INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS (1914 - 1986) SYLLABUS
Unit - I Nature of International Relations - National Powers - Diplomacy - Pre-War World - Europe before 1914 - Alliances and Ententes - Friction between the power blocks - The causes and course of the First World War - Results of the War, Peace Settlement 1919 - 1923 - Russian Revolution - or Balshevik Revolution in Russia 1917. Unit - II Nature of the Peace Conference and the role of the Big Four, particularly Woodrow Wilson, Peace treaties and their provisions - The U.S.A and the Peace Settlement - Washington Naval Conference 1921 - 1922 - Problems of Reparations and Inter Allied War Debts Problem of Security and Disarmament in 1919 - 1931. French Quest for Security 1919 - 1924 - Geneva Protocol 1924 - The Lacarno Pact 1925 - League Conventions - Kellogg - Briand Pact or the Pact of Paris 1928 - The Manchurian Crisis 1931 - World Disarmament Conference 1932 . Unit - III Rise of Fascism and its impact upon international relations - Rise of Nazism and its impact upon international relations - Spanish Civil War 1936 - The League of Nations - Second World War - War Period - Diplomatic negotiations - Declarations and conferences. Unit - IV Cold War - Foreign Policies of United States of America - Foreign Policies of Soviet Union - Foreign Policies of Britain and France - Foreign Policies of India - Foreign Policies of China and Japan - Asia in World Affairs - Africa in World Affairs - Latin America in World Affairs - Non Alignment Movement - Some outstanding international problems since 1945 - Kashmir Problem - Vietnam Problem - Disarmament since 1945. Unit - V United Nations Organization - The Common Wealth of Nations - Regional Alliances - Non Government - Prospects of Mankind in the future - New Techniques in the International Relations - Oil Diplomacy of the Arab Countries - The Gulf War - The Recent International Happenings.
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Books for Reference: Ajith Kumar Sen - International Relations Since 1914 Carr. E.H - International Relations between the Two World Wars 1919 - 1939 Carr E.H - The Twenty Years Crisis Gathorne Hardy. G.M - A Short History of International Affairs 1920 - 1939 Gibbons - An introduction to World Politics Hart Manns - Relations of Nations Holsti. K.J. - International Politics Ingram - An Outline of International History Langsam Morganthean - The World Since 1919 Politics among Nations Northedge and Grieve - A Hundred Years of International Relations 1860 - 1960 Palmer and Perkins - International Relations Schuman - International Relations Tonybee. A.J - Survey of International Affairs
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UNIT - I: NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Nature of International Relations - National Powers - Diplomacy - Pre-War World - Europe before 1914 - Alliances and Ententes - Friction between the power blocks - The causes and course of the First World War - Results of the War, Peace Settlement 1919 - 1923 - Russian Revolution - or Balshevik Revolution in Russia 1917. NATURE OF INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Introduction: No man can lead a secluded life like an animal. As no man can be divided from other human beings, a State or Nation cannot be deviated from the World Community. One Nation should depend upon the other for some reason or other. So, interaction and inter- dependence cause international relations. The Industrial Revolution and the developed transport and communication have brought the World Nations nearer to each other. The relationship which existed among the neighbouring states has now become widened as International relations. Economic involvements, Commercial needs, International contacts, Political supremacy, exchange of the ideas of science and technology have made the international relation as a diplomatic one.
Meaning of International Relations: (1) In the 17th Century Richard Zovche employed the term ‘intergenets’, the Latin equivalent of international. (2) In the 18th century Germy Bentham used the world international for the first time. (3) The term international indicates the official relation among sovereign nations. (4) This term indicates official, legal, diplomatic, economic, financial, cultural relations nowadays. So, it is evident that international relation means both official and non-official institutions. (5) International relations refer to relations which exist between “groups, nations, states, governments people, regions, alliances, confederations, international organisations, cultural organisations, religious organisations etc”. (7) It indicates the “totality of relations among different people and groups in the world society”.
Approaches to International Relations: The International relations are approached in two ways. (1)(a) classical approach is the first one. (b) It is derived from history and law. (c) It will be a tentative one. (2)(a) Scientific approach is the next one. (b) This approach is logical and centres around verification of facts. (3) This study could be approached on the basis of some theories. (i)(a) James Rosenau, W.Deutsch, A.M.Chelland, Ravmond Aron, Stanley Hoffmann etc. have given importance to system theory. (b) This system theory refers to the relations between the nations through the units of politics available in them, the objectives which they have and the activities performed by them in achieving their goals. (c) Balance of power, the loose bi-polar, the tight bi-polar, the universal, the hierarchical and the unit Veto system are the six systems employed in it. (ii) K.Zawadny, has mentioned the international system as a
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game. But it is an unending game and in it no power can take away anything from others permanently. (iii) (a) International relations centre around communication processes. (b) Charles A.Mechelland in his work “Theory and international system” has mentioned that it can be approached through communication based on cultural relations, public opinion and attitudes.
Nature of International Relations: (1) It is not at all a solution to solve the problems among the nations. (2) As pointed out by Palmer and Perkins, it contains ways to approach the problems in a planned and objective manner. (3) Priguy Madison has called it as problems which cross the borders of a state and associate with the other nations of the world. (4) The foreign relation of a country alone will not be international relation. The preservation of the welfare of the world nations without affecting the national welfare of a state will form the basis for international relations. (5) International relations point out the ways and means to be adopted by one nation on par with other nations. (6) It avoids friction and aims at co-operative and co- ordinated functioning. (7) It is based on the fact that the people living in different countries belong to a single mankind. (8) It stresses an universal brotherhood. (9) Mere political relation alone slane will not be called as international relations. Economic relations, commercial contects, political and cultural affinities too will be covered by international relations. (10) Religious missionaries, tours, news papers, cultural exchange visits, treaties, Radio, T.V., Cinema, hand bills etc., are few means which assist the promotion of International relations. (11) The sovereignty of the state, the equal rights and status among nations are the facts which decide international relations. (12) Internationalism is a train which runs on national and international ideas. Only when nationalism is not a narrow minded one internationalism could be achieved. So, broad mindedness is the basis for internationalism. (13) Nationalism is not a contradictory factor to internationalism because internationalism includes nationalism also. (14) By international relations one nation will respect the rights and privileges of other nations. Every nations’s action will be restricted without affecting others. So it is an aspect which protects the common welfare of the mankind. (15) It is not discovered by any international organisation. (16) It emerges out of the fact that every nations depends upon the other fellow nations. (17) It may either be enemity or cordial relationship. (18) It aims at national security through international co- operation. (19) International relations centre around individualism and collectivism. It means that every individual nation should have a collective approach for its own sake and also for the world community. (20) It avoids danger of mass annihilation and encourages an unprecedented era of human progress. (21) It depends upon realistic approaches with specified ideas. (22) As the wants of men have increased now, only through internationalistic outlook the plenty available in other nations are used.
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Uses of International relations: (1) As a matured state of international relations many new international organisations such as UNO, UNESCO, WHO etc. have come out now. (2) The UAE, SAARC, etc., are the outcomes of international relations. (3) European Common Market, Non- aligned countries etc., have emerged mainly on the basis of international relations. (4) It avoids wars, aggressions and promotes peace and security. (5) It assists the welfare of mankind and international society.
Conclusion: As hope for the fear filled world international relation occupies a significant place. For a successful approach to the international politics, world affairs, maintenance of peace and security international relation plays a prominent role. International relations are approached by many ways. It covers both governmental and non-governmental activities. “The students guard himself against any value judgement in the study of international relations”.
NATIONAL POWER AND INSTRUMENTS FOR THE PROMOTION OF NATIONAL INTERESTS Introduction: In every nation its political condition plays a significant role. It will be a difficult task to estimate the quantum of national power because it contains various determinating factors. They vary due to various reasons among different nations. So, the qualities of the national power will be transitory and ephemeral in nature. They tend to change according to the changing trends.
Meaning of National Power: (1) National power is the power of a people of a state formed on principles of Nationalism. (2) As pointed out by Hoffmann National power is the power which is utilised to protect the national welfare of a nation. (3) It is the feeling of oneness of the people living in an united manner within the stipulated territory. Thus it is the total capacity of the people in making their state to be always dynamic.
The factors which determine National Power: (1) Geography: (a) The geographical setting of a nation decides the national power and the international relations. (b) Napoleon has mentioned that geography is the factor which decides the foreign policy of a nation. (c) The Countries like Japan, Britain and America encircled by sea are prevented from foreign attacks. (d) The condition of weather too plays its role. For example, the Russian winter is detrimental to foreign attacks. (e) While majority of the Indian States came under the British Yoke, due to its Geographica setting, Nepal was left alone.
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(2) Population: (a) The population of a Country is responsible for its strength and weaknesses. (b) The major power of a State assists to reveal the efficient development. (c) Israel, which has only a limited population survives because of the full utilisation of the man power and resources. (3) Resources: (a) The power of a nation lies behind its fertile soil, rain, mining prospects etc. (b) The coal, iron and other metal ores promote industrial development. (c) Petroleum is another important raw material. (d) Both America and Russia are popular because of their natural resources. (e) The Gulf countries are known for their production of Petrol. (4) Technology: (a) The technological skill of a nation assists the promotion of science and industries, transport and communication etc. (b) Japan and Germany are strong and powerful because of their technological improvements. (5) Co-ordination and Leadership: (a) There will be power when all the human resources, natural resources, technical skill etc., are all utilised in a co-ordinated way. (b) The Co-ordinated efforts will enhance the power and capacity of production. For instance Napoleon of France, Hitler of Germany and Mussolini of Italy relieved their respective countries from their distresses and made them power due to their leadership which centred around co-ordination. In the same way, Churchill was responsible for the success of the joint venture of the allied powers. (6) Nationalism and discipline: (a) The spirit of nationalism, social customs and traditions, the experiences gained etc., form the national power among the people. (b) The hard working nature of the Japanese, the disciplined self control of the Germans were mainly due to their national bent of mind. (c) When the countries like Britain, France, America etc., offer significance to individual liberties, there is no scope for autocratic rule. (d) At times of war and aggression only when the people unite with each other there will be national power. (7) Strength of the army: (a) Every nation exposes its strength through armed forces. (b) Training, war techniques, weapons etc. form the basis for fixing the strength of the army. (c) To oppose the strong and powerful enemy, the small nations ally themselves. The NATO formed against the strength of Russia could be cited as a suitable illustration for this. Thus the national power can be enhanced by the use of the above said measures. In addition to the above, there are few other aspects which also assist as instruments for promotion of natural interests. They reveal the qualities of nationalism.
Qualities: 1. The spirit of unity and solidarity which prevail among people due to race, language, religion will a stepping stone for promoting national power. 2. The concept of multi nationalism which exists in countries like Switzerland will promote national power. 3. Common enemity, danger and invasions will enrich national and that will promote national power. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 6
4. The literary giants and scholars by their works create simple and pure nationalism among people. For instance the works of Wordsworth, Milton, Shakespeare and others have turned out a tremendous achievement. 5. The Jews, who were attacked by various people during many times, stand now only due to their national power. They withstand the challenges of the Arabs and continue to survive. 6. Nationalism can be called as an enlarged tribalism. Germany during the two world wars due to its unshakable faith over racial superiolity aimed to become a world power. The people of Germany too supported it. 7. Toynbee considered nationalism as “a religion unavowed”. The Nationalistic spirit will attach no importance to right or wrong. Even by violence they will try to maintain their national superiority. 8. The theories such as the ‘survival of the fittest’ and ‘might is right’ will also inculcate the spirit of nationalism. Such a nationalism cannot be avoided due to their method of outcome. 9. The genius, action and reactions, the ambitions, the working conditions of the labourers, the idea of national state propaganda and public education are few other aspects which enhance the spirit of nationalism.
Conclusion: Thus if we trace the history of different nations of different periods, it will be seen that they stood for nationalism and national power. The patriotic minded people and the economic factors such as capitalism, communism, socialism etc., support the cause of nationalism.
DIPLOMACY Introduction: During the modern period, the international relations are maintained by diplomatic ideologies. Since all the nations have to depend upon others for some purpose or other they are particular in adopting their own diplomacy. As diplomacy plays a significant role in their political relations with other countries, we must have a knowledge of diplomacy.
Definition or Meaning: 1. Oxford dictionary offers the meaning that diplomacy is “the management of international relations and skill in negotiation”. 2. It is derived from the Greek word ‘Diplomad’ meaning a parchement having secret written instructions. 3. Harold Nicholson in his work ‘Diplomacy’ has mentioned that it refers to five things. (a) It is associated with foreign policy of the nation. (b) It points out the speeches about the countries. (c) It points out the ways and means to carry out the decisions
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of the countries in an uniform manner. (d) It points out that it is a foreign service. (e) It refers to the efficient method employed in the talks between the countries. 4. As pointed out by Earnest Chalten, it deals with the successful functioning of relationships between countries in an effective way. 5. The administration of international relations through talks is now accepted as diplomacy. 6. Glichrist has described political diplomacy as the functions of diplomats in general and particular contexts. 7. Generally it means the acceptance and approval obtained from the parties through talks. 8. On the basis of national welfare, the strengthening of international relations is known as diplomacy of specific nature. 9. The creation and execution of a foreign policy by a nation is also included in diplomacy. 10. Avoidence of war by talks is also known as political diplomacy. 11. It also means the maintenance of relationship among nations.
Nature of diplomacy:- (1) The creation of foreign policy is included in diplomacy. (2) It maintains the relationship among the nations. (3) By diplomacy the feuds and confrontations which arise while dealing with foreign policies by nations are avoided. (4) It creates social cohesion among the nations. (5) As a brain to man, diplomacy is a must for a nation.
The contents of diplomacy:- 1. As pointed out by Harold Nicholson, political diplomacy comprises of three things. They are: (a) the growth of national and social Institutions. (b) The importance assigned to the views of the public. (c) The development which has emerged in information and publicity.
2. (a) There are differences between diplomacy and foreign policy. (b) Foreign policy offers the necessary functional aspects for the relations. (c) But diplomacy yields the required institutions and individuals. (d) The diplomats have no direct say in the formation of foreign policies because they execute the plans which are all already prepared. (e) Both diplomacy and international relations are related to each other. (f) The weak diplomacy reduces the vigour in the execution of a foreign policy. (g) Strong and powerful diplomacy will eliminate the drawbacks in the foreign policies. (h) While diplomacy deals with the ways and means for its functioning foreign policy offers the plans for the foreign contracts.
Diplomat: (1) “He or she who takes the credentials for presentation to another head of a state is called a diplomat or ambassador”. (2) One who serves in the foreign country as a link Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 8
between two nations is known as a diplomat. (3) The diplomats are treated as the eyes and ears of a government. (4) During the modern days, the Diplomats are selected from among the meritorious through competitive examinations. (5) The diplomats working in a country are enjoying certain special rights and privileges. (6) The diplomats are carrying out well- defined duties. (a) They have to send periodical dispatches to the Home Government. (b) He has to make negotiations on matters of bilateral importance. (c) He should make arrangements for promoting trade, exchange of views, settlement of problems, protection of the rights of his countrymen and adoption of peace treaties. (7) The foreigners make impressions about the country by the qualities of the diplomat. (8) Only on the basis of the acceptance of both the countries, the diplomats or ambassadors are appointed. (9) Before taking up of the appointment, he gets briefs from the Foreign Secretary and Prime Minister. (10) By adopting all the formalities, the ambassador has to submit his credentials to the head of the state where he is selected to work. (11) By keeping constant touch with the Foreign Secretary, he has to collect information’s regarding political, military and economic affairs. (12) It is his duty to register his protest at the foreign office when he felt that any of his nationals are ill-treated. Such facts should be immediately intimated to the home government. (13) The senior most ambassadors or a diplomat of a country will preside over the conferences of the diplomats arranged. (14) At times of crisis or adverse notice he can be asked to be called back by the home government. (15) The diplomats or consuls or ambassadors do not formulate national policies. (16) The foreign ministers also offer instructions to the diplomats. (17) As they are responsible for causing changes among the nations, they are described as “the telephone girls of History”.
The Evolution of diplomacy: In India diplomatic functions were carried out even from the time of the Vedic age. Even the epics like Ramayana and Mahabharatha too have given details about the relations among the states. Ample references are available about this in Arthasastra.
(1)(a) From 476 A.D., the relations among the states were made temporarily. (b) The relation among the Greek city states were not permanent and the elders carried out such activities. (2) After 1450 A.D., diplomatic relations were carried out by permanent institutions. (3) After the First world war, democratic political diplomacy gained significance. (4) By conferences, the diplomatic relations have all been improved. (5) The political activities of the power blocs have enhanced the significance of the diplomatic relations among the nations.
Kinds of diplomacy: The Diplomatic relations of today are of different kinds. Everyone of them has its own merits and defects.
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(A) Secret diplomacy: (a) Such secret diplomacies were popular and prominent before the first world war. (b) In this type of diplomacy, the nobles and high caste people carried out the political activities. (c) Such secret diplomacies created problems to various nations and their people. The Triple Alliance, The Dual Alliance etc. caused first world war. (d) The secret activities led to suspicion among the nations. (e) As the secret diplomacies led to chaos and war conditions that diplomacy is not at all accepted now-a-days.
(B) Open or democratic diplomacy: (1) Such a diplomacy emerged during the commencement of the 20th century. (2) It deals with the activities carried out by the people. (3) This had the following defects: (a) The people’s representatives, who were unaware of the essence of diplomacy, when involved in diplomacy they could not do full justice to that. (b) The diplomats arrive at conclusions only on the basis of the views of public. It takes a long time to arrive at decisions. Thus it leads to delay. (4) It has the following merits: (a) It enables the people of a nation to know about the policies of their country. (b) This is helpful for taking easy and open decisions.
(C) Personal Diplomacy: (1) During the ancient period, the leaders of the countries carried out their diplomatic relations through their ambassadors or diplomats. (2) Today, the development of information and publicity measures have caused changes in the form of diplomacy. (3) A President of a nation can have direct contacts with his counterpart of another nation to take quick decisions after discussions with other leaders. (b) It avoids unnecessary frictions and confrontations among the leaders. (c) There will be ample scope for give and take among the leaders. (d) It allows nations to get some rights and privileges. Such privileges can be announced only by the leaders of the nations. (e) Personal diplomacy enables the two involved parties to take quick decisions. (f) By this kind of diplomacy, the problems of secret diplomacies can be avoided. (g) The non-availability of any confusion in this will yield perfect decisions. (4) This kind of diplomacy is having its own defects. (a) The decisions by the personalities on their own accord may he hasty. (b) There will be no opportunity for the leaders to discuss the issues with the people. So, their decisions may or may not be apt. (c) There will not be any scope for discussion as done in a conference. (d) Hasty and quick decisions will be always unsure.
(D) Diplomacy by Conference: (1) It informs the decisions taken by many nations through a Conference. (2) The League of Nations, which emerged after the First World War, introduced such a kind of diplomacy. (3) The NATO, SEATO, Warsaw Pact etc. are suitable examples for this.
The diplomacy of every nation depends upon the international relations and a country. At present, every nation is much interested in dealing with the political affairs of other nations. It has become now necessary among nations to stabilise their powers by diplomatic relations. The super powers are particular in enhancing their status in the world. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 10
The diplomacy of the nations centres around their political uses. In addition to political diplomacies, there are economic and commercial diplomacies. Anyhow, diplomacy creates goodwill and fame for the nation.
CAUSES OF THE FIRST WORLD WAR In the beginning of the 20th century the history of the world was affected by the First World War. A long series of events led to the Fist World War. Some historians feel that Germany and her alliance were responsible for the War. But others felt that there were many causes. But though there were many causes, Germany was the main cause for the War. The divided responsibility played an important role in the causes of the War. The First World War was a War between the Central Powers and the Allied powers. The countries which supported Germany were called Central Powers and the countries which supported Great Britain were called the Allied Powers. The War started in 1914 and ended in 1918. In the beginning of the First World War, the central power won many victories over the Allied Powers. But the year 1917 marked a turning point in the history of the cause of the First World War, due to the entry of America in the First World War on the side of the Allied Powers. The entry of America paved the way for the final victory of the Allied Powers in the First World War. The following were the reasons for the First World War:
1. System of Alliance The First World War was due to many causes and the most important cause was the system of secret alliance. Europe herself was divided into two military camps in the beginning of the First World War. The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entenete were the alliance systems that existed before the First World War. Of the two alliances, the Triple Alliance was formed earlier in 1883 among the central European powers, Germany, Austria and Italy. This Triple Alliance was not formed for the purpose of creating the Great War but on the other hand concluded for the sake of strengthening themselves from the possible French - Russian joint aggression.
The Franco - Prussian war of 1870-71 was a turning point in the history of Europe. It put an end to the growth of French power in the European continent and it railed the prestige of Prussia. Prussia now became the unified Germany and commanded the continent ever since its victory. Bismarck, the architect of the German unification wanted to strengthen the position of his nation. There upon Bismarck collected friends for Germany and it ended in the formation of Triple Alliance in 1882. Upto the dropping of the pilot (Bismarck) in 1890, the Triple Alliance did not bring about serious repercussion in the history of Europe. But later in the hands of Kaiser William II, it became an instrument of war which really became an important cause for the Great War of 1914. The Franco - Prussian war left embittered memories behind it. Although the French were defeated, they were waiting for an opportunity to remove that stain from the history of France. To them the loss of Alsace and Lorraine was not irrevocable. Hence they were in good allies to defeat Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 11
resourceful Germany. On the other side, Bismarck indicated that “we want France to leave us in peace”. Besides, Bismarck believed that he had to prevent France finding an ally. As long as France has no allies, she is not dangerous to Germany. In short, Bismarck feared of an anti-German coalition. Bismarck’s fear was not without certain valid grounds. First of all, France made a rapid and unexpected recovery after 1870. Secondly she recognised her military forces. All these symptoms showed that France was preparing for revenge upon Germany.
Austria’s ambitions in the Baikan Peninsula The formation of Triple Alliance was not the work of one nation; rather it was the work of a group of nations. Austria and Italy too contributed for the conclusion of the alliance in 1882. Austria was shattered to pieces by Bismarck. So it tried to expand the expense of the troubled cock-pic of Europe with the support of the unified Germany. But Russia stood as a bulwark against the Austrian intervention in the Balkans. Austria was not having good natural Labours except the one at Triesti. Thereupon she wanted to expand her territories in the South Eastern side to get the access of good labours. So her expansion in the Balkan region was a cruel necessity.
Revolutionary Unrest Bismarck wanted friendship with both Russia and Austria. Since all these three nations had a similarity, all of them were under monarchy. They were all conservative powers. Anti autocratic movements broke out in Europe in the form of Paris Commune, German Soviet Democracy and Russian Nihilism. Bismarck exploited the fears of the conservative powers in order to build up another Holy Alliance. The result was the League of Three Emperors was formed in 1872. Accordingly, they agreed to stand united in the maintenance of the boundaries.
Visit of Italian King -Victor Immanuel (1873) Victor Immanuel II, the king of Italy paid a friendly visit to Germany. It was calculated as a diplomatic victory for Germany and it was thought that the isolation of France was thus rendered complete. Thus Italy was brought into the construction of an alliance against the common danger, France.
The Berlin Treaty in 1878 The Berlin Treaty was a turning point in the diplomatic history of Europe. It paved the way for the breaking of the Three Emperors’ League. At the congress of Berlin, Germany co•operated with Austria and gave Bosmai and Herzegovina to her. This annuted the plans constructed by Russia in the San Stefano Treaty. Russia was violently incensed at the ingratitude of Germany. The Russian Government demanded that Bismarck should withdraw his support to Austria or forfeit the friendship of Russia. Germany was not ready
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to do either of this demand. This resulted only in the formation of an alliance with Austria in 1879.
Austro-German Alliance in 1879 In 1879 the German Chancellor concluded a formal alliance with the Austrian empire. This was generally known as the Austro German Alliance of 1879. According to the terms of the alliance, if Russia would attack one of the contracting parties, they resolved to take joint action on Russia. Besides, they agreed if any other third power would attack any one of them, the other should keep benevolent neutrality. The terms of the treaty were kept secret because it was arrived partly against Russia. Bismarck felt that the tie with Austria was irrevocable because of the blood relationship and thus the alliance was based on moral grounds.
Entrance of Italy in 1882 In 1882 Italy joined the Austro-German Alliance. The accession of Italy to the Austro - German alliance converted it into a Triple Alliance. Italy entered the alliance for a term of five years. There were two reasons for the entry of Italy. First, the Roman question was not solved with the Pope and she had the fear of French intervention on behalf of the Pope. Secondly, she was much alarmed by the aggression of France over Tunis. According to the idea of Bismarck, France attacked and annexed Tunis in 1881. Italy too, had the idea of conquering Tunis. The French capture of Tunis greatly disappointed her. This practically forced Italy to join the alliance in 1882. Thus the Triple Alliance consisted of Germany, Hungary -Austria and Russia.
Formation of Triple Entente Between 1871 and 1890 Bismarck followed the policy of isolating France from the European powers. It was with that object Bismarck supported Russia against Austria - Hungary on the occasion of Bulgarian crisis and also renewed the Three Emperor’s League. The dismissal of Bismarck in 1890 paved the way for the formation of much alliance against the Triple Alliance.
Franco - Russian Alliance in 1893 The Franco - Russian Alliance was formed between France and Russia in 1893. The estrangement between Germany and Russia led to the formation of this alliance. The relationship between Russia and Austria was strained on account of Bulgaria. Russia tried to convert Bulgaria in to a vassal state So it opposed the accession of prince Ferdinand. This was opposed by England, Austria and Italy. But the Austro - German alliance overfed the crisis and war was avoided. This the Bulgarian Issue led to the formation of an alliance between France and Russia.
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The economic and military co-operation between France and Russia also led to the formation of the Dual Alliance; in 1888, France offered economic support and French arms to Russia. The friendship was strengthened by naval visits. This resulted in a “Dual Alliance” between the two countries. By the alliance, Russia promised to support France if she was attacked by Germany or Italy or by both the powers. France agreed to assist Russia if she was attacked by Austria - Hungary, or Germany or both the powers.
Anglo French Entente Great Britain and France had been rivals for a long time. When Deicasse became the foreign minister of France there developed a smooth relationship between them to get back Alsace and Lorraine from Germany with the help of Great Britain. President Loubet and foreign minister Declasse sent friendly messages to Edward VII on his accession to the throne. This helped to bring the two countries together and finally led to the formation of an alliance in 1904.
Anglo - Russian Convention The Anglo - Russian convention was signed between England and Russia in 1907.This convention brought together England and Russia, which dealt with Tibet, Afghanistan and Persia. Regarding Tibet, both England and Russia recognised the sovereignty of China and agreed not to interfere in her internal affairs. Regarding Afghanistan, Great Britain promised not to annex it. Regarding Persia, both the powers agreed to respect the territorial integrity and independence of Persia.
The convention of 1907 transformed the Entente Cordiale of 1904 into the Triple Entente of 1907. The Triple Entente brought England, France and Russia into the war in 1914 against Germany and Austria Hungary. Then the rivalry between the Triple Alliance and Triple Entente led to the outbreak of the First World War in 1914.
German Responsibility A long series of events led to the First World War. Among the events, Germany was mainly responsible for the First World War. The following were the reasons:
Policy of Kaiser William II Kaiser William II was the emperor of Germany. He ruled Germany from 1888 to 1918. He controlled the foreign policy of Germany after Bismarck, the architect of Modern Germany. He felt that Germany was as powerful as Britain. Moreover he wanted Germany to become the master of the world. Thus his ambitious policy led to the First World War.
Anglo - German Rivalry There was a race for colonization in the later parts of the 19th century. Britain was more powerful because of its colonization. It had many colonies. It was the first rate power Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 14
because of the colonies. Germany wanted to establish colonies. It created rivalry between Britain and Germany. Industrial Revolution started in Britain, and began to spread to other countries in Europe. The unification of Germany was completed in 1871. After that, it began to develop its industries. It also captured world markets. It led to commercial rivalry between Britain and Germany. Thus the colonial and commercial rivalry between Britain and Germany led to the First World War.
Balkan Issue The provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina created another “Alsac - Lorraine” in the Balkans. By the Congress of Berlin, which was convened in 1878, in Austria Hungary was given the right to govern Bosnia and Herzegovina. But Austria Hungary annexed both Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The people of Bosina and Herzegovina were Slavs as in Serbia. So Serbia objected the annexation of Austria Hungary. Serbia was supported by Russia which was the champion of Balkan states. Thus the Balkan problem widened the rivalry between Austria and Russia.
The policy of Kaiser William II, Anglo - German rivalry, Franco - German rivalry and the Balkan Issue widened the rivalry between Germany and Great Britain. It ultimately led to the First World War.
Balance of Power At the beginning of the 20th century balance of power in Europe was no longer stable. Since 1870, Germany had rapidly grown in military and industrial activities, due to the efforts of Bismarck, who was the cheif architect of united Germany. He improved the textile industry. The improvement in the field of industries paved the way for sound finance and more number of colonies was established. Thus the development in the field of army and navy completely upset the balance of power in Europe.
Arms Race There were six great powers in Europe in the early twentieth century. They were Austria, Hungary, France, Germany, Great Britain, Italy and Russia. They were divided into two armed camps. There was a great rivalry between these powers in colonial and commercial activities. They raised a large army and navy, and entered into the armament race. In 1914 the standing army of Germany consisted of 8,12,000 men, Russia consisted of 13,00,000, France consisted of 8,46,000, England consisted of 3,81,000, Italy consisted of 3,05,000 and Austria - Hungary consisted of 4,24,000. These dangerous mechanism and large navy created powerful clash of military and naval officers. They dominated the army of the Central Powers. There was also a naval competition between Germany and England. Thus militarism made army arbiters dominate their country. It led to the trial of strength of power between countries. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 15
Narrow Nationalism and Competitive Patriotism The love for their country created hatred towards others. For example, the love of Germany demanded the hatred of France. The love of France demanded the hatred of Germany. Moreover the narrow patriotism of Serbia created hatred between Serbia and Austria - Hungary. It led to the murder of the Austrian Prince Ferdinand and his wife Isabella. Thus the narrow nationalism and competitive patriotism widened the rivalry.
Newspaper The newspapers poisoned the public. It tried to inflame national feelings by misrepresenting the situation, in other countries. Sometimes, they created attacks and counter attacks, and sometimes the facts were exercise censored. Thus the newspapers created bitterness between the nations.
Alsace - Lorraine Problem Alsace and Lorraine were the two important provinces that originally belonged to Prussia. They were rich in iron and coal mines. These two provinces were taken over by France. It order to go back to these provinces Prussia waged a war with France in 1870. It was called France - Prussian war of 1870-71. By the France - Prussia war, Prussia got Alsace and Lorriane from France. France desired to get back these two territories from Germany. Thus the natural resources of Alsace and Lorraine widened the rivalry between France and Germany and finally paved the way for the First World War.
Italian Interest The desire of the people of Italy to recover the Trentino and the area around the port of Trieste was one of the reasons for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. These territories were inhabited by the Italian but it was a part of Austria - Hungary. Itally was a member of the Triple Alliance of 1882. It was on the side of the Germany upto 1914. When the war started, it came on the side of the Allied powers and wanted to get Trentino and Trieste. Moreover, it thought that as Allies could get victory and it could get more spoils of war. Thus the interest of Italy led to the war.
Morocco Crisis Morocco became the bone of contention between Germany and France in the early years of the 20th century. Hardly a year passed since the formation of Anglo - French Entente by which the special interest of France was granted by Great Britain. Germany wanted to possess Morocco. In all these critical and uneasy years France was ably backed and co-operated by Great Britain. To be short, the strength of the Anglo - French Entente was tested in the question of Morocco.
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Circumstances led to the Algeciras Conference The Position of France Both France and Germany had commercial interests in Morocco. But that French trade in Morocco exceeded that of England or Germany. For some years, France had been engaged in the “Peaceful penetration” of Morocco. She entered into compacts with Italy, Great Britain and Spain. In 1900 a treaty was concluded with Italy, which recognised the French special interest in Morocco in exchange of Italian Interest in Tripoli. In October 1904 a compact Spain agreed the French possession in Morocco. On the other hand, Germany could claim with fairness that she also had important economic interest in Morocco.
