ORIGINAL ARTICLE THEORETICAL RESEARCH

New public and information communication technology: Organisational infl uences on frontline child protection practice

Mike Webster1 and David McNabb2

1 University of Auckland, ABSTRACT New Zealand 2 UNITEC Institute of In this paper the authors examine the new public management (NPM) philosophy influencing Technology, New Zealand the organisational environment in which child protection social workers are located. NPM prioritises outputs through policies, such as results based accountability (RBA) predicated on the expectation that responsibility to achieve designated programme outcomes is sheeted to the agency and its workers. Ongoing funding depends on programme results.

NPM ideology assumes that workers and managers in agencies tasked with delivering care and protection services are able to the variables influencing outputs which contribute to outcomes. The authors will analyse four key aspects of NPM thinking (RBA, outputs, outcomes and key performance indicators) and explore their organisational consequences. The influence on social work practice of information and communications technology (ICT), on which NPM depends, is also considered.

The paper is not an ideologically based rejection of NPM, but rather an assessment of its consequences for care and protection practice. The authors call for a return to the centrality of relationally based social work processes embodied in common factors (CF) practice, such as the therapeutic alliance. We argue that CF approaches offer a contrasting and more appropriate practice philosophy than NPM thinking while still enabling achievable, multifaceted organisational benefits.

KEYWORDS: new public management; care and protection; common factors; ICT

Introduction assumptions, we explore their organisational consequences. This paper examines the organisational environment in which child protection Coincident with the NPM revolution (Boston, social workers deliver services to vulnerable Martin, Pallot, & Walsh, 1996), the advent populations, with a particular focus on new of read information and communications AOTEAROA public management (NPM) (Hood, 1991) technology (ICT) exercised a profound NEW ZEALAND SOCIAL philosophy and consequent practice realities. influence on day-to-day frontline and WORK 28(2), 51–63. The authors analyse four key aspects of NPM management work. NPM depends on data thinking: results based accountabilityTM capture to measure outputs (Webster, 2013). (RBA) (Friedman, 2009), outputs, outcomes In the Australian context, Burton and van CORRESPONDENCE TO: and key performance indicators (KPIs). den Broek (2009) suggest that gathering of Mike Wester Using their underpinning values and ICT-based output data has marginalised [email protected]

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social work ideals in favour of managerial (p. 469). These components are appropriately accountabilities. Webster (2014) notes that summarised as Biestek’s (1957) classic reporting statistics has: casework relationship, and carry conceptual links with Carl Rogers’ (2004) client-centred Invaded social work moving the therapy, characterised by empathy between emphasis on process accountability—how worker and client. practitioners interact with clients—to accountability for results: a quantitative The authors will explore CF values as a approach (Boston et al., 1996, p. 26). Such positive alternative to the NPM-inspired results-oriented managerial focus on data gathering while, at the same may manifest itself on “checking data time, acknowledging the profession’s on computer monitors at the cost accountability to the taxpayer as funder of of maintaining social capital with social work programmes. We propose that practitioners.” (Webster, 2014, p. 89) the characteristic systems, or ecological thinking, of social work are well fitted to We argue that NPM and ICT form a feedback address the balancing act of competing loop which exerts significant influence on priorities: polarities to manage rather than the day-to-day activities of a child protection problems to solve (Johnson, 1992). social worker. The paper is not an ideologically based The authors also propose that the profession rejection of NPM but rather an assessment needs to reclaim the heart of practice located of its consequences for practice. These in empowering worker–client relationships: consequences will be analysed by using in other words, assign as much value to the Schein’s (2010) cultural diagnostic approach. process of service delivery as to results of The purpose here is to introduce a degree of intervention. We suggest that the key issue is realism into political and public expectations not confined to theoretical practice models, but of social workers in the highly sensitive pays equal attention to the common factors area of child and family practice and its (CF) through which those practice models associated risks. are applied. Gambrill (2015) cites Lambert and Barley (2002, pp. 17, 18) in describing Structure of the paper CF as “empathy, warmth, acceptance, encouragement of risk taking, client and Schein (2010) proposes three levels of therapist characteristics, confidentiality of the culture. Each level informs the next. At the client–therapist relationship, the therapeutic base level, basic underlying assumptions, alliance or process factors” (Gambrill, 2015, or worldview, set out the “unconscious, p. 518). Laska, Gurman, and Wampold (2014) taken-for-granted beliefs and values which extend this description by setting out CF as determine behaviour, perception, thought, predicated on five elements necessary for and feeling” (Schein, 2010, p. 24). The second change. Adapted for a social work practice level, “espoused beliefs and values” are context, these are: (i) an empathetic bond “ideals, goals, values, aspirations; ideologies; between worker and client; (ii) provision of rationalisations which may or may not confidentiality in sphere casework occurs; be congruent with behaviour and other (iii) the ability of a worker to provide an artefacts” (Schein, 2010, p. 24). Schein’s explanation for emotional distress; (iv) the artefacts sit at the top level of his schema. provision of practical and realistic options These are “visible and feelable structures and to address specific difficulties; and (v) the processes; observed behaviour [which are] application of processes between worker and difficult to decipher” (2010, p. 24). client enabling solutions. Laska et al. (2014) see the CF approach as a focus on improving Schein’s cultural analysis tool informs practice outcomes and worker competence the two opening sections of this paper.

