NeBIO I www.nebio.in I December 2019 I 10(4): 235-241

REVIEW ARTICLE in : Historical and cultural significance of album L. as a basis for its conservation

Sandeep C.* & Manohara T.N. Silviculture and Forest Management Division, Institute of Science and Technology, 18th Cross, Malleswaram, Bengaluru, India Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Santalum album L. popularly known as Indian sandalwood, “Srigandha” or “Chandana” has been the most valuable timber in India known for its religious and cultural value since time immemorial. It is deeply associated with the social rituals of Indians and has held a special place in all the major religions of India. The significance of Indian sandalwood and its intimate association with Indians is greatly reflected in written records and oral traditions of India. The heartwood is highly priced for its enriched aromatic in national and international markets. The oil is used in aroma therapy, , , pharmaceuticals and as an essential commodity on special occasions. Indian sandalwood is indigenous to peninsular India. Due to over-exploitation and illicit felling, S. album is enlisted in vulnerable category of IUCN Red List. Despite its huge commercial and cultural relevance to India, the sandalwood improvement program has been limited and research addressing the two commercially important traits like heartwood formation and essential oil yield has not generated noteworthy output to support an effective breeding program for this important tree species. Considering its cultural and religious importance, there is an urgent need to conserve the species. The present study envisages the values, beliefs, stature of sandalwood in Indian culture and how the traditional knowledge can be made use in formulating the strategies for effective conservation of this flagship species.

KEYWORDS: Chandana, conservation, Indian heritage, sandalwood, traditional knowledge.

Introduction in various agro-climatic conditions (Troup, 1921; Annapurna et al., Indian sandalwood ( L. Family: ) is an 2006). The seeds of S. album exhibit polymorphic forms. evergreen tree commonly found in dry deciduous forests of India. Karyotyping of chromosomes revealed that the somatic cells of It can reach a height of 20 m and attain a girth of 2.5 m (Fig. 1) Santalum were diploid and the chromosome number in S. album (Sen Sarma, 1982; Rai, 1990; Viswanath et al., 2009). It can grow was 2n=20 or n=10 (Darlington and Wylie, 1955; Zhang et al., from sea level to 5000 m altitude ( Rao, 1908; Venkatesan, 2010). Being an out-crossing species, it shows variations in 1980; Rai, 1990) and can associate with more than 300 species of size and shape, flower structure, flowering season, heartwood (Rama Rao, 1903; Rama Rao, 1911; Annapurna et al., 2006). and oil content (Kulkarni and Srimathi, 1982; Arun Kumar et al., It is an obligate hemi-parasite, hardy species and can adapt well 2012). It is popularly known as white sandalwood, also popular as

Received 21 November 2019 I Accepted 29 December 2019 I Published online 31 December 2019

Citation: Sandeep C. & Manohara T.N. 2019. Sandalwood in India: Historical and cultural significance of Santalum album L. as a basis for its conservation. NeBIO 10(4): 235-241.

Acknowledgement The authors are thankful to the Director, Institute of Wood Science and Technology, Bengaluru and to the Director, Forest Research Institute, Thrissur, Kerala for their constant support and encouragement. Authors arealso thankful to the National Medicinal Plants Board (NMPB), New Delhi. Financial support from the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research(CSIR), Government of India through Senior Research Fellowship to Sandeep C(09/813(0003)/2015 EMR I) is gratefully acknowledged.

Copyright © Sandeep & Manohara. 2019. NECEER, Imphal allows unrestricted use, reproduction, and distribution of this article in any medium by adequate credit to the author(s) and the source of publication.