French Action and German Reaction In 1905 the country was in a disturbed condition. The French Government resolved to compel the new Sultan, Abdul Aziz to accept a scheme of reforms. But the German emperor adopted a bellicose attitude. On March 31st the German Emperor landed at Tangier. He asserted the independence of the Sultan and demanded the settlement of the Morocco Question by a European conference. This was a challenge to France.
The French Reluctance France was not willing for the war. The menacing attitude of Germany was evidently inspired by the Great defeat of Russia at the battle of Mukden on 1st October 1905. Since her dual alliance partner was defeated in the Russio-Japanese war and her allowances of power was disclosed France was not willing to fight. The French foreign minister Déclassé opposed the German demand for a conference. Therefore he resigned. The conference met at Algeciras in January 1906.
Algeciras Conference Lengthy negotiations brought the danger of war very near. The convention of Algeciras patched up a settlement. France was not only supported by Russia and Great Britain but also by the U.S.A. Even the other members of the Triple Alliance Austria, and Italy were lukewarm in support of Germany. According to this convention:
1. The sovereignty of the Sultan was recognised. 2. France was authorised to control the Bank of Morocco. 3. The principle of the open door for all countries was reasserted. 4. France was left free to proceed with her ‘peaceful penetration’.
Although Germany had forced France to submit the Morocco Question to an international conference, the assembly had arranged matters more satisfactorily to France than to Germany. It gave stability to the Anglo-French Entente. The historical significance of the Morocco crisis thus lies in the fact that it was the first trial of strength between Germany and the western powers. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 17
The Agadir Incident In the summer of 1911 the Morocco Question once more became acute. Owing to the anarchy in Morocco a French army occupied the capital, Ferg. This was interpreted by Germany as a sign that France intended to proclaim a protectorate and a German cruiser, The Panther, was dispatched to Agadir on 1st July 1911. On the pretext of looking after German interests, Great Britain intervened on the side of her ally, far apart from her obligation to France; a German port on the Atlantic might endanger the security of her commercial routes. The British Government therefore intimated that any attempt to ignore British interests would be a humiliation intolerable for a great country. But soon Germany changed her policy of aggression. Finally a negotiation was brought into action in 1911. By this Germany recognised a French protectorate over Morocco and France surrendered the North West part of French Congo. These terms provoked great dissatisfaction in both countries; it paved the way for the first trial of strength between Germany and the Western powers. It was Germany which made Morocco problem an international affair.
Lack of International Peace Organization The lack of an International Peace Organization was another important cause for the First World War. There was chaos and confusion in various countries. There were many secret alliances. It was found that the secret of diplomacy was not known even to all the members of the same ministry. Secret diplomacy created a lot of confusion in the minds of the people. There was no power to enforce the code of international law and morality. Many resolutions were passed at the Hague conference of 1899 and 1907 but those were observed by the various states according to their convenience. Every state considered itself to be a sovereign and did not consider itself bound by its international commitments.
Balkan Problem The clash of interest of the Great powers in the Balkan Peninsula was the most outstanding cause of the First World War. Serbia became stronger after the Balkan war of 1912-13. She desired to get back Bosnia and Herzegovina, the two slave provinces. The Balkan problem became complicated when Serbia was supported by Russia, which proclaimed herself as a protector and champion of the Balkan states. Russia, a Slav imitation encouraged the Serbian nationalism and Pan - Slavism. The annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria - Hungary in 1908 widened their rivalry. The hostile Serbian press campaign and the activities of the Slav terrorists also caused extreme hostility in Austria and Hungary. The Balkan problem was further complicated when Germany had expanded her influence in the Ottoman Empire. Her Turkish policy, particularly, the construction of the Berlin - Baghdad Railways was bitterly resented by Russia. Morocco, Austria - Hungary and Germany had been trying to isolate Serbia in the Balkans. So they waited for an opportunity to achieve their aims.
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Immediate Cause The Austrian Prince Ferdinand and his wife visited Bosnia, a Balkan state annexed by Austria in 1908 to celebrate their fourteenth wedding anniversary. They were shot dead in the street of Sarajevo, the capital of Bosnia by a Serbia-Slav. Immediately Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia. Russia was much interested in the Balkan States. So it sent military help to Serbia. When Russia supported Serbia, Germany and Austria -Hungary declared war with Russia. Immediately France supported Russia. So Germany declared war on France through Belgium. Thus the First World War broke out in 1914 between the Central Powers and the Allied powers. The murder of the Austrian Prince was the immediate cause for the outbreak of the First World War.
Germany was mainly responsible for the outbreak of the War in 1914. Besides, the colonial and commercial rivalry between Germany and Great Britain, narrow nationalism and competitive patriotism, arms race, Balkan problems, Morocco crises were the other important events that led to the War in 1914.
Course of the First World War The First World War broke out in 1914 and ended in 1918. It was the War between the Central Powers and the Allied Powers which supported Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria were the Central Powers. England, France, Italy, Russia, Japan, China, Rumania. Greece, Serbia, Monteregro, Belgium, Portugall and United States of America were the Allied Powers. Russia withdrew her support from the Allied powers in 1917 due to Russian revolution. The United States of America entered into the War on the side of the Allied powers in 1917. Both the Central Powers and the Allied Powers fought against each other in 1914 in different parts of the world.
War in the Western Front - War in Belgium The murder of the Austrian Prince, Ferdinand and his wife caused the outbreak of the war between the Central Powers and the Allied Powers in 1914. When Austria - Hungary declared war on Serbia, Russia supported Serbia. So Germany, declared war on Russia. Russia was supported by France. Germany declared war on France through Belgium. By the treaty of London which was signed in 1839, the European powers agreed to preserve the neutrality of Belgium. Germany demanded free passage for his troops through Belgium. King Albert of Belgium refused to accept the demand of Germany. So Germany attacked France through Belgium in 1914. When Germany violated the treaty of London, France and England entered into the war supporting France. Though France was supported by England, Germany advanced to Paris. The Government of France was removed to Brodeaux.
The Battle of the Marne The battle of the Marne was fought on 5th, September 1914. It was one of the decisive battles in the history of the world. In this battle the German forces were prevented Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 19
by the combined forces of the French and the British. But the Germans got victory in the battle. As a result of this battle, the Germans were in possession of a large area of Northern France and of nearly all of Belgium. After the battle of the Marne, the Allied Powers sought to break through the German lines along the Asine but they were unsuccessful.
Battle of Neuve Chapelle The Germans conquered Belgium and north-eastern France. They tried to capture Switzerland. The Allied Powers tried to dislodge the Germans. They fought against each other in the battle of Neuve Chapelle. The British force was led by Sir John French. In that battle, terrific artillery warfare was used. Both England and Germany lost. Many were killed, wounded, and captured.
Battle of Ypres The battles of Ypres were ruinous. The first battle was fought on 11th October 1914, and the second battle was fought on 22nd April 1915. In the second battle of Ypres, gas was used for the first time. The battle was famous for the new feature of warfare. This was the most remarkable battle in the imperial history of Britain. But it broke no line and like the battle of Neuve Chapelle it was mere ‘nibbling’.
Battle of Verdun The battle of Verdun was fought on 21st February 1916. It was famous in the military annals of France. Petain was the commander-in-chief of the French forces. The battle dragged on for six months. The Germans had to withdraw. The name and fame of Petain increased through the battle of Verdun.
Battle of the Somme The battle of the Somme was an endeavour to bring to an end the long deadlock on the western front. The French and the British launched a counter offensive. The British used tanks in the war for the first time. In the battle of Somme a new and redoubtable engine of war was introduced by the British. Their striking power completely surprised the Germans and contributed eagerly to the British success. Hindenburg who was the hero of the Germans was replaced by Falkenhaya as chief of staff to infuse new spirit into the German soldiers.
On the western front the First World War was a battle fought in trenches. Trenches were ditches in the ground as a protection for soldiers against the enemy’s fire.
War in the Eastern Front The Russians invaded Germany and Austria - Hungary. The German forces under General Hindenburg had a decisive victory in the battle of Tannenbesg, which was fought on 26th August 1914. The Russians gained great success after this battle. They defeated the Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 20
Austrians and Lamberg was captured by the Russians. They invaded East Prussia. But the Russian forces were attacked by the German forces under the command of Mackensen who was assisted by the Austrians. The Russian forces were driven out of Austria - Hungary and they occupied Poland and Lithuania. Russia had lost 65,00 square miles of territory, and millions of people. The defeat of Russians by Hindenburg in 1915 and Brusiloff in 1916 was criticised by the people. It led to the outbreak of Russian Revolution in 1917, and Russia withdrew from the First World War.
Balkans The First World War began with the Austrian invasion of Serbia in 1914. But by the middle of December, 1914, the Serbians drove out the Austrians and occupied Belgrade. The Austro-German forces invaded Serbia in 1915. In the meantime, Bulgaria entered the war on the side of the Central Powers invading the Serbians from the east. The fighting between them was fought for two months. The Serbians were completely defeated by the Austro - German forces. The Anglo-French force landed at Salonika, a port of Greece in 1915 to help the Serbians. But they were forced to withdraw behind the lines of Salonica.
Rumania entered the war on the side of the Allied Power in 1916. The Germans, Austro - Hungarians, Bulgarians, and Turks under the command of Falkenhayn and Machensen were sent against Rumania. They conquered the southern part of the kingdown and entered Bucharest, the capital of Rumania. The Central Powers exploited their rich resources, wheat and oil. Greece joined the First World War against the Central Powers in 1917.
War with Turkey Turkey entered the war on the side of the Central Powers in 1914. Though European, Turkey had been reduced as a result of the Balkan wars, the Ottoman Empire was still extensive including Asia Minor, Armenia Mesopotamia, Syria, Palestine and Arabia. Its capital, Constantinople was considered as a city of geographical importance. It linked the European and Asian countries. The Turkish government was strongly pro-German. The Turkish army was under the command of German commanders-in-chiefs. They permitted two German war ships to enter the Bosporus and bombarded Russian ports. So Russia declared war upon Turkey. Turkey’s entrance into the War was a threat to the Balkan states and the British Empire in India and Egypt. It involved Asia and Africa in the war. Great Britain declared Egypt as a protectorate. Turkey invaded Egypt to control the Suez Canal. But they were defeated by the British. The Allied forces withdrew their forces in 1916.
Entry of Japan The First World War broke out in 1914 between the Central Powers and the Allied Powers. Japan demanded Germany to withdraw her fleet and surrender Kiauchau, a naval
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base in Asia on 17th August, 1914 and participated in the War until 1918, supporting the Allied Powers.
Entry of Italy Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance, which was organised by Bismarck of Germany in 1882. But Italy remained neutral until May 1915. By the treaty of London, which was signed in 1915, the Allied Powers promised Italy big chunks of Austrian 146 and Turkish territory. So Italy entered the War on the side of the Allies on 23rd May 1915. The Italian forces were directed against the Austrians. It got victory over the Austrians in the beginning. But after the entry of Germany, the Italians encountered reverses. The Italian fell back in Trientino. In the battle of Gaporetto they were defeated by the combined forces of Austria - Hungary and Germany. They highly damaged the southern Italy. But the Northern Italy was pressured with the help of Britain and France.
War at Sea Because of the naval supremacy, the North Sea was under the control of Britain. The French and the Italian controlled the Mediterranean sea with the help of the British. Britain was able to check the aggression of Germany in the battle of Dogger Bank. Beauty, the British admiral defeated the German navy.
Battle of Jutland Jutland is in Denmark. In 1916 a battle was fought between Germany and Britain. Admiral Hipper led the German fleets and the British fleets were under the command of Admiral Beauty. The battle of Jutland was the greatest naval battle of the First World War. In the battle of Jutland Germany 15 British ships, and Britain destroyed “German ships”. When the British fleet under Jelliw appeared, Germans escaped from Jutland.
Submarine warfare The First World War was fought on land and sea from 1917. The German announced an unrestricted submarine warfare. The German submarine not only attacked the Allies ship but also attacked the neutral ships. Germany used ‘U’ boats and the British used ‘Q’ ships. British was able to sink 145 German ships out of 200. Germany was able to sink 59 British ships. Thus Britain was able to command its superiority in the war on sea.
Entry of America In the beginning of the First World War America was a neutral country. The German submarine attacked the American passenger ship Lousitania which carried 1250 passengers including 188 Americans. The ship was sunk and 1198 died. Of them 128 were the citizens of America. As a result anti-German feeling in the United States of America reached new heights. Thus the unrestricted submarine warfare of Germany made the United States of America to enter into war. It declared war on Germany on 6th April 1917 to safeguard Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 22
democracy. Thus the entry of America into the First World War was the most important event in the history of world.
Russian Withdrawal from the War When the First World War began in 1914 Russia entered into the War on the side of the Allied Powers and continued its attack against the Central Powers. The year 1917 witnessed an important landmark in the history of Russia due to the outbreak of the Russian Revolution. It was organised by the Russians against the Tzar Nicholas II. As the result of the revolution Nicholas II abdicated the throne. The Bolsheviks under Lenin formed the Government in Russia. He concluded peace with Germany on 3rd March 1918 and withdrew the Russian forces from the First World War.
By the treaty of Brest- Litovsk, Russia gave up Finland, Baltic States, Poland and Ukraine to Germany. It was a great humiliation to Russia, and for the Germans it marked the height of their success in the First World War. After the surrender of Germany in 1918 these territories were returned to Russia.
War in the Western Front In 1918, Germany began to attack France. Series of battles were fought near Amiens, Yprest and Riems. The German forces crossed the Marne and began to bombard Paris. But the Allies with the support of America fought the German forces in the battle of Marne, the second battle, Marne in 1918. The Allies defeated the German forces. The defeated German forces were driven out from Amiens.
End of the war In the beginning of the War, the Central Powers got victory. In the later parts of the War, the Allies began to get victories. After the second battle of Marne, Germany had to face continuous defeats. The battle of Amiens made Germany surrender. Kaiser William II, the Emperor of Germany escaped to Holland. Germany sent two representatives to form an armistice that was signed between Germany and the Allies on 11th November 1918. Thus the First World War came to an end in 1918.
Cause for the success of the Allies The First World War began in 1914 and ended in 1918 in favour of the Allied Powers. In the beginning of the First World War, the Central Powers defeated the Allied Powers and occupied many parts of the European countries. But the final victory was won by the Allied Powers due to the following reasons.
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Economic Causes The Allies had greater economic resources than the Central Powers. Since Britain had many colonies, the Allies were able to get the help of men and material from them. But the Central Powers could not get such help.
British naval Supremacy Great Britain was to superior in navy. The North Sea was under the control of Britain. The Mediterranean sea was commanded by France and Italy with help of Britain. Britain was able to apply naval blockade against Germany until 1919. It was a severe blow to the Central Powers.
Geographical Advantage Geographically, Britain was highly protected. The position of Britain made Central Powers not to attack it very easily. But the geographical feature of the Central Powers made the Allies attacks them very easily from all directions.
Shifting of Alliance The formation of secret alliance system in Europe was one of the important causes for the outbreak of the First World War in 1914. Europe was divided into two main campuses, one under Germany and another under Great Britain. The countries which supported Germany were called Triple Alliance and the countries which supported Great Britain were called Triple Entente. Italy was one of the members of the Triple Alliance. But when the war broke out in 1914, it remained neutral and entered into the war in 1916 on the side of the Allied Powers, which was under the control of Britain. Russia, which was a member of the Triple Entente, entered into the war on the side of Britain, but it withdrew its forces from the First World War in 1917 due to the Russian Revolution. Thus the shifting of alliance was more advantageous to the Allies than the Central Powers.
Poor Help of the Partners The partners of Germany were wounded. They were unable to help Germany. But the position of Britain was different. Though Britain was affected, it got help from their supporters. Thus the weakness of the partners led to the defeat of the Central Powers in the War.
Russian Revolution of 1917 The First World War broke out in 1914 and came to an end in 1918 by an Armistice. It was also called Bolshevik Revolution. This revolution made Russia to withdraw their forces from the First World War. In the First World War, Russia was on the side of the Allied Powers. The withdrawal of Russia was a blessing-in-disguise to the Allies.
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Entry of America America was a neutral country in the beginning of the First World War. In 1917 the British ship ‘Lusitania’ was sunk by the German submarine. In that incident, 1190 people died. Of them 188 were Americans, in 1917 Germany announced ‘Unrestricted submarine warfare’ Germany was able to sink six American ships. So America was forced to enter into First World War. The direct entry of America in 1917 was a great help to the Allies. The American soliders and materials gave timely help to the forces of the Allies. It led to the victory of the Allies in the First World War.
Team spirit The Allies had a good team spirit and unity. The Allies were highly affected by the Central Powers in the beginning of the War. But they did not lose their confidence and unity. Thus the high team spirit of the Aliies led to the victory of the Allies in the First World War.
The Result of the First World War The First World War was ended by the Paris Peace Conference in 1919. It was the first war in which most of the countries in the world participated. It had far-reaching results.
Social results The First World War was considered as the bloodiest war. The war led to the loss of human life and property. As the result of the war, about four crores, fourteen lakhs and thirty five thousand people including the soldiers and civilians were killed. The war created the problem of refugees.
Economic results The First World War was also considered as the costliest war. As the result of the War, the people lost their properties. The total monetary loss of the First World War was about 400 billion dollars. The war affected the European economy and that led to the rise of the United States of America in industrial activities.
Political results The political consequences of the First World War were far-reaching. Monarchy was abolished in Germany and Austria Russia. Emperor William II abdicated to Holland and a Republic was established in Germany. The Russian Tzar, Nicolas II was deposed as the result of the revolution of 1917, which was due to the First World War. The Sultan of Turkey was deposed in 1922. As the result of the First World War, there was progress in national liberation movement in the colonial countries during the post-war period.
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The First World War led to the launching of non-cooperation movement by Mahatma Gandhi in India. The non-cooperation movement was organized against the British imperialism in India.
Japan entered the First World War on the side of the Allied powers. After the war, Japan became a super power. The Japanese supported the Nazi Germans and Fascist Italy. It led to the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. This alliance was the most important cause for the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
America entered into the War in 1917 on the side of the Allied powers. With the resources of the United States of America the Allied Powers got victory. America advanced loans to the European countries after war to regulate their economy. As the result of these activities America became a Great Power. The First World War led to the loss of human life and property. Confusion prevailed in the world. To establish peace and to avoid war in future, the League of Nations was established.
Germany accepted the terms of the Armistice and signed it on 11th November 1918. It ended the First World War. This Armistice brought great relief and the people of the world began to breathe.
PARIS PEACE CONFERENCE
The Armistice of 11th November, 1918 ended the First World War. Then a conference was held at Paris to bring a settlement in Europe. The first session of the conference was held on 18th January 1919 at Paris. Seventy delegates representing the countries which brought about the collapse of Germany and her allies assembled in Paris. There were numerous advisers, assistants and clerks. Big Four, Woodrow Wilson of the United States of America, Lloyd George the prime minister of Great Britain, Clemenceau, the Premier of France and Orlando, the Prime Minister of Italy played an important role in the conference.
The conference was inaugurated by Poincare, the President of France and George Clemenceau, the Premier of France was elected its President. The delebrations of the conference were drawn at the end of April 1919.
Aims of the Conference The Paris Peace Conference was convened to achieve the following aims: 1. To redraw the map of Europe due to the fall of the Hohenzollern / Hapsburg and Ottoman Empires. 2. Remove the obstacles of international tariff. 3. Reduction of national armaments. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 26
4. Imperial adjustment of all colonial claims and the interests and sentiments of the people were to be considered. 5. Evacuation of Russian territory; Russia was to be given full opportunity to decide her future course of action. 6. Evacuation and restoration of Belgium. 7. Evacuation and restoration of French territory. 8. Readjustment of Italian Frontiers along her recognizable lines of nationality. 9. Autonomous development for the people of Austria-Hungary. 10. Evacuation and restoration of Serbia, Montenegro, Rumania and an outlet to the sea for Serbia. 11. Securing of sovereignty for the Turkish portion of Ottoman Empire and freedom of shipping through the straits. 12. Establishment of an independent Poland with access to the sea. 13. The creation of an international organization to guarantee independence and territorial integrity to small and big states of the world.
Woodrow Wilson elaborated his general principles of peace•making in a number of speeches between February and September 1918. His most important addition to the general principles were the absolute justice and mutual adjustment. As regards the creation of an international organization, Woodrow Wilson himself presided over a commission, which drafted the covenant of the League of Nations. The peace settlement is also based upon the principle of self-determination. Special provision was made for the protection of the minorities. They were to be protected in matters of religion, language, and citizenship.
Treaty of Versailles (1919) The Paris Peace Conference was convened in 1919 to bring a settlement in Europe. All the nations of Europe participated except Russia. The conference was dominated by the Big Four, France, Great Britain, America and Italy. In the conference, five treaties were concluded between the Allied Powers and the members of the Central Powers. The treaty of Versailes was concluded between the Allied Powers and Germany. It was signed on 28th June 1919. It was the day of 5th anniversary of the murder of Ferdinand and Isabella. Germany was forced to sign the treaty. The terms of the treaty were very harsh and terrible. The treaty consisted of 15 parts, and 400 articles.
Provisions of the Treaty 1. Germany had to give Alsace - Lorraine to France, Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium, Memel to Lithuania and a large part of Posen and western Prussia to Poland. 2. Plebiscite has to be conducted in Silesia. By the plebiscite, 7,00,000 people voted for Germany and 4,80,000 voted for Poland.
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3. Danzig was taken away from Germany and it was put under the League of Nations as a free state. 4. The Rhineland was demilitarised. Germany was not allowed to station forces in the Rhineland. 5. Germany had to give the coal mines of the Saar Valley. It was put under the League of Nations for 15 years. 6. Germany had to recognise the independence of Austria. 7. The possession of Germany in Africa was put under the mandate system of the League of Nations. The possessions of Germany in the pacific area were shared by the Allies. 8. Germany had to recognise the independence of Belgium, Poland, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia. She also agreed to nullify the treaty of Brest - -Litovsk and Bucharest, which were signed by Germany with Russia and Rumania respectively. 9. The special rights of Germany over China, Thailand, Egypt Morocco and Liberia were shared by the Allies. 10. The army of Germany was reduced. It was fixed as 1,00,000. It was not allowed to manufacture arms and ammunition. Germany was not allowed to import or export any war materials. 11. The navy of Germany was reduced. Germany was allowed to have only 6 battleships, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers and 2 torpedo boats. Germany was not allowed to have any Submarine. 12. Trial had to be conducted on German officials. Germany was forced to accept the responsibilities of the First World War. 13. Reparation commission was appointed to estimate the total loss to be paid by Germany. Moreover, the method of payment was also to be indicated. 14. Germany was required to surrender the works of arts, taken away from France in the Franco - Prussian war of 1870 and 1871. 15. The Rivers Ellse, Danube, Order and Niemen were internationalised. The River Rhine was put under the control of an international commission. 16. The troops of the Allies had to be stationed on the banks of the river Rhine.
Merits of the Treaty 1. The treaty of Versailles led to the creation of national states in Central and South- Eastern Europe on the principle of self-determination. It was considered as a great achievement of the Paris peace conference. 2. The introduction of the Mandatory system was a great improvement on the past practice of out-rights annexation by the victors. 3. Minorities in states like Czecghoslovakia and Poland were guaranteed protection by special rights.
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4. The treaty of Versailles paved the way for the establishment of an international organization, the League of Nations, to settle international disputes, to establish peace in the world. 5. The treaty of Versailles marked the end of an era of international rivalry and hostility.
Demerits of the Treaty 1. The terms of the treaty of Versailles were very harsh and terrible. Germany had to surrender Alsace - Lorraine to France, Malmedy to Belgium, and Memel to Lithuania. 2. The terms of the treaty of Versailles humbled and humiliated Germany. Germany was allowed to have only limited number of warships and submarine was not allowed. Germany had to pay a huge amount of war indemnity to the Allied Powers. 3. Austria was forbidden to unite with Germany. The Austrian economy was completely spoiled due to the treaty of Versailles. 4. The harsh and terrible terms of the treaty of Versailles led to the rise of Hitler in Germany. The rise of Hitler in Germany paved the way for the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939. Thus the Paris peace settlement did not establish justice among all the nations. The treaty of Versailles humbled and humiliated Germany very much. It was a revenge taken by the Allied Powers over the Central Powers.
Treaty of St. Germaine 1919 The treaty between the Allies and Austria was called the Treaty of St. Germaine. By that: 1. Austria recognised the complete independence of Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia. 2. Austria was reduced to a small Republic. 3. Austrian army was reduced to 30,000 men. She was deprived of her sea-ports. 4. It had to pay a war indemnity fixed by the reparation commission. 5. Austria had to hand over Trieste and Trentino and Illyria to Italy. Bosnia and Herzegovina to Yugoslavia and Larissa to Poland 6. Thus big Austria became a little Austria by the treaty of St.Germaine
Treaty of Trianon 1920 The Allies and Hungary signed the treaty of Trianon in 1920. By that: 1. Hungary gave up the non - Magyar population. 2. The population of Hungary was fixed as 8 million. 3. The army of Hungary was reduced to 35,000 men. 4. Transylvania was given to Rumania. 5. Slovax provinces were given to Czechoslavakia.
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Treaty of Neuilly 1919 The Treaty of Neuilly was concluded between the Allies and Bulgaria. It was signed on 27th November 1919. 1. By the treaty of Neuilly, Bulgaria lost the entire Aegean Coast to Greece the greater part of Macedonia to Yugoslavia and Dodbruga to Rumania. 2. Bulgaria had to pay a war indemnity of half-billion dollars. 3. The army of Bulgaria was reduced to 33,000 men. 4. The treaty of Neuilly made Bulgaria one of the weakest powers in the Balkan area.
Treaty of Sevres 1920 The treaty of Sevres was concluded between the Allies and Turkey. It was concluded on 10th August 1920. 1. By the treaty of Sevres, Hedjaz was freed and put under British control. 2. Armenia was created as a Christian Republic. 3. Turkey had to give Trans-Jordan, Syria and Palestine. 4. England got Mesopotamia by the mandate system. 5. Turkey had to give Adrianople. The Island of Angers to Greece. 6. It had to pay a huge war indemnity. 7. The Dardanelles and the Bosphorous were internationalised. The terms of the treaty of Sevres were harsh and terrible. This paved the way for the rise of Mustafa Kamal in Turkey. It led to a war between Turkey and Greece.
Treaty of Lausanne 1923 The Turks revolted against Greek occupation of a part of their mother land and drove them out. The Turko-Greek war led to hostilities between Turkey and Great Britain. But it was averted by the treaty of Lausanne. The treaty was signed on 9th July 1923. 1. By the treaty of Lausanne, Turkey was allowed to have Armenia and Adrianople. 2. It had to give up Trans-Jordan, Mesopotamia and Palestine. 3. The system of capitulations’ was abolished and Turkey promised to carryout judicial reforms. 4. The straits were neutralized and free passage was guaranteed to all ships. The waste lands on both sides were constituted into a demilitarized Zone under the League of Nations.
Problem of Minorities Woodrow Wilson, the President of America announced a programme with fourteen points. It was called ‘Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson’. It was also known as Wilsonian peace, the Wilsoian mutual adjustment, com-promise, mutual commitment and self- determination.
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By following the principle of self-determination seven new nations were established. They were Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania. Plebiscites were held in some areas and thus the people were given an opportunity to express their ideas. There were minorities in many states. As the result of the First World War, Poland was created from the territorities of Germany, Austria and Russia. There were 10 lakhs people who were in Poland. The Jews and Germans were the important minorities in the country. Czechoslovakia was created from the territories of Austria and Hungary. Czechoslavakia consisted of 3 lakhs Germans, and 7 Lakhs Magyars. As the result of the First World War, Yugoslavia was created with the addition of Serbia. It had a million German and half-a-million Magyars. The territory of Rumania was increased. Many Germans and Serbia were in Rumania. To protect the rights of these minorities, Minority Treaties were signed in the Paris Peace Conference. These treaties were signed by Poland, Rumania, Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia and Greece. It guaranteed some rights and privileges to the minorities. They included the rights of citizenship, the right to use their own language, and the right to adopt their religion. The League of Nations was given the power to supervise the minorities. The minority Commission of the League of Nations was empowered to set up committees to look after the treaties signed in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919.
THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The horrors of the First World War (1914-1918) loss of life and property, increasing debt burdens, strong conflicting emotions and full sufferings created a great urge among the leading statesmen and even the common people to have a meaningful plan to save mankind from death and destruction of a world war in the future. The League of Nations was the first major attempt to establish an international body of members for the purpose of civil and settlement of interstate disputes. The idea was not entirely new.
Birth The League of Nations was born on 10 January 1920 with twenty four members. The first Assembly was convened on 15 November 1920, when the number of members had risen to forty two. Geneva in Switzerland, a neutral state became the headquarters of the League of Nations. The Covenant of the League contained a Preamble which set forth its ideals and expectations.
Aims of the League: The High Contracting Parties, in order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the acceptance of obligation not to resort to Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 31
war, by the prescription open, just and honourable relations between nations by the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among the Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in dealings of organised peoples with one another, agreed to this Covenant of the League of Nations. The League was to guarantee against aggression. Provision was made for open diplomacy.
Organisation of the League: The main organs of the League were 1) The Assembly. The Council. The Permanent Court of International Justice. The International labour Organisation (ILO). The Secretariat.
1. The Assembly The Assembly was made up of all member states, each with one vote and not more than three delegates. Its primary task was to deal with all matters affecting the peace of the world. The Assembly was permitted to investigate disputes referred to it. It admitted new members to the League (by a two-thirds majority). It elected the non permanent members of the Council. Framing the annual budget, and dividing the expenses among the members states, electing judges to the Permanent Council of International Justice, amending the League Covenant, if necessary were some other functions of the Assembly. The Assembly functioned through six committees, each dealing with a particular subject. The Assembly ceased to function after 1940 when Germany conquered Holland.
2. The Council The Council was the most important body. The Council composed of permanent and non permanent members. The original permanent members were England, France, Italy and Japan. To this Germany in 1926 and the Soviet Union in 1934 were added. Originally there were four non permanent members and was increased to ten in 1933. The Council was a semi-judicial and executive body of the League of Nations. While the Assembly dealt mostly with Legislative policy, the functions of the Council were quasi-judicial and administrative. Decisions in the Council had to be unanimous, including the affirmative votes of the non permanent members. The Council met at least once a year. As regards the functions of the Council, it was required to deal with any matter within the sphere of action of the world. The Council might refer a dispute to the Assembly dealing with emergency situations and preventing the outbreak of a world war, mobilising sanctions against Covenant breaking states, planning for reduction of armaments were some of the functions of the Council.
3. The Permanent Court of International Justice Article 14 of the Covenant of the League of Nations provided for the establishment of a Permanent Court of International Justice. The draft was approved by the Assembly on 3 December 1920 and the Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 32
Permanent Court of International Justice was opened on 15 February 1922. The seat of the Court was the Peace Palace at Hague in Holland. This court was the first genuine International Court, whose powers were wider in range than those of the Hague Tribunal. The court had three types of jurisdiction. The court exercised its voluntary jurisdication when the states in disputes voluntarily approached the court for adjudication. The court exercised compulsory jurisdiction only in cases in which members states had the Optional Clause to the Court Protocol. The court exercised advisory jurisdiction when the League Assembly or Council asked for the legal advice on any matter referred to it. The court had its final session in October, 1945. In January 1946, all of its judges tendered their resignations and in April the court was dissolved and was succeeded by the International Court of Justice. Mandate was not legally a form of annexation. The territory could not be annexed or ceded without the consent of the League of Nations.
4. The International Labour Organisation: It was an autonomous organ for improving conditions of labourers of various parts of the world. Its governing body consisted of the representatives of the governments, employers and workers. However, even the states which were not members of the League could join it. Many international unions and organisations were put under the direction of these organisations. The General conference could discuss the labour problems of the world. It could also draft a set of principles, which would be guidelines to various governments for labour legislation. The headquarters of the ILO was shifted to Montreal from Geneva during the Second World War (1939-1945). It was again transferred to Geneva in 1948.
