EYF CT 07 STAGGER AND DECAIAAGE

ON BIPLANE, COMBINATIONS OF THICK AIRFOILS

AT HIGH ANGLES OF INCIDENCE

by

N. J. MEDVELEFF and N. N. SINITZIN

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirement

for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

from the

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

1926

Signature of Authors

Certification by the Department of

Professor in charge of ResearchŽg Chairman of Departmental Committee on Graduiate Students Head of Department TABI OF CONTENTS

I. Introduction

II. Object of investigation

III. Airfoil used and methods of attack ------

IV. Assembling jig and supporting apparatus ----

V. Corrections for supporting appara-us------

VI. Presentation and discussion of results -- - -

VII. Conclusions ------

VIII. List of References ------

151295 -1

I. Introduction

There have been previously made a considerable number

of tests on effect of stagger and decalage on biplane combinations in different countries and especially in England. As far as it is known, however, there have been no tests made upon biplane combinations of thick airfoils.

Modern practice of airplane design,especially in commercial aviation, where the question of maximum pay-load carried is the one of necessity, turns its attention once and again to airfoils of high lift, which would permit a higher wing loading and hence reduced wing area without sacrificing the landing speed.

The class of the wing sections possessing a much higher maximum lift coefficient is that of thick airfoils.

The most important and immediate problem in commercial aviation, which (problem) goes together if not ahead of the question of getting more revenue, is that of safety of operation, which in its turn insistently reminds us that there is still a great deal to do in order to make flying absolutely safe.

It is well known that there is some danger of stalled flight, as it brings the machine to the very border, where the autorotation can start and further develop into the spin, - a manoeuver undoubtedly extremely hazardous for an airplane.

In a steady flight compensation for decrease of speed is given by increase of angle of attack to secure lift capable of sustaining the airplane. It is no longer true after the angle of attack corresponding to maximum lift is passed, as with speed I III II I - I-2'

decreased the increase of angle of attack causes still further

drop in lift. Airplane begins to descend rapidly, which in con-

junction with loss of control and possible small disturbancemay

result in a spin. As there are on record quite a number of the

accidents which occured due to non-recovery from a spin, the

analysis of that question becomes of vital importance.

II. Object of investi ation and limits of work

The main purpose of the research was to discover whether

there is any possibility to reduce, if not to prevent entirely,

the liability to spin by the use of a proper biplane combination

of thick airfoils, for which, as was suggested by Professor E. P.

Warner, solution might easier be found,

-The investigation aimed to give an estimation of the

characteristics of wing combinations of thick airfoils at various

stagger, decalage and also gap to chord ratio, and bring out

qualities beyond the critical angle and aerodynamic efficiency

within the ordinary flying range.

The tests were confined to the limits of angle of attack between *10o and +320, within which region only autorotation can

take place and all the properties of a combination in this respect

can be fully displayed.

III. Airfoils used and methods of attack

Experiments were conducted in the Massachusetts Institute

of Technology 4 foot Wind Tunnel on NPL balance at constant speed 4-5.

40 mph. with standard 18" x 3" GBttingen 387 steel airfoils of constant chord and thickness ratio.

JAn attempt was made to cover as broad range of different combinations of stagger, decalage and gap to chord ratio as it was deemed rational and justifiable. It was intended also to make a number of runs with increased speed, which, unfortunately, could not be done due to the possibility of overstraining the balance.

The method of approaching to the solution of the problem is at once suggested by the consideration of the fact that the probability of stalling is more possible with a machine with well pronounced burble point or sharp peak of Zc carve than when this curve at the critical angle is more flat.

For this reason the results were considered and inferences made on the base of the shape of Zc curves (coefficient of the normal force versus angle of attack), which were plotted for each combination tested.

The criterion of greater or less tendency to autorotation of a biplane combination was the shape of Zc curve in the region of itt maximum. Namely, the combination with furthermost maximnnm point for the curve, which in the same time is itself well flattened on a considerable range of angle of attack before Zc maximum, can be judged as the best for non-spinning qualities. The. magni tude of Z force itself has no immediate influence upon the non-spinning qualities of a combination, but it clearly shows in what direction its aerodynamic characteristics are affected. Drop of Zc at lower -4-

angles means a loss of lift, possible decrease of L thereby affecting the performance of the airplane.