NeBIO, An International Journal of Environment and Biodiversity Official publication of North East Centre for Environmental Education (NECEER), Imphal I ISSN 2278-2281 (Online), 0976-3597 (Print) I www.nebio.in

Sandeep & Manohara » Sandalwood in India: Historical and cultural significance as a basis for its conservation NeBIO 10(4): 235-241

“Dollar earning parasite” (Krishnappa, 1972; Durairaj and Kamraj, Historical and cultural importance of Indian sandalwood 2013) and its essential oil is ordained as “Queen of essential oil” (Radomiljac et al., 1998). It is well known as “Indian sandalwood” Importance and uses of sandalwood in different times whereas, it’s oil as “East Indian ” in western Historically, sandalwood is amalgamated with the Indian heritage, societies and has huge demand in the international and national culture and tradition (Srinivasan et al., 1992; Fox, 2000). It is markets. It is indigenous to peninsular India (Ramaswamy, 1956; commonly known as Chandana (Sanskrit) in India and as white Gairola et al., 2008) and exploited rampantly for its high economic sandalwood (English) or as East Indian sandalwood in western worth (Fox, 2000). It is distributed 30°N to 40°S from Hawaiian societies. Sandalwood is closely associated with human Archipelago in the north to New Zealand in the south and from civilization since time immemorial that has continued to fascinate in the east to Juan Fernandez Islands (Chile) in the artists and craftsmen (Campbell, 1883; Kushalapa, 1998). The west. Indian sandalwood is a highly valued tree of global fame largest market segment for Indian sandalwood are the products and is acknowledged as Royal tree (Fox, 2000). More than 170 and applications meant for religious, ritual and ceremonial species of insect-pests are known to infect S. album and the spike purposes. In Indian culture, it is regarded with special reverence. disease was once regarded as a major threat to this species. Indians have a strong spiritual association with sandalwood and Sandalwood bioresources of , especially, the the heartwood is burnt at weddings and funerals. S. album is the populations in its natural stands is seriously threatened and needs state tree of and Karnataka is critically acclaimed as immediate attention. land of sandalwood (Gandhada Nadu), while the region in and around ‘Mysuru’ is eulogized as a sandalwood shrine (Gandhada Gudi) (Adkoli, 1977; Fox, 2000). From its natural area of distribution (Campbell, 1883), S. album was introduced to Northern, Central (Srinivasan et al., 1992), North Western (Das, 2013) and North Eastern India (Viswanath, 2014; Babita et al., 2016). Though S. album is indigenous to Deccan plateau it is getting naturalized in other parts of India and elsewhere (Sandeep et al., 2016). Indian sandalwood is idolized in most of the religions especially Hinduism and . Sandalwood is used in every aspect of human life, especially in Indian culture and civilizations as it is required from cradle to cremation. In India, it is used in the production of attars from countless centuries. Attar is a blend of sandalwood oil and flower oil, such as rose petal, jasmine, kewda and others. The quality of attar is dependent on the concentration of flower effervescence within sandalwood oil. Varieties of attar products are produced in India and it forms an important constituent for the manufacture of sticks and scented tobacco such as Pan Masala, Zarada and Gutka. Its oil is used in perfumeries, soaps and toiletries, ayurvedic and pharmaceutical applications. Due to non-availability of sufficient quantity, oil industries depending on S. album are forcibly yielding towards alternatives of Western Australian, Fiji, New Caledonia and South African Santalum species.

Vedic and Indus valley period From the times of Harappan civilization tree worshiping was practiced in India. Indians were very well aware of medicinal importance of plants and mastered the art of ayurvedic since Vedic period. Vedic and Indus valley period witnessed utilization of sandalwood in the form of fine artefact or carving deities (Fig. 2), ritual bathing of Hindu deities, temple construction material and for ceremonial causes (Campbell, 1883; Adkoli, 1977; Kushalapa, 1998; Fox, 2000). Its importance in Indian culture is referred in Vedic literature, Puranas (ancient Hindu texts eulogizing various deities), Subhashitas (collection of eloquent sayings written by ancient Sanskrit poets), mythology (stories on

Figure 1. A very tall Sandalwood tree in the last remaining natural supernatural beings and events) and in the ancient scriptures sandalwood reservoir of , Kerala. (sacred writings). The Sanskrit manuscripts that are more than 4000 years old cite sandalwood oil as the oldest known perfumery

