.4.2 Osmo Newton iPad App The iPad was used with the augmented reality Osmo Newton app (Osmo). The children in the classroom observed used Osmo set up on two iPads as an activity station. As discussed, there were other stations available in the room at the same time. In one 20-minute observation period three different pairs of children used Osmo. Data about the use of this app were gathered from one classroom observation as well as from teacher interviews. This was an example of iPad use where the boundary between physical and virtual hands-on activities became indistinct and the two forms of activity operated collectively. To enable Osmo to operate, a small mirror accessory is attached to the iPad, positioned over the camera. Osmo uses Reflective Artificial Intelligence Technology (RAIT) (Osmo, 2014). This captures the movement of the objects placed on a white board below the iPad and in front of the camera. RAIT represents and interacts with these objects and movement in real time on the iPad screen. In Osmo a continuous series of small balls, about 3mm in diameter, ‘fall’ down the iPad screen. When enough of the balls have been deflected to hit the on-screen targets the level is successfully completed, and the app moves the user to the next level. The trajectories of the balls are affected by objects, or drawings created by the user, placed on the board. The balls respond to drawn images or physical objects by altering their falling motion. They bounce, pile up or roll along lines or objects. As the user draws lines or places objects on the whiteboard, the drawing or object then becomes part of the virtual display on the iPad screen. Osmo has 60 levels of play. Each level gets progressively more difficult as other elements are added such as fans and platforms that move and change the motion of the balls. Osmo does not provide much modelling, feedback or suggestion to the user. On the first level of play a flashing arrow gives a visual prompt demonstrating to the user where a line should be drawn. This iPad app was not observed to provide other prompts. The iPad, through the Osmo app, represented a virtual digital domain which children could modify by physically drawing on a board with felt pen. The iPads were used to explore a virtual representation of the way that balls may bounce and roll when they ‘touch’ other objects while in motion. The children drew lines and shapes of different sizes on the physical whiteboard on the table in front of them, and their drawings were immediately represented on the iPad screen. These drawings deflected the balls from their original path and slowed or stopped their movement. The drawings could be continually rubbed off the whiteboard and then recreated. Each change on the board affected the movement of balls on the iPad, even the action of a hand rubbing a drawing off the whiteboard with a cloth affected the movement of the balls, as some of the children noticed. There were no time limits set on completing each level, the user was able to continue to experiment for an unlimited time until they were successful or discontinued play. Two different views of Osmo being used are shown below. Figure 4.6 shows the child’s drawing on the board and its representation on the iPad screen. The yellow falling balls have

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collected in the middle loop and the child is erasing part of the drawing. In Figure 4.7 the change in motion of a ball can be seen. The ball deflects off the child’s hand as he draws on the whiteboard.

Figure 4.6 Osmo app showing balls collected in loop created by drawing on board

Figure 4.7 Osmo app showing user drawing on whiteboard and small balls bouncing off hand

On two occasions the children were observed to draw on the iPad in what appeared to be an accidental and automatic confused reaction to seeing their real-life drawings created on a horizontal surface appear on a vertical screen. One of the teachers discussed the use of Osmo in the classroom during the interview. Her comments give further insight into how the iPad Osmo app was used in a classroom and the teacher’s perspective on what it contributed to hands-on science lessons about movement.

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Speaker Action/Speech (T2:In2:11‐16; 82‐84, 90‐91)

Do you think they spent time repeating the activities like the hands‐on or the iPad R activities in different ways with the iPads in their hands? I'm thinking particularly did having an iPad there make them go back to the activity?

Yeah I would definitely say that even just putting it out at play time having the Osmo there, and even during rotations, like I always pick a topic of what they can do on the T2 iPad so one time it might be literacy activities or we did a science one, so they could pick any of the science activities to play and the coconut star was really popular.

R Did you notice a change in the way they used that over time, the coconut star?

I would say they just became more confident in using, even the Newton App, like watching them at first that level one was really difficult whereas I look at them now and T2 they're on level 27 and they're putting lines everywhere

R oh wow yeah, ‘cause you know the first few times they couldn't get that perspective of writing on the whiteboard to, whereas now they're really good at it. You don't see, and even T2 the kids who would generally struggle in most areas like would excel in these activities. Like [student name] who just struggles with everything he just loves it and always asks for it.

Even with the Apps like I guess it took a lot of time to explain how to use them and even like the kids who didn't, weren't drawn to Osmo to play it all the time you know in their spare time and stuff you still found at the end that they weren't as competent as you T2 know going up in high levels and exploring more difficult changes of motion because they were still in that stage of working out how to use [yep] the App, whereas the ones that loved it, they got really good at it, they got to play it in free play time

yeah, they chose, the ones that chose got [yeah] high levels. cause when I saw them R using it in [teacher name] room it was the first time they'd used it [oh yep] and I think the highest one child got to was 4 Yeah well it took a long time to, like there was only probably 3 or 4 that were up in level T2 twenties and they were the kids that all the time would ask me what about Osmo, are we having Osmo today? [laughs]

I think it was really good ‘cause it gave like I hadn't worked with those Apps before but I think it gave me more to talk about and probably made the unit we explored a lot more, things that I wouldn't have done if it was just following on a hands‐on kind of T2 unit. Like even the changes in motion I probably wouldn't have gone deep into it explaining that if it was, if we didn't have that Osmo to talk about, if something bounces there it can't keep going in the same direction, things that I probably wouldn't have spoken about if

R They've prompted you

Yeah, ‘cause I think last year when I did it you know just more concentrated on like this T2 is a spinning motion and we explored that but it probably gave me more, more reason even to talk about those things ‘cause they were seeing it in the App and

And are they, that change in motion, is that something you could, like do in the R classroom normally with physical materials?

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I guess you could, yeah, like we but I wouldn't have like you know you could throw T2 something and have a block there and it bounce off but.

Video observation, field notes and a teacher interview informed the analysis of how Osmo was used in Prep classrooms as part of hands-on science activities. The reference to the Osmo app in the teacher planning document was brief, being limited to the statement “Use Osmo in classroom” (PD:5). This lesson plan is included in Table 4.4. The Osmo app was used mostly in an independent way in Classroom One as the rest of the class was engaged in using hands-on materials along with the Ramps journal app. The way that Osmo was set up and used in Classroom One is described in Table 4.12. The interview with Teacher Two revealed that Osmo was also used as an independently chosen activity during play time, suggesting that the app was an appealing option when a range of activities were on offer. The Osmo app, used in conjunction with the iPad and physical whiteboard, enabled an augmented reality means of experimenting with concepts of changes in motion. This is a concept that Teacher Two stated was not a typical area explored in Prep science activities.

4.5 IPAD AS DISTRACTOR Results of observations, field notes and teacher interviews indicate that the iPad’s attraction as an artefact in some instances was more appealing than the hands-on learning activities. Additionally, operational difficulties experienced when using the iPads directed the focus towards the iPad rather than the scientific concept of movement that the activity was intended to convey. One of the ways that the iPad was observed to distract from hands-on activities was the difficulty some children experienced using the iPad camera app to film the movement of their peers. While this may be alleviated with instruction and experience, at times these difficulties distracted from the intended focus of the hands-on activities. On each occasion where children were asked to use iPads to film their peers at least one child was observed to have difficulty operating the iPad camera correctly. This excerpt from a lesson video observation outdoors demonstrates the difficulties experienced, and the way that this shifted the focus from the hands-on activity to the technical requirements of using the camera function of the iPad.

Speaker Action/Speech (S:V3,3:6‐15) Ch24 [Ch24 walks over to Ch21 to show him the video he has taken. He holds the iPad so that they can both see the screen They watch the video together, Ch24 comments on the video and the movement seen.]

[Ch24 hands the iPad to Ch21 and moves away to the playground.]

Ch21 Ch21 counts down 3,2,1,0 then presses the record button.

[Ch21 is recording, he keeps thumb pressed on the iPad record button while filming Ch24.]

[Ch21 tries to press the video timeline]

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[Ch24 reaches over and touches the video timeline.]

[Ch21 tries to make video rewind by touching timeline.]

Ch24 Start from there [reaches over to touch screen again, hits play button. Video of ground plays again]

Ch21 It's the same thing, [turns toward researcher filming the episode] I can't, I didn't get your video.

When coding the teacher interview transcripts, it became evident that the iPad was viewed as a distractor. All three teachers discussed the ways that the iPad distracted from the hands-on activities:

Speaker Action/Speech (T2:In2:43‐44,50)

R What about disadvantages, to having iPads in hands‐on science activities?

Well I guess if you don't encourage them or make a compulsory activity to doing hands‐on there would definitely be a few kids who would just never go to, you know they'd always just want to pick that iPad and never actually go and experiment on T2 their own, with hands‐on activities but in the unit that we did we'd organised for hands‐on activities in there anyway, but I guess if you didn't do that then there'd be the kids who just wouldn't, they'd just stay on the iPad and that was it, the activities.

