S E LECTE D B I B LI O G R A P HY O N TH E FO O D H AB ITS O F

' N O RTH AM E R I CAN B LAC KB I R D S

UN ITE D STATES D E PARTM E NT O F I NTE R I O R F I S H AN D W I LD LI F E S E RVI C E — Spe cia l Scientific Report Wildlife No. 1 92 L ib r a ry of C o ng r e ss C atal o g i ng i n P u b l ication D ata RA E F R E DE RI CK T C S , l th f Selected bib iography on e ood habits of N orth Am erican blackbirds . — 1 2 (Special scientific report wildlife$ no . 9 ) I of Do . no . : 31 192 S upt. cs

— — — — D H v n R r l k r F oo B l o r 2 B r N or Am r n B l o r I . B . . e . e a e 1 . ac bi ds d ib i g aphy i ds th ica ib i g aphy , icha d — or l I I er : n n l l r l n r or w l l f no . I I . T e. I . e U e es . F W fe e v e. e e ifi e e auth . it S i s it d Stat ish a d i d i S ic Sp cia sci t c p t i d i $

' ' - A2 no . 1 2 63 . 97 9097 61 SK 361 . 56 9 9 3s 75 9348 S E LE CT E D B I B LI O G R AP HY O N TH E FO O D H A B ITS O F N O RT H A M E R I CA N B LAC KB I R D S

Fr ed er ick T . Cr a se a n d R ich ar d W . D eH a v en

D en v e r Wild life R e se ar ch C en ter D avi s Fie ld St a tion

P . O . B ox C , D avi s, C alifor n i a 9 56 1 6

S ec a l S c ie tific R e ort — il l p i n p W d ife N o . 1 9 2 W a shi to 0 ng n , 1 97 5

C O NTE N TS

Abstract

Introduction Food Habits References A B STR ACT

This bibliography lists 261 references on the food habits of nine North American blackbird t species (I cteridae) and on related subj ects such as examination echniques , seed dispersal , and 1 974 sources of bias . The references , which include those published through , are listed

t . alphabetically by author , and brief annotations are given for most of hem

I NTR O D UCTI O N

This bibliography was compiled as the basis for a thorough review of the literature , published

1 4 m . through 97 , on the food habits of North A erican blackbirds Most of the references are briefly annotated$ the exceptions are minor articles whose contents are clear from their titles .

References on the following icterid species are included : red-winged blackbird (Ag el a ius i u r - hoen ce s A . t ic l r $ a nth e ha l us p ) , tricolored blackbird ( o o ) , yellow headed blackbird ( oc p $ a nth e ha l us - r r u u x oc p ) , brown headed cowbird (Mol oth us a te ) , Brewer s blackbird (E p hag s a noce ha l us r l i a ui a l us c E . a n s e s y p ) , rusty blackbird ( c o ) , common (purple , bronz d) grackle ( $ c iscul a - i n - r Th u a ss dix mexi a us . ma . e q ) , great tailed grackle ( C c ) , and boat tailed grackle ( C jo ) bronzed cowbird ( Ta ng a vius a eneus) is not included because it is primarily a Central American species$ $ $ - a ssidix mexi a nus cowbird in the annotations refers to the brown headed cowbird only . C c has only - - 2nd recently been divided into two species , the great tailed and boat tailed grackles (3 Supplement to - Auk the AOU Check List, Where possible , the annotations indicate which of these $ $ - I n two species were studied$ otherwise , they are called great and boat tailed grackles . $ $ annotations , blackbirds refers collectively to the icterid species listed above$ in some references the authors were not more specific .

The references cited are from a number of sources including , but not limited to , books ,

il l ie F l . periodicals , theses , and various indexes such as W d ife R ev w (US . ish and Wi dlife Service) Theses and unpublished reports with reasonable availability to the interested researcher are included . The references , listed alphabetically by author, have been divided into two groups$those directly related to blackbird food habits and those indirectly related techniques of analysis , potential sources of bias , An asterisk preceding the citation indicates that we have not inspected the article$ for these the source from which the reference was obtained is cited . We have carefully read and verified the citations for all other references but, of course , retain responsibility for any errors .

i Jr. . Willis C . Royall , , Robert T . Mitchell , Charles P . Stone, and Ann H Jones rev ewed early r verified drafts and offered many helpful suggestions and additions . Deborah A . Eaton located and e

M N l . several citations and Ruth E . c ea typed the manuscript

ii F O O D H A B ITS R E F E R E N C E S

d- - A el a ius Alcock , u 1 972. The feeding response of han reared red winged blackbirds ( g — 1 3 . . 3 r u Midl . p hoeni ceus) to a stinkbug (E uschistus consp e s s) . Am . Nat

(Attacked the distasteful insect the first two times it was introduced . )

T . 1 960. . Alexander, H . E . The state game and fish department and bird depredations rans

~ - B . 1 1 3 . dl . . Wil . North Am . Nat esour Conf

(Brief mention of blackbird foods as found by other workers . )

- - 1 1 4a . : . . Allen , A . A . 9 The red winged blackbird A study in the ecology of a cat tail marsh Proc

- - z 4 . Linn . Soc . N . Y . 24 25 3 1 28

(Refers to earlier authors for general food habits , but this paper contains one of the earliest

comprehensive listings of insect taxa used as food by the redwing . The redwing is not restricted

to marsh habitat as a food source . )

Allen , A . A . 1 91 4b . Birds in their relation to agriculture in New York State . Cornell Reading

- Courses 56.

(Cites redwing as feeding on locusts , cutworms , armyworms , and weed seeds . )

$

Anonymous . 1 962. Crop pests included in blackbirds regular diet . Crops Soils $ (Stomachs of 500 blackbirds— mostly redwings— collected in Canada during the spring months

contained many insects considered agricultural pests . )

Audubon , J . J . 1 83 1 . Ornithological biography . Vol . 5. Adam and Charles Black , Edin

burgh , 664 pp .

(One of the earliest works to mention food items found in blackbird stomachs . Covers all

blackbird species and refers to letters from early naturalists about observations of feeding . )

22 r . . . Bailey , V . 1 905. Birds known to eat the boll weevil . U . S. Dep . Ag ic Biol Surv . Bull . 1 6 pp .

(Redwings and cowbirds were among several bird species eating weevils . )

M k . . Baird , J and A . J . eyerriec s. 1 965. Birds feeding on an ant mating swarm Wilson Bull - 91 . (Redwings and common grackles were among 1 3 bird species eating flying ants in

Massachusetts . )

F . . . 1 4. . . Baird , S , T . M Brewer, and R . Ridgeway . 87 A history of North American birds Vol

2. Co. Little , Brown , and , Boston . 590 pp . (This early work includes a general discussion on the food of each blackbird species as known at

that time . )

A Baker, W . . , W . G . Bradley , and C . A . Clark . 1 949. Biological control of the European corn borer

in the United States . US . Dep . Agric . Tech . Bull . 983 . 1 85 pp .