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A B C Figure 2. Sandalwood idols of Lord and Radha with decorative frames found in the Salar Jung Museum, .

material. During the age of Yajur Veda sandalwood was used in considers the importance of Indian sandalwood and narrates that sacrificial fires (Anon, 1972), while the treaties of loud hymns in Brahma created it through meditative contemplation. In Brahma Rig Veda and melodious hymns of Sama Veda give indirect Vaivarta Purana, it is mentioned that ‘Goddess Lakshmi’’ (Goddess evidence of Indian sandalwood. It is cited even in the oldest of of wealth) resides in sandalwood, thus Indian sandalwood tree is Indian literatures such as Milinda Panha (200 B.C.), Patanjali believed to be auspicious and bringer of wealth. Purana Mahabhasaya (100 B.C.), Dhamma Pada, Anguttara Nikaya (The recommends the worship of ‘Lord Shiva ‘ with the beige-colored teachings of Buddha) andVinaya Pitaka (300-400 B.C.). In Milinda paste of Indian sandalwood. In south India, it is believed that Panha (Buddhist doctrine), Buddhist sage while referring to the possession of healthy Indian sandalwood tree in one’s garden path of righteousness mentions that “No flower’s scent can waft would ward off evil spirits, black magic and attract wealth for the against the wind, not sandalwood’s, nor musk’s, nor jasmine owner. Even today some households in south India which are flowers. But the fragrance of the good goes against the wind in all aware of this fact prefer to sandalwood in their home directions the good man’s name pervades”. While describing gardens to prosper wealth and is considered as a secretage-old ‘nibbana’ in Milinda Panha, the sage also mentions that “Like tradition. In Coimbatore, many households have planted S. album sandalwood, it is hard to get, its fragrance is incomparable and it along with Murraya koenigii in their home gardens. Likewise, S. is praised by good men”. The medical treatises of Charaka and album is commonly planted in the home gardens of many Susruta clearly gave the detailed description of Indian households in Kerala. Indian mythology cites sandalwood in sandalwood and called it as ‘Shweta Chandana’ (white various instances and according to a legend, Goddess Parvati sandalwood). Later the name of ‘Shweta Chandana’ was adopted created statue of a child using turmeric and sandalwood paste. and S. album was known by the common name of white Later, the statue was blessed to life and came to be known as

sandalwood. ‘Lord Ganesha ’ (God of intellect). In , an appreciation hymn mentions that Lord Krishna and Lord Sandalwood in Puranic literature and Indian mythology on their way to Vrishni Kingdom came across a dwarf named

Puranic literature occupies an intermediate position and is ‘Kubja ’ carrying paste of sandalwood to a tyrant king named believed to be between Vedic age and the period of classical Kamsa. It is narrated that the dwarf lady was blessed by Lord literature (Pusalker, 1955). Eighteen major canonical Puranas were Krishna to become a beautiful woman after she applied the written during the period and significant among themare Agni sandalwood paste to those two divine brothers. According to th Varta Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Kurma ‘Panchatantra ’ stories (before 5 century), Indian sandalwood was Purana, Matsya Purana, Skanda Purana, Shiva Dharma Purana, endemic to the Malaya mountains of southern India. Indian Vamana Purana and Vayu Purana. According to ‘Kurma Purana’, sandalwood was utilized, cultivated and traded by many cultures the plants appeared on earth through the dermal pores of Lord throughout the world since several hundreds of years. In the Brahma. Vyasa Rishi mentioned about the usage of Indian while referring to river Tambrapani (Tamara Parni ) sandalwood in Puranas. In ancient Hindu cultura, few trees have says that “river islands covered with forests of sandalwood goes been associated with wisdom, knowledge, hidden secrets and down the sea as a beloved maid to her lover”. considered as sacred. ‘Agni Varta Purana’ gives the details of plants and plant materials to be used during homa, havana and Indian sandalwood in various religious practices other religious ceremonies. It is an important ingredient in Sandalwood has high spiritual significance in ritualistic practices ‘homa/havana’, a Hindu ritual wherein offerings to the gods are andis used in the sacred fires of Zoroastrian temples with a belief made into a fire on special occasions. Brahma Vaivarta Purana that it soothes the troubles of all humanity. Egyptians and