The best all-around combination is therefore that which has Zc curve with higher ordinates, with pronounced flattening at a considerable range of angle of attack and furthermost point of maximum.

IV. Adustable jig for assembling the model and

apiara tus for su-oortino it in Wind Tunnel

At the very outset of the conducting research the -writers were confronted with the question how to secure the accuracy of settings of the wings for different stagger, decalage and gap to chord ratio. Arrangements used by earlier investigators of the similar problem for thin airfoils were either cumbersome and inconvenient through the necessity of being placed in the Wind

Tunnel together with model (R & M 872) or were not able to secure beforehand the desired values of variables for a given combination at a time, as in earlier German, British, and American tests (see Reference List).

And yet upon the precision of the work, especially in decalage changes, where the difference of such a small value of an angle as 1-1/20 between two successive settings of wings was required, depended tbhe whole result of investigation. The necessity of having some kind of device enabling the rapid assembly of the wing combination at any desired set of variables was especially urgent because a broad range (nearly 90) of different combinations -5.-

was planned to be investigated.

Such a device was worked out on the principle of an adjustable jig, and is adaptable to rapid dismantling and assembling of the airfoils for any desired set of the assumed variables.

The definitions of stagger, decalage and gap as they are given in N.A.C.A.T.R. No. 157 were put in the foundation for constructing the jig, which with model assembled for stagger +25%, decalage +40 and G = 1.25 is shown in Fig. 9. As the stagger, decalage and gap are the three variables, properties of which are to be analyzed, it is worthwhile to.give their definitions here for ready reference of the reader.

Stagger is the amount of advance of the leading edge of an upper wing of a biplane over that of a lower, expressed as a percentage of gap or in degrees of the angle whose tangent is the percentage just referred to. It is considered positive when the upper wing is forward, and is measured from the leading edge of the upper wing along its chord to the point of intersection of this chord with a line drawn perpendicular to the chord of the upper wing at the leading edge of the lower wing, all lines being drawn in a plane parallel to the plane of symmetry.

A little retreatment from this definition was made in expressing the stagger as percentage of the chord instead-of that of the gp, as is often the case in practice and which is

•the most convenient here, because the chord was kept constant throughout the whole investigation, while the gap was one of the 6- ---

three fundamental variables.

Decalage is the acute angle between the wing chords of a biplane. It is positive if the angle divergent forward, and negative in the opposite case. Gap is the distance between the planes of the chords of the upper and lower wings of a biplane, measured along a line perpendicular to the chord of the upper wing at any designated point of its leading edge.

The jig can be applied to any kind of wing sections, either of the same or different chords, and for any set of stagger, decalage and G ratio. C It consists of two main parts (Fig. 1 and Fig. 2), made in pairs either of wood, or preferably, of metal, and of a number of blocks (Fig. 3, 4, 5, 6 and II) of different height for various

G ratios and of different angle of inclination of the upper surface for various decalages. All these blocks are also in pairs as is seen from Fig. g.

The application of the device to the assembling of any kind of biplane combination is clearly understood from the consideration of Fig. 7. Lines a, b, c, d, etc. determine the position of leading edge of the lower wing for a required stagger; a block inserted between upper and lower main parts gives a desired &ag ratio; and a bevel block (or with parallel edges chord for zero decalage) placed under the lower wing furnishes a necessary decalage. Upper wing is always in the same position. _After the wings are properly placed they are rigidly

tied up by the wedges of soft wood, while a connecting strut (see

Fig. 10) on the top and an adjustable cross-bar on the bottom are

set up and tightly fastened to the wings. The model then takes

a form of a rigidly connected system, can be taken out of the jig and placed in the Wind Tunnel.

The cross-bar (Fig. 12) was designed by the members of

the Wind Tunnel Staff of M. I. T. and was used before in similar

experiments. Its movable blocks on parallel guides are set

apart at such a distance as to bring the ends of wing spindles

right into the holes of those blocks (Pig. 10).