Yep, and I guess in the partners too, if there was a more dominant person on the iPad you found in their playback videos that they were the ones who, you know, recorded T2 all the things and talked whereas the other child didn't get as good a go. Like you know if there's one dominant person they're going to be controlling the iPad more than

As described in the field notes (FN:1:06/18) in Table 4.10, at times children interacted with Coconut Star by repeatedly pressing the screen to make incorrect selections. This seems to be what prompted one teacher to describe the iPad as distracting. She stated that children just wanted to press the screen, implying that this was more appealing than engaging with the science concept represented by the app or the hands-on activities.

Speaker Action/Speech(T1,R,T3:In1:475‐54) R What about disadvantages to using those, the iPads

It's just distracting for some kids [so] kids that aren't exposed to technology often T1 just want to get an iPad and press the screen.

T3 mmm

R So, distracting from the hands‐on activities?

T1 Yep

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R So more appealing than

Yes, yep, but for kids who use iPads a lot they couldn't care less they'd rather be T1 with the blocks and hands‐on things, just depends on the child T3 Interesting, isn’t it?

The teacher’s assertion that some children would rather use blocks and hands-on materials contrasts with the finding that the iPad’s appeal can distract attention away from hands-on activities. In one classroom observation, two students used the iPad as a physical object in the same way that they used the wooden blocks. They also experimented with using the iPad to balance two sides of a block construction. An excerpt from the field notes (FN:1:07/18) in Table 4.13 provides more detail about this observation.

Table 4.13 Excerpt from field notes: iPad used as a building block Date: 17th July 2018 (FN:1:07/18) Time: 10am Focus Physical Science concept (Australian Curriculum): The way objects move depends on a variety of factors, including their size and shape

Movement represented in hands-on materials. What material is being used? One pair of children used the iPad like a large flat block, trying to balance other objects on it and then trying to create a balance beam, ‘weighing’ the iPad and discussing which side was heavier, the one with the iPad or the other side.

As can be seen in Figure 4.8 and Figure 4.9, although the iPad is switched on and the Ramps Journal app menu is visible on the screen, the iPad is temporarily being used in a different way to that intended by the app. The results of this study therefore show that the iPad offers affordances and learning positions that can be both persuasive as well as unconvincing.

Figure 4.8 iPad used as building block

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Figure 4.9 iPad used to balance construction

4.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY Chapter 4 outlined the findings of the data collection, which occurred over a ten-week period in three Prep classrooms. The ways that the iPad was used in hands-on science investigations was revealed including the timing of iPad use in Prep science lessons. The iPad was observed to be used in the introduction, body and conclusion of lessons as well as before, during and after hands-on science activities about movement. Within these lessons the iPad became a recording and replaying device utilised during lessons and after lessons to inform teacher planning. The iPad enabled both virtual manipulatives and augmented reality apps to be used. Three different free apps available from the Apple app store were used as part of this sequence of Prep science lessons. Finally, the ways that the iPad distracted from hands-on activities by drawing attention towards itself was discussed. This occurred both because of the inherent appeal of the iPad as a digital medium and because of operational difficulties experienced by the students in some cases.

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5Chapter 5: Analysis of Results

The aim of this study was to answer two research questions RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ 2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? The results of the data collected from field work, teacher planning documentation and participant interviews are discussed in Chapter 4. This chapter analyses the results of the study with reference to the literature using a framework comprising three key themes identified from an amalgamation of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) and Artefact Centric Activity Theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). These themes are discussed below. The key results were that the iPad brought both the capacity to augment and detract from the hands-on science activities about movement. In this study, the results show that the iPad was used to digitally augment and extend hands-on learning activities about the scientific concept of movement. The iPad enabled children to engage with and represent hands-on science activities through the digital medium of the iPad (Kleeman & Wilder, 2015; Wilson et al., 2013) during and after these activities. The iPad enabled the users to record, replay, slow down, reflect on and share the hands-on learning experiences inside and outside of the classroom through the camera and photos apps (Preston & McKie, 2018). Virtual manipulatives on the iPad enabled experimentation with representations of the concept of movement in ways that would not be possible in the real world (Wilson et al., 2013). Augmented reality apps, including an app which used Reflective Artificial Intelligence Technology (RAIT) (Osmo, 2014), provided an alternative to purely hands-on or virtual activities by combining elements of both forms of activities. The iPad offered physical and virtual affordances, positioned learners in particular roles (Jewitt, 2006) and enabled multiple uses of space within and outside the classroom (Boyce et al., 2014; Fisher et al., 2013). As discussed in Chapter 4.5, the iPad detracted from hands-on activities in some instances and thus was not considered to be a beneficial tool by teacher participants at all times. This is discussed in greater detail in this chapter. The ways the iPad was used in this study can be analysed in terms of the affordances discussed above. Additionally, each aspect of iPad use will be discussed within the framework developed in Chapter 3 from the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) and Artefact Centric Activity Theory (ACAT). The three key themes used to analyse the results of this are:  The iPad positioned the learner as observer and as active investigator

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 The iPad enabled miraculous transformations of time, materials and space to transcend the physical limitations of the classroom  The iPad enabled the affordance of creative variation during hands-on activities

5.1 THE WAYS THE IPAD POSITIONS LEARNERS The iPad positioned the learner in both the roles of observer and active investigator through the design features of the apps, including the inbuilt photos and camera apps. This is consistent with the findings of Jewitt (2006). This finding allows the iPad’s use to be analysed with regards to how the iPad as a digital medium positioned learners. The iPad when used as a tool in hands-on activities, provided multiple instances of positioning the learner as observer and active investigator. Within the same hands-on activity, the roles afforded by the iPad changed, often multiple times. Additionally, it was found that at least one app simultaneously positioned the learner as both observer and investigator, creating a more complex relationship between the iPad and user. The camera and photo apps positioned the user as active investigator, as the iPad did not provide explicit instruction as to how to operate these apps either technically or as part of hands- on activities. This lack of explicit instruction resulted in some difficulties in correctly and independently using the iPad camera to create the videos of hands-on activities. The ease with which alternative settings on the camera app such as time-lapse instead of slo-mo could be selected, along with only a small text indicator showing the choice made, contributed to this result. The lack of a clear signal indicating that the recording function had started or ended meant that some of the resulting videos were too short to convey the intended action. At times the iPad had recorded the ground instead of the action of other children. The ways that the iPad positioned the user potentially impacts on the ways that learners can engage in hands-on learning activities that use iPads as a recording tool. By positioning the learner as an active investigator of the camera app, at times the iPad shifted the focus away from the hands-on activities that the teacher had intended the learner to engage in. This was not true of all users however, and many were able to use the camera efficiently. In these cases, the iPads enabled active investigation of the way their own and their peer’s bodies moved. The iPad enabled recording of events in conventional and slo-mo video which was later replayed and re-recorded. Pairs of children used the iPad to watch these videos multiple times while still outdoors. Doing so prompted further physical movement and experimentation. These findings are in line with the study by Zimmerman et al. (2016) which found that the iPad prompted more focused observations and greater engagement with hands-on investigations. The camera and photo apps positioned the learner and teacher as observer of modelled exemplars of hands-on activities through the medium of the iPad. Children and teachers could view the videos created by themselves and others, positioning the viewers as an observer. This occurred

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in multiple ways, such as when children re-watched the videos they had created while still outside and when they showed a teacher what they had created. These videos were later used by teachers in the classroom, mirrored to the Interactive White Board (IWB) for the whole class to view. In this way the iPad again positioned all viewers as observers of modelled exemplars of hands-on activities. The Coconut Star app as a virtual manipulative afforded multiple opportunities for exploring the concept of motion, forces, surface friction and the slope of a ramp. It provided feedback to the user through repeated key phrases that included scientifically accurate statements as well as visual prompts. By remaining open ended, the auditory feedback positioned the user as an active investigator who could choose to accept or reject the suggested adjustments in their next choice of ramp/boot height. The app allowed for endless wrong choices, with the same result each time a particular option was chosen. The use of the ‘ghosted’ coconut as a visual prompt positioned the user as observer and provided explicit instruction to the user. The user however was able to accept or reject the role of observer offered by the iPad and go ahead with their choice regardless. In this way the iPad enabled the user to reject this information, and instead take on the role of active investigator by once more choosing the incorrect ramp height and conducting the experiment. Corrective feedback, spoken suggestions and multiple opportunities to correct errors are design features of apps that support student learning (Falloon, 2013). These features were evident in the virtual manipulative Coconut Star app. This suggests that this app was useful in terms of promoting active learning about the concept of force and the effects of ramp heights on the motion of objects. A high quality app should present a sequence of steps to teach about the concept of movement (Falloon, 2013) and content should be presented as increasingly rigorous (Lee & Cherner, 2015). This expected feature of app quality is included in the ‘communication of learning objectives’ element in Table 2.1. The design-embedded notion of levels of ability (Jewitt, 2006) was present in the succession of steps or levels in the Coconut Star app. This notion positions the learner as an active investigator able to use the information gained about force from each level in the app to successfully use more complex combinations of variables as the app progresses. The app should utilise the user’s knowledge gained from previous interactions or provide the background knowledge about movement that is necessary to engage with a new level of content. In the Coconut Star app, the provision of background knowledge such as the effect of changing surfaces was achieved with a brief comment from the animated character. The graphical representations of grass and dirt surfaces were clear. However, the graphical representation of metal was not clear, and the voiceover was heavily accented and difficult to understand. This is a design limitation of the app, and of virtual manipulatives in general, where the physicality of different surfaces can only be represented visually instead of tactilely. In a more complex relationship between the roles of observer and active investigator (Jewitt, 2006), the ways in which the Ramps Journal app provided a model of how to conduct the