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Ceylonese used it for medicinal purposes, religious purposes and (Srinivasan et al., 1992). Indian sandalwood is considered to be a for embalming mummies. Indian sandalwood incense is the oldest native of South , especially from the region of type of incense used that dates back to 4000 years old (Adkoli, Coorg (Kodagu) in Karnataka (Majumdar, 1941). Amarkosha 1977). It is burnt during prayers in Buddhist religion. It is (Lexicon 3rd century A.D.) glorifies the usage of sandalwood in mentioned as an item of toiletry in Buddhist Jataka stories of 7th Indian culture (Majumdar, 1941). Ramaswamy (1956) reported that century B.C. Herbalists believe that the fragrance emitted from India is the native of S. album and his observations were based on the sandalwood incense helps to promote an atmosphere of open- the recorded history of its occurrence in India which was of 2300 mindedness, peace and spiritual awareness. Sandalwood incense years old. From 13th to 18th century it remained significant is used in Catholic Church and Jewish Synagogues. Indian economic bioresource that led dynasties for expeditions, warfares sandalwood was one among the most treasured item of and invasions to India (Ganeshaiahet al., 2007). The TTD, in India, commerce that was exported from India to Roman Empire. The daily requires large quantities of sandalwood paste.A day before renown of sandalwood can be realized by the quotes of Lord the Brahmotsavam festival of Lord Venkateshwara, interiors of the Buddha and Nobel Laureate Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore. Lord sanctum sanctorum and the small shrines are smeared with a rich Buddha described Sandalwood tree as - “Sandalwood, tagara, paste of sandalwood. During the Brahmotsavam, while the deity lotus, jasmine – the fragrance of virtue is unrivalled by such kinds is around procession, the priests distribute sandalwood powder of ” while Gurudev Rabindranath Tagore as “The used for the rituals to devotees en route. The Lord Venkateshwara sandalwood tree as likely to prove, sweetestthat can even is referred as ‘Chandana Charchita Govinda’ (The English narrative conquer hate, love and perfumes the cruel axe that lays it low”. would be “The Lord of the untainted form, The Lord who is The value of this species is underlined with the fact that beautiful and anointed by sandalwood paste, The Lord who has sandalwood imparts fragrance even to the axe that cuts it. As the body tint equal to that of cloud”). This ‘woody marvel’ was known sacred trees are common in India, it is said that once upon a time to Indians for countless centuries and south Western Ghats in sandalwood was found abundantly in Coorg (Kodagu) (Fischer, India is considered as its natural area of distribution (Majumdar, 1928). of Karnataka has more than 600 sacred 1941; Ramaswamy, 1956; Viswanath et al., 2009). Though the grooves known as ‘Devara Kadu ’ in spanning in an area usage of sandalwood dates back to Vedic period, it can be said of 10,000 acres. Since India is aspectacular country of sacred that the real population decline of sandalwood began during the deities many temples across India maintain trees in its times of due to his monopolistic policies accompanied surrounding as a symbol of sacredness and secular power. Nine- with the