5. The Secretariat The Secretariat was located at Geneva for routine day to day administrative work. It had a Secretary General, appointed by the Council with the approval of the Assembly. There were two Deputy Secretaries-General and two Secretaries immediately subordinate to the Secretary-General. Registering and publishing treaties, collecting data on international problems required by various bodies, preparing the agenda for the meetings of the Assembly and Council, conducting negotiations in cases of dispute, executing the decisions of the League, preparing drafts and communicating decisions and agreement to the member states for ratification were some of the important functions of the Secretariat.
The League set up a number of committees in the field of health, economics, narcotic, world communication, slavery, traffic in women and children and similar matters, in which the League did much excellent work. It performed services in the settlement of refugees and persons displaced by the peace treaties.
B. The Mandate System According to the Treaty of Versailles, the colonies of Germany and Turkey had to be surrendered to the victorious powers like England and France. The League of Nations, as the
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nominal sovereign and guardian of the colonies made arrangements for their proper administration in order to protect the welfare of the people with the co-operation of the member states through the Mandate system.
Mandate states were territories which were to remain under the tutelage of the various powers for a limited period until they were ready for independence. Accordingly the former colonies and provinces of Germany and Turkey became '''Mandated territories".
The Mandated territories were divided into three classes. Class A The Class A mandated territories were those which formerly governed by the Ottoman Empire, Turkey, these territories had progressed to a certain level and were expected to become independent after some time. The mandatory state was to administer and advise these mandates. Iraq, Palestine and Trans-Jordan were placed under England, and Syria and Lebanon under France. The British mandate in Iraq ended in 1932 and it became an independent state, Syria and Lebanon became independent after the Second World War.
Class B In the case of Class B, the mandatory state was to give good administration and religious freedom was to be guaranteed. The mandatory state was to stop slave trade, arms and liquor traffic, prevent the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and secure equal opportunities for trade and commerce. British, Cameroons, British Togoland and Tanganyika, were Class B mandates under England; French Cameroon and French togoland under France; and the northern coast of East Africa and Rusahda-Brum under Belgium.
Class C Class C mandates were small in size with a thin population. They were backward and needed more civilisation and progress. They could best be administered under the laws of the mandatory state as integral part of the state. Under this category, Gellln South-West Africa was given to the union of South Africa; German Samoa was given to New Zealand; Marianas, Carolines and Marshall Islands were given to Japan; New guinea was given to Australia and England was given the Island of Nauru.
Merits of the Mandate System: Lord Balfour observed, "A mandate was self-imposed limitation by the conquerors on the sovereignty which they exercised over the conquered territories. The League was not the author of the mandatory system. The duty of the League was to see that the terms of the mandates were in conformity with the principles of the government"
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1. A ranch letter system than the old colonial system The old colonial system was imperialistic and under its absolute sovereignty people were ruthlessly exploited. They could not protest or complain and any foreign country could not conduct any investigation into the mal administration. The Mandatory state was expected to carry on admin istration under certain rales and regulations. The progress and welfare of the people in the mandated territories was the sacred trust of civilisation. The mandatory state was to submit annual reports of their administration to the League of Nations. The mandatory system was a step in the right direction though only a short step.
2. International Supervision The Mandate system provided for some type of international supervision. The League of Nations carried on discussions on the reports of mandatory states. Therefore, it was not possible for the mandatory states for abusing powers in the territories placed under them. This system brought improvements in the administration of the mandated territories.
3. The Mandate system was to maintain territorial integrity, political independence, law and order within the territory and to guarantee protection to racial, linguistic and religious minorities.
Drawbacks of the Mandate system: The wishes of the people of the mandated territories were ignored. They were not even consulted elsewhere. The League could do nothing to prevent exploitation and misuse of power. France allowed the native troops in her mandated territories and for general war purposes outside the territory. The people could not complain against the mandatory state and secure redress of grievances. The Mandate Commission did not visit the mandated territories for investigation. The mandatory powers, instead of regarding the mandates as '"trusts of civilisation", proceeded to regard them as annexations. The mandatory states hardly drew a line of distinction between mandates and annexations and between mandates and outright conquests. The Allies were anxious to make up some of the losses suffered by them during the war. Big powers like Britain and France were unfair and hypocritical in dealing with the mandates and made a mockery of the Mandate system. The British policy in Iraq and Palastine and the French policy in Syria made the mandate system invalid. The Germans, the Arab, the Americans and the Russians jeered the mandate system as 'hollow mockery".
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The mandatory system was a hypocritical shame designed to disguise old imperialistic wolves in new sheeps clothing.
It represented the responsibility of the civilised world for the improvement in colonial administration, Iraq was granted independence in 1932 and she became the member of the League of Nations. The League of Nations collected information and focused the world opinion upon the deeds and misdeeds of the mandatory states. However, it was an international acceptance of the principles of colonial administration. The Mandate system lasted from 1919 to 1946 when it was superceded by the trusteeship system.
C. Achievements of the League The years between 1924 and 1930 were the period of the League's greatest prestige and authority. The League had a number of success to its credit. i) Political Achievements: During its existence, the League examined about forty political disputes between different states. Some of the cases were handled by the Council and a few were referred to the Assembly, the Council of Ambassadors or the Permanent Court of Justice. However, the League was able to assert its authority more effectively against small nations alone.
1. Dispute between Sweden and Finland, 1920- 1921: The Aland Islands lay between Sweden and Finland. Both Finland and the Islands once belonged to Sweden. Russia acquired them in 1907. Finland declared her independence in 1918. The residents of the Islands agitated for union with Sweden, because the inhabiants of the Islands were chiefly Swedish and spoke Swedish language. The government of Finland sent her troops to the Islands and arrested the agitators. There was every possibility of war. The matter was referred to the League Council and it awarded the Aland Island to Finland, but to satisfy the Swedish majority inhabitants, provided that they were to remain unfortified and to enjoy a large measure of autonomy. Use of Swedish in schools was to be preserved. In April 1922, the neutrality of the Islands was guaranteed.
2. The Problem of Eupen and Malmedy: Germany was protesting the League Council against the giving of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium. The League Council discussed the issue and informed the German Government that the decision regarding the transfer of Eupen and Malmedy to Belgium was final.
3. The Mosul Boundary Dispute: The League Council appointed a boundary commission in 1924 to demarcate the border between Turkey and England. But while the commission was doing its work, the situation was complicated by the Kurds, hardy rebels revolting against the government. However the revolt was put down. The League Council gave its final judgement on the subject. England and Iraq Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 36
accepted the decision of the League but Turkey refused to do so. She began to lean more and more on Soviet Russia, withdrew from the League Council, and took the matter to the Permanent Court of International Justice. In June 1926 a compromise was made between Turkey, England and Russia. The revised boundary was accepted by Turkey. Some royalties from the Mosul oilfields was given to Turkey.
4. Dispute between Bolivia and Paraguay Armed clash started between Paraguay and Bolivia in December 1928. The League interfered and the quarrel was solved but the undulying causes of the dispute between two countries remained. Troubles started once again in 1932. The efforts of the League failed. However, some of the states did not co-operate with the League. A Protocol was signed in June 1935 followed by the peace treaty in July 1938. The League was not fully successful in solving the dispute between Bolivia and Paraguay.
5. The Corfu Incident or the Greco-Italian Crisis: In August 1923, certain Italian military officers were murdered on the Greek soil. The Italian government demanded apologies and reparation for the crime from Greece. As Greece failed to accept all the demands, Italy occupied the Islands of Corfu. The League Council interfered and the dispute was settled. The Italian demands were accepted by Greece.
6. The Greco-Bulgarian Crisis: There arose a border dispute between Greece and Bulgaria in October 1925. Bulgaria was invaded. The League Council interfered. Within nine days the matter was settled.
7. Dispute between France and England The decrees issued by France in 1921 in Tunisia and Morocco conflicted with the British nationality laws leading to a dispute between the two countries. The Permanent Court of International Justice referred to the matter and finally the problem was solved through negotiations.
8. The League looked after the problem of minorities and appointed a committee of three members of the Council for this purpose. The League administered the Saar territory successfully with the help of a Governing Commission from 1920 -1935. The Mandates commission received annual reports from the Mandatory powers.
(i) Economic Achievements The League did a lot of non political work also. The Financial Committee of the League rendered assistance to the governments of the countries facing financial problems which could be solved by international co-operation. The problems of counterfeiting, gasification of commercial documents, double taxation and fluctuating value of gold were checked. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 37
The Financial Committee supervised the various League loans given to the members of the League. The General Finance Conference of Brussels (1920), the World Economic Conference of 1927 and the Monetary and Economic Conference of 1933 were held under the supervision of the Financial Committee of the League iii) Social Achievements a) The Health Organisation with a Health Committee and a Secretariat were established in 1923 by the League. It organised action plans against malaria, small pox, leprosy, rabies, cancer tuberculosis, syphilis, heart disease etc. It co-operated with the governments controlling epidemics. b) A slavery concernation was held in Geneva in 1925. It was decided in 1921 to set up a Permanent Slavery Commission. The League solved the problems of the care and resettlement of millions of war prisoners and refugees. It co-operated with China to organise relief work in flood areas and Greece to settle 15 lakhs refugees. The International Committee of Co-operation (1922) and the International Institute of Intellectual Co- operation (1926) were appointed by the League for international cooperation and for the development of science, letters and art. The League controlled the trafficking of drugs and promoted child welfare. It did many useful works in the field of prison reforms, prohibition of traffic in women, suppression of obscene of literature etc. The League helped to draw many International agreements. The League of Nations had been responsible for more humanitarian and scientific endeavour than any other organisation in history. D) Failure of the League of Nations In spite of the best efforts and intentions the League failed. The ultimate culprits in the failure of the League were the member states. The failure of the League of Nations may be attributed to the following factors. 1. Inclusion of the Covenant of the League with the Treaty of Versailles The Covenant of the League of Nations was in-corporated in the Paris Peace Treaty(1919), The countries which considered the Paris Peace Treaty as a treaty of revenge did not ratify . They did not co-operate with the League. The Germans considered the Paris Peace Treaty as a national humiliation. 2. Association of the Big powers with the League: Austria, Germany, Russia and Turkey were not invited to join the League from the beginning. The Senate of America refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. As a result America did not join the League. At Certain period Japan, Germany and Italy left the League. Their deflection weakened the League. 3. DOMINATION of the Big Powers: The League was dominated by the big powers like England and France. As a result other countries lost their confidence in the League.
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4. Maintaining the Status quo of the states: The League tried to maintain the status quo in the world. But it was not possible. The Paris Peace Treaty of 1919 humiliated Germany. It was imposed on her atgun point. Thus the principle of status quo was maintained. 5. Structural Defects There were certain inherent defects in the Covenant of the League. The Covenant made a distinction between offensive and defensive war and permitted defensive war. But it was always a war. This defect weakened the functioning of the League. C. Narrow Nationalism The narrow nationalism and unscrupulous patriotism of the countries like Italy, Japan and Germany buried the principles of international law and morality. They did not honour their commitments to the Treaty of Versailles and left the League in order to fulfil their imperialistic policy. Failure of the Principles of Collective Security: The Principle of collective security was not applied successfully. If all the members of the League had joined together against Japan and Italy, aggression would have been prevented. The League could do nothing to check the aggressive policy of Hitler. Lack of International Force: There was no international force to enforce its decisions and prevent aggression. Besides, the League could not take immediate action against the erring country. Before the League started the act, the problem crossed the crucial stage. The non-utility of sanction: Though the League had the elective weapon of economic sanction, it was applied in a halting way. As a result they failed in their objective. The attitude of the member states: Important powers of the League lacked co-operation. France was more interested in her security against Germany than anything else. Similarly England considered the League as an organ for the promotion of her economic recovery. Russia, Italy and Germany were against the League. 12. The League was not a Popular Movement: The League was an organisation of the governments, authorities. People of the various countries had no say in the deliberations of the League. 13. Formation of League ahead of time: It was a period when the people of the world gave importance to national interest than to the interest of the world. 14. The attitude of England and France England and France did not change their attitude. England looked upon the League as a means to perpetuate; the balance of power of France to control Germany. She failed to transform French security to collective security. 15. Rise of Dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany: The rise of dictatorship in Italy, Japan and Germany weakened the League. The dictators of these countries followed an aggressive policy and did not respect the decisions of the League. The League could not take effective action against them. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 39
The League of Nations was called League of robbers and a League of procrastinators. It was also said that the League could only bark but did not bite. However, the League of Nations did useful services for twenty years.
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THE BOLSHEVIK REVOLUTION IN RUSSIA (1917) Its causes and effects The Russian Revolution of 1917 changed the entire life in Russia and ushered in an era of progress and prosperity based on the socialistic pattern of life. Russia was regarded as the last child of the European civilization and it was the most back ward among the European countries. Politically, socially and economically Russia was a back ward country. Feudalism remained there for a long time even after the French Revolution.
The French Revolution and the Russian Revolution brought forth great changes in Europe and all over the world. The principles of these revolutions had immense effect for a long time. The slogan of the French Revolution, namely, liberty equality and fraternity had tremendous impact on the life of the people. Likewise, the Russian Revolution let loose the slogan ‘Peace, land and bread’ and it greatly affected the minds of the people. Democracy, republic and humanism got momentum after the French Revolution. Likewise on account of the Russian Revolution, communism became a popular dogma which resulted in the spread of communism and communist economy among nations.
It not only put an end to monarchy in Russia but also led to the establishment of a totalitarian government in Russia. In other words, the Tzar regime was replaced by the communist regime where the people existed for the welfare of the government.
The Russian Revolution took place in two stages. They were the February Revolution and the October Revolution. In the first stage, the Tzar regime was overthrown and the rule of the middle class was founded. It led to the establishment of provincial government, yet the provincial government under Krensky failed to solve the problems of the Russian society. Russia was still engaged in the First World War. Under the leadership of Lenin, the provincial government was overthrown and the proletarian dictatorship was founded. It was the famous October Revolution. It established a socialistic government in Russia and very soon Russia became the Soviet Russia.
Causes of the Russian Revolution The Russian Revolution of 1917 happened due to a number of reasons. The revolution changed Russia into a Soviet Russia. The following were the important reasons of the Russian Revolution.
1. The Autocratic Rule of the Tzars The Tzars were autocrats. The Tzars believed in the principles of autocracy, orthodoxy and naturalism. The Tzars were expansionists. They showed keen interest in the external affairs and especially in the expansion of Russia in the Baltic Sea, Black Sea and in Asia. Their main aim was to convert the Black Sea region as the Russian naval station and through Black Sea they wanted to control the Mediterranean Sea. The Russian aggressive Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 41
foreign policy resulted in the Russian intervention in the Balkan affairs. The Russian Tzars showed interest in the gradual extermination of the sick man of Europe, namely Turkey. On account of the Tzars expansionist policy in the Balkans, Russia had to involve in the Greek War of Independence, Crimean War and the Second Russo-Turkish War.
Tzar Nicholas II, who was the last of Tzars, suppressed the liberty of the people like his father Tzar Alexander III. All the powers of the Government were vested in a single person. They never shared their powers with any representative body. The powers of the Tzars were unlimited. There was no parliament and there was no representative election. The people were not granted franchise even in the 19th and the 20th centuries.
The Orthodox Christianity was the State religion in Russia. The Orthodox Christianity was governed by the Holy Synod. The members of the Holy Synod were nominated by the Tzar. Thus the Tzar had the power to control the Holy Synod. The Tzar was the Pope of the Orthodox Christianity in Russia.
The Russian empire consisted people of different culture, language and religion. The Russians were the majority. On the pretext of nationalism, unification went on. The Russian culture was imposed on the minorities. It suppressed the liberty and the feelings of many.
Thus, under the rule of the Tzars the principles of autocracy, orthodoxy and nationalism dominated the Russian politics.
2. Inefficiency of Tzar Nicholas II Tzar Nicholas II of the Roman dynasty ascended the throne in 1894 at the age of 26. He ascended the throne in the midst of pomp and pleasure. He reflected the policy of his father. He was ignorant and oppressive. He was really an heir of father’s policy. His period of ascendency marked the out coming problems of the Tzar regime. Yet he never cared for the difficulties. He was adamant. He was a good husband and a good father but a bad ruler. During his rule, the Tzarina ruled with an upper hand. His period was a critical period. He never realized the tone of the problem. The Russo Japanese war and the Revolution of 1905 broke out during his reign. But he never learnt a lesson out of it. He involved Russia in the First World War when Russia was backward and poor. This inefficiency of Tzar Nicholas II was partly responsible for the fall of Tzar Regime.
3. Influence of Rasputin Rasputin was a Siberian monk. He established influence in the Russian court on account of miraculously saving the life of Alesis, the son and heir to the throne of Tzar Nicholas II. He not only wielded his influence over the royal couple but also interfered in the administration of the nation. He spoiled the Russian regime. Ultimately he was killed Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 42
by a member of the royal family. The murder of Rasputin enraged the Tzar and Tzarina. It only resulted in more oppressive rule. Instead of curing the oppression, the death Rasputin increased it. The Tzar and Tzarina acted madly. It only added fuel to the fire. The demands of the people for reforms were unheard. They were ill-treated and suppressed.
8. The Economic Condition of the Peasants The economic and social condition of the peasants in the rural areas was pathetic. Feudalism remained in Russia even in the 19th century. The peasants were landless and they worked as bonded labourers. The peasants were sold along with the lands. Tzar Alexander II took pity on them and by a royal edict he abolished Serfdom in 1862. But it did not bring forth anticipated changes in the economic and social condition of the peasants. Really they were not liberated. But they remained as tillers of soil. They were poor and illiterate. They did not get economic liberty. The landed aristocrats kept the wealth of the nations. Most of the peasants were landless. They got freedom from land but not from the ill-treatment of the rich. Some of the peasants had lands but they were unable to compete with the landed aristocracy and hence they sold their lands and settled in the urban areas. The poor economic condition of the peasants led to large scale migration to the urban areas.
9. The Condition of the Proletariat of the Towns Russian was the last child of the European civilization and the Industrial Revolution finally erupt into the country. The industrial revolution created a new class in the society, the working class or the proletariat. The poor peasants migrated from the rural areas and settled in the urban areas. It increased the ranks of the workers as proletariat. Availability of large number of workers led to the exploitation of the capitalists. The workers were paid low wages and they worked in unprotected areas. Women and children were employed and were paid low wages. The working hours were increased so as to maximize the profit. On the whole, the working condition of the proletariat was not satisfactory. When they wanted to raise their voice by forming trade unions, they were suppressed. Their voice was unheard and suppressed, yet the discontent grew unabated leading to the outbreak of the revolution.
6. Revolutionary Propaganda The Russian Revolution was greatly due to revolutionary propaganda. Like the French thinkers responsible for laying the path of the revolution in France, the revolutionary propagandists set in the minds of the Russians towards a revolution. Among the great thinkers, the notables were Karl Marx, Leo Tolstoy, Maxim Gorky and Turgenev.
Karl Marx KarlMarx was a giant thinker and a voracious reader. He was a German Jew and he studied in the University of Jena. He was expelled from Germany for his revolutionary ideas. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 43
He got asylum in England where he was patronised by his friend Engels. Both Marx and Engels worked together and Marx exposed his political philosophy through his monumental works, Das Capital and Communist Manifesto.
Das Capital of Karl Marx contains in itself the economic philosophy. It sets in a new economic system, namely the socialistic economy. It sets aside the capitalistic economy as false and exploiting. The socialistic economy is ushered in as the real cure for the human society.
The Marxian philosophy had a tremendous impact on the minds of the Russians; it seemed to be the right solution for the economic and social evils of the Russian society and state.
Turgenev 1817-1883 Turgenev studied in the Universities of Moscow, Petersburg and Berlin. He started his literary work as a poet. He had contacts with revolutionaries. When he became novelist, he reflected the revolutionary ideas. Most of his characters were revolutionaries. The most important novels of his were Sportsman sketches, Father and Son, Virgin Soil and Rudin.
The novel Father and Son depicts the life of Nihilist youth in Russia. Virgin Soil depicts how the youngsters spread the populist doctrines to the people. Rudin exposes the progressive ideas of the youth of Russia.
Leo Tolstoy 1828-1910 Leo Tolstoy was the most popular among the Russian writers. He was a literary genius. In addition, he was disciplinarian, philosopher and a humanist. Leo Tolstoy was the only Russian writer who attracted the attention of Mahatma Gandhi. Leo Tolstoy belonged to a rich family He described the suppressive methods of the government and the old traditional practices of the Russian church in his writings. It resulted in his excommunication from the Russian Orthodox Church.
Tales of Sebastopol, War and Peace, My Confession, Anna Karenna and the Kingdom of God is Within You are some of the notable works of Leo Tolstoy. The kingdom of God is Within You exposes the abuses of the Russian church leading to his ex•communication. The Tales of Sebastopol describes his experience in the Crimean War.
Maxim Gorky 1868-1936 Maxim Gorky was born in a peasant family. He was a famous story writer and through his stories he exposes the lives of the anti-social elements. The Farmer People are one of the notable stories of Maxim Gorky.
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His later works reflect the lives of the revolutionaries and especially the Bolsheviks; in 1917 his famous novel Mother was published. It was used as propaganda for the Bolsheviks. He welcomed the Bolshevik revolution and after the revolution he settled in Italy. In 1928, he returned to Russia and lived under suspicious condition in 1936.
7. Rise of Political Parties The reign of Tzar Nicholas II marked the spread of Industrial Revolution in Russia. Serga Witte, the Finance Minister under Tzar Nicholas II encouraged rapid industrial growth in Russia. The patronage of Serga Witte resulted in the rise of liberalism and socialism. The industrial workers demanded new reforms and better deal for the workers. The government’s pro industrial policy led to the rise of many political parties. The important among them were social Democrats, Social Revolutionary Party, Liberal Party and Conservative Party.
George Plekhanov was responsible for the formation of social Democratic Party in 1898. It was the first organisation of the socialists. The social Democrats had a split. It split into Menshevik or the Moderates and Bolsheviks or the Radicals. The Mensheviks mostly belonged to the urban areas. The Bolsheviks were led by Lenin at the time of the Russian Revolution. Mensheviks were led by Kerensky.
In 1901 the social revolutionary party was formed. The party members were mostly dissatisfied peasants. It started as an extremist and revolutionary movement. It believed in political murder and arson. It had no deep rooted sympathy among the people of Russia.
The Liberal party was founded in 1903. It emerged as a middle class party. It demanded political reforms and it never advocated revolutionary changes.
The conservative party was the organization of the landed aristocracy. They were opposed to changes, reforms and revolutions. The main aim of the party was to stem the tide of the social democrats and the liberal party.
18. The Russo-Japanese War 1904-1905 The Anglo-Japanese alliance was formed in 1902. Encouraged by the alliance, Japan opened fire against Russia in 1904. The Russo-Japanese war was between a giant and a dwarf. In the war the giant European country was defeated by a dwarf - an Asian country. The war exposed the military weakness of the Russians. It was a blow to the Russian militarism and autocracy.
The failure of Russia in the external policy reflected in the internal policy. The war led to the outbreak of a constitutional movement in 1905. Political unrest, uprisings and
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murder became widespread after the war. There was political uncertainty and unrest leading to the opposition of the autocratic Tzar regime in 1905.
The Revolution of 1905 Father Gaponled led the discontented workers in a procession on 22nd January 1905. The procession was fired at and many people died. It was a Sunday, well known as bloody Sunday. It resulted in the assassination in February 1905 of Grand Duke Serge, an uncle of Tzar Nicholas II. In the meantime, the social Democrates formed the first Soviet in St.Petersburg to direct a strike against the Tzar Regime. The Liberal party demanded parliamentary form of government and universal suffrage. As the Tzar government was unable to subdue the situation, it issued the famous October Manifesto on 30th October 1905. The October Manifesto granted right to speech, association to faith, establishment of a parliament called Duma and limited franchise.
The reforms of the October Manifestoes did not satisfy the people. It divided the Liberals. The Tzar again resorted to reactionary principles. He considerably curtailed the legislative powers of the Duma. The Tzar failed to learn a lesson. He also established a second chamber to reduce the power of the Duma. In May 1906 the first Duma was elected and summoned. The social Democrats boycotted the election and the Liberals formed the majority in the Duma. It demanded responsible ministry. So the Tzar dissolved the Duma and on 1st March 1907 the Second was elected. The Second Duma was more radical than the First. It demanded responsible ministry. Again the Tzar dissolved it. The Third Duma was reduced to consultative body. The Fourth Duma functioned between 1912 and 1916. The Duma demanded reforms and formed a provincial government in 1917.
10. The First World War The First World War was a spark for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution. Russia met with failure after failure in the First World War. The failure in the First World War created apathy against the government of the Tzar. The transport system collapsed and there was a heavy shortage of food stuff. In 1916 all the able bodied youth were recruited for the army and there was heavy shortage of man power. It resulted in the closure of industries and fall in the production of agriculture. In 1917 the wounded soldiers returned home. The list of names of dead soidiers was placed in the public places. The public demanded ‘Peace, land and bread’. The Tzar regime was unable to meet the situation. The workers formed Soviets and struck work. Thus the failure of Russia in the First World War prepared the ground for the outbreak of the Russian Revolution of 1917.
February Revolution The month of February in the Russian calendar was the month of March in the Christian calendar. Hence the first revolution that broke out in Russia in the month of March was famously known as the February Revolution. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 46
There was general panic in Russia in 1916. Rasputin was killed in 1916. The death of Rasputin did not reduce the tyranny of the Tzar. On 8th March 1917 strikes were organized by the Bolsheviks at St. Petersburg. The Russian army was sent against them to tackle the situation. But the troops joined the rebels. It dearly sounded the fall of Tzar Regime.
On 12th March, the Duma established a new constitutional arrangement. A provincial government was established under Prince George Lvov. Paul Milkinov and Alexander Kerensky were the other important ministers. A constituent Assembly was created to draft a new constitution. The ministers under Tzar Nicholas II were arrested. On 15th March 1917 the Tzar abdicated the throne thus ending the first stage of the revolution.
II work of the Provincial Government The provincial government headed by Prince George Lvov was very liberal. It granted social and legal equality to all Russians. But the new government did not want to give up the policy of continuing the First World War. It wanted to prosecute the war vigorously. On the otherhand Petrograd Soviet demanded peace and withdrawal of Russia from the First World War. There was a sharp difference between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks. The Bolsheviks were the dominating factor in the Petrograd Soviet. The Petrograd Soviet not only demanded peace but also insisted on controlling the army. It specially demanded in establishing elected committees in the army in order to control the aggressive policy of the army officers.
The division of the Menshevisks and the Bolsheviks was carefully noted by the German government, it wanted the withdrawal of Russia from the Eastern Front in the First World War. The Russian withdrawal would reduce the war burden on Germany. So the German government allowed Lenin and Zinoviev to pass through Germany to Russia. These Bolshevik leaders were in exile in Switzerland. The arrival of Lenin created more problems for the provincial government. On 20th July, 1917 Prince George Lvov resigned and he was succeeded by Kerensky as the head of the Provincial government.
The Bolshevik Revolution The Bolshevik Revolution of Russia took place in October-November of 1917. The Bolshevik revolution was led by Lenin who remained in exile a few months ago. The provincial government under Kerensky faced many problems. The defeat of Russia in the First World War assumed an important proportion. The Russians were turned out of the Russian involvement in the war. There was heavy shortage of food. The Bolsheviks demanded for ‘Peace, Land and Bread’. It created a clarion call. The provincial government was unable to suppress the Bolsheviks. Besides it was opposed by Mensheviks for its inactive.
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At this juncture there was a quarrel between Kerensky and the general of the Russian army. The quarrel led to the downfall of Kerensky. Lenin staged massive revolution in October-November 1917 Kerensky was unable to solve the situation. He fled away from Russia and Lenin grasped power. He founded the rule of the proletariate and the Soviet Violent Revolution was brought to an end.
Characteristics of the Bolshevik Revolution The Bolshevik revolution of October- November 1917 had its significant characteristics.
First, the Bolshevik Revolution was a violent social revolution. It established the rule of the proletariat. The communist rule or the rule of the proletariate was established for the first time in history.
Secondly, the Bolsheviks demanded ‘Peace, Land and Bread’. The landed aristocracy, capitalists and top military officers were mercilessly massacred. Their property and lands were confiscated and distributed among the workers and the peasants. Thirdly, the Bolshevik Revolution established a reign of terror. All opposition was suppressed by Cheka, a Revolutionary tribunal.
Fourthly, Tzar and his family members were executed in 1918.
Finally, the communist philosophy began to spread abroad. Germany and later the allies after the fall of Germany took steps to contain communism in the European continent.
Reasons for the Victory of the Bolsheviks The February Revolution was the first stage of revolution and it led to the establishment of a provincial government. The provincial government lasted between February and October and it fell before the Boshevik revolution led by Lenin in October - November 1917. The victory of Lenin or the Bolshevik revolution was due to some valid reasons as follows:
1. The provincial government was unable to face the situation. There was shortage of food and loss of peace. The people were indignant of war and loss of life. Under such circumstances it was a wise thing for the provincial government to stop the war and work for the promotion of peace and prosperity of Russia.
2. The downfall of the Provincial government and the success of the Bolsheviks were due to the transport of Lenin from Switzerland to Russia.
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3. The leadership of Lenin was an incomparable reason for the Bolshevik victory. He was the man behind the Bolshevik victory. He guided the Bolshevik rising and successfully captured power from the hands of the Provincial government. The Bolsheviks were minority when the Bolshevik revolution took place. But the brain of Lenin made it majority. He suppressed all the oppositions against the Bolsheviks.
5. The Bolsheviks made a right estimate of the strength and weakness of the provincial government. The provincial government had a minority composed of all political parites. It had no real support of the people. The provincial government wanted to tackle the revolution as well as to continue the war efforts. The burden was too much for it. It was well utilized by the Bolsheviks. 5. The success of the Bolshevik revolution was due to the Red army and Cheka. The Red Army was led by Trotsky. He suppressed all opposition without mercy. Cheka was the Revolutionary Tribural behind the success of the Bolshevik revolution.
6. The provincial government faced problem after problem which was too much for a new government.
Results of the Bolshevik Revolution The Bolshevik Revolution was the mightiest revolution in the world. It established far-reaching results. The revolution established a total change in Russia. The Russian way of life was changed after 1917. There were social, economic, political and cultural changes on account of the Russian Revolution.
1. The Bolshevik Revolution brought an end the rule of the Tzar. The Romanov dynasty ruled for 300 years. Tzar Nicholas II was the last ruler of the dynasty. He abdicated in 1917 and he and his family members were shot dead in 1918 after the Bolshevik revolution.
2. The Bolshevik revolution put an end to the old regime and it also ended all old political institutions. The Duma, the parliament of Russia, the multiparty system that arose in Russia after the Industrial Revolution, was put to an end to by the Bolshevik revolution.
3. The Bolshevik revolution established totalitarian government in Russia. The after years of the First World War witnessed the rise of totalitarian governments. The first totalitarian government was the Russian government.
4. The Russian revolution established the government of the proletariat. The first working class government was founded in Russia after the Boshevik revolution. The Bolsheviks were not only interested in the establishment of the proletariat Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 49
government, but they also worked for the spread of communism elsewhere. They established Communist International for the spread of communism in the world. The dream of Karl Marx was brought into existence by the Bolshevisk revolution.
5. The spread of communism led to the containment of communism in the European continent in the inter-war period. The rise of communism led to the rise of Nazism in Germany and Fascism in Italy. Italy and Germany were keen in controlling the growth of communism in their countries. Besides, Fascism and Nasism also established totalitarain government in their respective countries.
6. The growth of communism also created yet another problem in the international relations. During the Second World War Russia fought along with the Allies. Immediately after the fall of the Axis power there was a political vacuum. Russia began to spread communism by occupation. It was controlled by the U.S.A. It led to the chapter of the Cold War.