V. Corrections due to surorting apparatus

These corrections included the effect due to the

resistance offered by the apparatus to the relative flow of the

air and interference effect due to spindles altering the airflow

about the tip of the model. To obtain the effect of apparatus upon the drag and lift it was tested alone in the ordinary way with the wind on over the whole range of incidences. To compensate

for interference effect both spindles were projected by 7/8' longer

than when with wings, as the practice of that Wind Tunnel established. Two runs were made: with spindles in the most out- ward position, corresponding to maximum gap, and in most inward position, that for the minimum gap. Average value of drag was taken giving inappreciable error (1.6% maximum). Zero readings

(with no wind) for the model appeared different for each angle of I I -8-

attack, the difference though being small. Here also average

zero reading was taken with negligible error (1.15% the highest).

Such small errors are well permissible in the case under con-

sideration where relative merits of combinations are compared,

the exact absolute magnitudes of the coefficients not being of

importance.

VI. Presentation and discussion of results

The results are presented in the form of tables I - 11,

charts 1-12 and a subjoined diagram, showing the relative merits

of the various wing combinations as regard to non-spinning

qualities and aerodynamic features as well.

All coefficients are expressed in pounds per square

foot per mile per hour and were calculated by the usual formulae:

L

S C 2S

Ze = Lc CosoL + De Sinc-

The beginning and. end of autorotation was deterýined

by the equation:

dLc + Dc = 0 dtL

The character of the airflow, as set up by a given

combination, is indicated also. The property of the combination

to create a smooth steady flow of the'air around itself may -.f%

possibly prevent the turniag of the airplane into a spin in a stalled flight, when a small distarbance is sufficient to start

spinning. Unfortunately, this quality is possessed in a greater

degree by the comboinati3ns, which are perhaps the worst both

from non-spinning and aerodynamical points of view. They are

those with negative stagger and negative decalage. The steadiness

of the airflow, however, around these combinations was remarkable; permitting the reading of drag to the third decimal figure with

ease, and almost no turbulent effect was present.

The most unfavorable combination in this respect is

that with stagger 0%, which, except for higher G ratio and C positive decalage, furnished the most turbulent flow of the air, preventing any measurements beyond the critical angle. As a rule zero stagger, combined with low gap-chord ratio and negative decalage (also high gap-chord ratio and large negative decalage) gives a combination very poor aerodynamically with no good non- spinning qualities either. Change to positive decalage together with the introduction of high gap-chord ratio improves very considerably aerodynamic characteristics of the combination

(combinations nos. 19, 20, 29, 46, 50 and 51), though not de- creasing much its tendency to spin.

Combination No. 50 with zero stagger, + 2-1/21 decalage and G = 1.25 is the best aerodynamically of all tested and has a limited (though not a short one) range of autorotation, but

'nfortunately autorotation starts at an early angle of attack (200). -10**

Introduction of positive stagger (charts nos. 11 and 12) together with low gap-chord ratio and negative decalage give the best

combinations as far as non-spinning qualities are concerned,

whereas aerodynamically they are not as good. (Combinations nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, etc.) On the other hand positive stagger combined

with high gap-chord ratio and positive decalage give combina- tions much better aerodynamically but poor with respect to early

angle of a~torotation, though the range of autorotation is the

shortest. (Combinations nos. 67, 68, 56, etc.) Effect of gap-chord ratio is not appreciable as far

as autorotation is concerned, except for zero stagger and high

positive decalage (chart No. 10, combinations nos. 12, 19 and 51),

but is of importance aerodynamically. As it might be anticipated,

the higher gap-chord ratio gives the greater values for Zc due

to the fact that shielding effect of the lower wing on the upper

one is decreased. This is, however, not true in all instances

(chart no. 9) due to influence of varying stagger and decalage,

the last one being probably responsible for rather erratic and

not quite consistent curves of effect of gap to chord ratio,,

As to the effect of decalage, the consistency here is

almost complete, perhaps without any exceptions. Namely, negative

decalage is very favorable for non-spinning qualities of the

combination, shifting the maxium point of Zc curve to the right, whereas it considerably decreases the aerodynamic efficiency of combination within flying range of angle of attack. On the other malls

band, positive decalage greatly improves aerodynamical characteristics of the combination, but increases its tendency to spin in a very marked degree.

That rule does not step out clearly with high negative stagger due to a great shielding effect, but is very well pronounced for high positive stagger (charts nos. 2, 3, 4, 7, 8).

VII Final conclusions

Conclusions are not of a very satisfactory sort, as, unfortunately, for a combination to possess a quality of the least tendency to spin at high angles, means to be very poor aero- dynamically for angles within the ordinary flying range. To imorove the non-spinning qualities of a biplane combination means to make a material sacrifice in lift.

