Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation

Amir Nasri*

Abstract

Since the is regarded as the most important source of Christian iconography and iconog- raphy in return is the visual interpretation of the Bible, the relationship between Christian ico- nography and biblical interpretation is noteworthy. In some cases this relationship is such that the visual representation is actively involved in the interpretation of the biblical text and is not a mere passive illustration of the text. In order to better understand the different periods of Christian iconography, it is also important to consider the biblical interpretive methods. This article, first summarily introduces the two important schools of Antioch and Alexandria; and then moves on to show the reflections of the teachings of these two schools on early Christian , with which it was contemporary. Attempts will then be made to show this relation in the different examples of the iconography of this era, and to compare it with that of the later periods.

Keywords: Iconography, Interpretation, Antioch School, Alexandrian School, Bible

*. Assistant Professor of Philosophy of Art, Department of Philosophy, Allameh Tabataba’i University E-mail: [email protected] ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation

Introduction explicit representation and the symbolic representation corresponded to sacred texts, Since the Bible is the most important those of the and of the New source for Christian iconography, a lot of Testament, as well as liturgical and patristic biblical events, themes and scenes have texts (Ouspensky, 1978, p.66). Furthermore, been taken by . The approach this period is approximately coincident with of Christian art in the adoption of the Bible the blossoming of theological schools of has not always been the same; it means Alexandria and Antioch, each of which that, in the course of , Christian art took a different approach to biblical has tried to illustrate biblical themes in interpretation. The school of Alexandria light of the dominant interpretative trends had the biggest impact on the iconography of the era. In this respect, it can be claimed of this period, such that its impact can be that even Christian iconography should be traced throughout the Christian Middle regarded as a kind of biblical interpretation, Ages and even in the modern era. as it is indicated by historical examples. It should be noted that iconography These historical examples also point out in general means basically a visual different trends of biblical interpretation. interpretation, but what is important in the Therefore, gaining insights into Christian development of Christian iconography is 45 iconography and its functions would not its coincidence with the different trends in be enlighteningly possible without regard Christian theology and in the understanding to these interpretative trends and the of the Bible. Even the Christian theology interpretative functions of images () in can be regarded as one of the main factors Christian art. of this development (Hughes, 2004, p. 179). In this respect, the role of biblical 1) The Role of Visual Interpretation interpretation as one of the most important As different examples in Christian sources of iconography becomes evident. art show, images have had (different) On the interpretative role of images in interpretative functions in different periods Christian art, it should be pointed out that of Christian iconography . The Focus of Christian iconography was seeking not this Article will mainly be on examples of only to represent visible appearance, but it early Christian art (the initial four centuries considered the invisible aspects or spiritual of Christianity), because the early Christian content of what was represented (Ouspensky, iconography particularly in catacombs, was 1978, p.65), in the way that sometimes this in the most part, a means for expressing the content distanced itself from its original religious doctrines of the Christians, rather context and thus took a new meaning. For than being mere artistic expression. example, we can mention those Christian Thus, its dominant themes, both in the images, which have benefited a lot from Quarterly Fourth Year, No. 17 Winter 2016 ......