7. Bolsheviks in accordance with the Marxian political philosophy tried to end class struggle. So the working class alone was let free and all other classes of community were massacred. Landed aristocracy, capitalists and rich were massacred without mercy. Thousands were killed. Many escaped to foreign countries their lands and properties were confiscated.
8. The rule of the Soviet was founded. The Russian parliament had only one party and that was the Communist party. Multi party systems were abolished in Russia. Very soon Russia became a Soviet Russia which was called the Union of Soviet Socialistic Republics.
9. The religion in Russia and the Orthodox Christianity were regarded unnecessary. Orthodox Christianity was no more the state religion. The churches were converted into temples of Reason and Communist office. Religion was prohibited in Russia.
10. The Russian economy was totally changed. The capitalistic economy was given up and the Marxian economy was brought into practice. Labour alone was regarded as the only factor of production. It led to the foundation of socialistic economy.
11. New economic trials were conducted one after another. At first the New Economic Policy was introduced. In order to improve the economy of the country, Stalin introduced Five Year Plans. Finally, the nature of the Russian culture underwent a total change. The life style and education of the people were modeled on the socialistic pattern. Inhuman punishments were granted to political prisoners. Usually they were sent to concentration camps. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 50
Fourteen Points of Woodrow Wilson: In January 1918, President Woodrow Wilson of U.S.A. appealed to the World to back the Allies as they were 'fighting for certain fundamental principles' and he described those fundamental principles in his famous points. These points provided for the following 1) Open covenants of peace, arrived at and no secret diplomacy. 2) Absolute freedom of navigation upon sea, outside the territorial waters, both in times of peace and war. 3) Removal of all barriers to international trade. 4) Reduction of Nation’s armaments. 5) Impartial adjustment of all' colonial claims'. 6) Evacuation of Russian territory. 7) Evacuation and Restoration of Belgium. 8) Restoration of French Territory. 9) Readjustment of Italian frontiers. 10) Autonomy was given to the people of Austria - Hungary. 11) Evacuation and restoration of Serbia, Montenegro and Rumania. 12) Securing Sovereignty for the Turkish portion of Ottoman Empire, with autonomy for other potions and freedom of sailing through the straits. 13) Establishment of an independent Poland. 14) The creation of an international organization to guarantee independence and territorial integrity to small and big states of the world.
However, the specific points were never modified. It is rightly pointed out that without the whole hearted support of President W.Wilson, the Covenant of the League would not have been drafted then and placed within the frame work of the treaties. He himself presided over a commission which drafted the Covenant of the League of Nations. Thus the League of Nations came into being.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 51
(II: 1) THE WASHINGTON CONFERENCE (1921-1922)
After the World War I, Germany, France and Russia played a vital role in the Far Eastern affairs, receded to the background, and England, the U.S.A. and Japan came to the forefront. Japan regarded herself as a successor to Germany's territory and claimed her rights in the Far East. President Woodrow Wilson of the U.S.A. took initiative for convening the Washington Conference to put a check to the imperialistic policy of Japan.
A. Circumstances leading to the convening of the Washington Conference The Washington Conference was convened owing to the following causes. 1. The U.S. - Japanese Rivalry in the Far East a. Japan emerged as a dominant power in the Far East after the First World War. America did not like the emergence of another power in that region. During the war, Japan became more aggressive towards China. She took possession of Germany's leased territory of Kiaochow and presented 21 demands to China. America was not in a position to prevent the Japanese programmes. b. Japan violated the Open Door principle by expanding and strengthening her position in Manchuria. She exploited China both economically and politically. Japan could not be checked and the U.S.A. could do nothing. c. The U.S.A. which had acquired Hawaii and the Philippines had developed an appetite for the Chinese market, in which Japan too had developed extraordinary interest. d. The Japanese success in Manchuria roused the jealously and resentment of the U.S.A. e. She signed an agreement with Japan known as Langshinglshii. By this treaty the U.S.A. had to recognise the Japanese interests in China. With the potentialities of U.S.- Japanese conflict, it was high time that the U.S.A. took steps to contain the Japanese expansion.
2. The strained Anglo-Japanese relations: The Anglo-Japanese Alliance between England and Japan was signed in 1902. It was renewed in 1905 and 1911. The alliance was directed against Russia and Germany. As Germany and Russia had been weakened in the Far East after the World War I, Japan was trying to expand at the expense of the U.S.A. England felt irked, as Japan was using the alliance to prejudice the Anglo-American relations and was looking for an early opportunity to put an end to this agreement.
3. Emergence of a spirit of Nationalism in China: There was an emergence of a new spirit of vigorous nationalism in China. The rising tide of public opinion against exploiting imperialist powers and the Notorious “Twenty one Demands” of Japan had to be reckoned with and China had to be conciliated. The Western powers wanted to have an international conference to seek remedies for the injustices suffered by China. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 52
4. The Japanese Views: The defeat of Germany in the World War had shaken the faith of Japan in militarism. She decided to follow a less aggressive policy and protect her economic interests. Further, she felt isolated as England desired to terminate the Anglo-Japanese Alliance. With the end of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, with the U.S.A. turning against her and with the rise of bitter anti-Japanese feeling coupled with the boycott of Japanese goods, the evading of Japan to attend the conference was not possible.
5. Naval Rivalry: The relations between the U.S A and Japan were serious in naval rivalry. The Washington Conference put a check to the naval race and constituted a great victory of American diplomacy.
6. The Intentions of the U.S.A., England and Japan : a. England wanted to free herself from the Anglo-Japanese Alliance and conclude a new alli- ance with America and Japan. b. Japan desired the continuation of the Anglo-Japanese Alliance or some other form of similar alliance for curtailing the anti-Japanese feeling in America, China and other countries in the Far East. c. America did not want to recognize the special interests of England and Japan in the Far East and was against the continuation of the Anglo - Japanese Alliance which excluded her. She wanted to console another treaty which would be beneficial to her in the Far East.
B. The Washington Conference: The American President Hardinge summoned a conference of nine nations at Washington. Those nine nations were the United States of America, Belgium, China, England, France, Way, Japan, the Netherlands and Portugal The conference met from November 1921 to February 1922.
C. Aims of the conference 1. To arrive at an agreement on the limitation of naval armaments. 2. To seek solution to the questions of the Far East to avoid war in future.
D. The Treaties As a result of the deliberations at the Washington Conference, the Four Power Treaty, the Five Power Naval Treaty, the Nine Power Treaty and some other treaties were signed. The Sino-Japanese settlement regarding Shantung was signed outside the conference.
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1. The Four Power Treaty (13 December 1921) England, the U.S.A. Japan and France made the Four Power Treaty on 13 December 1921. These powers agreed to converse joint conference for discussing and settling the Far Eastern problems peacefully. This treaty put an end to the Anglo - Japanese Alliance and Lanshinglshii Agreement. This provided relief to England and the U.S.A. The U.S.A. got an opportunity to consult other great powers about the Far Eastern problems. (The U.S.A. did not join the League of Nations).
2. The Five Power Naval Treaty The Five Power Naval Treaty was signed among England the U.S.A., France, Italy and Japan. It provided for naval disarmament. Limits were fixed for the naval power of the signatories. It fixed the naval strength of Japan at 60% of British and American figures. The quotas of France and Italy were fixed at 35%. But no limit was put on light cruisers, destroyer submarines or other auxiliary craft. The ratio of tonnage among the signatories was 5:5:3:1.67:1.67. Japan was satisfied with a lower ratio than what England and America secured, as the big powers agreed not to build new bases or fortifications in their initial possessions in the Far East.
3. The Nine Power Treaty (6 February 1922). The Nine Power Treaty was signed on 6 February 1922 among all the nine countries which participated in the Washington Conference. The Signatories agreed to respect the sovereignty, independence and territorial and administrative integrity of China. The nine powers were not to secure special privileges which would restrict the rights of the Chinese people. The open Door principle was to be upheld in China. China was to give equal trade facilities to all the powers of the treaty. China's neutrality would be respected, if she chose to be neutral.
4. Sino - Japanese Agreement about Shantung: The Sino-Japanese Agreement signed at Washington was an important document re- lated to China and Japan. It was made outside the conference. Japan agreed to return to China, the Kiao chow territory which had been given to Japan by Germany in accordance with the provision of the Treaty of Versailles. She undertook to give back to China the whole of the leaseholded territory of Shantung in return for a huge amount of compensation. Japan retained control over Shing -Tao Railways.
5. Criticism The Washington Conference was a landmark in the history of international affairs. It was a victory for the principle of disarmament. It put an end to the Anglo-Japanese, Alliance and the Lanshinglshii agreement. By putting an end to the mad naval race it ensured peace in the Pacific region. The Washington conference was an attempt to undo the injustices and wrongs done to China. It paved the way for a new system of international justice China Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 54
recovered Shantung. Many vexing and humiliating limitations on her sovereignty were repudiated. For the first time, China was treated equally in an international conference. China was to have an effective and stable government.
In all respects the Washington Conference was a complete Japanese triumph. (Simonds and Emeny) She was able to ensure her supremacy in the waters in which she was interested by successfully assert in her claim to a ratio of 3:5:5 vis a vis England and America. They pledged not to add to the existing fortifications in Guam, the Philippines and Hong Kong.
The Washington Conference established a state of parity between England and America in the naval battle line. America sacrificed her prospective superiority in capital ships without getting any return. The Conference was double defeat for America for she had to surrender her territorial integrity of China in order to obtain Japanese acceptance to the naval agreement.
However, China was not entirely free. She was unable to revoke the "Twenty one Demands" of Japan. America succeeded in enforcing the Open Door policy. England utilised this conference to get rid of her alliance with Japan. However, it was completed only at the Manchurian crisis. Japan intervened in China in 1927-28 on behalf of her subjects in Shantung. In fact, Japan which had tasted Chinese blood was not ready to leave China alone. She was only waiting for better opportunities to satisfy her best for Chinese territory in the future.
Conclusion: Japan’s wing in the Far East was not clipped fully and China was not freed from the imperialism of Japan. The Washington Conference prescribed limits on Capital ships for a decade. But it could not set any limits on cruisers and submarines. Nothing could prevent Japan from arming herself heavily.
THE PROBLEMS OF REPARATIONS
By Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, Germany was made responsible for the war, thereby laying the groundwork for the payment of reparations. Germany was to pay reparations for the loss of property and lives. The loss was estimated to be anywhere between $ 2,250 and 3,000 million.
Meaning of Reparation: Reparation is war indemnity. It is a compensation for loss or injury of war damage from the defeated enemy.
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Circumstances: Germany was defeated by the Allies. She was obliged to accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage to which the Allied and Associated Governments and their nationals have been subjected as a consequence of the war imposed on them by the aggression of Germany and her allies. The German representatives were forced to sign the treaty containing the war-guilt under a threat of renewal of war.
The Reparations Commission: The Peace Conference handed over to a Reparations Commission the task of deciding upon a bill and a schedule of total reparations. The Commission consisted of representatives of England, France, America, Italy and Belgium. It decided that Germany should pay 1000 million$ as reparations.
The Spa Conference (July 1920): The Allies met at Spa, a health resort in East Belgium to work out a plan for the distribution of the realised amount of reparations among themselves. They agreed among themselves what proportion of German payments each should receive as follows: France 52%, Britain 22% Italy 10% Belgium 8% Yugoslavia, Rumania and Greece together 6.5%, Japan and Portugal 1.5%.
Occupation of the three German towns (March 1921): Germany was not in a position to pay the reparations. The Reparations commission said that Germany was a voluntary defaulter. France sent an ultimatum to Germany that she should pay the amount or face invasion of the Rhineland. When Germany made an unsatisfactory reply, France occupied Dusseldorf, Ruhrort and Duisburg on the east of Rhine.
The London Schedule (May. 1921) The Reparations Commission met in London and divided the schedule of payment into three clauses A, B and C. The Allies demanded the immediate payment of the first billion gold Marks. If Germany failed, they would take direct action and invade the Ruhr, the most important industrial area in western Germany. Germany settled this crisis by floating a loan in London and making the required payment.
Financial Collapse of Germany The tremendous financial stress led to an economic crisis in Germany. The Mark began to fall in value. Germany was completely exhausted. But England and France knew that it would be unwise to allow Germany to go bankrupt for Germany could pay the reparations, only if she had financial strength.
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The Geneva Conference (April 1922) England and France thought of a moratorium to Germany. Thirty four nations met at Geneva on 10 April 1922. Germany and Russia also participated. But the participants could take no decision. Russia refused to pay the debts owed by the Tzarist Government until the world powers recognised the communist Russia. In the midst of the conference, Germany and Russia announced that they had a treaty at Rapallo by which both countries formally agreed not to demand reparations from each other. The Conference broke up without an agreement.
German Position The German position was twofold. At the first instance she believed that the war- guilt clause lacked any moral binding because she was forced to sign the treaty. Thus it became a matter of unwillingness, secondly the reparations were very heavy. Already she had heavy financial burden due to the war. This was a matter of inability.
Occupation of Ruhr Valley (II January 1923) France was concerned only with her own security. Germany failed to deliver supplies of timber according to the agreed schedule. France insisted on the Reparations Commission to declare that Germany "voluntarily defaulted", the Commission, over British dissent. It declared as was its duty that Germany was in default. French and Belgium troops therefore invaded the Ruhr, which contained about 80% of Germany's remaining coal, iron and steel production. The occupation of the Ruhr Valley was a blunder for France and disaster for Germany. France lost the goodwill and co-operation of England. It created a lasting bitterness in the minds of the German people towards France. The occupation seriously impaired the economy of Germany. Thousands of Germans were thrown out of employment and many of them died of starvation.
The Dawes Plan (9 April 1924) The economic strangulation of Germany, unemployment labour problems abnormal inflation, devaluation of the Mark, loss of industries and the like demanded drastic measures. The Dawes Committee was appointed to examine the question of the payment of reparations by Germany.
Charles G. Dawes of America submitted his plan in April 1924. The Dawes plan did not change the ultimate total that Germany would have to pay. According to the plan the German Central Bank was to be reorganised under Allied supervision, and a foreign loan of 800 million gold Marks was to be provided to Germany to enable her to stabilize her currency. The amount of annual payments to be made by Germany was fixed. It was to vary according to the index of prosperity of that country. The occupation of Ruhr should be withdrawn.
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The Young Plan (June 1929) Germany asked for a reconsideration of the whole question of reparations and fixing of a total sum to be paid. Consequently another committee under the chairmanship of Owen D. Young of America was organised and in June 1929, it issued its proposals. According to the Young Plan Germany was required to make 37 annual payments at the rate of 100 million a year. In addition to that, she was to pay 22 smaller annual payments. The Rhineland was to be evacuated by the Allied troops.
The Economic Depression (1930) The Young Plan was put into operation in May 1930. Meanwhile the world was engulfed with a terrible economic depression. Russia was wrestling with her communist experiment. The Allies were unable to put their economy in proper shape. In 1929 Britain went off the gold standard. The United States stock market crash had occurred, and no more investment money was entering Germany. The Great Depression that followed hit Germany harder than it hit any other country.
The Hoover Moratorium (June 1931) Germany stated that she could no longer pay. President Hoover (America) proposed a one year moratorium on all debts and reparations. However the Moratorium, which was soon accepted by all parties, did not greatly help Germany. Her economic problems were not solved.
The Lausanne Conference (Jane 1932) The Allied powers decided at Lausanne that Germany reparations bill should be reduced by approximately 90%. It was stated that the agreement would become operative only if America cancelled the war debts. But the Congress refused to accept the agreement.
End of reparation The political trends in Europe changed. Germany witnessed the rise of Hitler as her Chancellor in 1932. Mussolini emerged as a strong leader in Italy. Thereafter the payment of reparation had no meaning.
The problem of reparation was finally closed with the emergence of Nazism in Germany. EH. Carr observes, "The year 1932 saw the last act in that confused drama of reparation and inter allied, debts which had tormented the world for more than ten years. The Lausanne Conference buried them in same unhonoured grave".
Evaluation 1. Critically analyse the reparation problem connected with Germany and point out its influence on international situations. 2. Discuss the problem, of reparations imposed by the Treaty of Versailles on Germany. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 58
THE PROBLEM OF SECURITY AMD DISARMAMENT
One of the causes for the outbreak of wars is militarism. Militarism is the dangerous and burdensome mechanism of great standing armies and large navies. It is not conductive to the maintenance of peace and security of nations. The control of the deadly weapons is disarmament. By disarmament the security of nation is preserved.
Meaning of Security and Disarmament In the words of Prof. Jacob and Atherton, "The strategy of disarmaments is the exact reverse of collective security system and the regional security alliances". Disarmament is used for reduction or elimination of armaments so as to restrict the means of military attack by one nation against another. Collective security is based on the principle "one for all and all for one". Under this system all nations agree to take collective action against the aggressor.
The Need for Disarmament and Security Armament is the major cause for wars. When one country increases her arms and ammunition on the pretext of greater security, it leads to competition in the production of arms among other countries. It also results in suspicion and fear, leading to war. Secondly a large amount of national wealth is spent on the production of armaments. Therefore disarmament is the need of the day ensuring greater security of nations.
Methods of Disarmament Disarmament could be done either by total destruction and banning of all arms or by limiting them to safe levels. The former method was almost impossible, the latter was attempted at the post war period. The problem of Disarmament and Security between the two Great Wars.
Wilsonian Peace (Fourteen Points) (January 1918) One of the fourteen points of President Wilson provided for the reduction of national armaments to the lowest level consistent with domestic safety. However, national armaments were not reduced by all the powers. This provision was applied in case of Germany alone. The provision for the creation of an international organisation to guarantee independence and territorial integrity to small and big states alike resulted in the creation of the League of Nations which stood for the security of nations.
The Treaty of Versailles (May 1919) According to Treaty of Versailles the right bank of the Rhine of Germany was demilitarised for a distance of thirty miles. The German army was reduced to 1,00,000 men. Germany was to have neither submarines nor aircraft carriers, and she had to hand over to the Allies as part of her reparations of merchant ships of more than 1,600 tons and half of her ships Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 59
between 800 and 1,600 tons. Moreover, she was to build for her late enemies 2,00,000 tons of new ships every year. This shows that the markers of the treaty were anxious only to disarm Germany and not to reduce arms of other countries which was one-sided, "Disarmament, if it is to lead to world peace should not mean merely the disarming of one nation or a few defeated nations but all round and agreed disarmament". (N. Subramanian, 1993)
The League of Nations: The world powers, when they thought of preventing wars, had to consider simultane- ously the problems of disarmament and security also. The measures devised for the security of nations could not be disassociated with disarmament. The League of Nations took up the two questions together, collective security was not a substitute for armament. Under the prevailing circumstances it was the best alternative. The members of the League undertook to provide security to each other one of its members in case of aggression. But the absence of Russia and America meant that the collective security was to be provided only by England, France and other countries.
The Treaty of St Germaine (September 1919) The Treaty of St. Germaine signed in September 1919 greatly curtailed the military and navy of Austria. Her army was reduced to 30,000 men and her navy to three police boats on the Danube.
The Treaty of Neuilly (November 1919) This Treaty reduced the Bulgarian army to 33,000 men and her navy was practically abolished.
The Treaty of Trianon (June 1920) By this treaty the Hungarian army was reduced to 35,000 men and her navy was curtailed to a few patrol boats.
The Treaty of Sevres (August 1920) The Treaty of Sevres reduced the Turkish army to 50,000 men. Turkey surrendered all her Air Force to the Allies.
The Washington Naval Conference or the Washington Naval Arms Limitation Treaty of 1922: The main concern of this treaty was not to limit naval armaments. The signatory powers adopted certain rules for the protection (security) of the lives of neutrals in times of war. It has been claimed that the Washington conference had achieved considerable success in the limitation of battleship building. But it was not so.
Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1923) The treaty was called the Draft of Security and Disarmament Treaty. This draft emphasized the need to implement Article 16 of the League Covenant and a policy of general disarmament. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 60
According to this treaty "Any threat of war was the concern of all the members of the League", armed resistance was to be provided by the members situated in the continent. It was a combination of regional alliance and universal responsibility.
Geneva Protocol (October 1924): Geneva Protocol was the next effort at ensuring security, the question of security was linked with disarmament in Geneva Protocol. The Protocol was accepted by the League Assembly on 2 October 1924. The signatory states agreed not to resort to war under any-circumstances except in case of resistance to acts of aggression. The League could invite the signatory states to apply eco- nomic and military sanctions. The signatory states accepted to participate in the international con- ference for the reduction of armaments scheduled to be help in June 1925.
Armaments are a source of inspiration for aggression. Though the European powers took many measures to control and deduce armaments. They could not achieve their aim because they were always motivated by the feeling of self preservation and security of their nations. Besides, most of their efforts were one sided. The Allies disarmed the defeated countries. The rise of dictators in Europe during this period put an end to the disarmament proposals. The result was the Second World War.
The Locarno Pact (October 1925): According to Locarno Treaty, Germany, Belgium, France, England and Italy agreed mutually not to commit aggression against each other except in self-defense and in action consequent on a resolution in the League of Nations. The signatory members promised to put into practice the prin- ciple of disarmament. It established a reasonable balance between German demands and the French desire for security. However, it is criticized that the sense of security created by Locarno pact was illusory in character. It provided Germany an opportunity to learn herself.
The Kellogg- Briand Pact (January 1928) The pact was signed by 64 nations who met in Paris; the signatories declared that they con- demned recourse of war for the solution of international controversies. For the first time a number of countries made a joint declaration regarding important international relations. It was an effort for corrective security.
The General Disarmament Conference 1932: The League sent out a resolution to all its members to prevent competition in armaments and to find out means of an armament truce. The Disarmament Conference met in July 1932 and adopted a resolution to reduce substantially armaments and to prohibit chemical warfare and also the heavy armored cars known as tanks. However the Disarmament Conference failed.
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Failure of Disarmament Conference: France always thought of her own security at the cost of disarming Germany. The rise of Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany made disarmament proposal irrelevant. Hitler declared on 16 March 1935 that Germany was not bound by the military clauses in the Treaty of Versailles. He remilitarized the Rhineland. Japan and Italy followed imperialistic policy and occupied foreign lands. The League of Nations could not take any affective measure against the aggressors. The failure of disarmament proposals heralded the Second World War.
THE FRENCH QUEST FOR SECURITY (1919-1939)
The First World War, the most costly, destructive, ferocious and devastating conflict ended in a victory to the Allies though many of the battles were won by Germany. It was not German military incompetence, but the collapse of her economy. France was afraid that Germany, her neighbour might once again indulge in war and take vengeance on her. Therefore she took all steps for her security.
A. Circumstances leading to the French search for security: 1. French fear of German Invasion in the future: Though Germany was defeated in the war, France feared the potential danger from Germany in the future. As Lingam puts it, "Twice within the living memory of men, had the pounding of German military boots been heard on the French soil and the citizens of the Third Republic were fearful of still another incursion".
2. Disparity between French and German Industrial development: During this period there were only forty two million of Frenchmen where as there were sixty seven million of Germans. There was a greater disparity between French and German industrial development also. France had no hope for a victory against the Germans. Therefore she put the problem of security in the forefront.
3. French treatment of Germany as a constant enemy: All the Frenchmen treated Germany as a constant enemy. There was only one enemy to France and that was Germany. There was only one policy and that was security.
4. Provocation caused by the Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871: The Treaty of Frankfurt of 1871 was a humiliating treaty imposed by Germany on France she had to pay a huge war indemnity and loose Alsace and Lorraine to Germany, France did not forget her sufferings in 1870 - 71 and 1914. Therefore she stood for her security.
5. Geographical position of France: The frontiers of France to the north and to the west faced invasion. Therefore she took all efforts to safeguard them form attack. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 62
B. French efforts for Security: America and England promised to assist France in the event of aggression against her by Germany. However, the American Congress refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and her promises became void. France was once again haunted by the idea of security against Germany. In the words of Carr, "The most important and persistent single factor in European affairs in the years Following 1919 was the French demand for security". France took the following efforts for security.
1. Demand for Physical guarantee at the Peace Conference: During the peace settlement (1919) France demanded for a 'Physical guarantee' through the possession of the Rhine. But the Allies declined to comply with her request. However, the Treaty of Versailles provided a clause for the occupation the left bank of Rhine by the Allied forces for a period of fifteen years. As she failed to secure a guarantee at the Peace Conference, France occupied Ruhr with the intention of ensuring security by breaking the industrial back-bone of Germany.
2. Security through the League: France tried to use the League of Nations for ensuring her security through the enforcement of collective security. Accordingly, all the member countries of the League were to come to the assistance of the victim of aggression. But the League which met in Geneva left the nature of Sanction against the aggressor to the discretion of each state. This decision weakened the system of collective security.
3. The French Alliances for Security: As the French effort for security through the League was not successful, she took hectic efforts outside the framework of the League and concluded alliances with less important powers to strengthen her security. a. Alliance with Belgium (7 September 1920): Belgium was as much exposed to Germany as France. Consequently the two countries signed a military alliance on 7 September 1920. b. Alliance with Poland (19 August 1921): As Poland had been created at the expense of Germany, she was afraid. It brought France and Poland together and the Franco-Polish Treaty was signed on 19 August 1921. Thus France earned friends in the East (Poland) and in the West (Belgium).
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c. Alliance with (Czechoslovakia 1924): A Treaty of Alliance was signed in 1924 between France and Czechoslovakia which was located near the German frontier. d. Alliance with Yugoslavia (1927): A similar treaty was signed between Yugoslavia and France in 1927. All these treaties provided for consolations on security problems and common defence in case of aggression.
4. The Locarno Pact (October 1925) The Locarno Pact was signed in 1925. Accordingly, England and Italy guaranteed Western frontiers of Germany with Belgium and France. The Locarno Pact was a turning point in the foreign policy of France for it brought Britain as the guarantor of the Franco - German frontier. After Locarno Pact, England and America began to put pressure on France to disarm. France gave up completely the hope of an independent foreign policy.
5. French Quest for Security and England. England and France differed very much with regard to the policy of French security. a. England's idea of security stopped with the Rhine. She was not concerned with other parts of Europe. But the views of France were different. She relied upon military alliances with states of Central and Eastern Europe. b. England did not see eye to eye with France on the question of Germany. She wanted to treat Germany leniently. But France was not willing to follow such a course. She was afraid of Germany. She considered that leniency towards Germany would be a threat to her security. She was unwilling for the revision of the Peace Treaty (1919). c. Failure of French Quest for security: Despite of her best efforts for security, France found herself in a weak position after 1933. The following were the circumstances which lead to the French failure.
1. Rise of Hitler: Hitler came to power in January 1933 and the whole system of French security proved ineffective. Hitler broke the alliances between France and other European countries. a) Poland entered into a non-aggression pact with Germany in January 1934. b) Belgium terminated her military alliance with France in 1936. c) Germany was able to win over Yugoslavia to her side. d) She entered into a naval agreement with England also. Ultimately the French position seemed to be very weak. e) Hitler introduced conscription and carried Germany against the principles of the treaty of Versailles.
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2. Treaty of Mutual Assistance between France and Russia (May 1935): France and Russia entered inline Treaty of Mutual Assistance in May 1935. Accordingly, both the countries agreed to consult each other in the event of an aggression. The treaty was to last for five years after its ratification. But France did nothing to implement the treaty.
3. Domestic troubles of France: Between May 1936 and April 1938 France was involved in domestic troubles, while Germany was feverishly turning out arms day and night. The industrial plant of France was thrown out of gear on account of labour disputes, strikes, the flight of capital, the decline of France and the general instability arising out of political reform.
4. The Spanish Civil War: France did not help the Republican Government against General Francs in the name of peace and non-intervention. The decision was fatal. The victory of France drove more nails into the coffin of France's Eastern alliances and left France discredited, weakened and strengthened the hands of Fascism and Nazism.
5. Franco - British Alliances (29 April 1938) The Franco - British Alliances concluded on 29 April 1938 provided for the establishment of a united command of the British and French military, naval and air force.
6. The Question of Czechoslovakia- September 1938: Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia in September. France got ready for war. However, after much deliberations, Hitler, Mussolini, Chamberlain and Daladier met at Munich. There was to be a representation to Czechoslovakia who fate was to be decided. The net result was that about 30% of Czech territory and about 30% of the population were taken over by Germany, Poland and Hungary. Churchill observed, "France and Great Britain had to choose between war and dishonour. They chose dishonour. They will have war" It cannot be denied that Munich agreement was one of f he greatest defeat of French diplomacy.
7. The German seizure of more states: “The German seizure of Czechoslovakia and Mamel, the final victory of Fianco in Spain, the signing of a trade agreement between Germany and Rumania, the capture of Hsiaam and Spralty Islands and the ever increasing demands of the Axis powers for colonial concessions, gave a severe blow to the security and prestige of France. Under these circumstances the World War II began.
The French quest for security can be justified. At the same time they were certain of the defects in her policy. The emergence of Hitler in Germany made the whole system of security ineffective. Even today the foreign policy of France is very concerned with her security against Germany.
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THE GENEVA PROTOCOL (2 OCTOBER 1924) The Geneva Protocol was an agreement recommended by the League of Nations to its mem- bers. It aimed for a peaceful settlement of international disputes. It was drafted by the Greek and Czech representatives. It was accepted by the League Assembly on 12 October 1924. It was signed by Albania, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Estonia, France, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Portugal, Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia and later by seven more countries.
Circumstances feeding to the Geneva Protocol: 1. By 1924, the occupation of the Ruhr Valley by France and Belgium proved to be a total failure. 2. The reparation problem was partially settled by the Dawes Plan. Thus the climate was favourable for fresh efforts at ensuring security. Such efforts were made in 1924 and the result was the Geneva Protocol.
The Articles of the Geneva Protocol: The protocol contained twenty one Articles. The main proposals were: 1. The signatory states agreed not to resort to war under any circumstances; i.e., except in case of resistance to acts of aggression. 2. Compulsory arbitration was the only legal means of settling disputes and declared any aggression as an international crime. 3. The signatory countries were required to accept compulsory jurisdiction of the Permanent Court of International Justice in all legal disputes. The states agreed that the disputes and riots to be settled by the league council, to judicial settlement or arbitration and agreed to abide by the judicial verdict. 4. The Signatory states to maintain peace and riot to mobilise forces while the arbitration was going on. 5. The protocol defined the "aggressor" as a state which refused to accept arbitration. 6. Once the aggressor was identified, the League Council could invite the signatory states to apply economic and military sanctions against the aggressor as disciplinary measures. 7. In the event of a war, reparation was to be imposed on the aggressor for the offence of starting war. The amount of reparation was to be determined keeping in view the financial and eco- nomic capacity of the aggressor. 8. More emphasis was to be given to world security instead of regional security. 9. Even internal affairs were placed under the jurisdiction of the League Council, on the recommendations of Japan. 10. The question of security was linked up with the question of reduction of armaments. 11. The Protocol fixed a date of disarmament conference (15 June 1925). The signatory states agreed to participate in the disarmament conference.
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Criticism of the Geneva Protocol: 1. The Geneva Protocol tried to defy on aggressor and to provide for the settlement of all disputes by peaceful means. However, while the small powers supported the Protocol the big powers opposed it. It was rejected by England in March 1925. England did not want a fool proof system of punishment to aggressors as the definition of aggressor was unambiguous. The Geneva Protocol was initiated by England in 1923 by Ramsay Macdonald.But it was rejected by Austin Chamberlain (Conservative Foreign Secretary). It shows that Britain was not interested in peace. 2. Though the Geneva Protocol was rejected, it was a grand plan devised for the international security. It tried to identify the aggressor and made arbitration compulsory in all cases of dispute. The protocol banned all wars except those fought in defence of the territorial integrity of a state or in pursuance of the sanction enforced by the League or to enforce the decision of the World Court. 3. The protocol tried to remove some of the defects of the Covenant of the League. The system of arbitration proposed by the Protocol tried to settle international disputes. According to the protocol league had the right to interfere in the domestic disputes. 4. The Geneva Protocol was an improvement by the Covenant of the League of Nations. It tried to remove certain defects of the covenant. 5. It was the first genuine attempt to strengthen the League of Nations.