epidemic of spike disease. planets of Solar system in a Sanskrit hymn is rendered as Arkasamidam Adithygya (Calotropis gigantea represented as Sun), Factors leading to the decline of natural populations of S. album Palashagam Somaya (Butea monsperma represented as Moon), in India Khadiram Angarakaya (Acacia catechu represented as Mars) Tipu Sultan, de facto ruler of the , hailing from Apamargam Bhudhaya (Achyranwhus aspera represented as an Arab migrant tribe (Quraish) used to frequent Turkey and Mercury), Ashwatham Brihaspathaye (Ficus religiosa represented Afghanistan for trade. Some researchers opined that Tipu never as Jupiter) AudumbaragShukraya (Ficusglomeratarepresented hesitated to take the help of Afghans and French’s to expel the asVenus) ShamigamShaiaischaraya (Acacia ferruginearepresented one he hated and applied all sorts of strategies to get maximum as Saturn) Rahuve Doorvaya (Cynodon dactylon represented as benefit from trades (Lafont, 2001). However, historians and Rahu) and Kethuve Kushaya (Saccharum spontaneun represented researchers admire him as a progressive king who constantly as Kethu). More than half a tonne of Indian sandalwood is looked out for best global technology for his kingdom. Apart from required annually by Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam (TTD) to his ground breaking changes in economy from going cashless to conduct ‘Snapana Thirumanjanam’ (celestial bath), pre-dawn modernizing warfare system with rocket technology Tipu ritual ‘Suprabatham’ and last seva ‘Ekantha seva’ of Lord introduced a stock yard system for storage of sandalwood known Venkateshwara. To meet this demand TTD has started growing its as ‘Sandal Koti’ in 1799, Koti meaning stock-yard of sandalwood. own sandalwood spanning an area of 100 hectares near Parveta At present, Sandal Koti can be located in Hunsur, Tirthahalli, Mandapam, 3 km from the actual shrine of Lord Venkateshwara in Srirangapatana, Shivamogga, Bengaluru, Sagara, Hassana, Tirumala, . Likewise, Art of Living Foundation also Tarikere, Chikamagalur and Fraserpet. During the times of Tipu has plantations of Indian sandalwood in its premises. Sultan, Afghans, French and Turks favored sandalwood. Thus, sandalwood trade to Arabian countries was at its pinnacle during Indian sandalwood during anno domini the rule of Tipu Sultan. He coined names for various classes of Kalidasa (5th century A.D.) in his poem ‘Raghuvamsa’ referred sandalwood using Afghan, Arabic and Turkish terms. Later in sandalwood at various citations. Trade, economic significance and 1898, the Governments of Karnataka and recognized origin of sandalwood have been cited in the Periplus of the 18 grades of sandalwood for sale. Nevertheless, to establish a Erythrean Sea (written in the 2nd century), Kautilya described a monopoly over Indian sandalwood, Tipu Sultan created a dictum variety of sandalwood in his Arthasastra (200 B.C.), Panchatantra, in 1792. The decree created by Tipu Sultan in 1792, started Kavya- Mimamsa of Rajashekar (880 - 920 AD). Ilango- Adikal, the monopoly of Indian sandalwood and led to the severe Tamil poet quotes that Indian sandalwood originated in the deterioration of sandalwood populations in south India. Under the Southern Mountain (Malaya Tenmalai Piranda Chandanam) dictum, Indian sandalwood was declared as Royal tree (Fox,