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The sources, worldview, values and staffing levels; the move towards full or artefacts of NPM are explained in the first partial privatisation (the provision of services section. The influence exerted by NPM on by organisations outside the public sector); social work practice and organisational and ICT automation in service provision leadership is examined in the second section. (Hood, 1991, p. 3). These implications will be addressed in the third section through the four selected Hood’s megatrends are reflected in the components of NPM thinking (RBATM, definitive study of the New Zealand public outputs, outcomes and KPIs). sector management revolution by Boston et al. (1996). Boston and his colleagues suggest A final section will set out an alternative that, in its broadest terms, NPM proposes vision for frontline practice based on common that private sector management should be factors theory. We call for a return to the applied to the public sector by focusing on centrality of relationally based social work accountability for results rather than process. processes. The authors suggest that NPM Management responsibility is devolved; can, in fact, contribute to this alternative emphasis is placed on management vision. We also draw on the International information systems for monitoring Federation of Social Workers’ (IFSW) (Agius & purposes. Contracting out services to the Jones, 2012) policy statement addressing the private sector, or in the case of social work responsibilities of employers of social workers services, to not-for-profit organisations, is to provide effective and ethical working preferred in pursuit of the notion that policy environments. The purpose of this last section advice and service provision should be is to constructively round off the article. separate functions—the “funder-provider” New public management is not going away split (Chapman & Duncan, 2007, p. 2). and its focus on accountabilities may work Contracts are characterised by specificity. to advance commitment to stakeholders, including staff. Visible changes—artefacts—emerging from these approaches included private sector NPM: Worldview, values and artefacts management practices such as contracts, strategic plans and mission Pollitt (1990) argues that NPM’s theoretical statements, performance-related pay, KPIs informant is the century-old scientific for the organisation and its staff, and a management model advocated by Frederick concern for corporate image. Incentives were Winslow Taylor (Taylor, 1967). Taylor financial rather than ethical; cost-cutting encouraged rational thinking about work in the guise of efficiency became a prime organisation by advocating job analysis management focus. and improvement; the notion that there is one best way to do every job based on time Boston et al. (1996, p. 6) capture these and motion studies; the need for systematic changes in public sector management selection and progressive development in their description of “the remarkable of each worker; and the idea of work transformation of public management specialisation. Apart from the one-best- in New Zealand.” This transformation way argument, these ideas remain current, was characterised by a new language illustrating the force of Taylor’s thinking. of discourse. Administration was replaced by management— performance Christopher Hood (1991), credited with management, management of risk, and coining the term new public management, so on. Competitive tendering for service sees NPM thinking as one of several provision, principal–agent contracting megatrends which emerged simultaneously. and purchase agreements, customers, Others included neoliberal attempts to limit stakeholders, KPIs for organisational and or reduce public spending and state-sector managerial performance all made their