the Greek-Roman symbols, and have at the The most famous example of ethical- same time separated these symbols from paideutic interpretation of images goes their original context, i.e. paganism, and back to the edict of Gregory the Great. given them a new meaning. This approach He regarded images as “a book for the to Christian iconography, which was illiterate”. He says: “what is written belongs accompanied with changes in the value of to the educated; the images let the illiterate symbols, can be seen as a new interpretation read by seeing (videndo legant), on walls of paganism. In addition, the task of in churches what they are unable to read Christian iconography was not only to in books. Hence the illiterate read what illustrate, rather, this artistic representation they should, in pictures. Therefore, images had an active role in the interpretation of could fulfill a useful purpose, not only in Holy Scripture. It is obvious that, this cannot stimulating religious feeling, but also in be extended to Christian iconography as a conveying the important messages of the whole, because in many cases the images scripture to those who could not read them had a passive role toward the interpretation (Ibid, p. 66). According to this view, the of the text. image not only helps to stimulate religious In connection with the above problem, feelings and emotions, but also is the bearer 46 Bonaventure in the thirteenth century of the message and the interpretation of the similar to Gregory the Great, believed that Bible for a group of believers. This issue the images were created for the uneducated, becomes more important, when it is known who may, through the images, understand that before the translation of the Bible into that which they cannot read in scripture vernacular languages, a great number of (Williamson, 2004: 67). Hence the visual believers were not familiar with the original interpretation of the Bible was important languages of that Book, therefore, the as well as its written interpretation in images, taken from the text of the Bible, the Christian world, in the way that they were useful for both the illiterate and this differentiated between two kinds of images: group of believers. narrative images (storia) and non-narrative images (imago). The importance of narrative Coincident with this Christian approach lies in the fact that they replaced written to the Christian art, the foundations of Moral texts by an event or series of events. This or Typological Interpretation of Scripture sort of images had more paideutic value. In was generated in the Christian world. This this period the ethical-paideutic importance sort of interpretations, which is found even of images alongside their other functions in the late medieval classifications of the - including interpretative function - were interpretative approaches, was seeking the propounded. normative significance of the Bible in times ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation and lives of believers (Gerondin, 1994:. has learnt from the Greek tradition how 32). This interpretative approach towards the stories and rituals of the ancient the image is also accompanied with other have real meaning and can be considered attempts in subsequent centuries. Venerable as inspired patterns by the , which Bede, a British monk in the eighth century, explain the relationship between gods and in addition to the paideutic function of mankind (Janes, 1998, p.64). Jews began to images, sees the role of images not only in interpret the Song of Songs of Solomon by mentioning the holy history (for example borrowing the Greek interpretative tradition The crucifixion of , The miracles of in Homer’s and Hesiod’s works. In the Greek Jesus and so on). tradition in return we should not ignore the He made a distinction between what effects of Sophists and especially the Stoics. the image viewers foreknew and what Because the interpretive tradition by Stoics they learned by images. The former is emerged from the response to this need that indeed their interpretation and reading of traditional texts should be adjusted with the the Bible, whereas the latter is the issues mentality of their time. This need, which that they could not understand from the was rooted in the preservation of Greek Bible; and the images helped them to have literature and heritages, had a considerable 47 a new understanding of Bible passages influence on the tradition of biblical (Williamson, 2004: 67). Such beliefs about interpretation (Ferraris, 1996: 7). As we will the significance of image show that the see, in the interpretation of the Bible, the common conception about the function of Christian iconography gave the priority to the image in the Christian West is based on the requirements of its time. biblical exegesis . 2.1) The Judaist Interpretive Heritage 2) Christian Iconography and the In- Unlike the Greco-Roman interpretative terpretive Heritage of the Bible heritage, which tends to the interpretation of Many researchers believe that the root of literary, historical and law texts, the interest the problems of modern hermeneutics can of the Judaist interpretive heritage was in be traced back in the Jewish and Christian the Bible text and its revealed aspect. In this biblical hermeneutics, such that they tradition, four interpretative trends emerged, regarded Philo of Alexandria as the original which will be mentioned briefly because of founder of the hermeneutic Tradition. Of their influence on the Christian world. course, the Greek interpretative tradition 1) Literalistic interpretation of the text, should not be disregarded, because the Jewish that interpreted the text literally, and whose exegetical tradition arose from Hellenistic largest concern was law and ethical texts. culture. The Jewish exegetical tradition 2) Midarshi method of biblical Quarterly Fourth Year, No. 17 Winter 2016 ......