(Redwings , common grackles , and rusty blackbirds were observed feeding on this insect pest . )

$ $ — . 1 5 . Bartlett, L M . 9 6 Observations on birds hawking insects . Auk 1 28 . hi (Common grackles were observed flyca tc ng insects . )

E — L . 1 895. in Beal , F The crow blackbirds and their food . Pages 233 248 Yearbook of

1 94 . US i 8 . t D Agr culture , Depar ment of Agriculture, Washington , C . % (Food of common grackles was about 50 animal and 50% vegetable . ) t . . S . U . . 1 . Beal , F . E . L . 897 Some common birds in their relation to agricul ure Dep Agric $

4 . Farmers Bull . 54 . 0 pp

(Food of redwings and common grackles . )

- t . 4 4 in 1 898 . 3 5 35 t F . . . l Beal , E L Birds hat injure grain Pages Yearbook of Agricu ure , D 1 897 . US . Department of Agriculture, Washington , C .

(Discusses foods of the redwing and other icterids , but is essentially a preliminary report of the

next reference . )

U . S. . . . . 1 00. . Beal , F . E . L . 9 Food of the bobolink , blackbirds , and grackles Dep Agric Biol Surv

Bull . 1 3 . 77 pp .

(The first major work on the food habits of blackbirds . Covers all species except the tricolor . i Used the estimated percent volume method of analysis , which allows comparison w th many

later papers . )

41 - 2 in 1 . . 2 Beal , F . E . L . 905 The relation of birds to fruit growing in California Pages 53

1 4. US . D . Yearbook of Agriculture, 90 Department of Agriculture , Washington , C $ (Brewer s blackbirds ate cherries and insects in cherry orchards . )

- i Beal , F . E . L . 1 909. The relations between birds and insects . Pages 343 350 n Yearbook of D 1 US . . Agriculture, 908. Department of Agriculture, Washington , C

(Birds are beneficial because they consume large numbers of insects . Scattered references to m insect consu ption by blackbirds . )

1 I Beal , F . E . L . 1 9 0. Birds of California in relation to the fruit industry . Part I . US . Dep . Agric .

Biol . Surv . Bull . 34 . 94 pp . $ (Economic relations between birds and a gricl ture. Includes the bicolored redwing and Brewer s

blackbirds . )

$

1 1 . . . Beal , F . E . L . 9 5 Some common birds useful to the farmer . U . S. Dep . Agric Farmers Bull

630. 29 pp . w $ (Mentions foods of the common grackle , red ing, and Brewer s . )

$ 1 4 . . $. Con serv . Beal , F . E . L . 9 8 Some common birds useful to the farmer . US Fish Wild Serv .

Bull . 1 8 . 28 pp . (An updated revision of Beal

$ z - Beal , G . H . 1 967. The blackbird menace . Rice J M a y 26 27 .

(Depredations by blackbirds on rice . )

E 1 . Beasley , L . . , and S . W . Carothers . 974 Unusual feeding habits in two species of

- blackbirds . Wilson Bull . 479. $ (Redwings and Brewer s ate young leopard frogs and subadult voles . )

- Beecher, W . J . 1 950. Convergent evolution in the American orioles . Wilson Bull . 86 . (Discusses evolutionary adaptations of the bill and j aw musculature of icterids in relations to

their food habits . )

- 1 . Beecher, W . J . 951 . Adaptations for food getting in the American blackbirds Auk

- 440.

(The relationship of the food habits oficterids to their bill shape and other cephalic adaptations .

Includes summary of the food habits work of other authors . ) uis l us uiscul a 1 57 . a M . . . 9 Beeton , A . , and L Wells A bronzed grackle ( $ c q ) feeding on live - 264. minnows . Auk

S . oriol es ta na ers . U . Bent, A . C . 1 958 . Life histories ofNorth American blackbirds , , g , and allies

4 . . Natl . Mus . Bull 21 1 . 5 9 pp (Reprinted by Dover Publications , Inc , New York ,

(Summarizes the foods of all North American blackbird species . Relies primarily on the

available literature . )

F . . . 1 968. Besser, J . . , J . W De Grazio , and J L Guarino Costs of wintering starlings and red — l . winged blackbirds at feedlots . J . Wil d . Manage 1 80.

(Cost of cattle rations eaten by each species at feedlots . )

1 n . . Bird , R . D . 1 96 . Ecology of the aspen parkland of wester Canada in relation to land use Can

r . 1 . 1 . Dep . Ag ic . Res . Branch Publ 066 55 pp

(Food of the redwing in the Canadian parkland . )

- A l us oenic u D . . . 1 4 . e a i h e s Bird , R . , L B Smith . 96 The food habits of the red winged blackbird , g p ,

- 1 6 . in Manitoba . Can . Field Nat . 8

(Demonstrates a negative correlation between insects and grit . )

- Blankinship , D . R . 1 966 . The relationship of white winged dove production to control of great W tailed grackles in the lower Rio Grande Valley of Tex as . Trans . North Am . il dl . Nat . B esour .

- 5 . Conf. 8

- - (Great tailed grackles eat large numbers of white winged dove eggs and nestlings . )

- 1 . . . Brenner, F . J . 966 Energy and nutrient requirements of the red winged blackbird Wilson Bull

- 1 20.

(Existence energy requirements of redwings . )

- Brenner , F . J . 1 967. Seasonal correlations of reserve energy of the red winged blackbird . Bird

- Banding 21 1 .

- 1 . Brenner, F . J . 968 Energy flow in two breeding populations of red winged blackbirds . Am .

- Mi l . d Nat . 3 1 0.

(Energy requirements of nestlings and breeding adults . )

- Brenner , F . J and W . F . Malin . 1 965. Metabolism and survival time ofthe red winged blackbird . — Wilson Bull . 289.

(Metabolic rates and reserve energy supplies in redwings . )

— . 1 . in Bruner, L 896 Some notes on Nebraska birds . Pages 48 1 78 Report of the Nebraska State

Horticultural Society (Lincoln , Nebr. ) for the year 1 896 .

- (Stresses benefits of insect eating habits of redwings . Also discusses foods of cowbirds and

common grackles . )

1 Bryant , H . C . 91 1 . The relation of birds to an insect outbreak in northern C al ifornia during the — spring and summer of 1 91 1 . Condor 208 . $

(Brewer s blackbirds were the most important predator species during an insect outbreak .

Believed that birds were an important natural check during this outbreak . )

. . 1 2 91 . Bryant, H C Birds in relation to a grasshopper outbreak in California . Univ . Calif. Publ . Z - ool . 20.

- (Established that a bird will feed on the insect group most available . Calculated that a 200 bird flock of redwings ate enough grasshoppers to save the alfalfa farmer at least $20 per year in

insect damage . ) 3 to th e t e l . D . 1 938. l l l l l Bur eigh , T The re ation of birds estab ishmen of ong eaf pine s ed ings in

S n . . . . southern Mississippi . US . For . Serv . South . For . Exp . t Occas Pap 75 5 pp .

- (Red winged blackbird depredations . )

: hir n mu n i 1 91 . C s Te d es Burrill , A . C . 3 Economic and biologic notes on the giant midge o o ( p ) — p l umosas M eig en . Bull . Wis . Nat . Hist . Soc . 1 63 .