THE LOCARNO PACT (1925) The Locarno Pact was an expression of the common weariness of England, France and Germany as result of the struggle which continued from the time of Treaty of Versailles (1919) was signed upto the occupation of the Ruhr Valley (1923). The mutual suspicion between France and Germany, French fear of German recovery, revenge and German fear of French Designs on the Rhineland and her economic strength were the important causes for arriving at an agreement at Locarno in 1925.
(A) Circumstances leading to the Signing of the Locarno Pact: 1. French Fear of German recovery and revenge: After the defeat of the Germany in the First World War, severe terms were imposed on her and she was forced to sign the Treaty of Versailles. However, France saw Germany as a potential danger. When France failed to get "Physical guarantee" by possessing the Rhine, she occupied the Ruhr Valley. In her quest for security, she followed the policy of alliances with less important powers. No permanent peace was possible unless an agreement between the two countries was signed.
2. German fear of French recovery and design: The Treaty of Versailles humiliated Germany. France and Belgium captured the Ruhr Valley which was the very heart of Germany. In the words of Langsam "Discontented workers and radicals, released convicts and rowdies from all over Germany were imported into Rhineland, by France and
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encouraged to proclaim the region independent". Germany wanted to begin a new age of confidence and rehabilitation.
3. Failure of German offer to enter into a Mutual Agreement: As early as 1922, Germany suggested France to enter into a mutual agreement not to resort to war against each other. The proposal was rejected by France on the ground that it was more favourable to Germany than to France.
4. The Treaty of Rapallo (1922): Germany and Soviet Russia signed the Treaty of Rapallo in 1922. This treaty caused a great anxiety, to the European powers, who were more concerned with the Bolsheviks (Com- munist) threat rather than a possible revival of German militarism. They felt that in order to detach Germany from the communist influence they should strike a balance between Germany and France.
5. The common weariness of France, Germany and England a) The British Government tried to restore a balance of power between Germany and France. Otherwise, she would be drawn towards meeting the guarantee of French security. b) The German Statesmen tried to exploit the Anglo-French quarrels in order to escape from the chains of the Treaty of Versailles. The occupation of the Ruhr Valley brought about the economic ruin of Germany. She was completely exhausted, c) France found herself isolated. The occupation of the Ruhr Valley had brought nothing but a harvest of hatred. The Labour Government in England was favourable to a settlement be tween France and Germany. The French President Briand was favourably inclined towards Germany. Thus for the first time after the First World War, France, Germany and England were in a mood of compromise.
B) The Stresemann Proposal Stresemann of England proposed on 10 January l925, the Rhineland Pact whereby France, Germany, England and Italy were to guarantee jointly the Franco- German border. Germany and France welcomed the proposal. However, France insisted that her allies, Belgium, Czechoslovakia and Poland should also be invited to participate in the talks. Accordingly the delegates from Belgium, Czechoslovakia, England, France, Germany, Italy and Poland met from 5 October to 16 October 1925 besides the lake Maggiore in the little town of Locarno in Switzerland and the Locarno pact was signed. There were feelings of friendliness, and goodwill instead of mutual hatred in the proceedings of the conference. This changed atmosphere was referred to as "The Spirit of Locarno". The participants concluded a number of agreements. All these agreements are collectively termed as Locarno Pact, which were formally signed by the powers on 1 December 1925 in London.
The following are the important treaties. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 68
1. The Treaty of Mutual Guarantee between Germany, Belgium, France, England and Italy, The signatories of this treaty agreed, a) To renounce war against each other and b) To settle their disputes by peaceful methods of diplomacy by the conciliation of the Commission and the League of Nations. c) In case of violation of the treaty by one of the signatories, each of the other signatories would come to the help of the party against whom such a violation had been directed. d) If one the powers refused to submit a dispute to peaceful settlement, the other party must bring the matter before the Council of the League of Nations. Thus the signatories of the Locarno Pact voluntarily pledged sanctions against the aggression by the League. 2. Arbitration Treaty between Germany and Poland and between Germany and Czechoslovakia. The signatories of this treaty agreed to refer their dispute to a Permanent conciliation commission for amicable settlement. In case the dispute could not be settled by the commission, the matter was to be referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice. 3. Guarantee Treaties between France and Poland and between France and Czechoslovakia: By these treaties the signatories agreed to aid each other if their safety of any one of the countries was endangered by a country through this. 4. Arbitration Convention between Germany and Belgium and between Germany and Czechoslovakia. . By these treaties the signatories agreed to settle their mutual difference by peaceful means through the Permanent conciliation Commission or through an arbitral tribunal. The matter might also be referred to the League of Nations. Critical Estimate of the Locarno Pact: a) The Locarno Treaty created a hopeful atmosphere. Austen Chamberlin said;Itwas the dividing line between the years of war and the years of peace". In the words of Car, "It struck for the first time since the war, a fair and impartial balance between French and German needs. It completed the work which Dawes plan had begun by bringing Germany back to the family of great powers". b) The frontier between Germany and France was placed under the joint guarantee of England, Belgium and Italy. The Locarno Treaties, were a violation of the Treaty of Versailles and werea recognition of the fact that the settlement of 1919 was not based on justice. However, the Locarno Treaties lessoned the tension between France and Germany for some time. c) In the words of Gathirone Hardy, "The Locarno Pact was a most, effective and formidable -looking scare – crow which went far to justify the opinion of its creator, Mr. Austen Chamerblain". The Locarno Pact gave satisfaction to France as the frontier between France and Germany was accepted by Germany. d) Germany gave up her claims over Alsace - Lorraine, Eupen and Malmedy and France on her part abandoned all her hopes for the Rhineland. However, the loss of Danzig, Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 69
the Polish Corridor and upper Silesia remained which Schurnan called a "festering wound in the hearts of all patriots and hone could abandon hope of recovering these territories in future". e) Germany signed the Locarno pact voluntarily. It made her accept the obligations of the Treaty of Versailles which was once refused as an injustice treaty. Germany became a member of the League of Nations after the Locarno Pact. f) However, the sense of security created by Locarno Pact was illusory. In the words of Carr, "The Locarno Pact was destructive in the long ran and was destructive to both of the Treaty of Versailles and of the Covenant". The Locarno Pact is criticised on many grounds. g) It created a false sense of security and perpetual peace in the minds of the signatory powers. The pact in course of time became ineffective. Poland and Russia were not enthusiastic about the pact. Belgium withdrew from it later. h) The Locarno pact did not cover the disputes which arose before and after the pact. In the words of David Thompson. "The implications of Locarno Pact were sinister as well as reassuring". Clemenceau commented, "The Locarno Pact offers only the fragile appearance of a guarantee. It is an illusion. The spirit of Locarno is itself a threat to the interests of our society". i) Hitler repudiated the pact when he came to power because he was thinking of a Germany equal in power and status to the victors in the First World War. The Soviet Union also looked upon the pact with suspicion and distrust. Four days before the signing of the pact a Trade Agreement was signed between Germany and Russia. j) The Locarno Pact emphasised local and regional pacts instead of general and uni- versal commitments like the Geneva Protocol. The problem of Germanys esteem and the frontiers remained unsolved and there was no real guarantee that it would be settled peacefully.
Conclusion The Locarno Pact was beneficial to Germany. It weakened the French alliance system and her quest for security. It hastened France to evacuate the Rhineland and Germany became a member of the League of Nations. It provided Germany an opportunity to rearm herself. Germany was not fully satisfied. The Germans were prepared to listen to Hitler. France gave up her policy of idealism. England decided to follow a policy of isolation. The whole spirit of the Locarno Pact was ended and ultimately the Second World War started.
THE KELLOGG - BRIANS PACT, 1928 OR THE PARIS PACT, 1928 One of the results of the First World War was the establishment of the League of Nations. Many efforts were made to avert war and maintain peace. The Cecil - Reguin Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance (1923) declared that aggressive war was an international crime. It Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 70
was followed by the Geneva Protocol 1924 which declared that a war of aggression constituted a violation of the solidarity of the members of international community and an international crime. However, there was no proper means for establishing lasting peace in the world. The Kellog - Briand pact or the Paris Pact of 27 August 1928 was probably the most important of these efforts.
The Negotiations for the pact Aristide Briand, the Foreign minister of France proposed to Frank B. Kellogg, the U.S. secretary of states that the two countries might make a joint declaration of renunciation of war. The proposal was not of much importance in its original form as there were not many disputes between France and U.S.A. However, Kellogg suggested Briand to make the pact a multilateral pact nations instead of a bilateral one. After a lot of hesitation, the pact was signed by sixty-four nations who met in Paris and therefore it is called the Pact of Paris. It is one of the shortest of its kind.
The Preamble of the Pact stated that the signatories stood for the promotion of the welfare of mankind. They renunciated war as an instrument of national policy. All disputes between the nations should be settled through peaceful and orderly process. Any signatory power which sought to promote its national interests by resorting into war should be denied the benefits promised by the Pact. All the nations of the world join together for the renunciation of war as an instrument of their national policy.
Articles of the Kellogg - Briand pact: The pact had three Articles. i) Article I The High Contracting Parties solemnly declared in the names of their respective people that they condemn recourse of war for the solution of international controversies, and renounce it as an instrument of national policy in their relations with one another. ii) Article II Article II provided that the High Contracting Parties agreed that the settlement or solution of all disputes or conflicts of whatever nature of whatever origin they might be, which might arise among them, shall never be sought except by pacific means. iii) Article III Article III provided that the present treaty was to be ratified by the High Contracting Parties (Germany, the United States, Belgium, France, England, Italy, Japan, Poland and Czecho- slovakia) named in the preamble, in accordance with their respective constitutional require- ments and was to take effort as soon as all their several instruments of ratification were depos- ited at Washington. The treaty was to remain open as long as it is necessary for adherence by all the other powers of the world.
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Significance of the Pact 1. In the words of B.H Car, "The Pact of Paris was a considerable land mark. It was the first political agreement, in the history of almost universal scope". 2. The Kellogg-Briand pact differ from the Covenant of the League of Nation. a. The League Covenant was a political treaty but the Kellogg - Briand pact was a moralobligation based on general sense of sinfulness of war. b. The League Covenant allowed some wars and prohibited others, and provided for the Punishment; of those wars which were prohibited. The Kellogg- Briand Pact condemned allwars but punished none. 3. According to Gathorne Hardy, "the Pact of Paris created a Balis upon which the great nations outside the League, the USA, and Russia, could take a direct interest in the collective organisation of peace". 4. The Pact gave rise to a number of bilateral and multilateral agreements for non aggression and mutual assistance. 5. According to Langsam, "The Kellogg-Briand Pact is a step in advance to world co-operation towards the renunciation of war; an ideal and a goal". 6. The Pact of Paris marked a break in America's policy of isolation. After this pact America emerged as a leader of the world system, which emerged outside the League of Nations.
Short comings of the Pact of Paris: There are certain imperfections and short comings. 1. The Pact outlawed the use of war as an instrument of policy which meant that it outlawed offensive, but not defensive war. But it should be noted that all wars are alleged to be defensive by their instigators. 2. Again the Pact followed wars a. When resorted to self-defence. b. In the execution of obligations assumed under previous treaties. c. In fulfilment of responsibilities incurred through the League Covenant or Locarno agreements. 3. There was no provision for implementing the Pact. Therefore the Kellogg-Briand Pact was psychological and the effect was short-lived. The Pact was worthless and it was a mere law without court to interpret and police to enforce. It imposed no responsibility and involved no commitment. 4. Norman Bentwhich commented, "the Kellogg-Briand Pact is an international Kiss, purel Platonic promising nothing for the future". It provided no machinery by which the remraciation- of war as an instrument of national policy could be enforced. If did not suggest any method by which it could be decided whether a particular act was a violation of the Pact of Paris or not. 5. The pact posed a serious challenge to the League Covenant. 6. The Pact was not a mutual assistance pact. It was just a condemnation of aggressive war as an instrument of policy. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 72
7. The Pact did not provide sanctions.
Conclusion: The Kellogg-Briand Pact had little importance. No European nation thought that it could abolish war by resolution. The big powers signed, ratified and otherwise ignored it. The Pact was a moral declaration based on a general sense of the sinfulness of war. The pact was a "tiger without teeth". Although it laid down certain principles, it provided no machinery to implement them. It was a high sound of nothing. The Pact has been called an "instrument of alternation confusion".
MANCHURIAN CRISIS
The victory of Japan in the Russo-Japanese war of 1904-05 made her an imperialist country. The ideas, such as aggression and economic imperialism also developed. Japan, the ‘Britain of the East’ was particular to become an Empire like Britain. In 1892 after defeating China, Japan gained Formossa and trade rights. In 1902 when she signed a treaty with England she gained confidence to become an imperialist.
(1) I World war and Japan: (a) while the European powers were engaged in the war in the western fronts, Japan without any opposition became an imperialist. (b) She entered the war against Germany. (c) She annexed Shantung peninsula and Kiachow harbour in China. (d) It also annexed Marian, Carolin and Marshal islands in the Pacific. (e) She compelled China to accept her suzerainty by approving the 21 demands imposed on her. (f) In the forcast, America too was forced to accept the expansion of Japan due to the crisis of war. (8) After the I world war in the peace conference, Japan enjoyed the position of a super power. (2) Washington conference : (1922) This conference was convened to avoid the naval competition in East Asia. Britain, France, America, Italy and Japan were the signatories. By that Japan obtained a place next to America and Britain. She gave up her rights over Shantung to China by a separate treaty with her. (3) Tanaka Memorial : After the Washington conference, Japan postponed her policy of annexation and conquest for a short while. Tanaka, the Prime Minister of Japan prepared the plan for future course of action. By that he informed that Machuria and Mangolia are essential for Japan for its security and development. On that line in 1934 the Japanese Munroe doctrine was instituted. It stressed that no European power should interfere in the affairs of East Asia, which was the rightful claim of Japan. In the light of the above circumstances, Japan began to devote its attention on Manchuria in 1931.
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Manchuraian crisis : (1931) Manchuria was the North eastern province of Japan and that had already established her economic imperialism there and had laid railway tracks. Due to the following causes it was attracted by Manchuria. 1. Manchuria had large quantity of coal and iron ores which were necessary for Japan’s industrial development. 2. Manchuria was a suitable place for using it as a colony to settle her population. 3. The great depression had it own impact over Japan. Japan’s economy was affected. It led to political instability. So to reform her economy the annexation of Manchuria was felt necessary. 4. The influence of the army was more in the politics of Japan. The activities of the military generals led to the annexation of Manchuria. Aggression : (1) In 1931 September when the railway at Mukhden was attached Japan sent her army to protect that area. Japan after capturing Mukhden brought many places under its control by aggression. The Japanese treated it merely as an event and not as a war of annexation. 5. League’s action : China brought this aggressive attitude to the council of the League and request to remove that. But the council could not do anything against Japan because Japan was also a member in the council. Further on the basis of collective security the council can announce economic blockade. But as the super powers did not favour such an action, the league cannot take any action against Japan. Lytton Commission : While the Lytton commission was enquiring into the affairs Japan had completed the aggression of Manchuria. It was declared as an independent state in the name Manchuco. For Yi was made as its ruler. He was a puppet in the hands of Japan. As the League informed that the members should not approve Manchuco, Japan cancelled its membership in the League.
Significance : (1) Manchurian crisis created a pressure in the international politics. (2) The League’s weakness was brought out because it failed to take any action against the open aggression of Japan. (3) The League lost an opportunity to test the principle of collective security. (4) Britain and France adopted the principle of escapism. (5) No power was there to oppose aggression and to preserve peace. This was an encouragement for the aggressors.
Results : (1) Japan involved in further aggressions in China. (2) Shangai, Jehol etc. were annexed. (3) In 1933 China accepted a peace at Tanku. (4) In 1937 when there was skirmish between the Japanese and Chinese forces near the Marcopolo bridge it enabled the Manchurian crisis to merge with the II world war. (5) The activities of Japan paved the way for Fascist Italy and Hitler remilitarised the Rhine land and Mussolini invaded Abyssina. (6) When Japan’s activity was condemned by Western powers, Japan signed the Rome-Berlin-
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Tokyo Axis as an anticommunist pact. (7) II world war was the outcome of Japan’s endeavour to adopt the east Asian design. Thus the Manchurian crisis stood as a cause for the II world war.
FOREIGN POLICY OF MUSSOLINI Benitto Mussolini’s foreign policy was the reflection of the Fascist principles. Only by understanding the ideas of fascism, one can estimate the foreign policy of Italy. They had their own symbol of fire sticks with axe. They wore black shirts. At the initial stage, it was a movement without principle. It became popular due to the miseries and sorrows of the people who had no satisfaction on anything. The functioning of the Fascist government exposed the principles of Fascism.
Principles: 1. Fascism centred around the narrow minded nationalism and it instead that a man who lives for the state should be prepared to dedicate himself for the cause of the society. 2. The Duke who runs the Government should be believed, obeyed and fought on his behalf. 3. Both democracy and communism will be barriers for the functioning of the State. 4. Production, distribution should be controlled by the state and they should not be nationalilsed. 5. News papers, education and communication processes must be under the control of the state. 6. On the principles of single country, single state, single party and single leader both Fascism and Nazism were one and the same. 7. Italy should attain the glory of the ancient Roman empire. It meanst that Italy should reach the status of an Empire. 8. Mediterranean sea is our sea and it should be converted into an Italian Lake. 9. The Versailles treaty has disappointed Italy, for Italy which dedicated six lakhs of lives and 12 million pounds received only Tyrol, Transino, Dalmatia and they were not sufficient for Italy. Fume was not given to them. According to Mussolini, the soldiers won the war but the politicians failed. Italy, which won the war could not achieve anything in the peace conference. The victorious Italy’s position was very weak. So, Italy was particular in avoiding the treaty of Versailles. 10. Italy was in short of raw materials. So, it felt the need for having colonies for attaining raw materials. It became envious of the countries like England and France which had a lot of colonies. 11. He believed that for the expansion of imperialism involvement in war will be a suitable measure. In 1927, Mussolini pointed out that keeping the army, navy and air force in a prepared stage should be the duty of Italy.
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Narrow minded nationalism, faith over imperialism etc., were the basis for Fascist principles. Thus the opportunistic policy paved the way for the foreign policy of Germany.
Mussolini’s Foreign policy : 1) Treaty of Laussane: Italy, which did not gain much by the Treaty of Versailles, gained a lot by the Treaty of Laussane which Turkey signed in 1923. By his shrewdness Italy obtained Rhodes Islands, Coastarigo and Todugonus. 2) Corfu incident: The Italian surveyors who were doing their duties on the borders of Albania and Greece were killed by the Greeks. Italy gave a warning to Greece and captured the Corfu island belonging to Greece. When this issue was taken to the council of the League by Greece, Mussolini after receiving a compensation of 53 million lire withdrew the Italian forces from Corfu. 3) Annexation of Fume: By the Treaty of Varsailles Yogoslavia got the port Fume. The Italians treated this as an injustice done to Italy. By force and compulsion, Mussolini was able to obtain Fume from Yugoslavia. 4) Locarno Pact: (1925) With the support of England, Italy guaranteed the security of the boundary of France by the Locarno pact. By this Italy’s position and prestige were enhanced. 5) Wasington Conference: In 1922 Italy took part in the Washington conference to deal with the reduction of Naval forces in the Far East. By that it got the right to have naval forces equal to that of France. 6) Relations with France: After the Treaty of Versailles, there was no cordial relationship between France and Italy. France did not support wholeheartedly at Versailles. When those who were expelled from Italy were protected by France, Mussolini was dissatisfied with the activities of France. He openly declared that Tunisia, Corsica, Savoy, Niece the territories of France were his belongings. In 1934 the rise of Nazi Germany under Hitler threatened France and Italy. Mussolini did not like the activities of Hitler over Russia. At this critical juncture, the French foreign minister went to Rome and tried to convince Mussolini by offering 40,000 sq.miles of African territories to him. In 1935, Britain, France and Italy met at Stresse and condemned Hitler’s activities. Mussolini’s aggression of Abyssinia brought a breach in the French-Italy relations. 7) Austrian issue: In 1934, when Hitler wanted to capture Austria, it was vehemently opposed by Mussolini. In 1935, when Italy attacked Abyssinia, Germany maintained neutrality and that paved the way for the cordial relation between Italy and Germany. By utilising this, Germany annexed Austria. Thus the Austrian policy of Mussolini was a failure. 8) Aggression of Abyssinia: Mussolini could not remove his principle of creation of colonies. His attention was towards Abyssinia. He wanted to wreak vengeance for the defeat of Italy at the hands of Abyssinia at Attova in 1898. In 1935, the Italian army penetrated into Abyssinia. When it was taken to the League’s council it imposed economic blockade over Italy. Though it did not affect Italy, Mussolini withdrew from the League.
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9) Rome-Berlin-Tokyo-Axis: In 1936 it was formed. In 1935 to safeguard Japan and Germany from communism, the Anti-Comintern Pact was signed. In 1936 when Italy became a member in it, that became the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis. It was against the allied powers. 10) Intervention in the Spain civil war: In the civil war of Spain, Mussolini supported the cause of General Franco. So in Spain the fascist government under Franco was established. 11) Annexation of Albania: In 1927 Italy signed an alliance with Albania, located on the eastern shore of the Adriatic sea. So, it became a protectorate under Italy. In 1939, the entire administration of Albania was taken up by Italy. 12) Munich Congress: Since Sudettenland of Czechoslovokia was populated by German race Hitler wanted to annex that with Germany. So to discuss that issue during 1939, Britain, France, Italy, Germany etc. met at Munich. Mussolini wanted to solve this issue peacefully. So Sudettenland was handed over to Germany. 13) Steel Treaty: (1939) In 1938, when Hitler invited Rome, he expressed his desire for close relations with Italy. In 1939 both Germany and Italy signed a military treaty among themselves. Due to its strength it was known a Steel Alliance. 14) II World war: In 1939, Hitler started the second world war by invading Poland. Mussolini believed that Germany will be the final winner of the war. So in 1940 when Germany attacked, France, Italy attacked that from the south. Thus Italy entered the second world war. End of Mussolini : The role of Italy in the second world war was not all an appreciable one. Because of his failure his prestige was reduced. He was removed from power and placed under house arrest. Finally he was shot dead and his body was hanged in the meeting spot of four roads at Milan. Thus he met with a failure.
FOREIGN POLICY OF HITLER Hitler, in his work called ‘Mein Kampf’, has expressed his principles of Nazism. On the basis of that his foreign policy emerged. His policy was having the following things: a) A wide Germany which will be capable of accommodating all the population of German race. b) Making the Versailles and St.Germain Treaties useless. c) For the prosperous living and to settle the people of German race, creation of German colonies. d) The Germans are people belonging to Aryan race which is worth to rule the world. e) Semitic people such as Jews why are inferior should be crushed. f) The entire human race grows by constant wars. Regular peace will destroy that. Military strength is worth to be accepted. The boundaries of areas created by men can be changed by men themselves.
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Hitler became the Chancellor of Germany on 30 January, 1933. Immediately he carried out two things which alarmed the nations of the world.
1) During 1933, October Germany quit away from the International disarmament conference held at Geneva. 2) It also withdrew its membership from the League of Nations which affected the prestige of Germany. It was approved by 95% of the German population.
Any how to pacify and to please the world nations he carried out the following activities also. 1. Treaty of Mutual Assistance was signed with Britain, France and Italy for the maintenance of peace in Europe. 2. In 1934 he signed an anti-war treaty with Poland. By the treaty of Versailles Poland received Danzig, Pones, West Prussia, Silesia from Germany. By the Locarno pact Germany refused to give the same recognition to his western and eastern boundaries. By his treaty with Poland he was a puzzle to the diplomats of the world.
Austrian issue (1934): In his Mein Kampf Hitler has stressed that Austria should be united with Germany. In 1934, he encouraged the Nazis to revolt. The Austrian Chancellor Dallfus was murdered. This was expected to be another Sarajevo. Italy was prepared to take action to protect the freedom of Austria. In Austria also, the anti German feeling was increasing. So, Hitler was to postpone his plan of Anschluss merger. Annexation of Saar (1935): According to Versailles Treaty Saar region was kept under France with the supervision of the League for a period of 15 years. To know the views of the people of Saar a plebiscite was arranged in 1935. Since 90% of the people expressed their willingness to be with Germany, It was annexed with Germany. This was a victory attained by Hitler due to his diplomacy.
Remilitarisation (1935): After quitting the Geneva disarmament conference, Germany began to concentrate on remilitarisation. He announced that demilitarisation and disarmament proposals of the League will have no control over Germany. He also informed that Germany will have an army upto the strength of 5,55,000 soldiers. Britain, France and Italy met at Stressa and condemned the military activities of Germany.
Anglo-German Navy: Britain, which signed the Treaty of Stressa, decided to have a naval treaty with Germany. It was agreed that the German navy should be upto 35% of the Britain navy. Thus Britain was responsible not only to be deviation from the treaty of Versailles but also the the breakup of the Stressa alliance.
Breach of Locarno Pact : Next to the above Hitler decided to break the Locarno pact. When France and Czechoslovakia had alliances with Russia against Hitler, he disregarded the
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Locarno pact and sent the German army to Rhineland. He also informed that he is prepared to have no war pacts and demilitarised areas.
Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis: Both Fascism and Nazism opposed communism as their first enemy. So both of them allied together against Russia. Italy also became a member of the anti Comintern pact signed between Japan and Germany. Italy accepted the antocomintern pact because Germany maintained neutrality with regard to the capture of Abyssinia. By that again Germany supported Italy because she interfered in the civil war in Spain. Thus the alliance among these three countries in 1937 was known as Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
Anschluss: In 1938 when Germany wanted to annex Austria, it did not materialise due to the opposition of Italy. Now after the formation of Rome-Berlin-Tokya Axis, Italy did not oppose the activities of Germany. By mere threats Hitler was able to annex Austria.
Munich Conference: It took place in 1938. In Sudetten land of Czechoslovakia, majority of the people were Germans. Hitler wanted to annex that on the ground that the Germans of that area are illtreated. He warned that he is going to invade Czechoslovakia against the efforts of Britain and France. American President Roosevelt suggested to settle that issue by talks. Mussolini also compelled HItler to concede for a talk. So in 1938 Chamberlain, the British Prime Minsiter, Lalladier, the Frence Premier, Hitler and Mussolini met at Munich. There Hitler declared that the annexation of Sudettanland will be his last annexation and he obtained that territory. He was proud of the fact that he had avoided war. The annexation of sudettenland created confusion in Czechoslovakia which was not invited to attend Munich Conference. By utilising this opportunity Germany invaded Czechoslovakia and captured majority of the areas of that state Alarmed these activities of Hitler, Britain and France wanted to take severe actions against Hitler.
Annexation of Memel: The Treaty of Versailles assigned Memel, located in the Baltic sea region to Lithuvania. Hitler wanted to recover that. But due to fear, Lithuvania handed over Mamel to Hitler.
Spanish Civil war: In the civil war of Spain, Hitler supported France and helped it by men and material. It was against the principle of the league of nations.
Non-Aggression pact: In 1939, Hitler signed this pact with Russia. Even from the beginning, Hitler signed a treaty with Italy and Japan due to his opposition to communism. After his aggression over Czechoslovakia, he devoted his attention towards Poland. He believed that it will be beneficial to have the support of Russia for this. Russia was against the activities of Britain and France. So, it decided to co-operate with Germany. Due to that the non- aggression pact was signed between Russia and Germany during 1939. Thus Germany was relieved from the problem of fighting at two fronts simultaneously. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 79
Danzig issue : According to the Treaty of Versailles, Danzig harbour of Baltic sea was placed under the control of the nations of the world. Polish corridor was arranged to reach that port. Hitler stressed that Danzig and Polish corridor should be handed over to Germany. Poland refused to do so. So on first September 1939, the German army entered into Poland.
II World War : Britain and France which failed to persuade Germany at Munich, now strongly supported the cause of Poland against Hitler. The British Prime Minister gave an ultimatum that Germany should evacuate Poland within 24 hours. Hitler did not pay heed to that on 3rd September. Britain declared war on Germany. France also plunged into the war. Thus he was responsible for the second world war.
Estimate : Hitler as a dictator adopted the policy of imperialism and aggression. He decided to expand his policy of imperialism in Europe. He was an example for the fact that power will corrupt an individual and absolute power will corrupt absolutely. He was clever and capable to utilise every situation in his favour. The aversion towards the Treaty of Versailles, the fear of the western countries over Russia, the Nevy of Mussolini over the western countries etc. were handled carefully by Hitler. He never hesitated to tell lies and to sign treaties. He felt that a repeatedly told lie will become true. Anyhow, due to his wrong approaches and unlawful activities he met with his fatal and without any fame and name.
MUNICH CONFERENCE (OR) THE POLICY OF APPEASEMENT When Hitler expressed his principle of widened Germany, expanded to all the areas where the Germans live, the small and minority states around Germany was threatened. Czechoslovakia located in the south of Germany was affected since that state contained majority of German population. Further Czechoslovakia was a state created by the League of nations. Hitler, who wanted to dislodge that was particular in destroying Czechoslovakia. He wanted to utilise the natural resources and industrial development. He believed that such things will strengthen Germany. Further Czechoslovakia was having alliances with Britain and France, which were the enemies of Germany. But he was aware of the fact that Russia can send her troops to Czechoslovakia only through Poland or Rumania and both of them will not allow the Russian army to march through their nations. He was quite sure that the security and defence measures of France have also been affected due to the remilitarisation of Rhine land. Above all, he was very clear that Britain which was not prepared for war is adopting the policy of appeasement with regard to Germany. So, Hitler was particular to stage the diplomatic drama of the suppression of Czechoslovakia.
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Problem of Sudettenland : In Sudettenland, a part of Czechoslovakia was having a German population of three and quarter million. They were enjoying all the rights of the minorities. In 1933, when the Nazis came to power in Germany at Sudettenland the Germans demanded more rights by a revolt under Konrod Henleen. They demanded the right of self determination and condemned their treatment as second rate citizens. Germany also adopted falso propagations. Hitler threatened that he cannot keep quiet by seeing the treatments of the people at Sudettenland. He sent the army to the southern border of Czechoslovakia.
Munich Conference (1938) : The fear of aggression and annexation of Czechoslovakia by Germany compelled Britain and France to avert this danger. Though Chamberlain, the British Prime Minsiter had talks with Hitler nothing came out. At this juncture, Roosevelt, the American President suggested that the issue of Sudettenland could be solved by talks. Mussolini of Italy too endorsed this move. So on 29, December 1938, the following leaders met at Munich.
Hitler - Germany (Durer) Mussolini - Italy (Deuce) Chamberlian - Prime Minister of England Dolladiar - Prime Minister of France
But Czechoslovakia, the party to the issue was not at all invited to Munich. Russia which guaranteed the peace to that country also was not invited. To appease Hitler it was agreed that the annexation of Sudettanland should be his last venture on that line. The following were the decisions of the Munich conference.
1. (a) Sudettenland should be entrusted to Germany. (b) Czechoslovakia should withdraw from the region before 10th October 1938. 2. The evacuation process will be prepared by a committee consisting of members from Britain, France, Germany, Italy and Czechoslovakia. 3. The German prisoners of Sudettenland should be released within four weeks by Czechoslovakia. 4. Britain and France should give assurance to the boundaries of Chechoslovakia. 5. After settling the racial issue of Poland and Hungary at Czechoslovakia. Italy and Germany also should offer such an assurance. Thus by pacifying Germany the big powers of Europe tried to avoid the future aggressions of Germany.
Demolition of Czechoslovakia : Czchoslovakia lost 11,000 Sq.miles of its territories. It also had to give up industrial areas and areas of natural resources. Poland and Hungary also were eager to partition Chechoslovakia. So, Poland and Hungary received Teshan and Ruthernia areas respectively. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 81
To destropy Chechoslovakia, Hitler announced Slovakia and Ruthenia as independent states. Then by threatening the President of Czechoslovakia, Hitler brought the remaining territories under Germany’s protection. Czechoslovakia disappeared from the map of Europe.