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hands-on investigation simultaneously positioned the learner as observer and investigator. The app positioned the learner as an observer by including instructions such as verbal and visual directions about how to engage with both the app and the physical materials, while positioning the learner as an active investigator who was asked to conduct a physical hands-on activity using the iPad to guide and document the activity. The ways that the learners in this study used the iPad showed that they were to some extent able to accept or reject these roles. The key term describing the way that the iPad positions the learner in the role of active investigator is ‘suggested’ potential for interaction (Jewitt, 2006). This suggestion for interaction was particularly evident in the Ramps Journal. In Ramps Journal the app demands the user complete a sequence of steps to conduct a scientific investigation. Within the confines of these steps however, the learners were able to repeat these tasks multiple times, pass the iPad to each other and thus swap roles and re-watch the recordings of experiments. This understanding of the complex ways that the iPad positions learners builds on the work of Jewitt (2006), who described the way that some software can present an ambiguous role to the user. Where the iPad positioned the user as active investigator or observer, the user makes an agentic choice in response to this positioning. The user could accept or reject the role suggested by the app and therefore choose whether to use the iPad app as suggested. Ramps Journal positioned the user as both an active investigator and observer. Therefore, this ambiguity meant that Ramps Journal potentially required the user to make more complex decisions about how to engage with the hands-on materials as well as with the iPad. This study thus provides a deeper understanding of the ways that iPads offer the user roles when used in early childhood hands-on science activities.

5.2 THE IPAD AS ENABLER OF MIRACULOUS TRANSFORMATIONS The iPad provides a digital medium capable of externalising a representation of an object (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013). In this study the object was the scientific concept of motion. These externalised representations were created using the iPad camera, and in an app, which reflects the knowledge of the app’s creators. Both types of representations will be discussed here. The externalised representations through audio and visual features on the iPad mediate between the object and the user, in this case the students and teachers, who both internalise and externalise the object (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). The work of Ladel and Kortenkamp (2013) focused on the ways that virtual manipulatives enable events and actions to occur that are not otherwise possible in the physical world. The authors describe these as miraculous mathematical transformations. This concept is extended on in this work by exploring the ways that the iPad enabled miraculous transformations in science activities about movement in Prep classrooms. A key attribute of the iPad is its ability, through virtual representations and manipulatives, to enable miraculous transformations of time, materials and space to transcend the physical limitations of the classroom. These miraculous transformations, particularly in the sense of viewing

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virtual manipulatives in which the object is externalised, can be experienced as an observer. The ways that the iPad offered the learner a position as observer is discussed in Chapter 5.1. Although this way of using the artefact is assumed to be of benefit to learning, a thorough search of the literature did not reveal any evidence to support this assumption. The major benefit of virtual manipulatives is assumed to be the way in which it enables active investigation (Jewitt, 2006) and manipulation and enactment of miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016). SCT however provides the understanding that learning does occur through observation, and therefore the ability of the iPad screen to display virtual manipulatives is of importance to learning (Bandura, 1986). iPad enables miraculous transformations of time The camera feature of the iPad enabled miraculous transformations of time as the real-life actions of the events in the classroom could be recorded and then replayed in slow motion. This was seen particularly in the slow-motion human movement videos of the children’s actions on the playground and of the balls rolling down a ramp. In his work on SCT, and the analysis of observational learning in particular, Bandura (1999) uses terms such as attentional processes and observer determinants to describe some of the factors that impact on how attention is involved in learning. Attentional processes refer to the idea that people need to select, perceive and pay attention to the relevant aspects of events in the environment or activities that are being modelled in order to learn from observational experience. However, there are limits to how much one can observe and process from an observation when the exposure to the event is brief or when events happen at a rate or level of complexity that is beyond the cognitive skills of the observer. It is often necessary to provide repeated exposure to the same event in order to meet the cognitive needs of the observer and to enable learning to occur (Bandura, 1986). The iPad as a tool that enabled users to record and replay, both in real time and slow motion, may have assisted in providing this repeated exposure. At times during experiences using physical objects, particularly in science activities aimed at studying the concept of movement, events happen quite quickly. This could be seen in this study through experimentation with the movement of balls down a slope, or when children were acting out movements on the playground. In this case the use of the slow-motion recording feature on the iPad camera provided opportunities for learning to be revisited, compared and reflected upon. This then enables a comparison to be made between events in the classroom and scientific understandings of the way objects move. This opportunity to re-watch the environmental event recorded by the iPad may, by slowing the action, perhaps have directed attention to the relevant features of the activities and reduced the complexity of the observed event (Bandura, 1986). Slowing down the action by using the slo-mo function of the iPad camera thus provided a miraculous transformation of time. Slowing down, reviewing and replaying experiences can be beneficial for learning (Bandura, 1986). Writing about computer based simulations before iPads were available, Smetana

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and Bell (2012) state that simulations can enable teachers to slow down events and focus the attention of students on the intended learning objective. The iPad affords this possibility in a way that enables miraculous transformations of time and space. The ability to instantly replay and then re-record and replay over and over was seen in this study to be a frequently used iPad feature. In this study the iPad enabled the videos created outside to be stored and replayed in the classroom at a later time. The videos were wirelessly airdropped to the teachers’ iPad from the iPad used by children. The iPad could then be wirelessly connected to a large IWB screen via Bluetooth to enable the whole class to see and hear the videos. The slow-motion and real-time videos of children in the playground were replayed via Bluetooth to a large screen in the classroom later in the lesson for all children to view and comment on. The camera and photos apps were used to record and revisit hands-on science activities, both instantly and at a later date, enabling a miraculous transformation of the space and time limitations of the classroom. The iPads enabled the recording of student discussions during multiple, simultaneous instances of hands-on activities in Prep classrooms. The facility of the iPad to record for extended periods of time and the simplicity with which these recordings could be replayed meant that these could be listened to by the teacher at a later time. These recordings provided an insight into the children’s understandings that could then be used to inform future teaching and learning. While a teacher cannot be present to listen in on multiple discussions in a busy classroom, the iPad recordings facilitated this insight, miraculously transforming the limitations of time and space in the classroom. This finding extends on the work of Sharapan (2015) who discusses the ways that technology can encourage collaborative learning as part of engagement in hands-on activities. While it is not always possible for one teacher to listen to the discussions of every collaborative learning group during an activity, the iPad enabled a miraculous transformation of time and space by providing a recording of these discussions for later retrieval and sharing in other classroom learning contexts. By transcending space and time in the classroom or playground the typically short-lived and fleeting hands-on activities were captured by the iPads and replayed in a different time and place. Consequently, the iPad augmented hands-on science activities by increasing the potential to reflect on and revisit these activities in other times and places. The iPad apps used in this study engaged users for an extended period and prompted children to repeat the hands-on activities, even after the conclusion of the unit of work. This became evident as a result of the interview with Teacher 2, who discussed the ongoing engagement of the children with the iPad digital and hands-on activities after they had been used in whole class lessons. Where the iPad was used as a recording device it enhanced the quality of the artefact produced by the students by enabling videos to be watched and re-recorded multiple times. In these hands-on activities the use of the iPad camera and photos apps thus prompted the repetition of hands-on and virtual tasks. As discussed in Chapter 2.1.2, enabling repetition of tasks may facilitate conditions that support learning about the concept of movement.