(Redwings mentioned as a predator of this insect . )

i - 1 5 . r . . 53 . Cade , T . J . 9 3 Ae ial feeding of the rusty blackbird on mosquitoes W lson Bull

- 4 . 1 97 . . 293 . Campbell , R . W . Rusty blackbirds prey on sparrows Wilson Bull

- r . (Attacked tree sparrows , white crowned spa rows , and possibly a lapland longspur )

- l A . . . . 1 4 . . . . n . Ca rdine l , H . , and D W Hayne 9 4 Damage to corn by red wings Mich . Agric Exp St - 4. $ . Bull . 3 fi l corn e ds . (Food , feeding behavior, and depredations in the of Michigan )

A - Ca rdinel l , H . . , and D . W . Hayne . 1 945. Corn injury by red wings in Michigan . Mich . Agric .

Exp . Sth . Tech . Bull . 1 98. 59 pp .

- h ff n 2 . C risto erso , K . 1 9 7. The bronzed grackle as a bird of prey Bird Lore

(Common grackles killed two pine siskins and a barn swallow . They consumed part of the pine

siskins . )

- A . h r l Clark , G . , Jr . 1 971 . The occurrence ofbill sweeping in t eterrestrial foraging ofbi ds . Wi son — Bull . 73 .

(Common grackles swept their bills through litter to uncover food items . )

- Collier, G . 1 968. Annual cycle and behavioral relationships in the red winged and tricolored

Ph D . f . 74 . blackbirds of southern California . . . Thesis . Univ Cali , Los Angeles 3 pp

(The rate at which food was brought to nestlings of both species is recorded and discussed . )

Coppinger, L . L . 1 967. The role of the avian visual system in crop depredation , with special 1 21 redwin ed . . s . . reference to the g blackbird . M S . Thesis Univ Mas , Amherst pp

- (Reviews much of the literature on the food habits of red wings . )

— Cottam , C . 1 943 . Unusual feeding habit of grackles and crows . Auk 595.

(Common grackles fed on small fish like gulls and terns . )

C . . S . Cottam , , and F . M . Uhler . 1 942. Birds as a factor in controlling insect depredations U il L Fish W dl . Serv . Wil dl . ea fl . 224. 6 pp .

(Stresses that redwings eat many insect pests . )

N C . . fi f J 84 Cottam , , and J B . e eth en . 1 968: Whitewings . Van Nostrand Co. , Inc . , Princeton , 3

pp . - -w e (Great tailed grackles a te eggs and young of other grackles , mockingbirds , and white ing d ,

mourning , and Mexican ground doves . )

- 1 42. Cowan , I . M . 9 Termite eating by birds in British Columbia . Auk $ (Brewer s blackbird was one of several species eating termites . ) H n 1 . D ve . 73 T . . . e a 9 Crase , F . , and R W Blackbird damage appraisal for rice in the Sacramento — il dl . un ub . . l l . W . . Wi d . 1 972 . US . , D p Valley , California studies Fish Serv enver Res Cent rep

m . 1 . 21 . dated January 1 5, 973 pp Mi eographed $ r (Annual foods of redwings , tricolors , Brewer s , yellowheads , and cowbirds were largely ice ,

l l . wil dmi et, and insects )

Crebbs . C . . 1 960. gr , T , Jr Blackbird ecology and their relationship to a iculture in southeastern

h I . 1 1 . M . . P ol tec . . 0 Virginia . S . Thesis Va y nst , Blacksburg pp

(Most common grackles shot in peanut fields had eaten peanuts . Some data on foods of

redwings , starlings , and cowbirds also collected from peanut fields . )

- 1 5 . F . 3 Criddle , N . 1 920. Birds in relation to insect control . Can . ield Nat

(Crows , gulls , black terns , grouse , and blackbirds ate large numbers of grasshoppers . )

1 4 . i E . . . 9 8 Cypert, . , and B S Webster Yield and use by w ldlife of acorns of water and willow - 2 1 . il dl . . 3 oaks . J . W Manage (Common grackles were among several species that collectively took 2% of the acorn crop from

plots on the White River National Wildlife Refuge , Arkansas . )

- 86 . Darden , T . 1 974 . Common grackles preying on fish . Wilson Bull . n Dater, E . E . 1 961 . Acorn crop collapses . E ast . Bird Ba ding Assoc . News

- (Common grackles depend on pin oak for a large portion of their winter food . )

- 1 49. 1 . . Davis , J . 954 Seasonal changes in bill length of certain passerine birds Condor $

(Seasonal changes of bill length in redwings , tricolors , and Brewer s were correlated to the

amount of insects consumed each season . )

- 1 4 Davis , M . 1 944. Purple grackle kills English sparrow . Auk 0.

(The common grackle killed the sparrow and ate part of it . )

1 . Davis , W . B . 933 The span ofthe nesting season ofbirds in Butte County , C alifornia , in relation — to their food . Condor 1 54. sfi n (Demonstrates a positive correlation between time of n e g and general food habits . $

Redwings , tricolors , cowbirds , and Brewer s blackbirds were some of the bird species studied . )

R I I - i Davis , W . . , , and K . A . Arnold . 1 972. Food habits ofthe great ta led grackle in Brazos County , — Texas . Condor 446 .

- 1 2 % . (The food of 9 great tailed grackles was 80 animal matter , largely orthopterans Insects were r eaten most du ing the warm season . Nestl ing s were fed insects and grit . )

- Davison , V . E . 1 961 . Food competition between game and non game birds . Trans . North Am . R — Wil dl . e ou Nat . s r. Conf. 245.

- (Fifteen species ofnon game birds , including redwings , cowbirds , and common grackles , feed on

- crops and non agricultural foods in th e Southeast in winter$ 46 foods are discussed . )

1 2 . . . . 9 3 . . . 671 Dawson , W L Birds of California Vol . 1 . S . Moulton Co , San Francisco pp

(Estimated that each redwing eats enough insects to be worth $1 per year to the alfalfa crop . )

. W . . D ino . . r . 1 9 1 . De Grazio , J , J F . Besser , T . J . eC , J . L . Guarino , and R I Sta r 7 Use of 4- m - r il dl . . 569. a inopyridine to protect ipening corn from blackbirds . J . W Manage

(Redwings destroyed 3 bushels of field corn per acre in untreated South Dakota fields . ) 1 4 . . Dennis , J . V . 9 9 Grackle competition for dogwood fruit Auk - 2 0 r . (In one half hour, a flock of common grackles stripped the berries from dogwood t ees )

1 4 - 9 7 . . Denton , J . F . Redwings feeding on seeds of long leafed pine Oriole

- Z . I . . . 7 2. Dyer , M . . 1 967 An analysis of blackbird flock feeding behavior Can J ool 7

(Feeding behavior of redwings and factors affecting feeding pattern s . )

— n . . Emlen , J . T . , Jr. 1 937 . Bird damage to almonds in Califor ia Condor 1 97 $ (Redwings , tricolors , and Brewer s did not cause significant amounts of damange . )

- 1 44. , . 645. Ernst, S . G . 9 Observation on the food of the bronzed grackle Auk

(Common grackles ate leopard frogs in New York . )

2 . u . Fankhauser, D . 1 96 . Observations of birds feeding on overwintering corn borer Wilson B ll

k (Redwings did not feed heavily on corn borers in com sta l s. )

- - Fantin , R . W . 1 941 . Development of nestling yellow headed blackbirds . Auk 232.