Results of Munich surrender: (1) (a) Without even a single round of war Hitler achieved his end of annexing Czechoslovakia. (b) Then he thought that he can subdue Poland by threats. Thus the Munich surrender encouraged Hitler to involve in further aggressions.
(2) Britain and France gave up all the things at Munich to avoid war. But they cannot avoid the war. Britain and France only after seeing the activities of Hitler came to the conclusion that Hitler cannot be changed. So, they decided to adopt an anti-Nazi policy.
(3) Russia was worried much because it was not invited to the Munich conference. It felt that the super powers are not recognising Russia. It estimated that the policy of appeasement adopted by Britain and France regarding Hitler will prove their adjustment. So it came to the conclusion that it will be better to adjust with Germany than to the lingering for the support of the western powers. So in 1936, Germany signed the Non-aggression Pact with Russia.
SPANISH CIVIL WAR (1936 – 1939) It was not a mere civil war but an international war. Foreign armies involved themselves in the war indirectly. Finally it was a tug of war between Communism and Fascism. In March 1939, the war came to an end. It was treated as a preliminary training for the Second World War.
The political condition of Spain (1921 – ’31) Spain was having monarchical form of Government. The ruler Alphonsha XIII was weak and inefficient. He could not solve the problem of the State. The Spanish army was defeated at Anuel in 1921 by the people called Ris of Moracco. So, in 1923 Rivera, the General captured the power. The king was a puppet in the hands of Rivera. Upto 1931 the military dictatorship went on in Spain.
Establishment of a Republic : Rivera dissolved the parliament. The rights of people were all forbidden. The people who opposed dictatorship rose in rebellion against it. In 1931 Rivera gave up his power. So, Ferrencur came to power. To pacify people he announced the Municipal elections. In the election Republicans became successful. King Alphonsa ran away to France. Thus Spain became a republic. Zemora became the President of the Republic.
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The Democratic Republic of the workers : 1. In the succeeding election Manual Assan a became the President of Spain. 2. The Democratic Republic of the workers was established. 3. It brought drastic reforms. 4. The rights of the Church in politics were avoided. 5. The lands of the Church were distributed among the landless. Church control over education was removed. 6. The conservatives did not like such reforms. Particularly the army generals opposed them. So many generals were given compulsory retirement and most of them were transferred to distant places. 7. As the middle class people were not powerful, democracy did not succeed in Spain.
The causes for the civil war: (1) Against the republicans, the general, the patrons of the church, land lords, the opponents of Communism became united. (2) In the ensuing election no party obtained the required majority. So a coalition ministry of the rightists was formed. (3) That ministry stopped all the previous reforms. (4) The chaos emerged were all suppressed. (5) So, Catalonia declared its independence. (6) The members of the parliament attacked each other. (7) This parliament was dissolved and in 1936 new election was conducted. (8) The communists supported leftists won many places. So the rightists involved in anti-government activities. (9) Political murders became common. (10) At Madrid a high level police official was murdered. (11) The murder of Colova, Sottelo was the last straw that broke the camel’s back.
Civil war (1936 – 1939) The army of Spanish Moracco rose against the Government. Gl.Franco took the lead. He had staunch faith over Fascism. He established the Fascist rule at Fargos and declared himself as the President of Spain. So the civil war broke out. Franco met with failure during the initial stages. But after March 1937 due to his victory he was able to bring majority of the territories under his control.
Intervention of foreigners: (a) Italy : (1) As Franco called himself a Fascist he was supported by Benitto Mussolini of Itally. (2) Since Mussolini was not interested in the emergence of a Communist country in the Mediterranean region he supported Spain. (3) To strengthen his position in the South and to avoid France he supported Spain.
(b) Germany: It also followed the policy of Italy with regard to Spain. It believed that the involvement of France in the South will be beneficial for her. He also felt that his support to Spain will enable him to have a hold over in the Atlantic areas. He supported the rule of Franco and sent a huge army and airforce to Spain.
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(c) Russia: Russia was the only country which supported the Republic of Spain. Only with the support of Russia the republicans won some initial victories.
(d) Britain and France: Both the countries were neutral. Both of them did not like the spread of Communism there along with the establishment of a fascist government. They never cared about the activities of Germany and Italy. Their neutrality was favourable only to Franco.
(e) League of Nations: When Spain brought this issue to the league, it passed a resolution that no nation would interfere with the activities of other nations. It also appointed a commission to see the non-intervention. But the commission which comprised of Britain, France, Germany and Italy could not control the intervention of others.
End of the war: After 1938 the Republicans met with failure. Franco was able to capture Barcelona. Gradually before 1939 March, Madrid, Lavenshia etc. fell. The republicans surrendered to Franco. Thus Franco became the virtual dictator. Criticism: (1) It paved the way for Italy to follow the policy of aggression. (2) Hitler was also encouraged by this. (3) Both Mussolini and Hitler were particular in annexing Albania and Czechoslovakia respectively. (4) Britain and France were not for a direct war. (5) Russia was able to understand that Western countries will never support her. (6) The League of Nations could not turnout anything tangible.
DISARMAMENT BEFORE II WORLD WAR Arms race was a major cause for the II world war. So the need the disarmament was felt for the maintenance of peace. Wooddrow Wilson also stressed it as a significant aspect in his 14-points. Arms race was important due to the following causes. (1) It encouraged war and created tension in the nearby religions. (2) It consumed majority of the income of the state. (3) It promoted the danger of war. (4) The war expenses arrested the use of sufficient fund for the rest of the welfare schemes. (5) The knowledge, time and energy were misused in prepano weapons than to use them for developmental activities. (6) Armed forces enabled the nations to devote an aggressions and security. (7) It assisted the promotion of narrow-minded nationalism at the cost of internationalism. (a) The Hague conference (1) For the first time in 1898 the The Hague disarmament conference was convened. 28 nations participated in it. It restricted the use of bombs through the air. (2) In 1907 the second disarmament conference met there. It avoided the use of poisonous gas. But they did not bring out anything effectively. (b) Versailles Treaty: The eighth section of the Versailles treaty point out that disarmament should be a measure to maintain world peace. Steps were taken to reduce the armed forces of the defeated nations such as Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey. The League took up the responsibility of dealing with the victors.
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(c) The League: The record schedule of the first Rule of the League of nations referred to disarmament. (1) It informed that the members should accept the decisions of the League regarding disarmament. (2) It recommended a permanent disarmament council to draw the plans for disarmament. This council consisted of members who were efficient military generals. (3) (a) The Temporary Mixed Commission had members who were not associated with army. (b) it produced write ups every year regarding disarmament. (c) It brought our four plans. i. The Territorial army should be arranged according to the need of the nation. ii. All the nations should follow the provisions of the Washington conference of 1922. iii. A Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance should be created to avoid war on the basis of collective security. iv. (a) Importance should be assigned to the Geneva Protocol of 1924. (b) The problems should be referred to the arbitrary commission. (c) Economic blockade will be followed against the aggressor. But such efforts did not materialise due to the opposition.
Preparatory commission (1925): When its attempts failed, League decided to convene a conference. In that conference, the following draft plans were placed for consideration. 1) The strength of the armed forces and the period of services of the officials should be reduced. 2) According to the financial conditions of the state armoury also should be reduced. 3) The navy should be reduced on the basis of the decisions of the Washington (1922) and London (1930) conferences. 4) On the basis of horse power, the strength of the airforce should be reduced. 5) The chemical and nuclear weapons should be totally abandoned. 6) A permanent standing committee on disarmament should be created.
Geneva Disarmament conference: (1932 – 34) (1) On the basis of the suggestions of the Preparatory Commission to discuss the issue, a conference was convened at Geneva during 1932. (2) 230 representatives of 57 nations participated in it under the presidentship of Arthur Henderson. (3) Even America and Russia, which were the non-members of the League too participated in it. (4) 35 resolutions were kept ready. (5) Most of them centred around the protection of their own national welfare. (6) (a) France insisted that security should be given importance before disarmament. (b) It also recommended a world army under the control of the League. (7) Germany compelled that there must be equality among all the nations with regard to disarmament. (8) Russia suggested complete and total disarmament. (9) Britain offered an idea that the weapons should be divided into two viz, the aggressive and security. (10) The Macdonald Plan was another measure. Accordingly the following suggestions were made. (a) Britain, France, Germany and Italy can have equal number of forces and Russia may be allowed to have a higher percentage. (b) As it was a period of great depression, Manchurian crisis and establishment of Nazi rule in Germany the Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 85
Macdonald commission offered the following advices. (i) No bombs should be used by air forces. (ii) Chemical and nuclear weapons should be avoided. (iii) The sale of weapons should be restrained. (iv) Every nation should submit a financial report regarding it army.
In 1933, Germany came out of the conference. Japan followed it. So in 1934, the conference was postponed and it was not convened after that.
Washington Conference (1921 – ’22) : This conference was convened to control naval expansion at the Pacific area and also to pacity China, Britain, France, America, Japan, China, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal etc. were the participants. They signed the Five Power naval agreement with regard to the reduction of naval forces. (a) According to that the countries like Britain, America, Japan, France and Italy will have their navy in the following ratio. 5 : 5 : 3 : 1.7 : 1.7 (b) It was accepted that no big powers should establish any naval base in the Pacific region. (c) Japan felt unhappy because it had no equality with America. So it insisted in the London conference of 1933 that the disparity should be removed. As it was not accepted by America and Britain, Japan staged a walkout and informed that the Washington conference provisions will not control her.
Causes for the failure: (1) All the nations attached importance only to national welfare. (2) France stressed that security first and then only disarmament. (3) Germany’s stress for equality alarmed the nations. (4) It was very difficult to distinguish the offensive and defensive weapons clearly. (5) The treatment of submarine as an offensive weapon by Britain was not accepted by the other nations. (6) The leaders failed to create a trend about disarmament among the people. This issue was not approached in a psychological way. (7) The League of nations could not curtail the activities of either Germany or Italy or Japan. Thus the failure of the League in achieving success in disarmament led to its end. Further it was a measure which could not avoid the Second World War. Germany, Italy and Japan became imperialistic and aggressive.
SECOND WORLD WAR – CAUSES – COURSE AND RESULTS Introduction: The Second World War emerged due to the policy of vengeance adopted by Germany, which was crippled in the I World war. The growth of the military strength of Germany led to the war. The arrangements of peace made after the I world war led to the Second World War. Within a short span of 20 years after the First World War, another big Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 86
war started in 1939 and it was terrible and catastrophic in many ways. Since it brought out significant changes in the nations of the world one should know the circumstances which led to the war and also the results of the war.
Causes : (A) Versailles Treaty : (1) While the treaty was drafted Germany was not given opportunity to express its view and it was not invited to the Paris peace conference. (2) By threat and force the victorious allied powered compelled Germany to sign that. (3)(a) By that treaty six million people lost their lives and properties. (b) Germany lost 25,000 Sq.miles of her territories. (c) 65% of steel mines, 45% of coal mines were to be handed over to the victors. (d) It lost 9 mill Sq.miles of colonial territories and 13 million people lived there. (e) The Saar valley was forfeited. (g) 2 million Germans were left as refugees in foreign countries. (h) Foreign armed forces occupied Rhine land. (i) Germany was made wholely responsible for the war. (j) Germany was accused and made as the convict of war. (k) Germany was forced to give a war indemnity of 660 crore dollars. (l) German territories were divided by the other powers in the following way :
Euphen, Malmedy and Monseratte to Belgium Absaace & Lorraine to France Northern Schleswig to Denmark Major portions of Silesia, Western Russia, to Poland Danzig Saar Valley was placed under the League for 15 years Memmel to Lithuvania
(m) The German rivers were all brought under international control. (n) France and Belgium occupied the Rhurvalley. Due to the above measures, Germany was put into lot of distresses. So, she was awaiting an opportunity to defy the Versailles treaty. (B) The weakness of the League of Nations : The League established to bring peace among nations and to establish the security of the nations was weak in executing its ideas. It had no power to make its members to accept its resolutions. Further it did not have all the nations of the world as its members. So it could not take any diplomatic measures against the wrongs done by the states. (C) Failure of collective security: Collective security was the only measure possible bringing the aggressors under control. Joint action will be possible by collective security. In 1931 when Japan annexed Manchuria this policy was not put into effect. In 1935 when Mussolini conquered Abyssinia by force the idea of collective security was adopted only in a half-hearted manner. So the peace was threatened. (D) Failure of disarmament efforts: As production of arms will led to war, League stressed the need for disarmament. The Geneva conference met in 1923 for dealing with
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the disarmament issue was an unsuccessful one. The League also had no provisions for arresting the arms race among Nations. (E) Policy of appeasement: While Germany and Italy failed to pay heed to the International rules and engaged in aggression, Britain and France could not take a stern and stubborn stand. They wanted to adjust with Hitler and Mussolini by their policy of appeasement. This widenered the aggressive attitude of Germany and Italy. For instance in 1936 when Hitler remilitarised the Rhine land the other powers kept mum. In the Munich Conference of 1938 also they adopted the policy of appeasement. So they were encouraged instead of bringing peace. (F) Faithlessness over Russia: Britain and France instead of opposing the aggressive attitudes of Germany and Italy with the support of Russia, they treated Communism, Nazism and Fascism without much disparity. If they oppose each other Britain and France felt that they can be safe and secure. So they did not come to an agreement with Russia. So the war was inevitable and was too harsh. (H) Hitler’s Contribution: Hitler was mainly responsible for the II World war. By his Nazi principles he highlighted the racial supremacy of the Germans. He wanted to have an expanded Germany. In addition to the above things the following activities also were responsible for the war. (1) His withdrawal from the Geneva disarmament conference and League of nations. (2) Militarisation. (3) Remilitarisation of Rhine and (4) Formation of Anti Comintern pact. (5) Annexation of Austria. (6) Aggressions over Suddettenland and Czechoslovakia. (7) His signing of the non-aggression pact with Russia. (8) Compulsion to handover Danzig. (9) In 1937 he formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis with Italy and Japan. All the above matters titled the balance of power in Europe. The aggressive attitudes of the axis powers led to the war. Course of the War: In 1939 Hitler invaded Poland. In the war finally Germany, Italy and Japan were defeated. Results of the war : (1) In this total war states, people and societies were all involved. So the total loss was also heavy. Agriculture fields, Public buildings, Industries etc. were all destroyed. (2) Nearly 2 ½ Crores of people lost their lives 3 ½ Crores of people were injured. (3) 1000 Million dollars of amount was wasted in the war. (4) The damages done to public and private properties were immeasurable. (5) Many Cities reached the position of graveyards. (6) The drooping of atom bomb over Hiroshima and Nagasaki shook the entire mankind. (7) The autocratic Fascism and Nazism disappeared totally. (8) In Italy republic was constituted and Germany was placed under the Allied powers. (9) The balance of power of Europe was completely changed. (10) America left out its policy of isolation and began to interfere in the European politics. (11) Russia emerged as a super power. (12) After the dismemberment of Fascism and Nazism the big powers under capitalism and communism became rival powers. (13) The rivalry and fear between Russia and America led to the old war. (14) European imperialism and colonialism came to an end. (15) Spirit of Nationalism Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 88
among various powers led to their freedom. (16) Above all to avoid future war and to achieve peace the United Nations Organisation was created.
DIPLOMATIC CONFERENCES DURING THE WARS The allied powers won victories due to the repeated Conferences among the leaders of various nations. They set aside all their differences temporarily and arrived at uniform decisions. The World leaders were known for the diplomatic skills. To know the diplomatic relations one should have the knowledge of various Conferences.
Atlantic Charter : (1941) On August 14, 1941 British Prime Minister Churchill and American President Roosevelt met in a ship called St.Augusta in the Atlantic Ocean. To bring political unity, democracy and world peace both the countries came nearer to each other. They revealed their decisions by the Atlantic character. They contained (a) opposition to aggression. (b) to establish any form of Government on the basis of self-determination. (c) Establishing a World Organisation for preservation of World Peace.
Though America did not indulge in war at the beginning it maintained neutrality. He condemned the Nazi atrocities. Though the principle of self determination was accepted, England did not give the right to India. Finally America also plunged into the war.
Cassablanca Conference (1943) In 1941 when Japan attacked Pearl Harbour America entered the war in support of allied powers. She was able to get many victories at North Africa. Russia also fought against Nazi Germany. So, Churchill and Roosevelt met again at Cassablanca to decide the future course of action in the war. They decided to continue the war till the unconditional surrender of Axis powers. The plans about west and southern fronts were also discussed.
Moscow Conference (1943) Though Russia and Germany had the non-aggression pact with each other. Germany invaded Russia on 22, June 1941. So, Churchill by treating the enemies of Hitler as his friends came to the support of Russia. The two enemy nations i.e. Britain and Russia signed an agreement on 12, July 1941. Both of them agreed to help each other. Till the end they should oppose Germany and should not come to any peace with Germany. So, during 1943 the foreign ministers of U.S.A., Britain and Russia met at Moscow and discussed the future plans. They also decided to have a World Organisation for the maintenance of World Peace.
Cairo Conference (1943) From November 22, 1943 to November 1926 Roosevelt, Churchill and Chian Kai Sheik of China met at Cairo, the capital of Egypt. To solve the problems in the Far East they met. They worked out the strategies to be adopted in the Far East against Japan. It was Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 89
decided that Japan should give back all the territories which she annexed after 1895. The war will continue till the unconditional surrender of Japan.
Tehran Conference (1943): After the Cairo Conference, Roosevelt, and Churchill went to Tehran, the capital of Iran and met Stalin there. This meet went from 28th November 1943 to 1st December 1943. The following decisions were taken there : 1. In the West America and Britain should commence a second front of attack. In that atleast 10 Lakhs of soldiars should be employed. 2. The two powers should decide the time and place of the commencement of the second front. 3. Even after the War, the understanding should continue among the three powers. 4. An Organisation should be established to maintain World Peace. 5. All the German submarines should be destroyed. All the German war industries should be abolished. 6. The Eastern border of Poland should be from the Curzon line to Oder river. 7. Konisberg in Eastern Prussia should be given to Russia.
Yalta Conference (1945): During February 1945, Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill met at Yalta. The allied forces were fastly moving from Normandy. Russia was gaining victories in the Eastern front. At the verge of the defeat of Germany the Yalta conference was convened. So the conference wanted to decide things which will take peace after the defeat of Germany. On that line the following decisions were taken: (1) It was decided that the attack on Germany should be continued till it surrenders unconditionally. (2) The Nazist principles in the minds of the Germans should be removed. (3) Germanic military processes should all be totally destroyed. (4) The Fascist and Nazi leaders should be duly enquired for their inhuman activities and should be duly enquired for their inhuman activities and should be punished. (5) The loss caused to the Europeans must be compensated. (6) In Germany a free and democratic government should be created. (7) The Russian and America Governments should take decisions regarding the Political, Social and Economic issues of the European countries. (8) It discussed about the establishment of United Nations Organisation. (9) It was decided that Russia should fight against Japan in the East.
Potsdam Conference (1945): In the Second World War, Germany was defeated. On 30th April 1945, Hitler committed suicide. So the victors met at Potsdom near Berlin. In this Conference Truman, the American President and Clement Attlee of England participated. Stalin was the only old leader who participated in it. From July 17 to August 2, they met and decided the issues. The following were the decisions taken : Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 90
(1) Germany was divided into four divisions. They were placed under Britain, France, America and Russia respectively. (2) The war indemnity was fixed. (3) The machinaries and warships of Germany were all divided among people. Germany was totally disarmed. (4) Germany’s imperialism and faith over Nazism were all removed. (5) Gradually democracy should be introduced in Germany. (6) Danzig and Eastern Prussia should be handed over to Poland. (7) Konisberg should be given to Russia. (8) Poland border was to be extended upto Oder Nice. (9) The Nazi leaders were to be enquired and convicted.
Thus by understanding and adjustment the big allied powers stood against the common enemies i.e. Axis powers. As soon as the war to an end the trouble started among allied powers. From Stedney of the Baltic to Triesty of the Adriatic sea there was an iron curtain. The cold war started.
U.N.O. – ORGANISATION & ACHIEVEMENTS Introduction: The leaders of the nations of the World were of the opinion that there must be a World Organisation to maintain World peace. The Atlantic Charter of 14, August 1941 informed about the UNO. The talks at Washington (1943), Moscow (1943) and Dumberton Oaks (1944) paved the way for such an Organisation. The charter was approved by 44 Nations at San Francisco in 1945. From October 4, 1945 the UNO stated to function.
Aims : (1) Establishing peace and security among World nations. (2) Developing friendly relations. (3) Through Co-operation social, economic, human and cultural unity should be created. (4) Respecting the human rights, fundamental rights of the nations.
Structure : It contains six organs and other specialised agencies. The General Assembly, Security Council, Social and Economic Council, Trusteeship Council, International Court of Justice and Secretariat are the six main Organisations.
General Assembly: (1) All the nations which have joined the UNO are members in it. (2) It will meet once in a year. (3) Emergency meetings can be convened. (4) It finds ways and means for maintenance of peace. (5) It approves the budget. (6) It selects some members for specialised agencies. (7) It allows new members. (8) If the security council cannot settle an issue by 2/3 majority the General Assembly can arrive at decisions. (9) Now there are 188 members in it.
Security Council: (1) It resumes peace by avoiding war and offers security. (2) It recommends ways and means to settle the issue among nations. (3) There are 15 members in it. Britain, France, America, Russia and China are permanent members. The rest of the 10
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are the elected by the Assembly once in two years. (4) The Permanent members have the veto power. So if any one of them raised an objection the resolution cannot be passed. (5) At times of need they can collect armed forces from member nations.
Social and Economic Council: It consists of 27 members. They are elected by the General Assembly for three years. By Co-operative efforts, it creates social and economic developments. It co-ordinates the functions of the specialised agencies.
Trusteeship Council: It is the development of the Mandate system of the League. It deals with the colonies which have not attained independence so far. International Court of Justice: It functions from the Hague with 15 justices. It settles the issues about the treaties and alliances.
Secretariat: It is located at the Munhatten islands near New York. It is the administrative authority of the U.N.O. It is headed by the General Secretary recommended by the Security Council and appointed by the General Assembly.
Specialised Agencies: Food and Agricultural Organisation, International Labour Organisation, United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation, World Health Organisation and International Monetary Fund are the significant specialised agencies. There are other specialised agencies. 1. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) (Vienna) 2. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) (Washington) 3. International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAD) (Montreal) 4. International Telecommunication Union (ITU) (Geneva) 5. World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) (Geneva) 6. International Maritime Organisation (IMO) London 7. World Trade Organisation (WTO) (Geneva) 8. United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) (Vienna) 9. International Finance Corporation (IFC) 10. Universal Postal Union (UPU)
The Achievements of the UNO: (A) Political: From the period of its inception to till date, it has prevented world wars by creating a good impression among its members. Either directly or indirectly it had settled many issues. By repeated persuasions it has solved many issues. Though the veto power has checked the activities peace is maintained by it. (1) Iranian Case: Iran was the first country to make a report in the security council of UNO. By the efforts of UNO, Russia evacuated her forces.
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(2) Freedom of Indonesia: It helped Indonesia to free herself from the Dutch imperialism by talks. (3) Greece problem: Greece reported that Yugoslavia, Bulgaria, Albania have intruded in her territories and caused problems. But Russia denied it and used its veto power. Anyhow UNO prevented the other countries from involving with the others. (4) The Apart held in South Africa: India reported that South Africa, by the apartheid policy, goes against human rights. Though South Africa pleaded that it is her local problem, UNO paved the way for condemning the activities of South Africa. Now it has been completely dropped. (5) Kashmir issue: Pakistan has annexed 1/3 of the territories of Kashmir. Only because of the efforts of UNO, Pakistan has not stressed her claims over Kashmir. (6) Palestinian Issue: In 1947, Britain brought this issue to UNO. So UNO passed a resolution that Palestine should be divided into Jewish, Arab and International divisions. Though the Jews accepted it Arabs denied it. After May 1948, the Jews had created a new state called Israel. So, it bought war between the Jews and Arabs. The UN representative engaged in peace talks was killed. After 1967, the Palestines tried to have their own land. It was achieved under Yasser Arafat. Anyhow their issued still continues due to the policies of Israel. (7) Korean Issue: Between 1950 – 51 when there was an issue between South Korea and North Korea, UNO sent its army and stopped the war. The aggression of North Korea was removed. (8) Hungary issue: (1956) When Imrey Nagi, the Prime Minister of Hungary wanted to have contact with Western Countries by lessening the influence of Communism, Russia did not like it. Though this issue was not settled by UNO, the World Nations were allowed to know the breach of human rights at Hungary. (9) Suez Issue (1956): In 1956, Col.Nasser of Egypt nationalised Suez Canal. Britain, France and Greace opposed it. By sending the U.N. Peace Forces this issue was settled. (10) Congo issue: In the Independent African State of Congo there was a strife between Lumumba and Shombey the big powers interfered. The U.N. Army was sent there and peace was restored. (11) Rhodesian issue: Lan Smith of Rhodesia in Africa established a minority white rule and no importance was assigned to the black people of that area. In 1981, because of UNO’s economic blockade majority rule was appointed. It is now known as Zimbave. (12) Cuban crisis: When Cuba came under the problem between USA and USSR due to the creation of rocket launching station there, a cold war tension emerged. Kurushchav and Kennedy were the participants in the issue with the assistance of U-Thant the Secretary General of UNO. Russia came forward to remove that base. (13) Cypus issue: The trouble between the people of the Turkush race and the Greeks at Cyprus was avoided by the United Nations. (14) Namibia’s liberation: In 1989 in the South West Africa, due to the efforts of UNO a new independent nation called Namibia emerged. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 93
(15) Iran – Iraq war (1988): Because of the efforts of the Secretary General of UNO the eight years old Iran-Iraq war was brought to an end in 1988. (16) Kuwait aggression (1990 – ’91): Iraq annexed Kuwait arbitrarily and UNO imposed economic blockade. It did not succeed. So, at the command of UNO armies of 27 States were sent and Iraq was forced to recognise the independence of Kuwait.
Thus in the political field UNO has turned out a lot and avoided the possibility of world war.
(B) Achievements of Specialised agencies: In the Social, Economic, Technical, Medical fields etc. UNO has done an appreciable service to humanity. It renders technical assistance, offers monitary help, gives advices, imports technical education, maintains general sanitation, preservation human rights etc. It attempted to create international brotherhood and peace ful co-existence among member nations. The FAO of U.N.O. in 1960 declared the efforts to relief from hunger. In 1961 World Food Plan was executed. 1993-’94 when there was a famine in Somalia, UNO came to its rescue. International Labour Organisation has turned out a lot. WHO had assisted the total eradication of Malaria, Plague, Small pox etc. It concentrates on the preservation of the welfare of the children. It has settled the issue of the refugees. For the protection of the minority rights, uplift of women and maintenance of self-determination it has taken a lot of steps.
For the benefit of mankind it devotes on various aspects. In 1992 at Rio-de-Genero the conference for looking into the ways for avoiding environmental pollution was convened. In 1994 at Vienna the Human Rights conference was convened. In 1994 at Cairo the World population Conference met. It has created an awakening in the minds of the people of the World by celebrating every year as a dedication to the particular aspect. It celebrated the following years :
1967 - International year of Tourism 1968 - Human Rights Year 1970 - Year of Education 1972 - Books Year 1973 - Copernicus Year 1974 - Population Year 1975 - Women’s Year 1978 - Apartheld Year 1981 - Children’s Year 1982 - Economic Blockade Year 1983 - Information Year Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 94
1985 - Youth Year 1986 - Year of Peace 1988 - Aids Year 1990 - Year of Wisdom 1992 - Space Year 1993 - Sons of the soil Year 1994 - Family Year 1995 - Year of toleration 1996 - Abolishion of Poverty
Estimate : It has solved many problems. It has avoided the complication of various issues. Arrangement for talks, appointment of commissions, judicial measures are some of the measures employed by it. By its diplomatic ways it has brought peace and security to mankind.
The activities of the nations, importance assigned nation’s sovereignty, the adamant nature of the big powers, etc. are hurdles for the successful functioning of the Organisation.
U.N.O. AND DISARMAMENT On 24, October 1943, U.N.O. came into existence. It aimed at World Peace by various ways and means. Arms race was the major cause for various issues. So disarmament was given importance by the U.N.O. The 11th Schedule of its character has given the right to the General Assembly to deal with the control of arms. By creating a Committee generals advices regarding disarmament are obtained from them.
Atomic Energy Commission: In 1946, the General Assembly established the Commission. It consisted of 12 members. It rendered advice regarding disarmament and control of Atom bombs. The Russian member announced that the entire Atom bombs should be destroyed within three months.
Traditional arms reduction: A separate commission was established to avoid weapons other than Atom bombs. Russia insisted that the Nations should reduce 1/3 of their total weapons. America compelled that tension should be reduced before abolishion of weapons. But nothing tangible emerged.
Baruch Plan: This American representative informed that all the mines which are useful for the production of arms should be brought under the control of U.N.O. But it did not succeed. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 95
Disarmament Commission In 1950, the American President Truman announced that the previous disarmament commissions should be united into the Disarmament Commission. It was accepted.
Atom for peace: In 1953 Eisen Hover, the American President announced this idea. He pointed out that the atomic energy should be handed over to the Atomatic Energy Commission for utilising them for peace. But Russia did not accept it.
Arms race: Upto 1949 America was having the monopoly of producing arms. In that year, Russia tested its first atom bomb. In 1952 U.S.A. discovered the Hydrogen Bomb. Britain (1957), France (1960), China (1964) became nations using atomic energy.
Disarmament Inner Council: In 1953, this Committee was established with Canada, Russia, France, America and Britain as its members. It aimed at disarmament. But it did not achieve anything. So, steps were taken outside the U.N.O. for disarmament in the following way :
Geneva Summit Conference (1955): In 1955 the leaders of America, Britain, Russia and France met at Geneva and discussed about disarmament. It recommended another talk.
10 – member commission (1960): In 1960, U.N.O. established this with Britain, France, America, Russia, Canada, Italy, Poland, Bulgaria, Rumania and Czechoslovakia as its members. It analysed the different possibilities of disaramament. But nothing came out because of mutual fear and suspicion.
18 – member Commission (1962): Due to recommendations given by Khrushchav, the Premier of Russia eight more members were included in the 10 – member commission. India, Brazil, Burma, Ethiopia, Mexico, Nigeria, Egypt and Sudan were the other members. It insisted a reduction of 39% in the rockets used for launching atom bombs. There must be reduction in the traditional arms. Production of neuclear weapons should be banned. But, Russia stressed that disarmament must be carried out in three stages within four years.
Test Ban Treaty (1963) In 1963 the super powers agreed that they will not test nuclear weapons in the space and beneath the seas. But France was not a member in it. It was signed by more than 100 nations. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 96
Johnson’s 7 – point programme: (1966) The American President Johnson in 1966 announced this. This was mainly to deal with atomic energy. It insisted on the international control over atomic energy and the utilisation of it for peace. But it did not arrive at any conclusion.
Non-proliferation Treaty (1968): This treaty was signed on the basis of the recommendations of the 18 member commission. It wanted to curb the other nations which involved in the use of atomic energy. It requested the nations not to give instruction about atomic energy to other nations. 14 nations signed this agreement.
Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (1972) Both Russia and America as rivals produced Inter-continental Ballestic Missiles, Neutron bombs etc. So, in 1972 they came to an agreement that for next five years they will not produce such destructive weapons. It was allowed to verify that by satelites. In 1982 Russia signed this.
The Disarmament Special Conference: U.N.O. convened such Conferences in 1978 and 1982 in vain. So in 1985, the third Conference was arranged. Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi and leaders of 15 other countries addressed the Conference. But nothing came out successful.
Abolishion of Medium type Rockets: In 1988 only a specific improvement on disarmament emerged. President Regan announced the star wars. By that he informed that America is going to discover weapons to arrest the rockets in the space itself. It was known as Strategic Defence Initiative (STI). It was expected that there will be serious consequence. Anyhow the nations realised the horror. So they concentrated on disarmament. Regan and Gorbhachav had the following meetings:
Geneva - 1986 Reikhjavik - 1987 Moscow - 1988 Washington - 1989
Because of this STI was stopped. Both the countries agreed to avoid the rockets launched from 500 KMs to 5000 KMs. In addition to the above the following disarmament arrangements have also been made.