The best non-spinning combination, which begins to autorotate as late as 260, is that of +25$ stagger, .75 gap to chord ratio and -2-1/20 decalage. The least range of autorotation has the combination of +50o stagger, 1.00 gap to chord ratio and +4o decalage.

The best combination aerodyna=ically is 0% stagger,

1.25 gap to chord ratio and +2-1/20 decalage.

As 4 compromise the best all-around combination is +5NO stagger, 1.00 gp to chord ratio and -2-1/20 decalage (no.3), which combines the average values of lift (between those of very high and very low) and sufficiently late start of awtorotation (24), -r12

As an alternative, a combination of less steady airflow with the rest of the things being the same as before mentioned is that of +25% stagger, 1.00 gap-chord ratio and -1-1/29 decalage (no. 7).

As to the airfoil alone, representing the properties of a monoplane, it is seen from chart and table no. 1 and subjoined diagram ("Combination" no. 40) that airfoil alone occupies almost exactly the middle position between the two extremes of biplane with respect to tendency to autorotation and in the same time possesses very high aerodynamic characteristics for angles of flying range. The autorotation range of the airfoil alone is very limited also. These are very considerable advantages which speak in favor of monoplane and may give explanation of the extensive use and success obtained by monoplanes with thick airfoils.

The experiments made can not be absolutely conclusive, as other wing sections might be more favorable than that employed, also there may be an advantage in using two wings of different sections and different chords. Some influence might be expressed from'transverse overhand of the upper wing, change of aspect ratio, etc.

It should be noted also that in compating coefficients no account was taken of the change of lift and drag at the wing tips; therefore, the conclusions can only be regarded as showing the type of result to be expected and not the actual numerical values. 4 ~13s.

VIII References

1. Zeitschrift f¶r Flugtechnik und Motorluftschiffart, January 1I, 1913: "Mitteilungen aus der Gittinger Model Versuchstanstalt", by A. Betz.

2. "Engneering", V. 101. Jan. 1, 1916. "Stable biplane arrangements" by J. C. Hunsaker.

3. Technical Note No. 70 of N.A.C.A.: "The Effect of staggering a Biplane", by F. H. Norton.

4. Technical Report No. 157 of N.A.C.A.: "Nomenclature for Aeronautics".

5. Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Reports and Memoranda:

No. 549 The Auto-Rotation of Stalled Airfoils and its Oct.1918 relation to the Spinning Speed of Aeroplanes, by E.F. Relf, A.R.C.Sc., and T. Lavender.

No. 595 The Rotation of an Airfoil, about a fixed axis, Mar.1919 by H. Glauert.

No. 670 The Maximum Angular Velocity of Aeroplanes, by Mar.1920 F. H. Bramwell.

No. 733 Preliminary Note on the Effect of Stagger and Sept.1920 Decalage on the Auto-Rotation of a R.A.F.15 Biplane, by H.B. Irving and A. S. Batson.

No. 774 Biplane investigation with R.A.F. 15 section, -Sept. 21 by W. L. Cowley and C.N.1H. Lock. No. 787 Lateral Control of Bristol Fighter at Low Speeds, Jan.21 by Bradfield.

No. 846 , The Lateral Stability of S.E. 5a in gliding Aug.22 flight, by E. F. Relf.

No. 857 Biplane Investigation with R.A.F. 15 section, Dec.1922 Part If, by W. L. Cowley and L. J. Jones.

No. 872 Biplane Investigation with R.A.F. 15 section May 1923 Part III, by W. L. Cowley, A.G.Gadd, L.J. Jones and Silvia Skan. -14-

References (continued)

No. 975 Autorotation Measurements on a Model Aeroplane April 1925 with Zero Stagger, by F. 3. Bradfield and L. P. Coombes.

No. 976 Some experiments on a model a B.A.T. "Bantam"a Nov. 1925 Aeroplane with Special Reference to Spinning accidents.

No. 1000 The Lateral Control of Stalled Aeroplanes, Sept. 1925 General Report by the stability and control panel. GQTT/NGfIV 387 IqLONE I.SPO~ff M.c4wt0 ?. * P105L 40 /i, Zo /71. P.

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