(Food brought to nestlings was almost entirely insect . )

1 5 — . 9 3 . A u ni us 4 Fischer, R B Winter feeding of the redwing ( g el a i s p hoe ce ) . Auk 97 . R d ( e wm g s ate moth larvae from ragweed stems . )

1 4 — 9 7 . . 4 Fleetwood , R . J . Redwings feeding on seeds of loblolly and slash pine Oriole 0.

1 Follett, W . I . 957. Bronzed grackles feeding on emerald shiners . Auk

- Forbes , S . A . 1 907. On the life history , habits , and economic relations ofthe white grubs and may

- beetles . Ill . Agric. Exp . Stu . Bull . 1 1 6. pp . 447 480.

(Crows and blackbirds are principal enemies of these insects . )

1 2 . Foster, F . B . 9 7 Grackles killing young pheasants . Auk

(Common grackles killed and ate pheasant chicks . )

1 2 . 42 . Friedmann , H . 9 9 The cowbirds . Charles C . Thomas , Pub . , Baltimore, 1 pp (Food of the brown-headed cowbird is discussed along with many other life history and

behavioral aspects . )

$ - 68 . Gabrielson , I . N . 1 91 4. Ten days bird study in a Nebraska swamp . Wilson Bull .

(Food of nestling yellowheads and redwings . )

- — 302. Gabrielson , I . N . 1 91 5. Notes on the red winged blackbird . Wilson Bull .

(Food of nestling redwings in Iowa . )

r Gab ielson , I . N . 1 922. Short notes on the life histories of various species of birds . Wilson Bull . —21 0

(Food of nestling common grackles was largely earthworms . )

Gil fil l 4- a n . 1 . . Jul z2 27 , M C . 963 Modern control of bird damage . Ohio Conserv. Bull , y

(Mentions blackbird damage to grain . ) S u . . 1 01 . 1 6 . . . t Gillette, C . P . l 905a . The western cricket . Colo . Agric Exp Bull pp 1 n (Bears and coyotes feed upon this pest but birds destroy them greatest numbers$hawks , sage

grouse , and blackbirds noted . )

- — 3 1 2 in . . 1 . Gillette , C . P . 905b . The beet web worm Pages Beet worms and their remedies Colo

n . . Agric . Exp . St . Bull 98

(Large flocks of blackbirds devoured these in large quantities . )

- S n . 1 60. . . . t il z L . . . G t , M . . , and T M Stockdale 9 The red winged blackbird story Ohio Agric Exp

1 . Spec . Circ . 95. 9 pp

(Annual redwing foods in Ohio were 69% vegetable and 31 % animal . )

- - Goddard , S . V . 1 969. Fall and winter food habits of red winged blackbirds and brown headed - cowbirds in western Oklahoma . Wilson Bull . 337 . r (Grain sorghum , ragweed seeds , and insects were the most f equently eaten items for both

species . )

G. . . 92 . . 6 . . 1 891 . Goss , N S History of the birds of Kansas W Grane Co Topeka pp

(An early natural history report$ some comments on the foods of most blackbird species . )

- - - G ow n k . 1 88 . a l oc , J . N . 1 91 4 . The grackle as a nest robber Bird Lore

(Common grackle predation on the eggs and young of house sparrows . )

1 41 . U . S . . . . . Graham , E . H . 9 . Legumes for erosion control and wildlife Dep Agric Misc Publ

41 2. 1 53 pp .

(Lists the legume species used as food by different birds , including most blackbird species . )

1 2 . Grinnell , J . 93 . Notes of some birds observed in the vicinity of Colusa , California Condor

- 1 76 . $ - (Mentions the redwing s rice eating habits . )

uis a l us uiscul a ersi l r Hamilton , W . J Jr . 1 951 . The food ofnestling bronzed grackles , $ c q v co o , in

- central New York . Auk 21 7 .

(Lists the food items of 1 30 nestlings . )

Hardy , J . W 1 961 . Resident and migrant blackbirds in southeastern Virginia : Agricultural

M P l . . 4 . depredations and winter roost locations . S . Thesis . Va . o ytech . Inst , Blacksburg 7 pp

(Blackbirds damaged corn , peanuts , and milo . )

Hayne , D . W . 1 946 . The relation between number of ears opened and the amount of grain taken — by redwings in corn fields . J . Agric . Res . 295.

(Also feeding behavior in cornfiel ds. )

- - . 1 2 . . Helms , C W . 96 . Red winged blackbird killing sharp tailed sparrow Wilson Bull - 90.

r (Apparently t ied to eat it . )

1 2 . 2 . Henderson , J 9 7 The practical value of birds . Macmillan Co New York . 34 pp Summ a n z ( es and discusses many studies relating to the benefima l aspects of birds , including

blackbirds . )

1 . Henshaw , H . W . 907 . Birds useful in the war against the cotton boll weevil . U . S. Dep . Agric

Circ . 57 . 4 pp . a (Blackbirds help the f rmer by eating weevils . ) $ — i 1 0 . r 1 5 1 n Henshaw , H . W . 9 8 Does it pay the fa mer to protect birds Pages 6 78 Yearbook of D 1 . US . t t t C . Agriculture , 907 Depar men of Agricul ure , Washington ,

(Blackbirds ea t insects as well as grain . )

I Hintz , J . V . , and M . . Dyer . 1 970. Daily rhythm and seasonal change in the summer diet ofadult - l dl — red winged blackbirds . J . Wi . Manage . 799.

(Caloric intake is higher in the morning than after noon , less in June than in September . )

- 1 951 . . Hodges , J . Land birds feeding on crayfish Auk 527 .

(Common grackle was observed eating a crayfish in Iowa . )

$ Horn , H . S . 1 968 . The adaptive significance of colonial nesting in the Brewer s blackbird — E u ha us c a noce ha l us . ( p g y p ) . Ecology 694

(Colonial nesting adaptive to variable food supply . )

E Z Howard , W . . , M . W . Cummings , and A . aja nc . 1 961 . Comments on bird problems in — California . Calif. Vec tor News 1 7 .

(Mentions redwing depredations on rice . )

t . Howard , W . J . 1 937 . Bird behavior as a result of emergence of seven een year locusts Wilson

- Bull . 44 . r (Common g ackles and cowbirds fed on locusts . )

2 — 1 92 . . Howell , A . B . Redwings of the Imperial Valley , California Condor 61 .

(Discusses beneficial as well as harmful aspects of redwing food habits . )

. . 1 906 . n . U . S . . Howell , A H Birds that eat the cotto boll weevil , a report of progress Dep Agric

Biol . Surv . Bull . 25. 22 pp . $ (Blackbirds , especially Brewer s , eat weevils during the winter months when this is the most

beneficial . )

1 0 . . . . . Howell , A . H . 9 7 The relation of birds to the cotton boll weevil . U . S . Dep Agric Biol Surv

2 . Bull . 9 3 1 pp . $ - e (Redwings , cowbirds , Brewer s , common grackles , and great and boat tail d grackles ate boll

weevils . )

1 . U . S . . . Howell , A . H . 908 . Destruction of the cotton boll weevil by birds in winter Dep Agric

4. Circ . 6 5 pp . $ i (Redwings , Brewer s , and rusty blackbirds were important bird species eating boll weev ls

during the winter months . )

1 00 . 38. Howell , A . H . 1 91 1 . Birds of Arkansas . U . S. Dep . Agric . Biol . Surv . Bull . pp $ (Food of yellowheads , redwings , Brewer s , cowbirds , and rusty blackbirds in Arkansas . )

- i . 221 2 2 n Judd , S D . 1 899. Birds as weed destroyers . Pages 3 Yearbook of Agriculture,

1 . 898 US . D Department of Agriculture , Washington , C .