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iPad enables miraculous transformations of time, materials and space The iPad enabled miraculous transformations of time, materials and space to transcend the physical limitations of the classroom through the virtual manipulative Coconut Star app. This app enabled multiple virtual experiments to be conducted on the forces and motion affecting a rolling coconut. Consistent with the features of a high quality science app (Falloon, 2013), Coconut Star correctly represented the laws of physics through animations and used audio and visual prompts to communicate the learning objectives. This iPad app enabled a miraculous transformation of space and time, by allowing the kind of experimentation that would not be possible in a classroom using physical materials. Coconut Star enabled the selection of unsuccessful variable options multiple times. It would not be feasible to set up enough physical equipment to enable multiple, repeated experiments to be conducted simultaneously by many children as was possible with the virtual manipulative. The layout of the ramps, boots, gates and surfaces in the virtual manipulative would be unreasonably complex to physically set up and modify in the classroom. Additionally, the time needed to reset the activities after each experiment would be impractical. The iPad Coconut Star app enabled the user to instantly retry the same or altered combinations of ramps and forces. The ways that the iPad could be readily passed to other students (Dezuanni et al., 2015) meant that another user could continue trying the experimental level in the app until success was achieved. In the virtual manipulative, the coconut could hover at the top of the ramp ready for the start button to be pressed, another example of a miraculous transformation of time and materials. The iPad virtual manipulative Coconut Star app did not enforce a time limit and so enabled the user to take time to consider, discuss the possibilities or pass the iPad to another user in a way that would have been difficult with a physical manipulative. As a result of these parameters the iPad promoted an engaging user experience in the learning activity for extended periods of time, consistent with expected features of high quality science apps (Falloon, 2013). This is also perhaps because there were opportunities for both enactive and observational learning through the investigative and observational positions offered by the iPad (Jewitt, 2006). The Coconut Star did not however enable difficulty levels to be set which limits the potential of this app to be considered a high quality science learning app (Falloon, 2013) One of the benefits of virtual manipulatives can be the audio-visual formative and corrective feedback provided to the user (Falloon, 2013). However, the feedback provided by the iPad in the Coconut Star app did not appear in this study to always contribute positively to modelling an understanding of the scientific concept of movement. Analysis of screencast recordings of the app in use show that on multiple occasions incorrect choices were continually made, and correct choices were changed to incorrect ones despite the audio-visual feedback. The instances of modelled exemplars and feedback through the medium of the iPad did not necessarily lead to conditions where a scientific understanding of movement was communicated clearly. On some occasions in this study the iPad virtual manipulative app was supplemented with intervention

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from an adult. This was evident where the teacher’s comments directed attention to the salient features of Coconut Star. The Coconut Star app included audio feedback that was not clear, stating “that ramp is too steep” when more than one ramp was present on the screen. The visual clue of the ‘ghosted’ coconut if the ramp was not steep enough did not result in correct choices being made on all occasions. A clearer audio cue could include one that explicitly stated that the upper level ramp height was successful and only the bottom level ramp height needed to change. This, combined with a visual indicator of the particular ramp being referred to, may have enhanced the ability of the app to lead users towards learning goals through the use of instructional elements (Falloon, 2013). While feedback was inherent in the way the coconut successfully navigated the gates, high quality apps should include formative and corrective feedback for correct and incorrect choices (Falloon, 2013). The feedback that was provided was at times non-specific, such as “oops, too far”, and while this ambiguity enabled the affordance of creative variation it limited the app’s capability to communicate a scientific understanding of the concept of movement. The affordance of creative variation is discussed in Chapter 5.3. Although it seems that the quality of the feedback detracted from the quality of Coconut Star, there are other possible ways to analyse this finding. It is difficult to determine whether the lack of physicality inherent in a virtual app, the quality of the feedback or the choices made by users to disregard the feedback affected the ways that the iPad was used in this study. It was not the case that all instances of use were of this nature however, and further research into the effects of this virtual manipulative on learning about force and motion is needed. iPads were used in this study as a digital tool to collect and record data from investigations and served as a virtual director of a hands-on physical activity involving a ball and ramps. The Ramps Journal app (First 8 Studios, 2016) provided a form of personalised guide to conducting a scientific investigation using hands-on materials with an iPad. As discussed in the results section the Ramps Journal app prompted the user to perform a series of steps which resulted in an inquiry investigation about the way balls roll down ramps. The design of the app enabled the investigation to be repeated multiple times. Consistent with the findings of Dezuanni et al. (2015) the light weight and portability of the iPad, combined with the long battery life and cordless operation meant that the iPad was readily passed between children, used in multiple locations in the room and was able to be used for an extended period of time. This transcended the limitations of a classroom where adults are rarely able to spend a great deal of time with individuals, particularly when engaged in the multifaceted options of using an iPad (Dezuanni et al., 2015).The iPad thus created a miraculous transformation in the sense that it transcended the physical limitations of only one or two adults in the room who wouldn’t be able to guide a whole class through these investigative steps in an individualised manner as the iPad did. Providing individualised time with children and iPads comes at a cost in terms of the personnel required and is not always feasible in a busy classroom (Dezuanni et al., 2015). Ramps Journal provided a clear, repetitive, consistent guide and

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prompt for the children. Consistent with the features of high-quality science apps, it provided audio and visual prompts, instructions on how to use parts of the app and text to speech was available in some elements of the app. No feedback was given by the app as there were no correct or incorrect answers, a knowledgeable other would need to evaluate the results of the investigations. The limitation of the app was clear however as the lack of supporting audio instructions on the initial screen meant that the children were unlikely to be able to read through and understand the root menu options they could choose from. The instructions regarding the use and availability of the results tab to review all of the experiments conducted were in text form only. Similarly, the purpose of the slow it down videos was not made clear by the app. It seemed that this feature may have been useful in symbolising the ways that the distance travelled, and the speed of the ball varied due to the ramp heights by viewing the action in slow motion. The lack of audio prompts and text to speech capability limited the usability of this element of Ramps Journal. The predictability of the Ramps Journal and the audio and visual affordances that were included once an inquiry experiment option was chosen meant that it immersed the user in the scientific process of completing an experiment. The app communicated learning objectives and led the user towards the learning goals through the use of instructional elements, features of high quality science apps (Falloon, 2013). The iPad directed the physical and virtual actions of the children, using audio and visual prompts, requiring each step to be completed before moving to the next. The iPad thus enabled a miraculous transformation of space and time, transcending the physical limitations of the classroom by providing multiple instances of these directed, sequential instructions. In most instances it would otherwise be necessary to have an adult oversee this type of directed, sequential process in early childhood learning activities. The importance of hands-on physical activities in science education was discussed in Chapter 2.5.1 including the affordances that hands-on activities provide for students to experience the movement of objects and the force of movement directly. By using physical materials students can plan, conduct and record experiments and analyse real world data (Gire et al., 2010). Virtual manipulatives can bring different affordances to learning activities. While some authors suggest that virtual manipulatives can offer the same learning opportunities as physical manipulatives, there is no clear evidence to suggest that this is true in all science domains, especially in early years learning experiences (Zacharia et al., 2012). Consistent with studies which found that the combination of both physical and virtual manipulatives is of greater benefit to learning than either type of manipulative alone (Olympiou & Zacharia, 2012), in this study the iPad did not merely replace hands-on physical experiences. The iPad, through the use of the augmented reality Ramps Journal app, enhanced and augmented the hands-on physical activities about movement in Prep classrooms. The iPad enhanced this hands-on activity through its ability to digitally guide the user through a series of inquiry steps. The steps required the user to conduct an investigation with actual physical materials. By utilising the digital features of Ramps Journal to guide the process of

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conducting, recording, and analysing a physical hands-on investigation the iPad enabled a miraculous transformation of space and materials to augment the hands-on activity. Miraculous transformations of classroom space Consistent with the findings of Fisher et al. (2013) the iPads used in this study enabled the creation and use of public and private spaces within the classroom. The screen size and portability of the iPad shaped interactions between students. The iPad’s portability, screen size and Bluetooth connectivity enabled individuals, pairs and groups of students to share the device in flexible grouping arrangements that included different group sizes and space possibilities. This is consistent with the findings of Wang et al. (2016), who found that the screen size and lightweight nature of an iPad enabled it to be readily shared between users and prompted varied collaborative and interactive use in different group sizes. The portability of the iPad enabled it to be readily taken outside to the playground and held by children to film hands-on science activities. The iPad’s light weight meant that inside it could be readily moved around the available space to record and document these hands-on investigations. The way the iPad afforded varying spaces within the classroom was a miraculous transformation of classroom space. Extending on the work of Fisher et al. (2013) this study found that the iPad enabled three dimensions of space which were coded as public space, shared space and private space. Building on the findings of Wang et al. (2016), this study found that the iPad’s size and light weight meant it was small enough to be moved away from others to create a private work space. The iPad was used as a private space infrequently in this study. This was observed when the iPad screen was moved away from others in order to view the screen privately and when it was held against a child’s body so that others could not view the screen. The angle at which two iPads were set up for use with the Osmo app created a private workspace. This instance of a private workspace was however able to be viewed by others, particularly the child working alongside on the second iPad, thus creating an intermittent shared work space. The iPad was used as a shared space most frequently in this study. This was observed when the iPad was used by a pair or small group of children, usually less than five, which enabled multiple users to touch and comment on the screen. The size of the iPad screen and ability to move the screen without difficulty to different spaces in the learning environment enabled some control over the size of the audience viewing the screen. This was evident when the Coconut Star app was being used. Groups of varying sizes formed around the iPads throughout the classroom enabling multiple users to view and use each iPad. This shared space was also observed when pairs of children stood closely together to view videos on the iPad they had created in the playground or to manipulate the Ramps Journal app. The iPad screen size and multi viewing angles enabled a shared space. The iPad thus facilitated multiple students viewing and touching the screen in a similar way to the college age students in the Fisher et al. (2013) study.