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appearance. This terminology created a has tended to rob seismic cultural shift for social workers, their workers of their self-worth by virtue of managers and leaders (Heffernan, 2006). two prime influences. The first relates to the imposition of quantitative KPIs The implications of NPM ideology and the one-best-way argument. These vis-à-vis social work service delivery requirements arguably remove, or at least and organisational leadership have been reduce, professional autonomy in applying extensively addressed in social work knowledge to worker–client interactions. literature in the UK, Australia, Sweden and Second, management’s capacity to design Aotearoa New Zealand (see, for example, computer templates and require workers to Carey, 2009; Coffey, Dugdill, & Tattersall, populate them illustrates Carey’s portrayal 2009; Fitzgibbon, 2008; Höjer & Forkby, 2011; of mechanistic, routine tasks which, Webster, 2013). Carey (2009, p. 569) addresses again, detrimentally affects social work “Taylorist managerial control,” a reference professionalism. In the New Zealand context, to the deskilling of workers by placing work social work provision must be seen through planning in management hands. the lens of these seminal organisational changes to which NPM has contributed since Carey’s (2007) perceptive analysis of the passage of the State Sector Act in 1987. Taylorism applies Braverman’s (1974) Marxist analysis of work (Labor and New public management: Infl uence Monopoly Capital) to organisationally on social work practice and based social work practice. Carey portrays organisational leadership Braverman’s thesis as depicting control of labour by management, whereby A growing literature explores the influence the worker’s knowledge and skills are of NPM on social work practice and subordinated to the employing organisation leadership. In the New Zealand context, through the device of mechanistic, routine O’Donoghue, Baskerville, and Trlin (1999) tasks: a perspective which effectively consider that the new managerialism in summarises the critique of Taylorism. Carey New Zealand public sector social service argues however, that the advent of the agencies resulted in a transformation of knowledge organisation may run counter “professional practice and management” of to Braverman’s “perpetual workplace those agencies (pp. 8, 9). This transformation deskilling assumption” (Carey, 2007, p. was marked by management accountability 108). On the other hand, Carey observes that for measuring outputs and performance competency-based social work education targets replacing the former primacy of and workplace training minimises the accountability for social work processes via acquisition of critical theory and thus professional supervision (O’Donoghue et al., deskills workers through loss of professional 1999). Professionals were made accountable autonomy. Carey also suggests that ICT to managers who rationalised their market data-entry obligations placed on workers solutions approach by a need for economy, reinforces Braverman’s argument that the efficiency and effectiveness (Beckmann & brain of the manager is separated from Cooper, 2004; Kemshall, 1995). Writing in the hand of the worker who has no input the Australian context, Healy (2009) assesses into template design. Taylor’s principle NPM as exercising a corrosive effect on that there is one best way to do every job social workers’ identity and influence. as determined by management (Inkson & From this perspective, NPM’s dominating Kolb, 2002) arguably validates Braverman’s economic base was seen as challenging, and critique of management control of workers. even subordinating, social work’s ethical commitment to such values as respect for, Drawing on Carey (2007) and Inkson and and trust in, clients’ self-determination and Kolb (2002), we suggest that Taylorist equality of opportunity.

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McDonald and Chenoweth (2009) analyse goal “appears to be the transmogrification social work leadership in the context of of public sector culture to mirror that of the neo-liberal workfare regimes in the private sector” (2006, p. 141). To achieve that Anglophone welfare states. They argue purpose, Heffernan suggests, organisational that governments have driven institutional social work practice has taken on a “quasi change by virtue of their control of resources, business” (2006, p. 141) identity by using and, further, in a relevant perspective for this such terminology as customer services, article, that “neo-liberalism has taken on a performance standards, cost-effectiveness, hegemonic status” (2009, p. 104) in welfare accountability. bureaucracies. McDonald and Chenoweth also suggest (2009, p. 105) that the notion McLaughlin (2009, p. 1101) discusses how of transformational leadership (Burns, the terms “client, customer, consumer, 1978) is inimical to social work values and service user” have developed in England. philosophy: In the context of the Thatcher new right government elected in 1979, whose Transformative leadership inevitably equivalent in New Zealand was the fourth happens within the context of Labour government from 1984 to 1990 and competition and conflict. We tentatively its National successor, he identifies the suggest that this characteristic represents emergence of an emphasis on economy one of the core reasons why social and efficiency, the institution of market workers exhibit ambivalence about conditions and the “need to regard clients leadership—to engage as leaders as customers” (McLaughlin, 2009, inevitably means engaging in competition pp. 1103-1104.) McLaughlin traces how and conflict, processes which are social workers became “care managers” counter-intuitive to the (probably and clients became “consumers or learned) dispositions of social workers. customers.” In relation to this paper, he (McDonald & Chenoweth, 2009, p. 107) makes a crucial observation:

These are perceptive insights. The authors “Consumers” signify a relationship in suggest that they go to the heart of the which welfare is seen as a product for tension as perceived by social workers between the consumer, managed by a case or care the exercise of leadership or managerial manager who is accountable to the state power—what McDonald and Chenoweth and their manager much more so than describe as engaging in competition and to their profession or those using the conflict—and the profession’s commitment service. “Customers”, on the other hand, to empowerment of marginalised groups. signified a marketization of social care How this tension is managed will be wherein welfare was a commodity for influenced—or even determined—by the the customer. The worker became more profession’s culture. of a broker, accountable to management. (McLaughlin, 2009, p. 1104) Reverting to Schein’s (2010) cultural diagnostic framework, the authors suggest The analyses offered by Heffernan (2006) and that NPM’s new discourse (Boston et al., McLaughlin (2009) provide useful starting 1996) in the organisational social work points for considering the significance of context offers insight into the profession’s language as an observable artefact in order values. Investigations by Heffernan (2006) to assess the culture in which social work and McLaughlin (2009) into the significance practice occurs and organisational leadership of word usage illustrate this perspective. is exercised. Four commonly used NPM Writing in the UK context, Heffernan terms (RBATM, outputs, outcomes and KPIs) explores the term service user as preferred listed in Table 1 have been selected for NPM terminology. She argues that NPM’s further analysis.

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Table 1. Words as Artefacts: Their Potential Meanings in Social Work Organisations

NPM term (alphabetically Values, beliefs Assumptions/Worldview Inferential meaning for ordered) organisations and their workers

Accountability for results Responsibility to achieve Organisation and its workers Ongoing funding for workers and (RBATM) designated purpose of social deemed responsible for client organisations is dependent on work services is important buy-in to programme’s purpose programme results as the criterion for its continuation

Key performance indicators Workers and managers are An organisation consists of Remuneration and career prospects (KPIs) able to control most or all the outputs over which workers and are dependent on achieving KPIs variables that contribute to managers exercise significant outputs power

Outcomes Social work organisation Professionals (social workers in Achieving generic outcomes as outputs are a prime factor this instance) are responsible for determined by government is a in achieving government- individual client decisions which constant expectation mandated societal outcomes contribute to desired outcomes

Outputs Numbers are vital Funders value numerical as much Workers and managers must achieve as qualitative measurements numerically as much as qualitatively

Discussion: The implications of the resources used to produce outputs. NPM for social work organisational Outputs are measurable and include practice policy advice, administration of statutes, regulations and delivery of services such as Recognising that NPM is now embedded social work services to children. “Outcomes” in the public sector including social work represent government-mandated results in agencies (Webster, 2013), a critical analysis society of outputs produced, e.g., for CYF addressing current realities is proposed. We care and protection services, “[v]ulnerable treat the four terms as distinctive elements children are protected from abuse and of an integrated whole (Figure 1). Each neglect; children and young people are in element must be understood to comprehend safe and permanent care” (Ministry of Social the whole. Development (MSD), 2014). The reforms enabled government to choose preferred Results-based accountability, outcomes, set policy priorities to achieve outputs, outcomes and KPIs as a those outcomes, and select suitable outputs “building block” (Boston et al., 1996, pp. 263-264). Scott (2001, p. 11) describes performance Within the larger context depicted in management and accountability as one of Scott’s (2001) accountability building block, seven building blocks which were pivotal RBATM (Friedman, 2009) is presented as in the post-1987 transformation of the “ultimately about two questions: Population policies, practice and culture of government Accountability: ‘How do we improve the departments including social work agencies lives of the people in our community?’ such as Child Youth and Family (CYF). Their and Performance Accountability: ‘How adoption resulted in the replacement of an do we improve the performance of our input budgeting approach by public sector programmes?’“ (MSD, n.d., p. 8.) We suggest social service entities by output and outcome that the quantitative element (programme expectations by government. Inputs, performance) stands at the heart of social which include salaries and wages, refer to work’s apprehensions expressed earlier