(Blackbirds eat weed seeds , as well as grain , and thereby benefit the farmer . )

— . 1 01 . n Judd , S D . 9 The food of nestling birds . Pages 41 1 436 i Yearbook of Agriculture , 1 90 . 0 . D U S Department of Agriculture , Washington , C . E m cono l c . ( benefit of insects brought to nestlings , including nestling blackbirds )

. 1 . 902. . 1 1 . Judd , S D Birds of a Maryland farm . U . S. Dep . Agric . Biol . Surv . Bull 1 7. 6 pp

(Foods of redwings , common grackles , cowbirds , and rusty blackbirds in Maryland . )

8 4 . . 7. U . S . . . 1 0 6 4 . . Kalmbach , E . R . 1 91 Birds in relation to the alfalfa weevil Dep Agric Bull pp $

(Redwin gs , cowbirds , yellowheads , and Brewer s blackbirds ate large numbers of this weevil in

an infested area in Utah during spring . )

il l . . . . W U . S. d 1 . . Kalmbach , E . R . 937 Blackbirds and the rice crop on the gulf coast Dep Agric Res - L B S 6 . 4 . Manage . ea fl . 9 pp

(Rice depredations in Louisiana . )

il W dl . . US . 1 42. Kalmbach , E.R . 9 Blackbirds and grain crops in the eastern United States Fish

L . Wil dl . ea fl . 220. 5 Serv . pp

(Discusses grain depredations by blackbirds . )

724- 731 in 1 52. . Kalmbach , E . R . 9 Birds , beasts , and bugs Pages Yearbook of Agriculture ,

D C . 1 952. US . Department of Agriculture , Washington ,

(Beneficial aspects of insect consumption by blackbirds . )

i Keeler, J . E . 1 969. Blackbird studies . Alabama Department of Conservat on , Division of Fish

5 . and Game, Montgomery , 9 pp

(Winter foods of the cowbird , common grackle , redwing , and starling in Alabama . )

1 . Kennard , F . H . 920 Notes on the breeding habits of the rusty blackbird in northern New — 422. England . Auk

(Males help to feed young . )

- A dra onfl . . Kennedy , C . H . 1 950. The relation of merican g y eating birds to their prey Ecol

- M on 1 42. ogr.

(Redwings are included with other passerines as important predators of dragonflies . )

Odono a . Knappen , P . 1 933 . Some bird enemies of t Auk

(Redwings were among several bird species observed feeding on this insect order. )

Knowlton , G . F . 1 944. Redwings eat pea aphids . Auk

- Knowlton , G . F . 1 947 . Some insect food of the yellow headed blackbird . Auk

Knowlton , G . F . , and F . C . Harmston . 1 943 . Grasshoppers and crickets eaten by Utah — birds . Auk 591 . I $ ( ncludes yellowheads , redwings , and Brewer s . )

$

F . Knowlton , G . . , and P . E . Telford . 1 946. Insects eaten by Brewer s blackbirds Auk

- N W T 1 . . . Krapu , G . L . 973 . Red winged blackbirds nesting near Great Slave Lake, Blue Jay - 1 4 9.

- (Redwings did not nest in borrow pit ponds , perhaps because of low food availability . )

Co. . Lack , D . 1 968. Ecological adaptations for breeding in birds . Methuen and , Ltd , Lon

don . 409 pp .

(Extensive discussion of Icteridae , including foods and associated adaptations . )

Lamb , C . C . 1 944. Grackle kills warbler . Condor

- - (Great tailed grackle killed a yellow warbler during an apparent nest predation attempt . ) I H . . . . 1 70. r . Lange, W . , and M D Miller, eds 9 nsect and other animal pests of ice Calif. Agric .

2 . Exp . Stn . Ext . Serv . Circ . 555. 3 pp

(Briefly mentions blackbird depredations . )

— Laporte, P . 1 974. Common grackle kills a barn swallow . Wilson Bull . 478.

(Apparently to eat. )

- 41 . . . L aR ivers, I . 1 9 The Mormon cricket as food for birds Condor 69 $ (Redwings , cowbirds , yellowheads , and especially Brewer s feed on this pest . )

. . 1 961 . : i Lefebvre , P W Blackbirds in southeastern Virginia Nesting product vity , depredations , M P r . S . . . ol tech . I t. and damage cont ol methods Thesis Va y ns , Blacksburg . 73 pp .

(Food of redwings , starlings , common grackles , and cowbirds in relation to cr0 p damage . )

- - Linford , J . H . 1 938. Notes on food habits of the thick billed red winged blackbirds in

- Utah . Proc . Uta h Acad . Sci . 92.

(Amount of a given food eaten was correlated to its abundance in the habitat .)

Am M Linsdal e, J . M . 1 938. Environmental responses of vertebrates in the Great Basin . . idl .

- Nat . 206 .

(Limited observations on the food of breeding redwings in central Nevada . )

- 1 . Macklin , P . R . 958. Spittle insects as food of the red winged blackbird Auk

- - 2 . . o . 07 Mailliard , J . 1 91 4 Notes on a col ny of tri colored redwings Condor $ $ (Reported milk barley as being much prized as food for the young . Stomach contents of adults

were largely grasshoppers . )

Z - Martin , A . C . , H . S . im , and A . L . Nelson . 1 951 . American wildlife and plants . M cGra w Hill

Co. . . Book , New York 500 pp

(Contains information on the maj or plant foods of all North American blackbirds . Summarizes w $ 2 1 1 2 food habits of red ings , 908 Brewer s , 28 yellowheads , 59 cowbirds , 3 rusty 4 - blackbirds , 1 7 great and boat tailed grackles , common grackles , and many other bird

species . )

I I x . R . . . 2. Ma well , G , , and L S Putnam 1 97 Incubation , care of young, and nest success of the

- uis a l us uis ul a 5 . common grackle ( $ c q c ) in northern Ohio . Auk 3 9

(Records the numbers of feeding visits to nests by males and females . )

M A c tee . . 1 . . . . , W L 91 3. Index to papers relating to the food of birds . U . S. Dep Agric Biol Surv

Bull . 43 . 69 pp . (Annotated bibliography of Department of Agriculture publications from 1 885 through 1 91 1

dealing with the food of birds . Most blackbird species are covered . )

M Ate — i c e . . 1 22. 4 n A , W L 9 Local suppression of agricultural pests by birds . Pages 41 1 38 nnual

Report of the Smithsonian Institute for 1 920.

(Most blackbird species are mentioned as predators of insect pests . )

M A c tee . . 2 , W L 1 9 6. Birds feeding on the European corn borer . Auk

(Redwings and downy woodpeckers fed on the larvae . )

1 0

$ t . U . S. . . 1 . . 1 . . Merriam , C . H . 886 Circular on the food habi s of birds Dep Agric Circ 3 pp (Cited by M cAtee

t w - 1 68. Miller, R . S . 9 Conditions of competi ion between redwings and yello headed - . 2 6 . blackbirds . J . Anim Ecol .