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However, the iPad screen is not large enough to be easily viewed as a shared space by a class of 25 children. The Bluetooth connectivity of the iPad enabled the screen to be used as what the researcher terms a public space. A public space is defined in this project as one in which the iPad screen, through being connected to the large IWB, becomes available publicly to every person in the room. The connectivity of the iPad, combined with the IWB screen created a public space that was used by the teachers in this study to share the work of students created on the iPad with the entire class for discussion and reflection. The facility of the iPad to store large quantities of video meant that the videos could be stored on the iPad until ready to be used, even if this was on another day. The physical limitations of the classroom were transcended as the iPad enabled the videos created outdoors to be used in the classroom. These were shared via Bluetooth either directly to the IWB screen via laptop software or airdropped to the teacher iPad for later use. The work created on each iPad could be publicly shared with peers and this fostered reflection and discussion about the concept of movement. This finding is consistent with the study by Falloon (2015) who states that some students considered this type of sharing and feedback useful for their learning. By bringing the private into the public, the iPad screen provided a medium through which symbolic modelling of hands-on activities could occur (Bandura, 1986). This symbolic modelling on the iPad was achieved by using recordings of hands-on science activities beyond the immediate physical environment in which they occurred. Using the iPad as a public space facilitated the inquiry process of collaborating to create something and then sharing and discussing with others (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). This study found that using iPads in classrooms can support social, collaborative learning opportunities and adds to the research evidence such as the work of Dezuanni et al. (2015) and Sharapan (2015). In a further use of public space, iPads were used to access videos from the internet to demonstrate ways that animals move. The wireless internet connectivity of the iPad was used to access the internet without the need for the iPad to be plugged into a cord. Through Bluetooth connectivity the small screen of the iPad as well as the accompanying sound was mirrored to the large IWB screen and speakers without the need for wires and cords. The whole class of children were able to view the videos from the iPad screen. In this way the iPad transcended the physical limitations of the classroom, by wirelessly enabling information from around the world to be brought into the classroom and shared as a public learning space.

5.3 THE IPAD AS ENABLER OF CREATIVE VARIATION The iPad enabled the affordance of creative variation during hands-on activities. Creativity is an important characteristic of scientific endeavour (Klopp et al., 2014). Virtual manipulatives have been found to enable and enhance creativity in mathematics learning, although this is an area which has found to be lacking in empirical research evidence to date (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016). The affordances of virtual manipulatives in science education and how these

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enable creative variation is an area of research that requires further attention. While studies have shown that the iPad enables creativity in arts, language and mathematics (Dezuanni et al., 2015; Harwood, 2017; Moyer-Packenham et al., 2016) there is little research evidence regarding how iPads enable creative variation in science activities. Creative variation occurs when virtual materials prompt experimentation, encourage creativity and allow users to develop their own ways of representing ideas and concepts (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2013). As discussed in Chapter 3.4 a framework was developed which includes the affordance of creative variation. A discussion follows of how the iPad may enable this affordance in hands-on activities about science. Some uses of the iPad in this study led to different aspects of creative variation. Apps used in this study prompted experimentation with concepts of movement. In the Coconut Star app, while only permitting interactions and choices from a limited range of options, the lack of correction and the multiple times a user was permitted to ‘fail’ allowed experimentation with the available options. The Ramps Journal app allowed for a range of responses and uses for the camera within the app. In the Ramps Journal the user was prompted by the repeated recording prompts to experiment physically with the blocks and balls. In one classroom observation children built variations on the original ramp set up. They attempted to balance the ball and roll the ball down the ramp to hit a block and knock it over. They then slow-motion recorded on the iPad and replayed the video. The app did not limit what the camera was able to record, and while the suggested action was to record the experiment described by the app, the iPad enabled creative variation and prompted experimentation with the hands-on materials. Osmo Newton (Tangible Play Inc, 2014) is a substantially open-design app (Falloon & Khoo, 2014) which enabled creative variation and prompted experimentation. This app suggested, through the visuals on the screen, where the user could draw lines on the physical whiteboard to make the balls change motion and hit the targets. This suggested interaction was only implied, as no auditory or overt visual prompts were included. Given this absence of direction and instruction, this app did not contain expected features of high quality apps such as communicating learning objectives and providing timely corrective and formative feedback (Falloon, 2013). In several instances children used their hands or a cloth in front of the iPad camera and experimented with the effects on the movement of the falling balls. Different shapes and lines could be drawn in order to collect the falling balls and then release them simultaneously, or to bounce the balls in different directions. The iPad enabled the user to draw shapes and lines of any kind and many ways to complete the level where possible. This virtual reality app, using Reflective Artificial Intelligence Technology (RAIT) enabled creative variation. Although the purpose of the app was to change the motion of the balls so that they hit a target, the user could instead engage in creative manipulation of lines, drawings and objects to change the motion of the balls. The scientific concept that the teachers aimed to engage students with in the lessons using Osmo Newton was about the way objects move. Changes in motion is a concept that teachers would not usually teach in Prep

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classrooms. As one interviewee stated, the iPad app and the representation it allowed prompted classroom discussion and experimentation with the scientific concept of changes in motion. The camera and photos app, which allowed the user to record in different ways their own open-ended actions and re-watch multiple times, prompted experimentation and creative variation in the way they created bodily representations of movement. The iPad only captured and replayed the actual movement of the children; however, being able to replay it instantly prompted children to recreate physical actions to re-record. Watching these videos encouraged further experimentation with their range of movements and they were observed to urge their peers to ‘do some different movement’ as the iPad was being used to re-record the action. In this way the iPads prompted creative variation. This finding is similar to that of Zimmerman et al. (2016) who found that the iPad used in hands-on activities prompted further experimentation with the physical environment and hands-on activities. The findings of this study contribute to the research literature on what the iPad as a digital medium can bring to hands-on science activities about movement.

5.4 IPAD AS DISTRACTOR Results from this study found that the iPad presented both positive and negative attributes when used in hands-on science activities. In some instances, the iPad distracted attention away from the hands-on activities. This was observed when children had difficulty operating the technology as intended. Additionally, teacher participants stated that the iPad held greater interest for some children than the hands-on activities and that this distracted attention from the learning opportunities of the hands-on experiences. In this study, teacher planning documentation showed that iPad apps were planned to be used as a consolidation learning activity after the physical materials had been investigated. While the persuasiveness of the iPad was seen to direct the progression of the lesson at times, in interviews, teachers expressed the belief that the learning was most beneficial when the children engaged in hands-on activities. Some stated that it was important to plan explicitly for classroom use of these hands-on experiences as some children were drawn to the iPad over the hands-on activities. Mostly however it was found in this study that hands-on activities were not replaced by the iPad as a digital medium. Indeed, as discussed in Chapter 4.5, the iPad was used in one instance as a physical material and formed part of a building block construction. The digital affordances of the iPad were not utilised, and instead the physicality of the iPad’s size and weight were the inherent properties used.