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Figure 1. New Public Management Interrelationships: Results-Based Accountability, Outputs, Outcomes and Key Performance Indicators

regarding statistical reporting which moves the NPM revolution: Boston’s (1995) “state the emphasis on process accountability— under contract.” From the chief executive’s how practitioners interact with clients—to negotiated agreement with the Minister accountability for results: a quantitative down to a social worker’s performance approach (Burton & Van den Broek, 2009; agreement with his or her frontline manager, Webster, 2014). Pinnock (2012) perceptively responsibility for expected outputs— addresses this suspicion: intended to contribute to societal outcomes via the contract model—may permeate an Over the past 15 years I’ve seen the simple agency. Annual performance planning and idea of evaluating outcomes in social care reviews (Rudman, 2010) are the mechanisms recklessly damaged by its association by which this accountability is exercised and with the arrogant excesses of so-called become the new organisational culture for “”. For many, practitioners. the very idea of measuring progress has become a tyranny. Each week the media KPIs are the sharp end of the four terms brings us yet another example of some being considered, defined by Parmenter cynical management contrivance for (2010, p. 4) as “a set of measures focusing on creating the impression of “improved those aspects of organisational performance performance”. But just like the little trick that are the most critical for the current of recording [an] aborted visit to the clinic and future success of the organisation.” as “Did not attend”, it often creates an Parmenter suggests that, to be effective, unreliable impression of the service it KPIs must: be frequently measured (not purports to represent. (Pinnock, 2012, p. 23) less than once a week); be acted on by ; unambiguously set The tyranny noted by Pinnock is located out required actions by individual staff in the contractual model inaugurated by and ; impact on critical success

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factors and encourage appropriate action Although RBATM has been adopted by the (Parmenter, 2010, p. 6). The authors of this MSD (MSD, n.d.) Pinnock (2012) offers an paper see KPIs as the cutting edge by which affirmative, practitioner’s take on RBATM the MSD’s performance accountability in his frontline role managing children’s is assessed. While KPIs offer clarity on services in the UK. He suggests that required staff action, they also carry measuring outcomes serves two objectives: potential for micromanagement. Senior the purpose of external accountability and an managers may hold frontline workers to internal purpose of organisational learning account for system-based problems of (Pinnock, 2012, p. 24). Pinnock sets out greater complexity than individuals, teams seven Cs of outcomes: or even organisations can realistically control. As noted in Table 1, the insatiable • Clear – they’re easily understood by demand for data may also create the both professional and lay audiences impression that numbers are valued as • Child-centred – they’re about children’s much as qualitative measurements. In lives – not management’s “mission” examining child protection social work • Concise – they give us a memorable and practice in England, Munro (2010, p. 1135) portable vision of a desired future identifies these factors as constituting a • Consensual – they describe a shared culture “in which professional practice purpose that everyone can sign up to is being excessively controlled and • Constant – they remain constant over proceduralised [as evidenced by] the blame time and place culture and the performance management • Comprehensive – they encourage us to system.” Munro also suggests that these see the “whole child” factors detract from opportunities to learn. • Challenging – they’re inspirational as well as aspirational (Pinnock, 2012, p. 24). The authors suggest that the cynicism with which social workers may treat statistical Pinnock’s outcomes read as qualitative reporting on KPIs, outputs and even rather than quantitative statements. He outcomes, emanates from their inherent proposes that clear outcomes are a “work quantitative bias. In addition, Scott (2001, in progress” (2012, p. 24)—a striking phrase p. 196) points out that “achieving outcome carrying distinct affinity with the process goals is not easy.” He suggests that noted earlier of how practitioners interact with “outcomes are typically the result of a wide clients. Pinnock (2012) argues that child- range of factors that are only partially within centred outcomes enable social workers to the control of a chief executive” (Scott, 2001, reconnect with their vocation and thus gain p. 175). CYF’s statement of intent (MSD, “meaning and authenticity” (p. 25) by virtue 2014, p. 10) that “vulnerable children are of the commitment to those outcomes for protected from abuse and neglect; children the child. Concisely worded outcomes allow and young people are in safe and permanent better recall, the opposite of “wordy, jargon- care” illustrates Scott’s realism, obligating laden statements of purpose” (Pinnock, 2012, an honest examination of its achievability. p. 25) characteristic of management discourse. If espoused goals are interpreted as The notion of consensual, shared-purpose inevitably failing to meet the test of outcomes expresses the collegiality of the “specific, measurable, achievable, realistic profession and the need for partnership and time-based [SMART]” goals (Lawler & between practitioners and the families in Bilson, 2010, p. 84), cynical reactions may children’s social work practice (Turnell & result. Alternatively, such objectives may Edwards, 1997). Pinnock (2012) observes that be interpreted as aspirational, suggesting “effective partnerships give a community potential incompatibility with NPM’s a massive advantage [and that] trusting orientation towards accountability for results relationships are usually the place where by the organisation. innovative work begins” (p. 27). He further