(Relates time of nesting to hatches of insects used as food . )

Milne, L . J . 1 928 . Further note on the bronzed grackle as a fisherman . Can . Field Nat .

(Ate freshwater a mphipods . )

1 967 . r . S . Wil dl . T . . . U t . . Mi chell , R , and J T Linehan Protecting corn f om blackbirds Fish 4 76 . 8 . l L ea fl . Serv . Wil d . pp

F - Mott, D . . , and C . P . Stone . 1 973 . Predation on corn earworm s by red winged - blackbirds . Murrelet 1 0.

(Measures the effect of redwing predation on corn earworms . )

F . Mott, D . . , J . W . De Grazio , and M W . Fall . 1 971 . Investigation of blackbird damage to peanuts dl il l in central Oklahoma (Food habits supplement) . US . Fish Wil . Serv . , Denver W d . Res .

un ubl . . 2 1 4 . . Cent . p rep dated January 7, 971 . pp Mimeographed

- (Bird species examined were redwings , rusty blackbirds , common and great tailed grackles , and

cowbirds . )

F 2 - e Mott, D . . , R . R . West , J . W . De Grazio , and J . L . Guarino . 1 97 . Foods of the red wing d

- dl . . blackbird in Brown County , South Dakota . J . Wil . Manage 987

(Spring , summer , and early fall foods of the redwing . )

Munro , J . A . 1 929. Blackbirds feeding on the forest tent caterpillar . Condor $ (Redwings and Brewer s . )

Neff, J . A . 1 937 . Procedure and methods in controlling birds injurious to crops in California . Part : S II Control methods . U . Bureau of Biological Survey . 1 53 pp . $ (Reviews the food habits of redwings , tricolors , and Brewer s . )

f l . . . 1 4 . . . Wi dl . Nef , J A 9 9 Blackbird depredations on Arkansas rice fields . Trans North Am Conf - 566 . w (Red ing, cowbird , common grackle , and ru sty blackbird . )

A . M e nl . l . a e . 957a . Neff, J , and B y Blackbirds and the Arkansas rice crop . Ark . Agric . Exp .

Stu . . 4 Bull 58 . 89 pp . (Reports on field observations of feeding blackbirds and the laboratory exa mination of

stomachs . Major species studied were redwings , common grackles , and cowbirds . )

A $ u . 1 Neff, J . . , and B . Mca ley 957b . Status of Brewer s blackbird on the Grand Prairie of eastern — Arkansas . Wilson Bull . 1 05.

(The food of 59 adults . )

A Neff, J . . , and C . C . Wilson . 1 940. The influence of birds on local grasshopper outbreaks in — California . Trans . North Am . Wil dl . Conf. 1 95. $ (Brewer s , redwings , and tricolors ate grasshoppers$birds are of value in reducing grasshopper

populations . )

— 1 950. . . 40. Nero , R . W . Redwings feeding on white ash Wilson Bull

(Were observed eating the seeds . ) - $

1 4 . . . Olsen , A . L . 9 3 Cowbird carrying away and eating a bird s egg in the evening Wilson Bull

A l M e ius . . on o . 1 . a r Orians , G . H . 961 The ecology of blackbird ( g ) social systems Ecol g — 31 2.

(Discusses the food of breeding redwings and tricolors in California . )

- Ca riboo Orians , G . H . 1 966. Food of nestling yellow headed blackbirds , Parklands , British — 337 . Columbia . Condor % (Food brought to nestlings was 1 00 animal matter . )

H r . . Orians , G . . , and H S . Ho n 1 969 Overlap in foods of four species of blackbirds in the potholes — of central Wa shm g ton . Ecology 938 .

(No differential specialization in food gathering was observable for redwings , yellowheads , $ Brewer s , and meadowlarks , and a large overlap in nestling food was apparent . )

2 —2 2 in Palmer, T . S. 1 900a . A review of economic ornithology in the United States . Pages 59 9 D 1 . US . r C . Yearbook of Agriculture , 899 Department of Ag iculture , Washington ,

(A review of damage to agricultural crops caused by blackbirds and other bird species . )

l b . . U . S. . Palmer, T . S . 9o0 Legislation for the protection of birds other than game birds Dep

1 2. 4 . Agric . Biol . Surv . Bull . 9 pp

(Brief discussion of benefit and harm caused by blackbirds . )

1 - Payne , R . B . 969. Breeding seasons and reproductive physiology of tri colored blackbirds and

- - Z . 1 3 red winged blackbirds . Univ . Calif. Publ . ool 7 .

(Relates the timing of nesting of tricolors to the emergence of grasshoppers . Food of nestling

tricolors was almost 1 00% anim al matter . )

1 2 . . Pellet, F . C . 9 6 . The fishing habit of the bronzed grackle Wilson Bull

(Common grackles fed extensively on minnows . )

in - P ess o . M . 1 968 , C . Red winged blackbird destroys eggs of common and roseate terns . Auk

(Apparently ate some of the contents . )

. 1 Phillips , W J and G . W . Barber . 931 . The corn earworm as an enemy offield corn in the eastern $ $

1 51 1 7 . r i 6 . tes . U . S. Dep . Agric . Farmers Bull . pp (Essentially a second printing of Phillips and King

Phillips , W . J and K . M . King . 1 923 . The corn earworm : Its ravages on field corn and suggestions $

. U . S. . . for control Dep Agric Farmers Bull . 1 31 0. 1 7 pp . t $ (Most impor ant predators of the corn earworm were Brewer s , California redwings , great and

- boat tailed grackles , and downy woodpeckers . )

1 - - . . 946. z Poor, H H Predation by grackles . Proc . Linn . Soc . N . Y . 54 57 54 55.

(Common grackles killed and ate English sparrows . )

1 Powell , C . M . 960. Rice culture in Chicot County as pertaining to blackbirds . Trans . North Am . Wil dl - R ur. . . Nat . eso Conf 1 1 1 .

(Arkansas farmers estimated rice damage by blackbirds at 1 0% of the crop . )

1 3 - 1 970. Power, D . M . Geographic variation of red winged blackbirds in central North - America . Univ . Kans . Mus . Nat . Hist . Publ . 83 .

(Discusses relationship of bill structure to feeding habits . )

- Prevett, J . P . 1 972. Grackles retrieve dead smelt from Lake Erie . Can . Field Nat . 1 64.

(Common grackles and redwings fed on the smelt . )

- Reese, J . G . 1 973 . Red winged blackbird feeding on horseshoe crab eggs . Wilson Bull .

- Richardson , F . 1 947 . Water surface feeding of blackbirds . Condor (Redwings and Brewer$ s waded on submerged water plants to capture newly emerging

d am sel flies. )

- 1 909. Roberts , T . S . A study of a breeding colony of yellow headed blackbirds$including an account of the destruction of the entire progeny of the colony by some unknown natural - agency . Auk 389.

(Food brought to nestling yellowheads . )

- Robertson , R . J . 1 973 . Optimal niche space ofthe red winged blackbird . III . Growth rate and food — of nestlings in marsh and upland habitat . Wilson Bull . 222.