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1. Abolishion of Chemical Weapons: The Strategic Arms Restriction Treaty (START) was signed on 1991, July 31 by Gorbhachav and George Bush. They agreed to reduce 30% of these weapons. A joint commission was to be constituted to verify.
2. Comprehensive Test – ban Treaty (1996): During June 1996, 44 nations met at Geneva and signed it. But, India refused to sign it because it not lead to total abolishion of Test ban. India offered the following objections :
(1) It is a partial one. (2) It allows super powers to have atomic weapons. (3) There are disparities between the nations having such weapons. (4) It did not contain any schedule regarding the abolishion. (5) It did not arrest the computer stimulation. (6) It is an affair pertaining to the security of India. So there is no chance for negotiation.
Estimate: U.N.O. has expressed the importance of disarmament to the World. Paved the way for peace talks. Offered opportunities for the nations to express their views. It has avoided the fear of another World war. COLD WAR Introduction: After the II World war thee was rivalry between America and Russia due to enemity, envy, fear, suspicion etc. The tension caused created a situation of war and terror. Such a tension was called cold war. In this situation, Britain, France, Italy, Belgium and Holland stood in favour of America. Poland, Czechoslovakia, Albania supported Russia. There was an iron curtain between those two groups of nations.
Causes: (1) No common enemy: During II World war America and Russia stood in one group first to suppress the despotic Nazism and Fascism. To avoid aggression they came nearer to each other. But when the common enemy, Germany was completely defeated the rivalry and opposition started between them. (2) Policy differences: They were in two poles. Russia was a Communist country and America was a capitalist nation. When they decided to impose their own ideologies over the others tension began to mount. While Russia wanted to make Communism as a world idea America opposed it. (3) New balance of power: After the II World war, Britain and France were pushed back to secondary positions. America and Russia came to the fore front. Since Russia was the only European power with strength, the balance was titled. So to set right that America interfered in the European affairs. (4) East Europe and Communism: Russia’s red army relieved Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Hungary, Rumania, Bulgaria, Albania, etc., from the Nazi domination. The above Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 98
countries were all made as communist countries. The other European powers were afraid of such changes. So the tension mounted. (5) Imperialistic rivalry: The big powers attempted to have their political and economic superiority. So they opposed any power which did not accept their views. To curtail the rise of the enemies to equal power they were cautious and felt the need for the weapons and supporters. Thus the competition between Russia and America led to cold war. Nature of cold war: (1) It was not a direct or open war. (2) It was an indirect war. (3) There will be movement of army, arms development, harsh accusations and ultimatums but there will be no war. (4) It can be called as an ideological warfare. (5) But there will be the tension that at any time a war will break out. (6) The treat of total annihilation of mankind will break out. (7) There will be constant and mutual suspicion, rivalry, enemity among super powers. (8) Instead of weapons, diplomacies and strategies will be employed among the rivals. (9) To gain the support of others they will render all economic assistances to the other nations. (10) The minor states will be involved and on their behalf the big powers will test their strength and capacities. (11) There will be always the fear that a war may break at anytime. Thus it was an open ideological rivalry.
The course: Truman Doctrine (1947 May): When Greece wanted the help from Britain it could not help. So countries like Greece, Turkey, Persia requested USA to assist them. The American President Harry S.Truman in 1947 May announced this doctrine. According to that he informed that all the countries which suffer due to communist menance will be supported by democractic America. The Congress offered 400 million dollars to introduce Truman doctrine. By that Greece obtained 30 Crore dollars for its development. Turkey and Persia also obtained helps from U.S.A. This induced Russia. Marshall Plan (1948 June) America announced this plan in the name of European Recovery Programme. This was announced to relieve countries from hunger, poverty, chaos etc. It was also against Russia’s developing process of communism. This was also a measure adopted by America to establish her hold in Europe. Moltov plan: Russia by announcing this economic help wanted to spread communism. It was against the principles of Truman doctrine and Marshall plan.
German Issue: After the II World war in the Potsdom Conference held on May 1945, Germany was divided into four parts and placed under Britain, France, America and Russia. It was agreed that after the eviction of Nazism totally elections should be conducted. But it was impossible. So the Western countries brought the three areas under their control into one as Federal Republic of Germany and Bonn became its capital. So Russia called the area
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under its control as German Democractic Republic. They refused to accept a common currency. On 24, June 1948 Russia refused the unification of Germany.
Berlin issue: Berlin was in the East Germany under Russia. But the Western part of the City was controlled by Western powers. So, Russia by cutting the land and water routes caused economic blockade. West Berlin suffered a lot. This was removed by air way by America. The Communist controlled East German people were not happy. A wall was constructed between the Eastern and Western parts of Germany. In May 1949 when Russia removed the barriers the cold war tension was reduced.
Treaties, Organisations etc: During the period of cold war, many military pacts were signed. They too added to the cold was situations. (1) Brussels Agreement: On 17, March 1948 it was signed between Britain, France, Belgium, Netherland etc. It was a pact due to the fear of Russian domination. This paved the way for the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation or NATO. (2) NATO : It was formed on 4, April 1949 by the treaty signed at Washington. 12 nations participated in it. It was formed by America against Russia. In this the States such as Britain, France, Belgium, Luxemberg, Holland and Countries like America, Canada, Portugal, Denmark, Norway, Iceland and Italy were members. As majority of the States were located on the North Atlantic area it was known as North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. It informed that if any one of these nations was attacked by other nations, the others should come to its rescue. Its head quarters was at Paris. But when France left NATO in 1969, the Head Quarters was shifted to Brussels. (3) Warsaw Pact (1955): It emerged as an alliance against NATO. Russia, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Rumania were members in it. The Russian army was placed in those areas. This was a security measure against Western powers. (4) South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO): It was a measure adopted by America to avoid the spread of Communism in South East Asia. On 8th September 1954, the Countries like America, Britain, France, Australia, Newzeland, Pakistan, Thailand, etc. met at Manila and formed this. All the members had equal rights. (5) Bagdad Pact (1955): This was also known as Central Treaty Organisation. This was created to avoid the spread of Communism. Iran, Iraq, America were members in it. (6) Anzus Pact : In this America, Australia and Newzeland were members. (7) The cold war in other parts: (a) The Civil war in China (1947 – ’49) caused the removal of Chiangkai Sheik and installation of Communism. This rivalry between Chiang and Mao Tse Tung enabled Russia and America to be in war tension with each other. (b) From 1950 and 1953 there were problems in Korea. North Korea supported by Russia invaded South Korea. The Americans supported South Korea. This was another tension and the war was stopped by the defeat of North Korea. (c) The Vietnam war which ended in 1975 was Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 100
also a cause for the cold war. (d) The countries like Hungary and Czechoslovakia wanted to come out of Communist clutch. Russia used her army. This was condemned by America. (e) The Suez issue 1952, the Cuban crises of 1962 could all be mentioned as examples for cold war tensions. (f) In 1962, the U-2 Plane incident was the culminating point of the cold war. When Russia shotdown the American Aircraft U-2, on the consideration of a spy, the war was unavoidable. But no war took place.
The reduced tension: After the Cuban crisis the cold war tension was reduced due to various reasons. (1) The big powers realised that a third world war will be a total distruction of mankind. (2) The Hotline facilities arranged between Moscow and Washington reduced the tension. (3) There arose misunderstanding between Russia and China. (4) France came out of NATO. (5) USA and USSR began to concentrate on space research. This devotion to science avoided the cold war tension. (6) The meeting between the leaders reduced the tension. For instance Nixon went to Moscow in 1971. Breshnev visited America in 1973. (7) The development of non-alignment movement reduced the tension.
End of cold war: Gorbachav when became the President of Russia new changes occurred. He met Reagan and signed the Disarmament treaty in 1983. By his Prestroika and Glosnast he decided to reform Russia. He called back the Russian army from Afghanistan. The East European Countries gave up communism one after the other. The iron curtain was torn into pieces. In 1991 he signed the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty with George Bush. Thus these aspects reduced cold war.
FOREIGN POLICY OF USA AFTER 1945 Introduction: The Second World war created drastic changes in the foreign policy of USA. America had to give up her policy of isolation. USA became a member of the UNO and took active part in it.
Aims of foreign policy: To contain Communism was the main aim and it acted as a police force against Communism.
Interference in European politics (1) II World War affected the balance of power. (2) Germany was divided into four divisions. (3) Russia alone emerged as big power. So, America by entering the European politics tried to arrest the spread of Communism.
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Cold war: After the II World War, the World level rivalry between U.S.A. and U.S.S.R. was called cold war. There was Communist and capitalist countries. The East European Communist Countries were behind the Iron curtain of Russia. It had no contact with the West European Countries. There emerged rivalry, enemity, envy among both the camps. There was a tension about the third world war emerging. But the ideological differences did not turn into a war.
Marshall plan: Due to the war, the economy of the Countries like France, Italy and West European Countries were affected. Their people suffered a lot. There was a fear about the spread of Communism. So to avoid the spread of Communism and to improve their economic standard, the American Foreign Secretary started the economic plan called Marshall plan. It granted gains to America.
Truman Doctrine: In countries like Greece and Turkey, when there was foreign incursions and the danger of Communism to assist those Countries against such things, President Truman brought out a plan called Truman Doctrine. That averted those countries becoming Communists.
NATO: It is another military plan brought out by USA to check the North Atlantic regions from the aggressions of Russia. It was signed among the North Atlantic nations.
German issue: Germany which was divided into four Zones could not be united because of cold war. The Zones under Britain, France and America were united as German Federal Republic. The East Germany under Russia was made as German Democratic Republic. Thus Germany was divided and it had its problems.
Berlin issue: West Berlin was under U.S.A. In 1948 Russia wanted to drive away USA from there and cut off the water and sea transports. Thus West Berlin was blockaded. USA by her air crafts lifted the siege. In 1959 and 1961 such activities took place.
U-2 incident : This American air craft was sent into Russia for spying. It was shot down by Russia and the act of America was condemned. So Russia did not take part in the summit talks held at Paris in 1960.
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Arms race: USA surpassed Russia in producing modern and terrorising weapons. It created many rocket launching centres at different places.
America and Vietnam: America rendered support to South Vietnam against Communist North Vietnam. At the initial stage it gave only the men and material. But soon it sent its own army. But it could not succeed in checking Communism. America’s North Vietnam policy became a failure. In 1973 America got back all her armed forces. Russia captured North Vietnam.
America and Middle East: To enhance the states of USA in the Middle East where there was the oil wealth, Eishenhover found out a plan. For their economic and military development he rendered financial assistance. He established a military pact called CENTO. Turkey, Iran, Iraq, the Middle Eastern Countries and Pakistan became members in it. USA & Latin America: It decided to adopt the policy of Roosevelt. It was interfering with the internal problems of those countries such as Equator, Elsalvador, Quatemala, Dominican republic etc. ‘Unity for peace’ was adopted by Kennedy. 100 million dollar was supplied for the spread of those nations. In Chille, USA wanted to topple the Communist Government under Allendey. In 1982, when Britain captured Falk islands America did not support the Latin American Countries and supported Russia indirectly. Cuban Crisis: America wanted to topple the Government of Fiedel Castro. It wanted to help the people of Cuba who came as refugees to USA. This ‘big gulf incident’ was a failure. Cuba sought the support of Russia. It permitted Russia to have a Rocket Launching station there. The Russian ships were coming to Cuba. So there was a possibility of a direct confrontation. But the stern measures of USA compelled Russia to withdraw her actions. Cuban crisis came to an end.
USA and Africa: USA did not devote much attention towards Africa. In 1960 when there was a problem at Congo, America supported the views of UNO. It hesitated to take any action against the racial discrimination.
USA and India: USA rendered economic help to independent India. Technological assistance were also rendered. When there was a famine America supplied food stuffs and materials. The Indian neutrality during cold war was not at all accepted by USA. India also refused to sign the military pact called SEATO. It treated the India’s non-alignment policy as a bargain by India. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 103
USA supported Pakistan by offering a lot of weapons. If affected India largely. The US and the Pakistan military activities are problems to India. Only because of the military alliance between Pakistan and USA, America is supporting Pakistan in the Kashmir issue. India’s annexation of its Indian territory Goa was opposed by America because Portugal was its ally. If refused to supply uranium to Tarapur plant. In 1962 when China attacked India, as requested by Nehru, USA rendered all the helps. But in 1971 it supported the cause of Pakistan. India opposed USA’s plan to establish an America military station at Deco Corcia. India’s aim to treat Indian Ocean as a Zone of peace was not approved by USA. Any how the relationship between India and USA has never been disturbed alarmingly.
USA and China: From the day of the emergence of the Communist China there prevails a strained relationship between those two countries. (1) America at first refused to recognise Communist China. It rendered it support only to Chiang Kai Sheik’s Nationalist China functioning from Taiwan. (2) America checked the entry of the Communist China in the Security Council. (3) It protected the Taiwan Government. (4) In the Korean War when Communist China supported North Korea, USA condemned it. (5) Against China, it signed the SEATO Pact. (6) China did not like the anti-communist activities of USA. (7) In the Vietnam War, Indo-Chinese war, issues of Tibet etc. America stood against China.
In almost all the issues China and USA stood as opponents. They accused one another. But all on a sudden things began to change. When there was a breach between Communist China and Russia. USA came closer to China. Diplomatically USA wanted to have China under her control.
In 1979, the American Ping Pang team went to China. Mao Tse Tung gave an interview with a smile. Then American Journalists visited China. Nixon removed certain trade restrictions with China. Then USA did not oppose the entry of Communist China in the Security Council. Kissinger went to China because of the arrangements made by Pakistan. Because of that Nixon visited China in 1971. Trade contacts developed among them. In 1975, President Ford visited China. From 1979 onwards Ambassadorial relations were created. Because of the cordial relation between USA and China, the cold war tension in the Far East has been reduced.
U.S.A. and Russia : When Gorbachav assumed power there was a turning point. For disarmament stern measures were taken up by all the countries. The Washington agreement between Regan and Gorbachav signed in 1988 is a significant one. This has reduced the cold war tension.
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II AMERICAN POLICY OF ISOLATION While the Second World War was going on, in America the policy of isolation was at its peak. The experience of the First World War led to such a decision. On that basis in 1937, they passed the following laws : 1) No weapons should be sold or lent to the nations which are engaged in war. They believed that only the weapon merchants dragged America into the I World War. 2) The Americans were not allowed to travel in the Ships of the Countries engaged in War. The American Ships were forbidden to move in the areas of War. 3) Except weapons, the other nations were allowed to purchase things on the basis of Cash and Carry System.
The test of neutrality: Though many laws were passed on the basis of neutrality, it was difficult for America to follow the policy of isolation effectively. The Americans heartily hated the Nazi principle of Hitler. They could not tolerate the success of the anti-democratic principles. The countries like Norway, Denmark, Belgium and Holland fell into the hands of Hitler quickly due to his principle of blitzkirk. The German aircrafts were damaged. The newly elected Prime Minister Churchill by his calibre and speeches encouraged the people. This enabled the Americans to deviate from their neutral isolation policy.
The Presidential election of 1940: Roosevelt contested the Presidential election for the Third time as a democratic candidate. Though he was in favour of War and wanted to help the allied powers he stood for neutrality. The opponent candidate Wental Wilkie, the Republican candidate said that if Roosevelt is elected for the Third time before next April, America will be in the War front. But, Roosevelt denied that by saying that no American youth will be sent to Foreign countries for the War. So, he became the President. He felt that it is the victory given to him by the people for his principles of war.
Neutrality in favour of allied Nations: In 1939 November, the American Parliament (Congress) reduced the strictness of neutrality. Because of that the Cash and Carry System was extended even to the sale of weapons. Britain and France purchased American weapons on payment of Cash. (2) America strengthened her security forces. A Sum of One Crore Dollar was appropriated for War. Compulsory Military training was stressed. (3) At Havana, Pan American Conference was convened. It decided that when a Foreign Country attacks another that aggression should be viewed seriously. (4) Lend and lease Act also was passed. By that it was decided to offer weapons to allied powers on lease. (5) The British ships which carried various commodities were protected by the American ships and air crafts. (6) In 1941 when the
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German submarines destroyed three American Ships, it was declared to destroy the German Submarines on the spot. The Cargo Ships were also protected by Arms.
Atlantic Charter: The above facts revealed the dependent policy of USA towards allied powers. Gradually the policy of neutrality was disappearing. So the Atlantic Charter was issued by Churchill and Roosevelt. It contained eight provisions regarding War Policies. They revealed that both USA and UK had no willingness for aggression and they would assist people to form Governments of their own liking.
Japan’s War in the Far East: The Japanese aggressions in the Far East enabled the Americans to plunge into War. Japan which annexed Manchuria in 1937 by its War Policies annexed North China and its Coastal Areas. America insisted on the “Open door Policy” and condemned the activities of Japan as pure aggression. In 1940 Japan, Germany and Italy formed the Rome – Berlin – Tokyo Axis. Further Japan was particular in executing its “New order” plan in Asia. On the basis of Asian Co-prosperity sphere it wanted to establish an Empire comprising of China, Indo-China and Indonesia. Since the Dutch Government had handed over its security in the Far East to America, it felt that it is the genuine duty of America to protect them. So, America took measures against the activities of Japan. It imposed restrictions on the export of Iron, Oil etc. to Japan. Further it ordered that the Japanese properties in America will be controlled by America. So Japan was more furious and came to the conclusion that all the enemies in the Pacific Ocean should be destroyed. It wanted to have peace talks with America to hide her aggressions. It requested America to accept her mainland scheme. On 7, December 1941 she attacked Pearl Harbour belonging to America and also the American Naval Points at Philippines. All these things compelled America to enter the War by setting aside her policy of neutrality and isolation.
1. RUSSIA AND CHINA The Peoples Republic of China was announced by Mao Tse Tung on 1 October 1949. He was able to defeat Chiang Kai Shaik after four years of War. The Kuomintang Government was pushed to Taiwan. For this success the Military assistance rendered by USSR was the major reason. It was also a victory for the Foreign Policy of Russia. It was also a success for Russia in the diplomatic cold war.
The period of honey moon: At the initial period USSR and China were having cordial relations with each other. This relationship emerged mainly as an outcome of the adoption of Communism. In 1949, Mao in his principles of International relations expressed his dependency towards Russian Communism. The new Russian constitution also referred to the friendship between Russia and China. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 106
The Communist China was recognised by Russia. Then Russia insisted for it a place in the UNO. During the cold war, there was ideological differences between Russia and USA with regard to China. It was aware of the fact that the security council should have China (Communist) as its member.
In 1950, Russia signed a mutual Co-operation Agreement. For the development of Industry, Russia granted Technical Assistance. Moscow – Peking Axis was moving freely.
The difference: The above referred honeymoon period came to an end quickly. In their National Policies, they stood against each other. When China looked after the Policies of Russia it realised that there are differences among them.
Secondly in 1956, in the tenth Communist Party Conference, Khrushchev declared that the Hero Worship started by Stalin is against Communist Principles. China refused to accept that. Mao Tse Tung felt that it was against his own leadership.
Thirdly he felt that Moscow has lost its significance as the capital of Communism. He also accused that Moscow has failed to guide the party. Mao felt that the head city of Communism was Peking and he was the leader.
Fourthly there were differences of opinion in the International Diplomacy. After 1956, Russia began to turn its attention towards non-alignment. Russia also gave up the fact that there will be confrontation between capitalism and communism. Russia expected that there will be no Third World War. But China had views contradictory to the ideas of Russia.
Fifthly in 1955, Khrushchav and Bulganin visited India. They were given warm welcome. It was felt by China as an Anti Chinese measure.
Sixthly in 1958 when Communist China attacked the Kaumoy, Matsu islands belonging to the Nationalist China, Russia did not support it. Such aspects made Cummunist China to feel that Russia is not supporting her.
Seventhly Krushchav visited China in 1960 and demanded two things. (1) The right to establish a Radio communication tower to contact the Russian Ship which sail in the Pacific Ocean. (2) The right for the Russian Ships to get fuel and to rectify the defects at the Chinese Ports. But both these things were not accepted by China.
Eighthly in 1961 when Albania opposed Russia, China approved Albania. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 107
Ninthly in 1962 during the War between China and India, Russia maintained neutrality. But this act was criticised by China.
Tenthly Russia’s attitude towards China also changed. Russia withdrew her technicians from China and refused to exchange the knowledge of atomic secrets. It failed to hand over the model atom bomb to China. Thus this was a reason for the difference among those two nations.
Finally Russia criticised the cultural revolution which was taking place in China. The red guards besieged Russian embassy. They were criticised as revisionists. Khurshchav was criticised as a buffoon signing the songs from Bible. Khurshchav criticised Mao as old rubber shoe. Mao’s enemies were also appreciated by Russia.
Border dispute: In between China and Russia there is a boundary of 4150 miles length. In 1963 Mao Tse Tung mentioned that it was a boundary created by dishonest treaties. So they should be changed by talks. In the Usuri region both of them attacked each other. But after 1966 when Kosygin met Chou En Lai the position began to change. During the tenure of Office of Gorbachav opportunity for peace became brightened.
Results: This schism created two divisions in the Communism. It weakened Communism. Because of the breach between Russia and China, the relationship between China and America became thickened. Communist China gained a place in the security council of UNO.
II. RUSSIA’S FOREIGN POLICY AFTER II WORLD WAR During the II World War, Russia in alliance with the allied powers opposed the Axis powers. But on principle they did not have any relations with Russia. After the defeat of the Axis powers there occurred schims among the allied powers. There were competitions and rivalries. The cold war tension emerged. Russia’s sole aim was to make Communism as World Idea. Kominform was established for that.
East Europe and Communism: Even from the period of Catherine the great, Russia treated European Countries as her own Zone of attraction. The conditions which emerged after the II World War enabled Stalin to achieve the end. In the East European Countries like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Bulgaria, Rumania, Albania, Communism was established. They were kept behind an iron curtain. When attempts were made to bring Turkey and Greece under Communism, it was prevented by the Truman doctrine.
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Warsaw Pact: To counteract the American plans of Military assistance such as NATO, Russia introduced her own Warsaw Pact in 1955. It was mainly to keep the East European Countries under its control.
Comicon: America introduced the Marshall plan for the economic reconstructions of West European Countries. So Russia in 1949 introduced this mutual economic assistance community. By that along with the East European Countries Mongolia, Cuba and Vietnam were also benefitted.
Germany: Russia felt that if the four German divisions, if united into one, that will affect her. By diplomatic procedures she was able to prevent such an union. So the three areas controlled by America, Britain and France formed the German Federal Republic. Russia created the German Democratic Republic. Berlin which was divided into two Wars felt as a problem for Russia. So, she cancelled all the relations with West Berlin. But, America retarded that by airways. In 1958, Russia gave an ultimatum of Six months to America to vacate West Berlin and that did not happen. But majority of the people of East Germany illegally ran to West Berlin. To avoid this a Wall was constructed. That too did not affect America.
Hungary issue (1956): Imraynagi, the Prime Minister of Hungary by avoiding the harshness of the Communist ideas wanted to be free from American support. The Russian army kept at Budapest, the capital of Hungary suppressed such activities.
Suez Issue: (1956) When Col.Nasser nationalised Suez Canal, Britain and France opposed them. But, Russia by giving a severe warning obstructed their plans.
U-2 incident: During May 1960, a Meeting of big powers was arranged at Paris to reduce the cold war tension. But some days before that the U-2 Plane which entered into Russia for spying was shot down by Russia. Russia stressed that America should apologise for that in the Paris Conference. But that Conference did not take place.
Cuban Crisis: Cuban crisis was the highest watermark of the coldwar. For creating a rocket launching station, Russia had signed a secret alliance with Cuba. But USA felt that it will be against its security. So it besieged Cuba. Nine Russian ships were carrying rocket parts of Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 109
Cuba. When Russia heard of America’s attitude, Khurchshav withdrew the Ships. This avoided the confrontations between Russia and America.
The reduced tension of cold war: After the Cuban issue, both Russia and America came forward to sign a nuclear test ban treaty. Hot line arrangements were made between Moscow and Washington. The Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT) was signed for five years. In 1975, the Conference at Helzing was convened and that reduced the cold war tension.
Russia and China: Russia helped a lot to the establishment of the Communist rule in China in 1949 under Mao Tse Tung. In 1950 a treaty of mutual assistance was signed between them. Russia stressed for a place for the Communist China in the UNO. But there arose problems. But the border dispute was settled by talks between the leaders of those two powers.
Russia and India: The adoption of neutrality and non-alignment by India attracted USSR. Both have cordial relations between them. Russia helped in many ways such as economic and technical assistances. In 1971 a Peace treaty was signed by them. Then they had uniform opinions in the International activities.
Russia and Middle Eastern crisis: Russia followed a compromising policy with regard to Middle East. During Arab- Israel conflict, Russia supported Arab Countries. It offered Military support to Countries like Syria, Iraq, Egypt etc. It was for getting a homeland for Palestenians.
Gorbachav era: In 1985 he became the Prime Minister of Russia. From that time onwards Russia was able to adjust with the International Politics. By introducing a Scheme called Prestroika, he introduced reforms in the local and foreign affairs of Russia. He allowed the East European Countries to function independently. He did not interfere with the changes made by them in the form of Government. The iron curtain was removed. The Berlin wall was removed. He welcomed the Union of two Germanies. He revived cordial relations with U.S.A. At places like Geneva, Reik Javik and Washington, he met Reagan and worked for disarmament. Both of them agreed to give up the production of rockets. The Warsaw pact was brought to an end. During Iraq war he supported the view of the UNO. Thus his ear was a period of change at the International level.
III. FALL OF SOVIET UNION Russia miserably failed in the I World War. In 1917, the Russians rose against the Tsar autocracy and Russia became a Communist Country. The Bolshevik revolt was a Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 110
significant aspect. Union of Soviet Socialist Republic was created. Russia, Bailo, Georgia, Armenia, Ukraine, Uzbekistan, Tajigistan, Turkimenia, Latvia, Lithuvania, Esthonia etc. were included in the USSR. Moldavia also became a part of USSR. During II World War, there were 15 Republics. They were given the right to cessede.
Growth of USSR: Only Communist party rule was there. Other parties were prevented. Only Communist candidates alone could contest the elections. They called this single party rule as the dictatorship of the proletariat. The Social, Economic, Political activities and rights were all controlled by the Government. So very soon Russia emerged as a great power. Its Industrial economy was a developed one. In the II World War, Russia chased Germany. On par with USA, it increased her atomic power.
It started the space age and introduced many things. Large scale industries developed. Five year plans were introduced. Joint farming and agriculture improved. They by giving their individual rights achieved Communism.
Stalinism: Lenin introduced the dictatorship of Communism. Stalin established his own dictatorship in the party. He controlled the right of expression within the party. HIs opponents were all removed from power. This weeding process allowed him to lead Russia towards progress. Russia became a super power.
Failure of Communism: Even after such stern measures the wealth of the Country did not develop. It was possible for the Government to satisfy all the basic needs and requirements of the people. There was a deficit of 35 lakh tons of food materials. Marxism became utopian in character. The dictorship of the proletariat and the disappearance of State are not all achieved. Russian political institutions were growing. There were disparities. The conditions of the workers did not improve. Due to the concentration on atmosphere and space researches the basic requirements of the people were not at all achieved. The economy of Russia was also a stagnant one.
Reforms of Gorbachav: In 1935, Gorbachav became the Secretary of Russian Communism. He realised that Russia was moving towards a wrong end. He declared that there is a fall in Communism. So he wanted to introduce Reconstruction or Prestroika and ‘openness’ that is Glasnost. Thus he decided to revitalise the economy of Russia.
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Results of the Reforms: His reforms affected the Socialist Principles. Stalinism was controlled. Due to Political liberty they overthrew state and party controls and discipline. The flood rolled away communism also. It even removed Gorbachav from power.
The breakup of Russia: In 1989, the multiparty election system to the Russian Parliament was introduced. Anti communists won the majority. Those who wanted drastic reforms also succeeded. In 1990 February the communist party last its hold. The unity among the soviets also was affected due to the fall of communism. The republics began to secede from the Soviet Union. Latvia, Lithuvania, Estonia became independent. As they had no racial language and religious affinities with Russia they came out of the Union.
Commonwealth of Independent States: (1991) During 11, December 1991, the important parts of Russia such as Russia, Ukrain, Feborus Republic etc met at Minsk and decided to dismiss the Soviet Union and wanted to create the Common Wealth of Independent States.
Alma Ada Conference: The leaders of Russia, Ukrain, Turkimenistan, Uzbekistan, Armenia, Tazistan, George etc. met at Alma Ada and created a Common Wealth of Nations during December 1991. In that Conference, the dismantling of the Soviet Union was announced.
Results: 1) Bipolar politics came to an end. The fall of communism gave an individuality to the capitalism of America. 2) The cold war comes to an end. Thus the fear of III World War disappeared. 3) The iron curtain of Russia also was torn into pieces. 4) The Warsaw military pact disappeared. 5) Market economy gained greater impetus. The control of State and Government over production and distribution were dropped. Free economic policy was adopted. 6) Both East and West Germany were united. On 10, November 1989, the German Wall was destroyed and Germany was united. 7) The fear of Communism in the East European Countries disappeared. They became democratic and utilised the market economy. The importance of Communism was removed and independent election were convened. Thus with the fall of the Communism in Russia, the capitalist economy achieved success.
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I. THE DIPLOMATIC RELATIONS OF INDIA WITH HER NEIGHBOURS Introduction: From the dawn of History, India was having cordial relations with her neighbours. It had no imperialistic mind and did not involve in any aggressive wars. On the basis of love and non-violence Asoka and Kanishka preached the Principles. But, now due to the principle of diplomacy the political relations are changing.
Basic principles: The concept of Pancha Sheel as pronounced in 1955 formed the basis for India’s foreign policy. (1) Every Nation should mutually recognise the Sovereignty, Territorial rights and Unity of the Neighbour Nations. (2) Non-aggression. (3) Non interference with their internal affairs. (4) Mutual assistance and adoption of equality. (5) Peaceful Co-existence. In this regard, we should notice India’s relations with her neighbours such as Pakistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Burma, Sri Lanka etc. All these nations are located around India and they are related historically with India. They are based on the culture.
India and China: Upto 1959, Cordial relationship existed between India and China. The Indians and Chinese were functioning as brothers. To maintain the cordial relations with China, India did not oppose the Chinese incursion over Tibet in 1950. In 1954, the Treaty of Pancha Sheel was signed with China. In 1960 , the Dalai Lama, the head of the State of Bhutan came to India as refugee. This infuriated China. After annexing the areas of Northern borders, China engaged herself in the war of aggression in 1962. India tried to settle the border disputes by peaceful talks.
In 1998, Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited China after 30 Years. The purpose of this visit was to create a healthy atmosphere to strengthen the Indo-Chinese relations. Subsequently Chinese Prime Minister Li Peng visited India. Various treaties were signed and the tension was reduced. In 1993, Prime Minister Narasimha Rao visited China. In 1996, the Chinese President visited India. Chiang Jemin was the first Chinese President who visited India. Four treaties were signed between these two countries.
In 1998, when the Defence Minister of India announced that India will receive more danger from China than Pakistan, there arose a trouble between India and China. The arrival of the Buddhist leader Karmabala’s visit to India also caused a problem. During the Kargil War, China did not support Pakistan. The visit of India’s President K.R.Narayanan to China has promoted the relationship.