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suggests that a commitment to constant CF may be regarded as the ethically based outcomes transcends changes caused by attitudes and behaviours of social work “political party, funding levels, boundary practitioners which inform and add value changes, management-fad, and organisational to their practice models. CF is conceptually structure” (Pinnock, 2012, p. 25). similar to strengths-based practice (Saleebey, 2006) in that the values espoused are expressed Pinnock offers a summative declaration that in the social worker’s interactions with clients; “outcome statements should leave us with they do not constitute a practice model. Laska a powerful and challenging mental image et al. (2014) enumerate a complete list of CF of the world that we’re working to create as “[the therapeutic] alliance, empathy, goal with children and young people” (2012, consensus/, positive regard/ p. 26). This statement provides a sense of affirmation, congruence/genuineness” (p. 472). purpose for organisational learning (Munro, According to these authors, the therapeutic 2010) equivalent to Senge’s (1997) influential alliance consists of the bond between the notions of mental models and shared vision. worker and the client, their agreement on goals Pinnock suggests that to realise those core sought and tasks undertaken through the disciplines effective leadership is required working relationship (2014, p. 471) expressing (2012, p. 26). These elements form part of the Turnell and Edwards’ (1997) advocacy for a final section of this paper, which presents the partnership between practitioners and families. authors’ vision for best social work practice in the context of management informed Therapeutic alliances inherent in CF by NPM. approaches apply to a wide range of social work practice. In the mental health context Best practice for example, Bland, Renouf, and Tullgren (2015, p. 7) note the fundamental importance To provide this vision, we argue that the of relationships between social workers and interactions between social workers and the service users and carers and, indeed, service populations they serve stand at the heart providers. Relationships are particularly of professional practice, and should be important for their healing potential. The prioritised. We also suggest that time taken key principles for social work practice in for quantitative data gathering required by mental health build on the foundation of NPM-mandated output measurements has relationships: emphasising personhood; detracted from the application of core skills valuing the lived experience of individual and ethically based behaviours directly consumers and family members and carers; related to working with vulnerable and affirming the importance of partnership marginalised populations. and mutuality; addressing powerlessness, marginality, stigma and disadvantage; and The efficacy of research-based practice conveying empathy, compassion and hope approaches is the subject of an extensive (Bland et al., 2015, pp. 10-11). While these literature, too wide for detailed analysis social work principles are not exclusive to in this article. However, dialogue with a the mental health context they demonstrate practice colleague in CYF (Dave Wood, an application of social work principles to a personal communication, 2015) suggests field linked to the CF principles of alliance, that, for the purpose of this paper, the empathy and partnership. current interest in common factors theory (CF) is appropriately selected to illustrate The organisational context is particularly Gambrill’s (2015) useful examination of important for social work because our “ethical, evidence-informed interventions to location for practice is often in the public clients” (p. 510). As outlined earlier, CF is a welfare arena where we are exposed to practice approach which offers demonstrably the power of government policy and positive outcomes for clients. funding controls. This influence reaches