(Fledgling success was similar in both habitats . Nestling starvation increases as the season

progresses . )

1 1 - Roth , V . D . 97 . Unusual predatory activities of Mexican j ay s and brown headed cowbirds

under conditions of deep snow in southeastern Arizona . Condor

(Cowbirds attacked a junco . )

1 . x . US . . . Sanderson , E . D . 906 Report on miscellaneous cotton insects in Te as Dep Agric Bur .

Entomol . Bull . 57. 63 pp . (The section on the differential locust mentions that large flocks ofblackbirds fed extensively on

this insect . )

- Schoener, T . W . 1 968 . Sizes of feeding territories among birds . Ecology 1 41 .

(Most icterids did not maintain feeding territories . )

$

1 41 . ch or er . . 9 . . S g , A W The bronzed grackle s method of opening acorns Wilson Bull — 240.

K - - Selander, R . . , and D . R . Giller . 1 961 . Analysis of sympatry of great tailed and boat tailed — grackles . Condor 86.

(Summarizes known foods and feeding behavior of both species . )

F Sloan , N . . , and H . C . Coppel . 1 968. Ecological implications of bird predators on the larch — casebearer in Wisconsin . J . Econ . Entomol . 1 070.

(Studies showed that birds , including redwings , were significant predators of the larch

casebearer . )

1 - Snelling , J . C . 968 . Overlap in feeding habits of red winged blackbirds and common grackles — nesting in a cattail marsh . Auk 585.

(Although the insects taken by each species were generally the same , competition for food was

not apparent . )

. . 1 928 . Snyder, L L On the bronzed grackle . C a n . Field Nat .

(Common grackle ate minnows from a bird bath . )

1 4 - i Soriano , P . S . 1 931 . Food habits and economic status of the Brewer and red w nged - 395. blackbirds . Calif. Fish Game 1 (Extensive study of the foods of these species before 1 9 6 in California . )

- A 1 . . Sprunt , . , Jr . 1 94 Predation of boat tailed grackles on feeding glossy ibises Auk - 588 .

- (Boat tailed grackles stole crayfish from the ibises . )

R . . r . 1 72. Stickley , A . . , Jr. , and J L Gua ino 9 A repellent for protecting corn seed from blackbirds - Wil dl . . 1 52. and crows . J . Manage (Sprout damage by redwings and common grackles was reduced after dusting the seed with

methiocarb . )

- Stockdale , T . M . 1 959. Food habits and related activities of the red winged blackbird in north

central Ohio . MS . Thesis . Ohio State Univ . , Columbus . 41 pp .

(Study of redwing foods in Lake Erie marshland . )

- P D P . . 1 . . h . . Stone, C . , Jr 973 Phenetic variation of breeding red winged blackbirds in Ohio

2 . Thesis . Ohio State Univ . , Columbus . 76 pp

(Food of adult redwings during the breeding season . Differences among sexes , upland versus S x marsh breeding birds , seasonal and daily time periods are treated statistically . e and ecotyp e i differences are discussed in relation to morpholog cal differences . )

Sullivan , R . H . 1 91 2. The economic value of bird life . Kans . State Agric . Coll . Agric . Educ .

- 47. (E stimated that there were 1 5 million redwings in Kansas and in 21 days their young could

consume pounds of insects or they might destroy cutworms . )

- T a v m . . 4 e er, P . A 1 928. On the bronzed grackle . Can . Field Nat 5.

(Common grackles ate goldfish from a garden pool . )

- 22 Taylor, K . 1 958 . Common grackle kills and eats house sparrow . Auk 3 .

R . P h h 1 71 . Thurston , , and O . ra c u abmo . 9 Predation by birds on tobacco hornworm larvae

- infecting tobacco . J . Econ . Entomol . 1 549.

(Common grackle . )

1 - 938 . Tryon , H . H . Redwings feeding on larch saw fly . Auk

~ - Tutor , B . M . 1 962. Nesting studies of the boa t tail ed grackle . Auk 84 . r - (Makes note of egg predation by g eat tailed grackles . )

- - 1 . Tyler, J . G . 907 A colony of tri colored blackbirds . Condor 1 78.

(Food and feeding behavior at a tricolor breeding colony . )

D l . ersa . 1 940. z il Van , W R Utili ation of oaks by birds and mammals . J . W dl . Mange . - 428.

2 - (Table , a summary of oak use by birds , includes four listings for the common and boat tailed

grackles . )

V r e beek . . . 1 964 . , N A M A time and energy budget study of the Brewer blackbird . Condor - 74 .

(Feeding behavior and locations . )

1 5 - I r . Voigts , D . K . 1 973 . Food niche overlap of two owa marsh icte ids Condor 399.

(I tems fed to nestling redwings and yellowheads . )

Warren , B . H . 1 890 Report on the birds of Pennsylvania . Pennsylvania State Board of H 4 4 . Agriculture , a m sburg . 3 pp

(Food of all Pennsylvania blackbird species . )

1 4 Wayne , A . T . 1 899. Destruction of birds by the great cold wave ofFebruary 3 and 1 , 1 899. Auk

- 1 98 .

(Redwings ate fox sparrows killed by the cold . )

A - I 1 2. . . Weber, J . A . 9 case of cannibalism among blackbirds Auk 395

(Common grackle predation on redwing nestlings . )

- U 1 967 . . S Wil dl . West, R . R . Some food items of the boat tailed grackle in late June Fish Serv il l 2 M1m Denver W d . Res . Cent . unpubl . rep . dated September 1 5, 1 967 . pp . eogra ph ed .

- (Differences in esophageal and stomach contents of great tailed grackles . )

- 1 . i West, R . R . 969 Repelling boat tailed grackles from sprouting corn w th a carbamate T - compound . ex . J . Sci . 233 .

- (Great tailed grackle damage to corn sprouts was reduced with a methiocarb seed treatment . )

1 . West, R . R . 970 Food items found in birds collected in southeastern Oklahoma , fal l 1 969. US . Wil dl il W . Fish . Serv . , Denver dl . Res . Cent unpubl . rep . dated May 1 970. 6 pp . Mimeograph

ed .

(Redwing , common grackle, and cowbird . )

- 1 6 . Wiens , J . A . 9 5 Behavioral interactions of red winged blackbirds and common grackles on a - 4 common breeding ground . Auk 37 .

(The grackles did not prey on redwing eggs or young . )

- 47 1 2 . Williams , L . 95 . Breeding behavior of the Brewer blackbird . Condor

(Feeding behavior related to breeding . )

- M n Willson , M . F . 1 966. Breeding ecology of the yellow headed blackbird . Ecol . o ogr. - 77.

(Foods of nestling yellowheads . Also discusses possible sources of bias from the choke collar

technique . )

F - - Willson , M . . , and G . H . Orians . 1 963 . Comparative ecology of red winged and yellow headed - 4 r Z . blackbirds during the breeding season . Proc . 1 6th Int . Cong . ool 3 6 .

F Willson , M . . , R . D . St . John , R . J . Lederer, and S . J . Muzos . 1 971 . Clutch size in grackles . Bird

- Banding 35.