5.5 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND IMPLICATIONS FOR THE IPAD AS A CENTRAL ARTEFACT Placing the iPad at the centre of analysis and as a central artefact in this study (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013) has expanded current understandings about how early years hands-on science learning experiences may be enacted. The theoretical framework adopted by this study proposes

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that the affordances of the iPad as a central artefact can provide conditions for observational and active learning (Bandura, 1986) and offer learner roles as well as affordances of creative variation and miraculous transformations. It can be argued therefore that incorporating iPad technology into early years hands-on science learning experiences is a worthwhile endeavour. Science learning experiences without the inclusion of technology begin with an interaction between the teacher, student and in many cases a hands-on activity designed to illustrate or engage students in an exploration of a scientific concept. As Bandura (1986) states, this interaction between environment, behaviour and cognition is dynamic and reciprocal. Introducing the iPad as a central artefact, as described by the ACAT theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013), into this relationship alters this dynamic interaction by including a digital medium capable of offering the affordances described in the findings of this study. Engaging with iPads in hands-on science activities can therefore be understood to offer learning opportunities beyond those possible with either hands-on or digital activities alone. While in this study it was found that the iPad did distract from the hands-on science activities in some instances, the iPad was also able to augment and enhance these experiences. Planning for the augmentation and enhancement of hands-on science activities using iPads requires the development of knowledge and understanding about the ways that learning can occur in hands-on science activities that incorporate iPads. Personal and behavioural factors influencing pedagogical choices become more complex with the addition of the iPad as a digital environmental medium, expanding the scope of the triadic reciprocal relationships (Bandura, 1986) present in classroom learning contexts. This study has demonstrated that the iPad can display symbolic representations of movement that can be manipulated by users and that the iPad can direct attention to itself as well as to hands-on materials. The iPad’s ability to provide opportunities for observational learning by displaying the actions of others as well as symbolic representations of movement in multimodal forms for public, shared and private viewing expands the possibilities for iPad-integrated hands-on science learning experiences. The findings of this study suggest reconceptualising science teaching in the early years to begin with the affordances of the iPad, rather than the teacher, student or hands-on activity. This would potentially require an approach where the attention-directing, observational, feedback, augmentative and manipulative features of the iPad are considered an integral part of hands-on science learning activities.

5.6 CHAPTER SUMMARY The iPad was used in multiple ways as part of hands-on activities before, during and after the physical materials had been used in classroom science lessons. The camera, photos, virtual manipulative and augmented reality apps were observed in use as part of hands-on science activities about movement. In this study, the iPad as a digital medium offered three key affordances to learning when used in hands-on science activities. These affordances are consistent with the literature, Social Cognitive Theory and Artefact Centric Activity Theory:

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 The iPad positioned the learner as observer and as active investigator  The iPad enabled miraculous transformations of time, materials and space to transcend the physical limitations of the classroom  The iPad enabled the affordance of creative variation during hands-on activities As discussed in this chapter, each of these affordances can enhance and augment hands- on activities. The iPad also distracted from the hands-on activities in some instances, a finding that reflects the concerns of some that iPads may be used as a substitute for hands-on activities. However, the iPad is an artefact that depends on the users accepting or rejecting its affordances, and these are offered to each learning experience. In this study both physical and virtual activities were planned for as part of the unit on the concept of movement. The iPad, while persuasive, did not drive the learning experiences in these classrooms. Concerns that virtual activities such as those on an iPad may replace hands-on activities (Wilson et al., 2013) were not evident in this study. The iPad apps which required the merging of both physical and virtual activities provided the richest opportunities for the iPad to enhance and augment hands-on learning activities. This is evident in the affordances that virtual reality apps when used on the iPad can offer as discussed in this chapter. This echoes the findings of Dezuanni et al. (2015) who found that the activities which combined physical and virtual materials were the most interesting and provided for authentic experiences in terms of interaction and play. Viewed through the lens of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986), both observational and enactive learning are enabled when the iPad is used as part of hands- on learning activities about science.

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6Chapter 6: Conclusions

This qualitative case study explored the ways that iPads were used in hands-on science activities about movement in three Prep classrooms. A theoretical framework was derived from a combination of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986) (SCT) and Artefact Centric Activity Theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016) (ACAT). This framework was used to analyse the affordances of the iPad as a digital medium when used as part of these science activities. A hybrid approach of inductive and deductive thematic analysis was conducted using themes arising from the data and the theoretical framework developed for this study. These key themes were:  The iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016)  The ways that the iPad positions learners (Jewitt, 2006)  The affordance of creative variation enabled by the iPad (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016)  iPads enhance or augment hands-on science activities about movement  The iPad as distractor A key theme arising inductively from the data, and a major finding of this study, was that iPads enhance or augment hands-on science activities about movement. The theme named iPad as distractor was also identified inductively from the data and included in the analysis of iPad use. This chapter begins with a summary of the problem and context of this study as discussed in Chapter 1. A brief recount of the data collection procedures and theoretical framework used for analysis follows. The chapter then reviews the results and analysis discussed in Chapters 4 and 5 before discussing the original contribution this study makes to the field. Following this discussion, the possible implications of the findings of this study are outlined. The limitations of this study are discussed. The chapter concludes by suggesting how future research may extend on the findings of this study.

6.1 SUMMARY OF PROBLEM AND CONTEXT The need to develop scientifically literate Australian citizens is becoming increasingly important. The science education that students receive in schools is a vital part of this development. Many argue that effective science education begins in early years classrooms and that early childhood science learning activities lay the groundwork for future attitudes towards and success in science (Eshach & Fried, 2005; Hackling & Prain, 2005; Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016; Tao et al., 2012). As such it is vital that education moves towards the integration of technology and science from the early years of schooling, as the artificial boundary between science and technology seen in classrooms is not reflective of real world scientific endeavour (Duschl, 2008; Rennie, 2011).

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Technology use is increasing in Australia, including in early years classrooms. However much of the current research on technology use in early years science activities has focused on the life sciences, with little research into how technology such as iPads may be used in early childhood activities about physical science concepts. As discussed in Chapter 2 more research is needed into the ways that digital technologies such as iPads can be used in early years classrooms and what these technologies can offer to science activities. The theoretical framework informing an understanding of how learning occurs in this study is Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). This theory attests to the importance of both observational and enactive environmental experiences for learning. Current understandings about effective approaches to teaching science acknowledge the value of inquiry-based learning. Inquiry learning includes a focus on hands-on activities in social learning classrooms, where observational and enactive learning are supported. It is important to make the distinction between hands-on activities and virtual learning activities, as this allows for a clear discussion of the contributions of each type of activity to learning. In this study hands-on activities are defined as those that take place with physical materials. Virtual activities take place through the digital medium of the iPad. There are some who fear that the introduction of technology such as iPads into classrooms may replace hands-on activities. This study showed that iPads can enhance and augment these hands- on activities. Although it is noted that in some cases the iPad did distract attention away from hands-on activities, the iPad did not supplant these hands-on learning experiences. Placing the iPad at the centre of analysis through the lens of Artefact Centric Activity Theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013) enabled an exploration of the iPad’s affordances as a digital artefact when used with these activities. The two research questions guiding this study were: RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ 2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? This was a single case study of iPad use in hands-on science activities about movement in Prep classrooms. Data were collected over a ten-week period in a regional primary school located in Queensland, Australia. The researcher observed in three classrooms on a total of five occasions. Field notes and video recordings of hands-on science activities were collected during these classroom visits. Additionally, teacher planning documentation was collected before the classroom visits and two semi-structured interviews were conducted with the three teacher participants to conclude the data collection period.

6.2 CONTRIBUTIONS This thesis articulates the affordances that iPads can bring to hands-on science learning experiences about movement in Prep classrooms. It addresses the current gap in the literature about the ways that iPads can be used in conjunction with these hands-on activities. It is important to

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reiterate that the iPad did not replace hands-on science activities about movement in this study. This study therefore makes an important contribution to the literature, which has focused on the importance of hands-on activities when studying the concept of movement in early childhood, with little attention given to how technology may be used to enhance and augment these activities. By chronicling how iPads were used in hands-on science activities about movement this study adds to current understandings about the affordances of the iPad and how these may contribute to science learning environments in the early years. Additionally, this study reveals the ways that the affordance of creative variation can be realised through iPad use in hands-on science activities, an under researched area in the literature. This study thus makes an important contribution to the literature in the field of digital technology use in early years education. Research question one asked How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? The iPad was found to enhance and augment hands-on activities in diverse ways in this study. The iPad was used for different purposes within Prep science lessons. It was used during the introduction, body and conclusion of science lessons about movement. Classroom observations established that the iPad was used inside classrooms as well as outdoors in various settings. Additionally, lesson timeframes sometimes extended over more than one day, utilising the capacity of the iPad to readily store videos and photographs for later retrieval. The iPad camera and photo apps enabled hands-on activities to be recorded for later viewing and reflection, to create a slowed-down recording of physical action, to prompt discussion and re- recording of physical activities, and for teachers to gather information about learning that informed future lesson planning. The ability of the iPad to connect wirelessly via Bluetooth to a large IWB screen augmented the capabilities of the iPad screen as a replaying device. The virtual manipulative features of apps on the iPad were used to consolidate the learning of concepts experienced through physical activity. These virtual features also presented exploratory possibilities that transcended the physical limitations of the classroom. This was most transformative when several iPads operated simultaneously, enabling many groups of children to virtually manipulate multiple variables in an app that represented the concept of motion. The feedback provided by the virtual manipulative apps offered both observational and investigative learning positions (Jewitt, 2006). Users could make choices about enacting or rejecting the positions offered by the iPad apps. Augmented reality apps used in this study prompted creative variation (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016) and enabled the concept of motion to be enacted through the iPad using both physical and virtual representations. These augmented reality apps offered both observational and enactive learning positions in these Prep classrooms. The iPad acted as a digital assistant or guide, directing the user through the steps of a scientific inquiry process which required both physical and virtual input and actions.