interpretation, which had Seven Rules of of word of (Jehovah) in the Bible, Bible Interpretation and insisted on the Christian interpretative heritage adverted importance of historical context. to the events in Christ’s life, his mission, 3) Pesher method of biblical death and resurrection. Therefore, for the interpretation, which claimed special Christians the experience of Jesus Christ as knowledge of the holy mysteries and a fulfillment of the Divine promise, became attributed the Bible prophecies to the subject to interpretation (Fearguson, 1986, contemporary events (see: Jeanrond, 1991: chap 9). Thus, the literal interpretation was 14-22). replaced by Christ-centered interpretation. 4) Allegorical interpretation: The This difference in interpretation led dominant figure of this sort of interpretation Christians to interpret the Old Testament was Philo of Alexandria, who was in light of their own views. Because, on the influenced by the interpretative tradition of one hand, Christians did not emphasize on Stoic. He believed that in many cases we Jewish Law and on the other hand, the early cannot understand the Bible literally, for Christians were trying to prove that Jesus example when the Bible speaks about the is the same Messiah, who was promised in Tree of knowledge and life (Genesis 2: 9), the Old Testament. In spite of differences, 48 we have no choice, except to understand the an underlying relationship between the text on the basis of the signs and allegories Old Testament and the New Testament in it. In Philo’s view, we can realize the real seemed necessary. With regard to this issue, meaning of the text in light of the allegory; Christians were compelled to go beyond in this respect he compared the relation the literal meaning of the Old Testament between literal and allegorical meaning to (Janes, 1998: 64). With this description, the that between soul and body (Grondin, 1994: tendency of Christians to allegorical and 27). Of course, he pointed out that only few typological interpretation is justified. people are able to understand the hidden Given the above explanation, the implications of the text. Philo’s opinions most important challenge of Christian about interpretation had the greatest effect interpretations was the interpretation of on the Christian interpretative tradition, the Old Testament in light of the New especially on the school of Alexandria and Testament. The interpretation of the Old thereby contributed to the development of Testament in the Christian tradition begins Christian iconography. with Jesus himself. He, like other Jewish commentators of that time, believed that 2.2) Christian interpretative heritage the Old Testament is a Divine revelation, as well as the Old Testament passages cited Unlike Jewish interpretative heritage, again and again in the New Testament. which paid attention to the revealed aspect (Some instances being: Luke 4:4, Matthew ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation

4:4, Mark 17:11) point can be found in Saint Paul, resulted In Jesus-centered interpretation of Saint in two major schools of interpretation: The Paul as well, we see the explicit references schools of Alexandria and Antioch in early to the Old Testament, but he intended to Christianity. The former believed that we make interpretations allegorically or explain can understand the ultimate mysteries of things through allegoroumena. For example: the Scriptures through the interpretation of “Now this may be interpreted allegorically: symbols. The latter traced the historical facts these women are two covenants. One is in text. However, both schools influenced from Mount Sinai, bearing children for the development Christian iconography; slavery; she is Hagar.… Now Hagar is the school of Alexandria’s method of Mount Sinai in Arabia; she corresponds to interpretation had more effect on Christian the present Jerusalem, for she is in slavery art. Considering the importance of their with her children” (Galatian, 4, 24-25). In views in interpretation, some of their main this text Saint Paul interpreted infertility ideas are mentioned here. as the situation of Jerusalem, when under captivity of the Jewish Halakha war, and 2.2.1) The School of Antioch fertility as the situation of Jerusalem in his The Antiochian school believed in the 49 time . Through this interpretative method, historical and literal meaning of the Bible. applied by Saint Paul, we see the positions Therefore, it is said that its adherents were of Early Church Fathers about the unity of influenced by the schools of literalist and the two Testaments and their interpretations. Midrash Exegetical Interpretation of the Of course the role of Epistle to the Torah’s Text, and they reacted to the Philo’s Hebrews, which was influential in the field and Origen’s interpretive method. They did of Christian interpretation, should also be not regard even the interpretative method of considered. This Epistle, in its use of the Paul on Epistle to the Galatians (4: 22-28) as Old Testament and the images of it, did not allegorical and believed that if we consider have many similarities with Saint Paul’s interpretation of the Bible allegorically, then Method, but tried to provoke the Christians the events in book and historical reality of its to understand the allegorical meanings of revelation becomes questionable. Therefore, the text. In this Epistle there are also people one of the criticisms on the allegorical and allegories that have a high frequency in interpretations is the neglect of the biblical Christian iconography, for example, the use historical reality, while they believed that of “anchor” (Epistle to the Hebrews, 6: 19), Saint Paul believes in this historical reality. which became the symbol of “hope” in the They mentioned for example, the story early Christian iconography. of Adam and in which elements like The interpretive tradition, whose starting Adam, Heaven, , etc. have historical Quarterly Fourth Year, No. 17 Winter 2016 ......