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through to the organisational setting of Association (PSA) (PSA, 2015) in August social work practice. The global social work 2015 identified some critical factors in this profession has developed policy to address field. The Workload and Case Review (Office the organisational context of practice: The of the Chief Social Worker, 2014) found that global social work profession has developed social workers in care and protection practice polity to address the organisational context spent 25% of their working hours in contact of practice (Agius & Jones, 2012). This policy with the people they serve (Figure 2). UK asserts that the goals of ethical practice anecdotal reports suggest that social workers and organisational accountability can might spend 80% or even 90% of their time both be met, but that effective and ethical on computer tasks (British Association of social work practice cannot be achieved Social Workers (BASW), 2012, p. 82). In without a supportive working environment response to the question, “How have cuts to that upholds these goals. In the light of back office staff impacted on your role?” one our discussion on NPM and its narrow participant commented: “Being endlessly focus on organisational accountability of hassled to tick boxes on computers to meet workers, this policy is a corrective with its targets, for no real gain to service users” corresponding emphasis on social work (BASW, 2012, p. 79). ethics and values. This hui was set in the wider context What actions can be taken by the profession of institutional racism and the need for to address the challenges of NPM and practice that liberates Máori from making ICT within statutory child protection up a majority of the children in care and practice? The authors propose that the core under case management. The call for change requirement is that child protection social found in Puao te ata tu that informed the workers must reclaim the critical relationship Children Young Persons and Their Families with families expressed in CF thinking. Act 1989, still awaits fulfilment (PSA, 2015, Because cultural values and ideas have pp. 11-12, 14). The hui made a range of consequences (Hofstede, 2001; Weaver, 1984) recommendations: address other structural a commitment to CF at the heart of practice problems such as inequality and poverty; must be non-negotiable. We have no doubt resource social workers and ensure lower that practitioners in child protection work caseloads as stated in the Workload and operate from that value base. Organisational Casework Review (Office of the Chief Social leadership is needed to prioritise CF practice Worker, 2014); for a cohesive vision for over the reporting of contracted targets CYF; that services are whánau-centred not in the complex field of child protection. just child-centric; that social workers are Recognition by stakeholders—particularly empowered in their practice; to be wary of frontline, middle and senior managers—of privatising foster care and of the uncritical the intrinsic value of the work undertaken use of predictive risk modelling practice offers a powerful workforce motivator as approaches (PSA, 2015, pp. 14-17). NPM Herzberg (2003) saw almost 50 years ago in does not address these wider challenges. his now-classic article, “One more time: How The report initiated by government on do you motivate employees?” Herzberg also CYF, (The Modernising Child Youth and observed that the work in itself motivates Family Panel, 2015), while recommending practitioners. Social workers did not join significant investment for children in the profession to enter data on computer care does not address structural issues of templates and are unlikely to be motivated racism and inequality, nor the professional by such activity. concerns of holistic practice and social worker support. In Aotearoa New Zealand a hui (meeting) initiated by the Social Work Action The crucial point to make relates to the Network (SWAN) within the Public Service centrality of the professional relationship

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(Source: Offi ce of the Chief Social Worker, 2014, p. 71) Figure 2. Breakdown of Available Work Time for Care and Protection and Youth Justice Social Workers

between practitioners, children and their Conclusion families. Wampold’s research (see, e.g., Social workers are not data entry operators, Wampold, 2001; Wampold & Budge, 2012) has found that up to 60% of successful nor statisticians charged with recording treatment outcomes are attributable to the targets. They are organisationally and client’s perception of the therapeutic alliance, professionally accountable for their or CF. Early assessments by the recipients knowledge and skills bases required in of the trust to be placed in the worker are the processes of engaging with vulnerable also critical (Babor & Del Boca, 2003). This families. The authors of this paper argue paper therefore proposes that, for optimal that, according priority to those processes outcomes, child protection social workers can take advantage of NPM’s accountability must be allocated a greater proportion of thinking. Accountabilities in this instance are their working week to client engagement, funders represented by the Minister, service perhaps up to 50% in the early stages, recipients, communities, and social work defined as the first six weeks in Babor and managers from frontline to senior levels. Del Boca’s (2003) study. The benefits are We propose that this accountability now multifaceted. Borrowing from the BASW needs to offer equal recognition to the most (2012) statement, worker motivation is likely significant stakeholders of all: the care and to improve; client trust in the social worker protection social work workforce. stands a better chance of being established; and the outcomes sought by NPM The recent SWAN/PSA hui offers a pathway organisational policies will be enhanced. to advance that recognition. Drawing