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The findings of this study demonstrate that the digital medium of the iPad made a range of contributions to hands-on learning experiences about movement, both during the activities and at a later time and place. In this way the iPad enhanced and augmented the hands-on activities. Research question two sought to discover What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion? The iPad affordances observed in this study augmented, enhanced and distracted from the hands-on activities. The iPad offered observational and enactive learning positions (Jewitt, 2006), enabled miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016) and enabled the affordance of creative variation (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016). The findings of this study revealed multiple uses of the iPad that extend and augment hands-on activities by transcending the physical limitations of space, time and materials. The iPad enabled multiple forms of learning spaces in the classroom. This study found that the iPad offered public and private spaces as described by Fisher et al. (2013). In addition, this study builds on the work of Fisher et al. (2013) by describing an additional category, called shared learning spaces. These iPad learning spaces transcend the limitations of traditional, physical classroom spaces. The iPad proffered digital learning spaces that made provision for individual, small group and whole class interactions with the iPad screen. Virtual manipulatives used on the iPad provided opportunities for repeated practice, digitally generated feedback and virtual representations of materials in ways that would not otherwise be possible in a classroom. The iPad offered both observational and investigational learning positions to users. This thereby provided a means by which observational and enactive learning could occur as a result of using the iPads, consistent with the learning processes described by SCT (Bandura, 1986). The iPad offered the affordance of creative variation (Moyer-Packenham & Westenskow, 2016) in science activities about movement, enabling user created representations and prompting experimentation with both physical and virtual materials. The ways that iPads can offer the affordance of creative variation in science activities is an under researched area in the literature and this study therefore makes an important contribution to this body of work. These findings of this study can be viewed through the lens of Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986). The two key processes involved in learning about the concept of movement, as discussed in Chapter 2.1.2, are observational and enactive learning experiences. Observational processes include learning by observing modelled performances such as the physical or digital activities of others and the consequences of others’ actions. Enactive processes involve direct sensory experience and the feedback and consequences generated by that experience. When learning about the ways that objects move, it is beneficial to provide multiple exposures to movement events, to slow down experiences and to review and revisit these events (Bandura, 1986). The iPad provided ways in which digital representations and variations of the hands-on

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activities could be transformed to provide these repeated and altered experiences. The spaces provided by the iPad screen created opportunities for observational learning by displaying these digital representations for individual, small and large groups. The iPad enabled these representations to be altered, for example by slowing down video recordings and replaying them multiple times. These observational learning opportunities would not otherwise have been feasible if hands-on materials were the sole source of representations of the concept of movement. The manipulative features of the iPad also provided conditions by which enactive learning could occur. Through self-regulatory functions (Bandura, 1986) users could repeatedly engage with concepts of motion such as force, friction and changes in motion on the iPad screen and utilise the feedback inherent in the apps. The iPad provided opportunities to manipulate these concepts in the apps in ways that would not have been possible with the physical materials alone. By providing the possibility of repeating and persisting at a task, the iPad both shaped and was shaped by the actions of the user. Furthermore, the iPad apps directed the attention of users towards physical actions and materials. By providing instructions that directed an investigation with physical materials, the iPad provided an environmental model from which observational learning may have occurred. The iPad prompted experimentation with the movement of people and objects. Prompting experimentation is significant given the importance of inquiry-based learning using hands-on materials when young children are learning about science concepts (Lazonder & Harmsen, 2016). This reciprocal relationship is central to understanding the importance of the iPad in the learning environment (Bandura, 1986) and the ways that key processes involved in learning about movement were enhanced and augmented by the iPads in this study. Additionally, the iPad enabled experimentation with, and observation of, the concept of movement using resources beyond the physical domain of the classroom. This provided conditions by which enactive and observational learning could occur in ways that transcended the boundaries of the classroom. In these ways the iPad enhanced and augmented the hands-on activities about movement. The iPad did not augment and enhance hands-on activities on all occasions in this study. The persuasiveness of the iPad in some instances proved to be a distractor away from the hands- on activities and consequently distracted from the intended learning focus of the concept of movement. Furthermore, some operational difficulties prolonged the focus of attention on the iPad rather than enabling it to augment the hands-on activity being conducted. Much of the distracting influence of the iPad was observed to be due to the quality of the app design or to poor understanding of how to use the iPad. This study developed a means by which to evaluate the presence of expected features of high-quality iPad science apps about the concept of movement, building on the work of Falloon (2013). As discussed in Chapter 2.5.2, most of the app evaluation tools available at the time of this project consist of rubrics which are based on the evaluation of mathematics and English apps. Little guidance is available for teachers when evaluating educational science apps for early childhood

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settings, and the tool developed in this project therefore adds to the literature in this area. The evaluation tool was applied to the apps used in this study to analyse the contributions each could make to the learning environment. The ability of the iPad to provide an environmental model from which observational learning can occur depends to a large extent on the quality of the app design.

6.3 IMPLICATIONS The iPad as a digital medium offers important affordances when augmented reality apps are used to combine the benefits of hands-on activities with the virtual guidance and modelling that the iPad can offer. This finding builds on the assertions of Dezuanni et al. (2015) and extends this claim in relation to iPad use in science activities. Given the importance of hands-on activities for learning in the early years, as established previously, the augmented reality apps that the iPad can support offer great potential for enhancing hands-on activities in science activities about movement. The iPad, combined with these apps, merges the use of physical manipulatives with the virtual features of this digital medium to create new ways of interacting with hands-on science activities and materials. The iPad, through well-designed apps, enables virtual manipulatives that represent concepts about movement and offers opportunities to interact with these concepts including force, surface friction and the way objects move on ramps of different slopes. Combined with its portability and screen size, new learning spaces such as shared spaces are afforded by the iPad within a classroom. However, in their current form adult guidance and support is needed to realise the full potential of the virtual manipulative and augmented reality apps used in this study. Greater attention to incorporating the design features of high quality apps (Falloon, 2013) is needed by app designers. This would enable the iPad to fulfil its potential as a virtual manipulative tool as well as a digital guide and assistant in hands-on learning activities. The iPad can offer digital guidance to conduct hands-on inquiry investigations about the scientific concept of movement. This study has demonstrated the ways in which the iPad offers this guidance and its ability to record the results of these investigations for reflection, revisiting and sharing with others. However, this affordance can be improved to better meet the needs of pre-literate children through attention to the ways that investigative concepts, instructions and directions are represented. The iPad offers observational and investigative learning positions. These are two important means by which learning occurs in the social environment of a classroom (Bandura, 1986). By offering miraculous transformations (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2016) of space, time and materials, the iPad transcends the physical limitations of the classroom and affords possibilities for new ways of representing learning opportunities in the classroom and outdoor environment. By reporting on the ways that three Prep teachers used iPads in hands-on science activities about movement, and what affordances the iPad brought to these activities, this study can provide useful insights for Prep teachers in other settings. Many existing studies involve the use of

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researcher-developed apps that are not available for general classroom use (Zydney & Warner, 2016). In contrast, the commercially available apps used as part of this teacher-planned unit of work can be accessed by other teachers through the Apple app store. This will enable others to evaluate the use of the iPad using these apps in diverse settings. While this study had a narrow focus on apps that are used in science activities about the concept of movement, this is one of the four key topics of Prep science education in the Australian Curriculum: Science (Australian Curriculum Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2017). Therefore, these findings should offer useful insights for Prep teachers implementing this curriculum. The iPad can distract from hands-on activities, both because of its appeal as a digital medium and due to operational difficulties. Using iPads in hands-on science activities about movement therefore requires careful consideration of how to limit this distractive quality, through pedagogical intent, instruction on operational matters, and through the design of high-quality apps. The findings of this study demonstrate the ways that the iPad can be used in hands-on science activities about movement and the affordances that the iPad as a digital medium can bring to these activities. This study therefore makes an important contribution to the field of educational technology in early years science activities about the concept of movement.