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2000). The states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu later ratified the germination of sandalwood was not affected by the thick layered mandate to keep sandalwood under the control of their respective of and Casuarina. This may be because the governments. But this decree became a curse than a boon as it bamboo litter around bamboo clumps and Casuarina leaf litter on brought more harm than good as many legal obligations were the ground conserve moisture and helped in natural regeneration imposed on sandalwood cultivation. The extraction and disposal of sandalwood. Nevertheless, the traditional and recent methods of Indian sandalwood came under Forest Department (1864) of used for the regeneration of Indian sandalwood are (a) dibbling of Mysore state (Adkoli, 1977). sandalwood seeds in bushes (b) Sowing of seeds on pits and mounds by Trench Mound Method and (c) Planting of nursery Apart from this, over-exploitation acted as a major cause for grown seedlings. The method of dibbling of seeds is adopted in depletion of sandalwood gene pool in its natural area of scrub jungles with thick bushes and seeds are dibbled during distribution (Naseer et al., 2012) and resulted in loss of adaptive monsoon. Trench mound technique involves sowing of other gene complexes (Meera et al., 2000; Gillieson et al., 2008). species along with sandalwood seeds. The seeds of other species Frequent forest fires, grazing, unconventional monoculture provided as hosts (Albizzia sp., Cassia siamea and Pongamia Eucalyptus plantations, past cyclic epidemic of spike disease pinnata) generally show good compatibility with sandalwood. caused by phytoplasma (Mycoplasma like organism) and other Trenches of 3 m x 30 cm are aligned along contours in rows of 6 m biotic interferences (Fusarium, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, nematodes from each other with a distance of 3m end to end between one etc.) have further contributed to the dwindling of this species, trench and another along the same row. The height of mound is both in area and density. Its existence in natural stands has anywhere around 30 cm while seeds are sown in shallow furrows declined and is difficult to tracea greater number of commercially (4 cm deep) along the crest of the ridge. exploitable sandalwood trees in the forests of Karnataka (Swaminathan, 1998). Fading populations of higher girth classes In the current scenario, the most prospective and lucrative method can be traced in the protected boundaries of governmental, non- of sandalwood cultivation is the method of using nursery grown governmental organizations, institutions, farmlands and seedlings. Generally, two types of seed beds are prepared for homesteads in its natural as well as naturalized area of raising seedlings (sunken or raised). Raised beds are used in the distribution. India for decades dominated the sandalwood oil regions with high rainfall. Healthy seedlings of about 30 cm production, but in the current scenario it is importing sandalwood height with dark brown of 6 months are best suited for oil from foreign countries (Dhanyaet al., 2010). This alarming planting. Approximately 2500 healthy seedlings can be produced condition indicates that there is a need to conserve this species from 1 kg seeds. After relaxation in constrictive government and enhance its abundance. policies for sandalwood cultivation, there is an enormous demand for its saplings in India. Retrospective and prospective methods of sandalwood cultivation The proud symbol of Indian heritage has always been its tribal Conclusion culture. The nature of traditional knowledge has been very diverse Indian sandalwood has been inseparable part of Indian culture owing to the existence of vast number of medicinal plants in and tradition. Its utilization has been witnessed from the Indus India. Indian sandalwood has played an important role in valley civilization to the present modern era. Sandalwood tree is Ayurveda. The huge volumes of indigenous knowledge in India is being grown in the home gardens of many households in south cocooned and confined in local communities due to lack of proper Indian states. Traditionally, it is believed that growing S. album in publicity. The detailed usage of Indian sandalwood can be found one’s backyard would bring prosperity in life (as Goddess Lakshmi in the medical treatment procedures explained by Charaka and resides in), wards off evil spirits and delete the harmful effects of Susruta. Nevertheless, the traditional knowledge of cultivating black magic. Thus, it could be said that this traditional plants is now playing a pivotal role to address the healthcare beliefknowingly or unknowingly has paved the way for effective industries of developing world. Earlier studies reported that conservation of this flagship species. Furthermore, the present era dibbling of seeds in the bushes and sowing of seeds on mounds has tremendous commercial value for Indian sandalwood in was the common practice of traditional cultivation (Troup, 1921; National and International markets. S. album has always held Kadambi, 1944; Rai and Kulkarni, 1986). Furthermore, it was also important place not only in Hindu religion but in almost all the reported that in semi-arid areas of Kolar, Tumkur districts religions. The Epics, Scriptures, Vedas, Puranas and Buddhist sandalwood grew well when seedlings were planted in trenches literatures are contained with reference of the significance of S. while its hosts were being grown on the mounds (Cameron, 1894; album. The sacredness of S. album in also witnessed in Indian Kadambi, 1944; Rai and Kulkarni, 1986). Due to this habit of mythology. All these factors signify its importance to mankind and dibbling of sandalwood seeds among thorny bushes just before should be considered for conservation in its natural stands. the beginning of every rainy season, people of earlier generations were able to propagate sandalwood in the semi-arid tracts of References Mysuru that later went on to become rich forests of sandalwood. Adkoli, N.S. 1977. Sandalwood in Karnataka. 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