reality; in fact, Saint Paul has explicitly though most of it is taken form the literal referred in the Epistle to the Romans (18: meaning of the Bible_ we cannot attribute 5) and the Second Corinthians (3: 11) to them purely to the Christian origin, without these historical facts. In addition, they regard to allegorical interpretations. Due to condemned the allegorical interpretation to this problem, as we will see hereafter, from heresy, innovation and Gnosticism. One of the seventh century onwards, the symbolic the most prominent figures of this was John representations in Christian iconography Chrysostom, whose approach in the later became scarce, because it was replaced by was also highly praised by an alternative approach. Thomas Aquinas. The reflections of this interpretative trend 2.2.2) The School of Alexandria can be seen in the symbolic representations of early Christian art, as the symbols in The dominance of Philo’s teachings these representations are taken directly about interpretation –which in early from the Bible and are somehow trying centuries influenced the interpretive to express its content literally. Many of approaches of Church Fathers, especially these symbols which belonged to the Old Origens- is evident in the Alexandrian 50 Testament, are: fish, lamb, anchor, ship, realm in the first century AD. The essence tree, vine, wheat, etc. (Evdokimov, 1996: of the interpretive views of this school 173). It should be noted that it was necessary can be summarized thus: the real meaning to use the symbols and allegories of the of biblical events is not merely literal and Bible and the symbolic language of Art in historical, but they have a spiritual and the early centuries of Christianity, because allegorical meaning (Huges, 2006, p. 176). some issues for various political, social The interpretative views of this school were and cultural reasons were not expressible actually a response to this need of Christians explicitly. Therefore the use of symbols to face the special challenge of spreading in the Bible, which was rooted in the pre- the message of Jesus and extending its , at least maintained the implications for Judaic Law. One basis of [t] relationship of the community of believers his teaching, the Mosaic Law and especially with the Bible and was somehow the its Messianic prophecy could no longer be visual repetition of this book. Of course, it understood literally (Grondin, 1994, p.28). should be noted that if we judge solely by According to The Apocalypse of John: the appearance of Symbols and historical “Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, basis, we have to admit the reflections for the first heaven and the first earth had of pagan Roman-Greek art in Christian passed away, and the sea was no more…” art, too. Thus, in studying the symbolic (21:1). With regard to this view, the New representations of early Christian art _ even Testament has presented the “types”, which ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation have apparently no background in the Old level is devoted to the moral and typological Testament. Therefore, beside the allegorical meaning of the text, which is available only interpretation of the Bible, emerged the to the believers, and corresponds to the Typological Interpretation of the Bible. This human soul. The third level, which contains sort of interpretation, which saw its origin the allegorical meaning and belongs to a and legitimacy in the New Testament: specific group of believers, corresponds to “These things happened to them as examples the human spirit and reveals the secret of [types] and were written down as warnings the Divine Logos. Origen saw this level as for us, on whom the culmination of the ages gift of God to Christians enabling them to has come”! (1 Corinthians 10:11), regarded progress from the visible to the invisible, the people and events of the Old Testament from the material to the intelligible. He as prophecies concerning Jesus Christ in even acknowledged that the or the New Testament. For example, in this the real author of the Bible has hidden the interpretive approach, Moses, the leader deeper meanings under the veil of common charged with delivering Hebrews out of stories, which will be clear only for a slavery in Egypt, and leading them into the particular group (Grondin, 1994: 30). He Promised Land (Exodus 12 : 37_14 : 31) , believed that if biblical interpretation has a was seen as a foreshadowing of Christ, who view other than this, many of the statements 51 delivered humankind into eternal salvation contained in it (including the creation in six by his death on cross (Williamson, 2004, consecutive days) will be meaningless and p. 72). This approach tried to solve the moreover we cannot link both Testaments. problem of the union of both Testaments, Although the Origen’s approach the Jesus Christ Advent Prophecies in the justified the relationship between the Old Testament and the gleaning of Moses’s two Testaments, this approach also faces Sharia (John 5: 46) and believed that the problems, two of which will be mentioned New Testament reveals the spirit that can here: first, the typological interpretations be understood from the words of the Old didn’t pay attention to history and removed Testament. many of the historical events in the Bible The prominent theorist of this and this approach is incompatible with the interpretive approach is Origen. Origen dominant tendency of Christian theology believed that the Bible contains three levels which considers the Incarnation of the of meaning, corresponding to the threefold Son of God, and the salvation human Platonic division of a person into body, soul Beings within history; And even with this and spirit. In Origen’s view, the first level approach, the Incarnation can be interpreted is related to literal and historical meaning, otherwise than official church reading. which is appropriate to the ordinary people Another problem is the distinguishing and corresponds to the bodily level. The next between typological and allegorical Quarterly Fourth Year, No. 17 Winter 2016 ......