6.4 LIMITATIONS It is important to acknowledge that the limitations of this study as a case study research project impact on the generalisability of the findings (Stake, 1995). Additionally, the small sample of classrooms selected using purposeful and convenience sampling, combined with the short period of data collection, are limitations of this study. Furthermore, the researcher’s leadership position in the school where data were collected potentially influenced participant responses during classroom observations and interviews. For these reasons the findings are particularised to the context of the study. Thick description offers the reader the opportunity to compare this context to their own setting (Creswell, 2014). This study placed the iPad at the centre of the investigation, in accordance with Artefact Centric Activity Theory (Ladel & Kortenkamp, 2013), and sought to explore the uses and affordances of the iPad. There was no attempt to measure the impact of the iPad on learning, or on pedagogy. The study sought to identify the ways that iPads could be used in hands-on activities primarily through observation and interviews and as such was limited by the amount of data that could be gathered in the timeframe available to the researcher. A further limitation is that this case study was conducted in classrooms where teachers were already competent users of iPad technology. The small number of apps that were used is a further limitation of this study. Three free, commercially available apps and the photos and camera app that are inherent in the iPad software were used. These apps were chosen by the teachers as they thought these would be easy for the children to use. Additionally, they felt that these apps would be appealing and that the representations of movement on the iPad could be readily replicated with physical materials in the

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classroom. Although only a small number of apps were used, there are a limited number of augmented reality and virtual manipulative apps about physics concepts for young learners available in the Apple App store at the time of writing.

6.5 FUTURE DIRECTIONS A number of recommended directions for future research are suggested: 1. This study focused on the iPad as the central artefact in the classroom environment, not on its impact on learning. As learning is certainly the goal of educational activities, further research is needed into the impact on learning when iPads are used in hands-on learning activities about science. It is important to determine whether the affordances of the iPad found in this study translate into improvements in science learning about the concept of movement. 2. Further research is needed into the use and affordances of augmented reality apps in hands- on science investigations about the concept of movement. The findings of this study are limited, and more work is needed to determine the range of potential uses for these apps. 3. Investigating how iPads are used when the technology is less familiar to teachers and their students, as is the case in many early years classrooms in Australia, is an important future research direction. Research should aim to determine whether the affordances and uses of the iPad identified in this study are evident when used in early years classrooms in different contexts and with other science apps about movement. 4. There is little in the research literature on the affordance of creative variation offered by iPads when used in hands-on science activities. The results of the findings are limited by the definition of creative variation used in this project, as distilled from Moyer-Packenham and Westenskow (2016) and Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986), as well as the size and scope of the study. Further research is needed to investigate this important affordance and the potential implications for future app design and use. 5. Further research is needed into the ways that the iPad distracts attention from hands-on activities and how this may be reduced in order to maximise the potential benefits of iPad use in these activities. 6. This study did not investigate teachers’ decision-making processes regarding the apps they chose or how they made decisions about when to use the apps as part of hands-on science investigations. Further research in this area is needed to determine what is involved in these decision-making processes. This could guide further development of quality science apps about motion and may inform future teacher professional learning about how to use iPads in hands-on science learning activities.

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7. Children’s perceptions of iPad use in hands-on activities were not investigated in this study. Children as stakeholders in their educational activities were thus excluded, and this is another important area for future research.

The motivation for this study was an enduring interest in physical science, technology and the potential of the iPad to enhance the hands-on science experiences of children and teachers in educational settings. Despite fears about the ways that technology may detract from the varied learning experiences offered to young children in science, using technology is a vital part of real scientific endeavour. This realisation provided the incentive to investigate how technology might be integrated into science activities from the earliest years of school and what it could offer, beneficial or otherwise, to these activities. The affordances of the iPad when used in hands-on science activities identified in this study demonstrate that the iPad as a digital medium has a great deal to offer to these activities. The findings of this study provide an impetus for future research and perhaps for reflection by educators on ways that these findings may apply to their own settings.

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Appendices

Appendix A: Deductive thematic analysis categories using Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 1986)

Deductive thematic analysis category from Social Hands-on activities iPads in hands-on activities Cognitive Theory Influence of environment on use Influence of environment on use of iPads with physical hands-on of physical hands-on activities Environmental factors activities including features of including materials, space and iPad such as apps, materials, space time. and time. Use of people as objects that direct Use of iPad as a digital medium to Attentional processes attention to salient aspects of direct attention to salient aspects of hands-on activities. hands-on activities. Use of people as a model to Use of features of the iPad as a Modelling processes prompt similar actions. model to prompt similar actions Activities provide opportunity for Activities provide opportunity for observed experience of hands-on observed experience of hands-on Vicarious processes activities through physical activities through the medium of manipulation of objects. the iPad. Physical objects are used to iPad is used to represent and Symbolic processes represent and communicate communicate scientific concepts scientific concepts of motion. of motion. Physical objects can be manipulated in multiple ways, and iPad can be used in multiple ways, Self-regulatory processes physical actions of objects can be and actions can be repeated in (self-directedness) repeated, in activities in response activities, in response to input. to input.

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Appendix B: Codes and descriptions used in data analysis

Name Description

Consolidate learning iPad used to consolidate learning

iPad as building block iPad used as a physical building block

iPad space affordance The ways that the iPad affords the user space.

Private Space The iPad affords the user the opportunity to use the iPad in a private space.

Public Space The iPad affords the user the opportunity to use the iPad in a public space.

Shared Space The iPad affords the user the opportunity to use the iPad in a shared space.

iPad use

Airplay iPad used to connect wirelessly with IWB

App iPad uses App, includes photo App for replaying video, Ramps Journal, Coconut Star, Osmo.

Camera iPad camera function used.

Internet iPad was used to connect to the internet.

Large iPad integration iPads were an important part of the lesson and its planned use in the hands-on activities was clear.

Minimal iPad integration Lesson plan integrated only a small amount of iPad use that wasn’t related to the hands-on activities.

No iPad integration No evidence of planned iPad use.

Partial iPad integration Lessons plan gave iPads a larger role, but it wasn't key to completing the hands-on activity.

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Name Description

Key themes

iPad positions learners The ways that the iPad positions learners includes two roles: Observer and Active Investigator

Active investigator iPad positions learner as Active Investigator through the design of the manipulative and suggested potential for interaction.

Observer iPad positions user as observer who experiences modelled exemplars of hands-on activities through the medium of the iPad.

Creative variation The affordance of creative variation - the virtual manipulative features of the iPad enables the generation of representations and prompts experimentation.

Miraculous The iPad as enabler of miraculous transformations by Transformation transforming time, materials, space, Apps to transcend the physical limitations of the classroom.

Distractor This node is used to indicate the iPad was used in a manner that distracted from the intended purpose of the hands-on or virtual activity including technical directions such as instructions to press a button or technical difficulties with using the camera App.

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Appendix C: Codes used including number of sources and references

Name Sources References Creative variation 16 41 Miraculous Transformation 24 137 iPad positions learners 25 297 Active investigator 20 179 Observer 20 101 iPad space affordance Private Space 8 38 Public Space 7 19 Shared Space 11 88 iPad use Airplay 10 31 App 18 112 Camera 19 88 Distractor 14 134 Internet 2 2 Large iPad integration 1 1 Minimal iPad integration 1 1 No iPad integration 1 2 Partial iPad integration 1 1 iPad as building block 2 2 Consolidate learning 3 13

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Appendix D: Teacher Consent Form

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Appendix E: Parent/Guardian Consent Form

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Appendix F: Child Consent Form

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Appendix G: Child Information Sheet

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Appendix H: Post Interview Questions for Teachers

Time of Interview: Date: Interviewee:

The purpose of this project is to explore how iPads can be used in hands-on science activities in a Prep classroom. It aims to investigate how iPads can be used to enhance and augment hands-on science activities that explore the concept of motion in three Prep classrooms.

RQ1 How are iPads used in hands-on science investigations about motion in Prep classrooms? RQ2 What does the iPad as a digital medium bring to hands-on science activities about motion?

These questions are about how iPads were used in your classrooms during science lessons about motion.

1) In what ways were the iPads used in your hands-on science activities? 2) Did the students spend time repeating activities in different ways when they were using the iPads? 3) What, if anything, did the iPad enable you and/or the students to do that the hands- on activities alone couldn’t? 4) What did the iPad bring to the hands-on science activities that couldn’t be accessed or achieved without the iPads? 5) In what ways, if any, do you think the iPad directed the students’ attention towards the hands-on activity that they were engaging with? 6) In what ways, if any, do you think the physical environment of the classroom affected how the iPads were used? 7) What did you find were the advantages to using iPads in hands-on science activities? 8) What did you find were the disadvantages to using iPads in hands-on science activities? 9) I’m interested in your thoughts about this statement; Some research has suggested that science concepts can be learnt from virtual learning activities, such as activities on an iPad, rather than hands-on activities. What are your thoughts about this statement?

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These questions are about your experiences of the types of work or products that students have produced as a result of your science teaching practice about motion.

10) What work did the students produce on the iPads when they used iPads as part of hands-on science lessons about motion? 11) What did the iPad enable the children to do during or after the hands-on science activities? 12) How did the iPad enhance or augment the hands-on activities? 13) How did the iPad detract from the hands-on activities?

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Appendix I: Observation Protocol

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