(Food of nestling common grackles and unexpected problems with pipe cleaner choke collars . )

Wilson , A . 1 831 . American ornithology . Vol . 4 . Bradshaw and Inskeep , Philadelphia . 362 DP

(Another early work mentioning the food of blackbirds$ see pp . 30

- - . 1 . Wood , H B . 938 Nesting of red winged blackbirds . Wilson Bull . 1 44 .

(One nestling stomach contained flies and other insects . )

1 6 1 - - . . 970. Worth , C B Aspiration of seeds by trapped red winged blackbirds . Bird Banding - 24 4 . t Seed aspira ion caused death in several trapped redwings . )

$

1 4 . Wright, C . W . 95 Extent of damage to corn by blackbirds in southern New Jersey in

1 5 . 9 3 New Jersey Game and Fish Commission . 4 pp . Mimeographed . (Cited by M ea nl ey and Mitchell

R E LATE D R E F E R E N C E S

- A el a ius Alcock , J 1 973 . Cues used in searching for food by red winged blackbirds ( g - eni eus 1 . p ho c ) . Behaviour 88

(E xperiments concerning the role of visual cues and learned behavior in searching for food . )

v Anonymous . 1 935. Directions for preser ation and care of material collected for food habits L B - il . a fl . S 2 . 4 . S. . . W dl . . e 9 studies . U . Dep Agric Res Manage pp

Wil d . Anonymous . 1 942. Laboratory procedure in wildlife food studies . US . Fish Widl . Serv . l L ea fl . 222. 1 1 pp .

(Complete guide to the laboratory portion of food habits studies . )

B n k . . . . anva ba k r dh d a rto e , J . C , and J J . Hickey 1 969 Food habits of c s c s, e ea s, and lesser scaup in — Manitoba . Condor 290.

(The food contents of the esophag us , proventriculus , and gizzard were different within each

species of duck . Should also apply to blackbirds . )

T m . . . Wil dl . . Beer, J and W . idy a n . 1 942 The substitution of hard seeds for grit J Manage — 82. (Showed that hard seeds are sometimes used as a substitute for grit in six species ofgallinaceous

birds . )

ul l n Brenner, F . J . 1 966. The influence of drought on reproduction in a breeding pop a t o of - i l — 1 red winged blackbirds . Am . M d . Nat . 2 0. (Standing crop of insects and number of breeding female redwings decreased during two

drought years . )

— . . 1 91 4. . 1 . Cahn , A R The determination of the food of nestling birds . Wilson Bull 93

(Discusses the relative merits of field observations and stomach examinations . )

1 . Cottam , C . 935 Economic om ith ol ogy and the correlation of laboratory and field — . U . S. . . W l dl L B 1 . methods Dep Agric i . Res . Manage . efl . S 30. 3 pp

W . . . A 1 . m h d De Grazio , J , J F Besser, J . L . Guarino , C . M . Loveless , and J . L . Oldemeyer . 969 et o a n a isin W l - 4 for pp g blackbird damage to corn . J . il d . Manage . 99 (A method for estimating the volume of corn lost to redwings by measuri ng the length of

damaged rows on sample ears . )

Dil l - er . 1 y, D G . 965. Post mortem digestion of stomach contents in the savannah sparrow . Auk

(Digestion continues after death and could result in the digestion of soft-bodied insects and xm worms before e ina tion . )

1 7 Gullion , G . W . 1966. A viewpoint concerning the significance of studies of game bird food — 376. habits . Condor

- - (Discusses bias associated with the use of hunter killed fall birds only , relatively short term

studies , and the lack of related population and ecological data . )

- W l d R . . 1 956 . . . i l . . Hanson , W . . , and F Graybill Sample size in food habits analysis J Manage —68

(Method of computing the sample size needed so the data will be statistically significant . )

- 1 4 . . 381 . Hartley , P . H . T . 9 8 The assessment of the food of birds Ibis

- (I n depth discussion of the various methods used to investigate the foods of birds . )

K H . . . or h n . 1 4 . Jensen , G . , and L J sc g e 9 7 Contents of crops , gizzards , and droppings ofbobwhite

- - quail force fed known kinds and quantities of seeds . J . Wil dl . Manage . 43 .

(Methodology for determining digestive rates of various kinds of seeds . )

- 1 4. . . . Kalmbach , E . R . 93 Field observation in economic ornithology Wilson Bull 90 (Discusses various problems incurred in food habits work$ includes the economic status of

redwings . )

Wil 1 4 . . . Am . dl . . Kalmbach , E . R . 9 3 Birds , rodents , and colored lethal baits Trans North Conf — 41 6.

(Many species ofbirds were repelled from grains dyed bright colors . Certain colors in themselves

apparently disturb birds . )

R I Kalmbach , E . . , and . N . Gabrielson . 1 921 . Economic value of the starling in the United

States . US . Dep . Agric . Bull . 868. 66 pp .

(Economic considerations of an introduced species . )

M 4. . . ono . Kendeigh , S . C . 1 93 The role of the environment in the life of birds Ecol g r

- 41 7 . (Excellent ecology-oriented study on how house wrens have adjusted to meet the rigors of their

environment . )

K - - ors h n . 2 in . . cd . c ge , L J . 1 969. Procedures for food habits analyses . Pages 233 50 R H Giles , ,

D . rd . C Wildlife management techniques . 3 ed Wildlife Society , Washington ,

- (Includes procedures for avian food habits analysis . )

Lack , D . 1 954. The natural regulation of animal numbers . Oxford University Press , Lon

don . 343 pp . (Chapter 1 2 has an excellent discussion of food theory and Chapter 1 3 discusses food as a

- population limiting factor . )

Lamprey , H . F . 1 967 . Notes on the dispersal and germination of some tree seeds through the

- agency of mammals and birds . E ast Afr . Wil dl . J . 1 80.

(Seeds were germinated from fecal pellets . )

- 1 M . . 56 . Linehan , J . T . 967 . easuring bird damage to corn Proc . Vertebr . Pest Conf (Discusses three methods of estimating damage and the factors that determine which would be

the best method to use . )

1 8

- W l l 1 44 . t t . . i d . Swank , W . G . 9 Germination of seeds af er ingestion by ring necked pheasan s J — 23 1 . Manage .

(Seeds germinated after passing through the intestinal tract of pheasants . Hard seeds

germinated more frequently than soft. )

B n k . A . . . a rto e . 1 970 t Swanson , G . , and J C Bias associated wi h food analysis in gizzards ofblue — il dl . . . W 746 . winged teal . J Manage (Significant disagreement in the composition of esophageal and gizzard contents from North

Dakota teal . )

F M D . . . Udva rdy , . 1 969 Dynamic zoogeography with special reference to land animals . Van

t Co. . 44 . Nos rand Reinhold , New York 5 pp m $ (Contains an infor ative discussion of endozoic biochore dispersal , or dispersal of seeds by

passage through the intestine . )

1 . Verner , J and M . F . Willson . 966 The influence of habitats on mating systems of North

- Am . erl ca n passerine birds Ecology 1 47 .

(Relationship of quality and quantity of food to mating systems . Most blackbird species were

included in the analysis . )

- 1 1 . I . Wetmore, A . 9 9 Notes on the structure of the palate in the cteridae Auk 1 97 . $ (Use of the palatal keel in feeding by common grackles . )

20 G P O 8 3 2 - 1 0 9