interpretations (the second and third level). three factors can be named: One is the use Because the distinguishing between them of symbols and giving them new meaning; is not easy and even Augustine and many the other is the reaction of Christian thinkers of the Middle Ages saw these two theologians to the non-Orthodox teachings very closely, and basically did not feel any of Marcion about the lack of authenticity of need to distinguish between them (Hughes, Septuaginta (Ibid: 70); the third factor is the 2004:. 177). Whereas many of early Church usual interpretation of the Old Testament Fathers have emphasized the distinction stories in pre-Constantine period. Since this between typological and allegorical, the period was coincident with the persecution latter of which in their opinion belongs to of Christians, the Christians preferred the pagan. In this respect, the interpretive depicting the Old Testament scenes to the approach of Origen on the one hand follows explicit representation of these persecutions that of Philo’s approach, and on another and regarded these scenes as the presence of hand is different from it (Grondin, 1994, pp. God as the Savior from the dangers (Ibid:. 29-30). 74). Of course, the Christian iconography In comparison to the School of Antioch, did not always incorporate into the text of the the interpretative approach of the School of Bible and in many cases the painters used the 52 Alexandria had more influence on Christian same method of typological interpretation iconography. The reflection of this approach and depicted the images in accordance with can be seen especially in the early Christian the context and background of the Christian iconography; such that with regard to the thinking of their times. existing conditions, the of the Concerning the use of typological Christian catacombs have represented more interpretation in Christian iconography, an allegorical and symbolical function of multiple samples in Early Christian the Bible than paying attention only to the iconography can be found, suffice it to literal meaning of it. The study of these mention a few of them here. According images shows that from the second to fourth to the early Christians, as opposed to the centuries, in the Christian iconography we other Christian teachings, the story of the see the dominance of the Old Testament death and resurrection of Jesus Christ had a scenes (almost four times more than the priority, such that Christians in confronting New Testament scenes), whereas logically with the Jews made a special emphasis on it should be vice versa (Jensen, 2000:. this issue. In the iconography of this period 68). There are several theories about this, among different scenes in the Old Testament, among which we can mention the influence a few scenes are more frequent like the story of Jewish iconography in Dura-Europos of Jonah, the Sacrifice of Isaac and Noah’s on Christian iconography. But insofar as story. Christians regarded the story of Jonah this issue is related to the present article, as the reflection of death and resurrection ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation of Jesus, and the sacrifice of Isaac as the witness in earth, the Spirit, and the water, story of the crucifixion of Jesus (the Son and the blood: and these three agree in one” of God) according to Divine (the Father) (The First Epistle of John 5: 7-8) It should be Providence or they interpreted according noted that after the Constantine period, with to the New Testament, the story of Noah the establishment of the Christian Empire, (First Epistle of Peter, 3: 21 -20) and Isreal’s another reading of the Bible was governed Red Sea Crossing (Paul’s First Letter to the in the Christian world. Corinthians 10: 2) as baptism (Ibid: 85). As we saw in the examples above, However, their interpretation of baptism many works in early Christian iconography provides also for death and resurrection. have paid attention to the allegorical and “Know ye not, that so many of us as were symbolical character of the images. From baptized into Jesus Christ were baptized this perspective, many of these images are into his death. Therefore we are buried with important for their visual aspects and the key him by baptism into death: that like as Christ to their understanding can be found simply was raised up from the dead by the in the written text (the Bible) . According of the Father, even so we also should walk to this, the referral character of the images in newness of life” (Epistle to the Romans, is brought to attention, therefore in facing 6: 3-4). Another example of paintings in with the text the painters functioned as the 53 Christian catacombs, which had a broad biblical commentators of that time. reflection and indicated the Condition of Considering that at the time of the Christians in that period, was the image establishment of the Christian empire, the of the three Hebrew young men who expectations of the interpreters of the Bible refused to worship king Nebuchadnezzar’s was different from the past, changes are seen statue and were thrown in the furnace of in the position of Christian Theology . In fire. Historically this image is seen as an this period, theology based on resurrection indication to the Christian martyrs of pre- is replaced by political theology, which Constantine period, as Tertullian saw this intended to gain the issues of its time from image as an evidence for encouraging to self- the Bible. Therefore it paid less attention sacrifice and martyrdom (Jensen, 2000: 81). to the literal reading of the text and sought This issue will find more importance, when symbols and allegories in the Bible, in it is known that Tertullian’s interpretative order to consolidate the dominant church approach was close to the school of Antioch teachings. Such an approach to the sacred (Ferraris, 1996: 14). But on the other side, text had an impact on the iconography of this this image was considered as a mysterious period, too, such that the images of Noah, hint to the bodily resurrection or to the Jonah, etc., faded and a distancing became passages of the New Testament: “and these observable from the death and resurrection three are one. And there are three that bear of images in this period. Moreover, instead Quarterly Fourth Year, No. 17 Winter 2016 ......