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specifically from the hui, the authors propose Bland, R., Renouf, N., & Tullgren, A. (2015). Social work practice in mental health: An introduction (2nd ed.). a threefold strategy Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin. (A, B, and C.) Based on the development B oston, J. (Ed.). (1995). The state under contract. Wellington, of a consensus from (i) social work NZ: Bridget Williams Books. educational providers; (ii) the Social Workers Boston, J., Martin, J., Pallot, J., & Walsh, P. (1996). Registration Board; (iii) the Aotearoa Public management: The New Zealand model. New Zealand Association of Social Workers; Auckland, NZ: Oxford University Press. and (iv) the MSD and, if applicable, the B ritish Association of Social Workers. (2012). Voices from the frontline: The state of social work 2012. Birmingham, future Children’s Ministry we suggest: England: Author. B urns, J. M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper and Row. A. A policy and practice commitment to: Burton, J., & Van den Broek, D. (2009). Accountable and countable: systems and the • The specific provisions of the United bureaucratization of social work. British Journal of Nations Convention on the Rights of Social Work, 39(7), 1326-1342. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcn027 the Child (UNCROC, as ratified by C arey, M. (2009). The order of chaos: Exploring agency care managers’ construction of social order within fragmented New Zealand); worlds of state social work. British Journal of Social • The holistic family-centric approach, Work, 39(3), 556-573. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcm143 encompassing all ethnicities, to C hapman, J., & Duncan, G. (2007). Is there now a new social work practice as set out in “New Zealand model”? Public Management Review, 9(1), 1-25. the hui document, UNCROC and CF C offey, M., Dugdill, L., & Tattersall, A. (2009). Working practice. in the public sector: A case study of social services. Journal of Social Work, 9(4), 420-442. B. The integration of theory and practice doi:10.1177/1468017309342177 (as developed through strategy A) by F itzgibbon, D. W. (2008). Deconstructing probation: management in MSD/Ministry for Risk and developments in practice. Journal of Social Work Practice, 22(1), 85-101. Children. F riedman, M. (2009). Trying hard is not good enough: How to produce measurable improvements for customers C. Government and MSD/Ministry for and communities. Charleston, SC: BookSurge. Children management commitment G ambrill, E. (2015). Integrating research and practice: to resourcing 50% of social workers’ Distractions, controversies, and options for moving forward. Research on Social Work Practice, 25(4), working week in the early stages of 510-522. doi:10.1177/1049731514544327 family engagement as suggested in the H ealy, K. (2009). A case of mistaken identity: The social research cited above. welfare professions and New Public Management. Journal of Sociology, 45(4), 401-418. doi 10.1177/ We believe that these strategies address 1440783309346476 H effernan, K. (2006). Social work, new public management causative factors thus replacing reactive and the language of ‘service user’. British Journal of modes of thinking and practice. Social Work, 36(1), 139-147. doi 10.1093/bjsw/bch328 H erzberg, F. (2003). One more time: How do you motivate employees? Harvard Business Review, 81(1), 87-96. References H ofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing A gius, A., & Jones, D. N. (2012). Effective and ethical values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across working environments for social work: The nations (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. responsibilities of employers of social workers. Berne, H öjer, S., & Forkby, T. (2011). Care for sale: The influence of Switzerland: International Federation of Social Workers. new public management in child protection in Sweden. B abor, T., & Del Boca, F. K. (2003). Treatment matching British Journal of Social Work, 41(1), 93-110. in alcoholism. Cambridge, England; New York, doi 10.1093/bjsw/bcq053 NY: Cambridge University Press. H ood, C. (1991). A public management for all seasons? B eckmann, A., & Cooper, C. (2004). “Globalisation”, the new Public Administration, 69(1), 3-19. managerialism and education: Rethinking the purpose of I nkson, K., & Kolb, D. (2002). Management: Perspectives education in Britain. Journal for Critical Education Policy for New Zealand (3rd ed.). Auckland, NZ: Pearson Studies, 2(2). Education. Biestek, F. P. (1957). The casework relationship. Chicago, Ill.: Johnson, B. (1992). Polarity management: Identifying and Loyola University Press. managing unsolvable problems. Amherst, MA: HRD Press.

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