of this type of images, the scenes of ritual also: and from henceforth ye know him, and worship, the New Testament and the statue have seen him (John, 14, 6-7). They believed of Christ seated on throne predominated; that in this verse the truth is as person and his even Jesus is depicted no longer as a teacher image, therefore, the church must besides or healer, but he was represented quite in a speaking about him, try to show him, too formal pose (Jensen, 2000: 91). (Ouspensky, 1987: 95). Even this emphasis The Attention of the iconography in this of members shows the importance of the period to the explicit representation and visual interpretation besides the written dismissal of the symbolic representation interpretation of the Bible; it also indicates of the first centuries goes back to the that from the perspective of the Church, the common beliefs of the church in this period. applying of common interpretative patterns The Seventh Ecumenical Council (692) in the case of images taken from the Bible, expressed explicitly in some paragraphs is inevitable, too. Of course, the distinctions of its legislations, the principles of sacred between the written text and the visual text art, and under these principles the negation should not be neglected. of symbolic representation was on the Although these two schools (Alexandria agenda. Of course, it should be noted that and Antioch) emerged in the first centuries 54 the negation of symbolic representation of Christianity their influence on the by this council didn’t mean to reject the interpretive attitude of medieval ages until allegorical interpretation, but presupposed the religious reform movement and then up such a reading of the text, too. The members to the emergence of modern hermeneutics of this Council emphasized decisively on still remained in force, in a way that the the non-literal reading, the example they typological interpretations were still the had in mind was the symbol of the lamb in most common interpretative form of artistic early Christian iconography. Although this representation (Hughes, 2006: 174). The symbol is used in both Testaments, but the use of this form of interpretation in the members haven’t found the use of symbols iconography of the following centuries instead of explicit representation proper and did not have the same kind of evidences have regarded this sort of representation as of the first few centuries of Christianity, simply relying on the literal meaning of the but it used the typological interpretations text (Ouspensky, 1987: 94). Their reason as religious propaganda; as these sorts of went back to their interpretation of this verse interpretations have had a great advertising of the New Testament: Jesus saith unto him, impact. For example, since the fourteenth I am the way, the truth, and the life: no man century, the art of embellishing books with cometh unto the Father, but by me. If ye had regard to typological interpretations of the known me, ye should have known my Father Bible which was called Biblia Pauperum, ...... Christian Iconography and Biblical Interpretation

proliferated. References

Evdokimov, Paul. (1996). The Art of , The illustrations of these books paid a Theology of Beauty. California: Oakwood attention to the typological interpretations, Publication. such that the scene of the crucifixion of Ferguson , Duncan. S. (1986) Biblical Jesus Christ is placed beside the scene of Hermeneutics , London : SCM. the sacrifices Isaac (Williamson, 2004: 74). Ferraris, Maurizio. (1996). History of Of course, these books in order to give some Hermenutics. Translated by Luca Somigili. New further insight to readers, used inscriptions Jersey: Humanities Press. on the lower part of the images, which Grondin, Jean. (1994). Introduction to explained the necessity of putting the scenes Philosopical Hermenutics. New Haven and from the both Testaments together. London: Yale University Press. Hughes, Christopher. G. (2006). “Art and Conclusion Exegesis” in a companion to . Edited Based on the facts discussed in this by Conrad Rudolph. Blackwell Publishing. article and with regard to the examples, Janes, Dominic. (1998). God and Gold in Late which can be found in Christian Antiquity. Cambridge University Press. 55 iconography, we can acknowledge that Jeanrod, Werner (1991). Theological interpreative trends in the Christian Hermeneutics , London : Macmilan. world had a very important role in Jensen, Robin Margaret. (2000). Understanding the development and expansion of Early Christian Art. London and New York: artistic representation and Christian Routedge. iconography has adapted itself to the Nasri, Amir (2008) Hekmate Shamayel hay interpretative methods of the Bible, Masihi , Tehran: Cheshmeh. in the way that it can be regarded as a Ouspensky, Leonid. (1978). Theology of Icon. visual form of biblical interpretation. New York: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press. Williamson, Beth. (2004). Christian Art. Oxford University Press.