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India and Pakistan: Even from the initial period onwards the relationship between India and Pakistan was not at all cordial. This was mainly due to various reasons as mentioned below: (1) Pakistan did not accept Kashmir as a part of India. So it tried to capture Kashmir by force. In 1948, 1965, 1971, 1999, the two countries involved in Wars. (2) Pakistan’s Military agreements with U.S.A. (3) The annexure of Junagar and Hyderabad as Indian territories was reported by Pakistan in the UNO as aggression. (4) The approach of Pakistan on religious grounds. (5) Pakistan’s encouragement of terrorism. After giving training to the terrorists, they sent them into India with arms and weapons. India wants to settle the Kashmir issue on the basis of Simla Conference of 1972. In 1998, Vajbhayee Government attempted to revive the relations between Pakistan and India. In 1999, he successfully completed his Lahore Bus trip. Pakistan Prime Minister welcomed him at the border. But all on a sudden, Pakistan intruded into India through Kargill. The attack was repulsed. Now, her President tries to have talks with India.
India and Nepal: Nepal is the only Hindu State in the World. Its relationship with India was not cordial. In 1962, when China intruded into India, Nepal maintained neutrality. Now the trade of Nepal is carried out through India. During the Janatha Dal Government, steps were taken to revive the relationship between India and Nepal.
India and Bhutan: Cordial relationship exists between India and Bhutan.
India and Mianmar: Modern Mianmar was former Burma. India never interfered with the native issues of Mianmar. During General Newin’s rule, it started to lead an isolated life from the other parts of the World.
India and Sri Lanka: Generally there was friendly relation between India and Sri Lanka. But the problem of the 10 Lakhs of Indians settled at Sri Lanka was the problem. In 1964, Srimovo Bhandaranayake and lal Bahadur Sastri came to an agreement. By that it was agreed that five lakhs of Indians will be called back to India within 15 years. For three lakhs of people, Srilankan Citizenship should be offered. The problem of the rest should be decided by talks. But it was not carried out properly. The problem of Kacchathiv was another issue. Now that is a part of Srilanka. The fate of 17 Lakhs of Tamils living there is another unsolved issued today. It developed as a racial issue between the Ceylonese Tamils and Sinhalese. In 1987, Rajiv Gandhi and J.R.Jeyavardhane accepted to have an Indian Peace Keeping Force there and after the problem is settled election should be conducted. Before the work is finished,
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Prema Dasa asked for the removal of IPKF. In 1989, the Indian army was withdrawn. Still the problem continues.
India and Maldives: India is having cordial relations with these islands which are located in the Indian Ocean. There was a coup and Abdul Khaiyum’s position was at stake. Indian navy went there and took immediate action and the problem was solved.
India and Banghladesh: But for India’s help, Bangladesh would not have emerged as an Independent State. Then arose an issue with regard to the establishment of Farrakka Dam. Any how it was settled amicably. In general there prevails a cordial relationship between India and Banghladesh.
SAARC: To have friendly relations and economic co-operation among the South Asian countries this Organisation was created in 1984. This set up assists the development of the member nations through mutual understanding and co-operation.
Estimate: India is a developed country when compared with her neighbours. Because of that it is told that India is trying to control the other nations. The Maldiv incident referred above is cited as an example for this. But it must be remembered here that India tries to maintain peace with her neighbours.
II. INDIA AND PAKISTAN Pakistan was a part of India before 1947. Due to narrow-minded political reasons on religious grounds Pakistan was separated from India. This division led to so many problems of varied nature. The religious differences led to such unforeseen problems. In addition to that the ideological difference have also led to confrontations. (1) At the initial stages there was clash between the secular and theocratic forms of Governments. The Pakistan Government through religious views wanted to enhance their position. They treated the war with India as Jehad or Holy War. (2) It was also a problem between non-alignment and military alliance. To enhance her armed forces equal to India Pakistan developed her relations with America. Thus cold war was brought into India.
The Problems between India and Pakistan: (1) Kashmir issue: Pakistan is unwilling to accept the Union of Kashmir with India. In 1947 October Pakistan sent her trained tribes into Kashmir. But India repulsed that attack. After that when the army attacked India, it was reported to the Security Council of UNO. In 1949 Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 115
it brought truce. Pakistan refused to give up the territories annexed. To justify her stand Ovan Dixon and Trank Graham were sent. Such aspects prevented a pleb scite. The Kashmiri area captured by Pakistan was called Azad Kashmir.
(2) In 1965, Pakistan tried to intrude into Pakistan. So, there was a War for 28 days. UNO interfered and stopped the War. Russian Prime Minister Kogygin made arrangement for the Tashkhent meet. By the Tashkhent declaration the tension was reduced. But now again the problem has crept in.
(3) In 1971, when the people of East Pakistan wanted to get relief from the military regime of Pakistan, the War was revived. In this War, Pakistan was defeated totally. 93,000 Pakistan Soldiers were imprisoned. In 1972, India and Pakistan signed peace agreements. India returned the 8,000 Sq.K.M. areas to Pakistan. It was agreed that the Kashmir issue should be settled by peace talks.
(4) The annexation of Junagadh and Hyderabad with India was reported by Pakistan in the U.N.O. as an aggression U.N.O. did not recognise it.
(5) River canal issue: Because of the partition of India, the Punjab River water issue was a problem. The waters of Ravi, Beeaz, Sutlej are used for the Indian agriculture. But as they flow through Pakistan it was necessary to make arrangements to steamline them. After discussions in 1960, a settlement was arrived at by an agreement. In 1970, Pakistan refused to revive it. Further the Mangla dam constructed by Pakistan also caused a problem.
(6) Support to Chinnese aggression: In 1961, when China attacked India Pakistan supported China. It offered some of her annexed territories to China. In 1971, when there was a War between India and Pakistan, China supported Pakistan.
(7) Kutch – Run: These areas are in Gujarat. Pakistan claimed majority of these areas. In 1968, this Case was placed before a tribunal. By that 1/10 of that area was handed over to Pakistan.
(8) SEATO: Pakistan became a member of the South East Asian Treaty Organisation Military Pact. This was mainly o get the support from America. This compelled India too devote much attention about her Security.
(9) Support to Terrorism: Pakistan is giving training to the terrorist of Punjab and Kashmir against India. It also renders military support. This has created a lot or problems to India.
(10) Anti Indian activities: As India is a non-muslim and secular state Pakistan propagates anti Indian ideas. In the World Islamic Conference it offered false rumours against India. It Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 116
goes against the Simla Agreement of 1972. Further it raises this issue in the UNO against India.
III. INDIA AND CHINA AFTER THE SECOND WORLD WAR India was having cordial relations with China from time immemorial. It had flourishing commercial contact. The spread of Buddhism in China enhanced the prestige of India. The Kuomintang leader Chiang Kai Sheik supported India’s freedom movement. When there was a civil war in China between the Kuomintangs and communists India maintained neutrality. In 1949 Communist China won the War. India recognised the Government headed by Mao Tse Tung.
Period of Peace and Cordiality (1950 – 1960) India was the first non-communist country which recognised Communist China. In the Security Council of UNO, India fought for the place of Communist China.
In 1950, the Chinese army invaded Tibet. Independent Tibet was annexed by China by aggressive war. Anyhow in 1954, India accepted the Sovereignty of China over Tibet.
Panchasheela is another principle which brought India and China nearer to each other. In 1954, Prime Minister Nehru and Chinese Prime Minister Chow-En-lai signed this agreement of peace and friendship. 1. The nations should recognise the sovereignty and territorial integrity of others. 2. Non-aggression. 3. Non-interference with the internal affairs. 4. Equality. 5. Peaceful co-existence. After that China was allowed to have trade centres at Delhi, Calcutta, Calimbang etc. in India. India was allowed to open a trade centre at Gangtok of Tibet. India refused to become a member of the SEATO, the anti-communist organisation created by America. In International issues India maintained neutrality. Between 1950 – ’55 Korean War India’s stand was appreciated by China. With regard to Apartheid and cultural aspects both have uniform stands. In the Bandung conference of 1955 both the countries worked in union with each other.
Differences: There are some differences between India and China. The five-year plans and India’s progress and development made China to be an enemy of India. China’s great leap forward scheme met with a failure. In 1959, the Tibetans rose in rebellion against the Chinese Government. China suppressed that by force. The arrival of Dalai Lama into India as refugee and India’s stand on it infuriated China.
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Border dispute: China started to give problems in the border areas. India territories were shown as Chinese territories in the map. Though China gave an evasive reply at the beginning, finally it stressed that they are Chinese territories. It refused to accept the Mac Mohan line as its border. It also claimed its right over Agsaichin region. In 1959 nine Indians were killed in the border. To reduce the tension both the Prime Ministers met at Delhi. But no decision was arrived at.
Indo Chinese War of 1962: In 1962, China undertook a complete military attack. As it was decided that there will be no possibility of war between India and China, India did not take any serious defence efforts in the North. So India had to retreat. America came to the support of India. Russia maintained neutrality. Then China stopped the war and withdrew from the Indian territories. Countries like Sri Lanka, Burma, Cambodia, Ghana, Indonesia etc. supported the stand of India. The Colombo plan was created for peace. India accepted that. But China did not say anything. In the wars of Pakistan with India in 1965 and 1970 China supported the cause of Pakistan and rendered military help.
Peace efforts of India: Though China has opposed India, India still continues to follow the policy of non- alignment. It insisted that Communist China should be included in the Security Council. In 1979 the Janatha Government wanted to settle the issue. Diplomatic relations were revived among the two countries. The Indian Foreign Minister Vajphayee went to China in 1979 to have peace talks. In 1988, Rajiv Gandhi visited China and brought a turning point.
IV. INDIA AND SOVIET UNION India was a friend and ally of Russia from the days of independence of India. In 1978, Breshnev appreciated the cordiality which prevailed among the two nations. In the international field, the Indo Russian relation is treated as a significant one. During the time of Stalin India was treated as a bourgeoise country because of the following reasons. (1) India took stern measures to suppress communism within India. (2) India condemned the communist attack over the regions of Malaya. (3) Even after her independence India continues to be a member of the Commonwealth. (4) In 1948, Nehru visited America and got financial support for the first five-year plan. (5) While Russia described the revolt at Telengana as a peasants uprising India suppressed that with iron hands. In 1948, when Gandhiji was assassinated. Russia was the only country which did not send even a condolence message. Indian Ambassador to Russia, Mrs.Vijayalakshmi Pandit has never met Stalin. Even after all these things position began to change.
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Start of Friendship: The diplomatic approaches of India attracted the Russians largely. In 1952 for the first time Stalin gave an interview to the Indian Ambassador S.Radhakrishnan. Because of that in 1952, the Indo – Soviet Cultural Acadamy was started. In 1953, Menshikov, the Russian Ambassador for India paid homage to Gandhiji in his graveyard. This change occurred due to the following reasons.
(1) India recognised communist China and fought for its place in the Security council. (2) Though India obtained economic assistance from America it refused to become a party of the military alliance of America. (3) The role of India in the Korean War and after the exchange of prisoners, the opposition shown to the calling of China as aggressor, enabled Russia to understand the neutrality of India. (4) In the Kashmir issue it supported India to avoid Kashmir as a military ground for America. So, it was the first country to declare that the problem of Kashmir is one which has already ended.
Friendly visits: In 1955, Nehru was the first non-communist leader who visited Russia. He was given a warm welcome. Russia was much attracted by the India’s policies of non-alignment and world peace. Then Khrushchev and Bulganin the Russian leaders visited India. They hailed the policy of peaceful co-existence of India. From that time onwards the relationship developed.
In 1961 when Goa, Diu and Daman were included as Indian territories from Portugal, America opposed the act of India. But Russia supported that. In 1961 when America brought out a resolution against this in the security council of UNO, Russia nullified that by its veto power. In 1962, when China involved in a aggression over India, America rendered help to India. But, Russia maintained neutrality. In 1965, when there was a War between India and Pakistan, Russia supported the cause of India. Prime Minsiter Kosygin made arrangements for the meet of President Ayubkhan and Prime Minister Shastri at Tashkhent. Because of that during January 1966, the Tashkhent declaration was announced. In 1956, when Russia sent her army to Hungary and murdered the people for introducing Communist rule there, India condemned the act of Russia. In 1971, India and Russia signed the Indo-Soviet peace and friendly alliance. It was the peace point of Indo-Soviet relationship. This agreement had a preamble and 12 articles. It proved that the relationship which existed between the two nations was essential for their welfare. It assisted the creation of peace in Asia, reduction of tension and removal of the traces of colonialism. It was helpful for the introduction of the aims of UNO. It insisted that if one country involved in a War, the other one
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should be neutral and should find out the ways for the reduction in the danger of War. In 1971, when there was a war in Bangladesh for its liberation, Russia nullified the activities of America in the U.N.O. But it maintained neutrality with regard to India. In various international issues, both Russia and India took uniform stands. In the issues of Palestine, Rhodesia, Niccaragua, Namibia etc. they had unanimous opinions. In the opposition to apartheld and adoption of disarmament they had same opinions. In the field the science and technology and economy the friendship has turned out a lot. In 1955, the Bhilai and Iron and steel plant was constructed with the assistance of Russia. Along with technical assistance India was given 13 Crore Dollar of financial assistance. It has also helped for the installation of eight more industries. Barowni Oil Refinery, Ranji Heavy Industry, Bokkaro Steel and Iron Plant, Haridwar Heavy Electrical Ltd. etc. were some of the works carried out with the assistance of Russia. For the third five Year Plan of India Russia offered a help of 500 Million Dollars. In 1964, they signed an agreement for the supply of MIG – 21 Air crafts. In 1973, Brashnev visited India. Then three economic treaties were signed. In 1976, there was a trade agreement between the two countries up to the tune of 600 million dollars. In 1974 – ’75, the India’s Satellite Aryabhatta was launched with the support of Russia. Russia handed over some of the objects collected from the moon to India. Only with the support of Russia, Rakesh Sarma of India in 1984 came around the World in the Space.
V. INDIA – SRILANKAN RELATIONS From the historical records it is revealed that there existed cordial relationship between India and Srilanka from time immemorial. These two lands are divided by Palk Strait. Any how they have cordial relations with each other. Buddhism also developed in Srilanka. It is believed that Ravana, the ruler of Srilanka mentioned in Ramayana was a Dravidian. Silappatikaram says that Gajabhahu II of Ceylon attended the consecration ceremony of Kannagi statue conducted by Cheran Chenguttuvan. Narasimhavarman helped Manavarman to gain the throne of Ceylon. Raja Raja and Rajendra have subdued that land. The later Pandyas and Vijayanagar rulers too had contacts with the rulers of Ceylon. Then in the 19th century it became a British Colony. In 1948, it obtained freedom from Britain.
The problem of Indians in Ceylon: To work in the coffee and rubber estates of Ceylon many Indians, particularly Tamils migrated there. The number touched 10 Lakhs. The Ceylonese Government did not offer citizenship to them. They lived as people without any state. This problem created unpleasant situations. So the two Prime Ministers took some efforts to settle the issue. 1. In 1954, Jawaharlal Nehru and John Kotalawala came to an agreement. By that 1,34,188 Indians were given Srilankan citizensip. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 120
2. In 1964, the Sastri-Srimavo agreement was arrived. By that among the 9,75,000 Indians who lived in Srilanka, within 15 years, 3 lakshs of people should be given citizenship. For 5,25,200 persons Indian citizenship should be offered. The fate of others will be decided later. In 1986, another agreement was arrived at between India and Srilanka. By that among those who had applied for Indian Citizenship before 30 October 1981, 85,000 people will be given Indian citizenship. 4,69,000 people should be offered Sri Lankan citizenship.
Foreign Policy: With regard to foreign policy, while India adopted non-alignment policy, Srilanka followed pro-west European policy. It was revealed during the Bandung Conference of 1955. It declared that Russian Communist Imperialism will be more dangerous to Afro-Asian countries and their freedom. After the arrival of Bhandaranayake, the foreign policy met with a change. Non-alignment policy was accepted by Srilanka. It accepted Indian Ocean as a Zone of peace. In 1962 when the Indo-Chinese war broke out it maintained neutrality. In 1974, India and Srilanka decided their sea border. By that Srilanka received Kachchathiv as its territory.
The issue of Ceylon Tamils: In Srilanka, 70% of the people are Sinhalese. They are all Buddhists. 15% of the populations are Tamils. Majority of them are Hindus. They live at Jaffna and in the Tirikonamalai region. They were different from those who migrated to Srilanka in this century to work in the tea plantations. They were resembling the Tamils. They did not have much contact with the Sinhalese and preserved their culture. Due to their knowledge of English they were able to get Government appointments during the British period.
After 1948, mostly the Sinhalese rule was established there. In 1958, Sinhalese language was made as the State language. The others were not given any rights. Sinhalese surpassed the others in the appointments. The political parties were particular in gaining the support of the Sinhalese. So, they encouraged violence against the Tamils. The Tamils for protection and security, opposed the Sinhalese. In 1958, 1977 and 1981 there were ethnic problems. The Tamil minority was affected much. The Ceylon Tamils created the Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) and wanted a free and separate Tamil Elam for them.
India’s stand: At the beginning Indian government adopted a policy of non-ntervention on the ground that it was a local issue. The Tamils of Tamilnadu in India supported the cause of the Tamils of Srilanka. The Dravidian group supported that. Upto the existence of Congress ministries in Tamilnadu, no serious turn took place on that line. In 1967, when the D.M.K. came to power in Tamilnadu, they insisted the Central Government to involve in that issue
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in favour of the Tamils. The Srilankan government believed that the Srilankan Tamils agitate due to the instigation of the Tamils of Tamilnadu.
Sinhalese – Tamil conflicts: The Srilanka Government came forward to offer some privileges. Tamil was also included as a national language. The Sinhalese Terrorist movements took place. In 1983, there emerged a severe attack against the Tamils. The properties of the Tamils were all destroyed. The Srilanka Army also supported the Sinhalese atrocities. The Tamil leaders were imprisoned or murdered. More than 400 Tamils lost their lives. 15000 Tamils came to India as refugees. The Tamils established their own Terrorist Organisations.
(1) Tamil United Liberation Front (TULF) (2) Liberation Tigers of Tamil Ealam (LTTE) (3) Tamil Ealam Liberation Organisation (TELO) (4) Ealam Peoples Revolutionary Liberation Front (EPRLF) (5) Ealam Revolutionary Organisation of Students (EROS) (6) People’s Liberation Organisation of Tamil Eelam (PLOTE) were some of the Tamil Organisations.
Timbu Talks (1985): The Indian Government advised the Srilanka Government to have peace talks with the Tamils. So, during July 1985 at Timbu, the capital of Bhutan peace talks started. All the Tamil Organisations took part in it. By that, the Srilankan Government announced that councils will be created in the North and North Eastern parts of Srilanka. The Tamils and their Organisations rejected that. They insisted that there must be a Federal Government in Srilanka and that provincial autonomy should be given.
Jaffna War (1987): The Government followed the policy of divide and rule among the Tamils. The Tamils engaged in the plantations were not allowed to become members of Tamil Organisations. The Muslims of the North East Ceylon were tuned against the Tamils. Then Jaffna was besieged. Economic blockade was imposed. The military activities were strengthened. The people suffered much. They were in dire need food. So the Indian Government sent food and medicine through boats. The Srilankan Government did not allow them. So through air, the Indian Government made arrangements to drop food packets.
Rajiv – Jayawardhane Agreement (1987): The Srilanka Government which realised that the people of Jaffna could not be subdued by force came forward for talks. Rajiv Gandhi supported for smooth peace talks. He advised the Tamil leaders to give up agitations and requested them to have peace talks. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 122
M.G.Ramachandran was also of the same opinion. So, an Accord was signed between Rajiv Gandhi and Jayavardhane. It was signed on 29 July 1987 a Colombo. The following were the provisions : (1) By plebescite in the North and North Eastern Provinces, they must be made as a single State. (2) A council should be appointed for the provinces. Its members will be selected by the people and the council will elect the Chief Minister. (3) Both of them should give up war activities. (4) An Indian Peace Keeping Force will be sent to Srilanka for the successful conduct of elections. (5) All the Eelam Tamil Organisations should handover their weapons to the I.P.K.F. (6) Emergency should be lifted. Those who were imprisioned due to Ealam issue should be released.
The works of I.P.K.F. The extremists of both the sides did not accept this agreement. Many Tamil Organisations surrendered their arms. The LTTE functioned under Prabakaran, finally refused to submit the weapons. It was a difficult problem for the IPKF to carry out its functions among two extremists. The LTTE started giving problems. They rejected the elections. The Sinhalese extreme Organisations stressed the removel of IPKF from Srilanka. Those who signed accord were murdered. The IPKF carried the following activities :
(1) For the North and North Western provinces elections were conducted. Varadharaja Perumal of Tamil Liberation Front was made as the Chief Minister. (2) Training was given to the Tamil Youths to oppose attacks. (3) Steps were taken for the functioning of local governments in the Tamil speaking areas. (4) Transport arrangements were made. (5) Hospitals started to function.
Return of I.P.K.F. The I.P.K.F. functioned for two years. It was accused that it troubled the Ealam Tamils and Tamil women. In the meanwhile in 1988, Prema Dasa was elected as the President. As per his election manifesto, he ordered the evacuation of IPKF. The Dravidian parties and the supporters of Tamil Ealam vehemently cricised the activities of the IPKF. So, in 1989 September, IPKF returned from Sri Lanka.
The activities of LTTE: They wanted to be the monopolistic Tamil authority. They did not allow the other Organisations. They murdered Siri Sabarathnam - Leader of TELO, Amirthalingam - Leader of TULF, etc. They were made responsible for the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. The Mayors of Jaffna were murdered one after the other. The Srilankan President Premadasa was also murdered.
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Efforts of Chandrika: After IPKFs return, the LTTEs brought Jaffna under their control. In the 1994 election, Chandrika became the President. In 1995, she started peace talks with LTTE. But, they abruptly stopped talks and engaged in attacks. So the war was revived. She announced some privileges for the Tamils. She also informed that the Tamil speaking area will have self rule. But the Liberation Tigers did not accept that. The Srilankan Army wanted to get back Jaffna. On December 5, 1995 Jaffna was released from the Liberation Tigers. India did not interfere with it and informed that it is a local problem of Srilanka.
Estimate: The Liberation Tigers aim at the achievement of Tamil Eelam. Only they should be the rulers of that area. In the name of peace talks they enhanced their armed forces. They must note that only by talks they can achieve their ends. For instance, the Palestinians attained success only by talks. The North Irish Roman Catholic achieved their end by peace talks after 20 years of terrorist activities. Nelson Mandela attained his goal only by talks after a lapse of 27 long years of imprisonment.
VI. INDIA AND AMERICA (1945 – 1993) During the initial period, U.S.A. criticised the backwardness of India. But there prevailed cordial relations between them. In 1949, Jawaharlal Nehru visited America at the request of President Truman. In 1950 – ’52 when India was affected by a severe famine, America came to the rescue. America also helped the First Five year Plan of India. Chester Bowls, the American Ambassador the India bought cordial relations.
But in the Kashmir issue, America was in favour of Pakistan from the very beginning. In 1954, Pakistan signed an agreement with America. India opposed the military aid given to Pakistan by America. The principles of India’s foreign policy were not at all approved by USA. The following activities were the major causes for that : 1. India’s recognition offered to Communist China and its recommendation for the inclusion of the Communist China in the Security Council of the UNO. 2. The opposition shown to the crossing of the American forces beyond 38* latitude. 3. In 1950, when China caused an aggression in Tibet, India did not take any action. 4. India’s refusal to become a member in the South East Asian Treaty Organisation created by Russia. 5. India’s opposition to the military pacts arranged by America. 6. In 1956, when the Russian army entered Hungary and caused a lot of havoc India did not take any notice of it. 7. India’s purchase of MIG – 21 aircrafts from USSR.
Like the above, India did not like some of the activities of USA. 1. John F.Dulles criticised the non-alignment policy of India as a great gain.
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2. The American opposition shown to the annexation of goa, Diu, Daman, the Portuguese territories by India. 3. America’s support to its NATO friend Portugal and called Goa as a territory of Portugal. 4. The reduction in the economic aids due to the foreign policy of India. 5. The refusal of the American aircrafts bound for Indochina through India.
Beyond all the above measures as India is a vast democracy USA is unwilling to sever contacts totally. The Democratic principles of India allowed America to have a cordial relation. In 1962, when China invaded India, America even without minding the opposition of Pakistan rendered its support to India. In the Indo-Pakistan war of 1965, America maintained neutrality. In 1971 during the war with Bangladesh, Nixon Government rendered support to Pakistan. Stopped all the financial assistance to India. It sent its seventh fleet to the Bay of Bengal and threatened India. Thus the relationship became worsened. Anyhow after 1974 when the Foreign Secretary Kissinger visited India, the position it began to change. In 1979, when Jimmy Carter visited India he was given a warm welcome. Anyhow, America was postponing the supply of Uranium to the Tarapur Atomic plant. Russia’s support to India has created problems. Anyhow the relation seems to be cordial.
LATIN AMERICA AND ORGANISATION OF AMERICAN STATES Introduction: During the recent period, the impact of Latin American States was not appreciable. Upto the end of the 19th Century, they were the Colonies of Spain. On South America except Brazil, all the areas were under Spain. Brazil was the Portuguese colony. Before the commencement of the 20th Century all those colonies attained independence.
During the time of the First World War, they were neutral states. They became members of the League of Nations. Then they began to devote their attention towards world politics. The problems of the Latin American States were settled peacefully by the UNO. For instance the trouble between Peru and Columbia was settled. The issue between Paraguay and Bolivia regarding Grand Chacko was settled.
Initial Conferences: (1) Panama Conference (1939): During 1939, the Foreign Ministers of 21 Latin American Sates met at Panama. The New World was treated as the Neutral Defence Zone. It was decided that the States which involved in the Wars should not affect the security and commercial welfare of the nations.
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(2) Havana Conference (1940): The above mentioned foreign minister met at Havana in 1940. On the basis of Munroe doctrine it was stated that the other powers should not interfere with the Latin American States.
(3) Rio-de-Genero Conference (1942): In 1941 December, when Pearl Harbour of America was attacked, America plunged into the War. To decide the reactions, the foreign ministers met at Rio-de-genero during 1942. They decided to give up the diplomatic and commercial relations with the Axis powers.
(4) Mexico Conference: To deal with the issues pertaining to the World War, this Conference was convened in 1945. It also analysed the entry of the Latin American States in the UNO.
Though steps were taken to discuss the common issues during the period of war no specific common permanent Organisation was created. They were Conferences of temporary measures. But all of them stressed the need for the establishment of an American Organisation.
The Rio-de-Genero Conference was a significant one in the formation of an All American Organisaation. In that Conference, a treaty based on collective security was signed. It was decided that if any of the American State was attacked it will be treated that all the American States were attacked. 21 States signed in this Agreement.
Bocodo Conference: To give a dynamic effect to the decisions so far arrived in 1948 at this Conference the Organisation of American States (OAS) was established.
The OAS: (1) Its head quarter was located at Washington. (2) It functions under a General Secretary. (3) There are 30 members in it. (4) It had a Council consisting of the Special representatives of member nations. (5) It was decided to meet once in a year in any one of the capitals of the States. (6) The Foreign ministers will meet and take decisions. (7) It had to execute the provisions of the Rio-de-Genero agreement. (8) Certain special agencies were also created to claim mutual unity and exchange of ideas among American States. (9) The All American Economic and Social Committee American Cultural Committee, American Health Organisation, Geographical and History Organisation were some of the specialised agencies. By planned ways they undertake co-ordinated efforts. They bring cordial relations among them and decide the issues through tribunals.
Opposition to Communism: These nations supported the cause of USA in opposing Communism. They were particular in keeping away Communism from the new world. The Caracass Conference of Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 126
1953 condemned the intrusion of Communism in the American area. It was also decided to take economic blockade against the Communist supported Countries.
Achievement of OAS: (1) It settled the various American issues successfully. In 1955, when Costarega was attacked by Nikarague the OAS interfered and settled the issue. (2) In 1963, it brought peace in the Heitti-Dominican Republican issue. (3) In 1965, it established peace in the Dominican region. (4) The American States did not like the reporting of the State Quatemala against here neighbouring States in the UNO. So, it had to withdraw its report from UNO and submitted to OAS for consideration. (5) It has carried out appreciable services in trade, education, public health, cultural exchange etc.
Cuba and OAS: Fedel Castro of Cuba was a challenge to this American Organisation. In 1961 when USA wanted to remove him from power the trouble started. So, Cuba sought the support of Russia. Thus it paved the way for the entry of communism into the new World. In 1964, the Latin American States broke up their relations with Cuba on the ground that it is against the provisions of the Conference of Caracass. In 1962, Cuba was removed from the OAS by the foreign ministers of the member nations. In 1963, when Venenzuela accused Cuba by stating that it is interfering with her internal problems a commission was appointed. It imposed economic restrictions on Cuba.
Castro now has gained the support of the alignment conference held at Havana in 1975. He extended his support to the liberation of Angola from Portugal by sending an army.
America and Latin America States: President Kennedy to help the Latin American States, on the basis of unity for development, formed an economic plan. It was decided to spend 100 million dollars for that. This could be called as the Marshall plan of Lath America. It was to arrest the progress of Communism in that area. In this 20 Latin American States signed.
During the tenure of Eishenhover USA interfered in the affairs of Quatemala. Kennedy interfered in Cuba and Jonhson involved in the Dominican affairs. Due to America’s encouragement, President Allenday of Chille was murdered and the Communist Government was toppled. President Reagan interfered in the affairs of Granada etc. When Britain captured Falkland island near Argentina, America rendered its support to Britain indirectly. Thus the Munno doctrine of 150 years old was dropped.
II. AMERICAN POLICY TOWARDS NEIGHBOUR STATES The policy of USA regarding the Latin American States was a Challenge to its foreign policy. In 1923, U.S.A. announced the Munroe doctrine to protect the security and Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 127
independence of the Latin American States. It was based on the fact that America should be for Americans. Gradually America began to exploit their economy and interfered in their local affairs. When it tried to establish rules for their own benefit, the results were far- reaching.
The contacts before I World War America treated the Latin America States as small boys. Their contacts were based on the fact that they are for their benefit.
(1) Big stick policy: Theodore Roosevelt adopted this policy. Columbia was threatened when it refused to accept the conditions of America with regard to the construction of Panama Canal. A revolution of artificial nature was created there. So, Panama declared her independence and America approved it. The Panama canal was dug. Such an unlawful and individualistic action of USA was condemned by nations of the World.
(2) Corollary: Theodore Roosevelt announced this policy as an addition to Munroe doctrine. By that he announced that America will take up the financial administration of the Latin America States and reconstruct the financial distresses. After taking up the financial administration it imposed its imperialism on them by bringing the entire administration under its control.
(3) Plot: This law was created for allowing America to interfere into the affairs of Cuba.
(4) Dollar diplomacy: President Taft formed this to bring the Latin American States into its influence. Because of this the American control of Nikarague lasted for a period of nearly 20 years.
(5) Even Woodrow Wilson who stressed on World Peace did not adopt the policy of peace with his neighbour States. He attempted to send the American force into Mexico.
(6) Good neighbourly policy: This Latin American States opposed the policies of USA. So, Mexico decided to have contacts with Germany against U.S.A. America which noticed the danger of such policies began to adopt the good neighbourly policy. President Franklin- de=Roosevelt and his foreign Secretary Hul announced this. The following were its provisions. (1) America will not interfere with the internal policies of Latin America. (2) America will recognise their independence and sovereignty. (3) Matters relating to Latin America will be settled only in consultation with them.
The effects: (1) America came out of Cuba, Heitti, Nikarague etc. (2) America did not interfere in the Cuban Revolt of 1933. (3) In 1934, it totally gave up the Reconstruction scheme. (4) It offered a compensation of 25 million dollars to Columbia. (5) In 1918, when Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 128
Maxico captured the properties of American Oil Companies without any objection demanded only the compensation. (6) In 1936, Franklin de Roosevelt took part in the American conference held at Buenas Aires and exchanged cordial ideas. (7) During the II World War, Latin American States supported USA.
I. RISE OF AFRICAN STATES Introduction: Africa known as “dark continent” is known as “Future continent”. In the previous century it was a continent which was exploited by the European powers. Now it contains many independent States.
End of II World War: In 1945, there were only four independent states. Within 55 years more than 40 African States have been liberated. In 1990, Namibia, the last African Country got freedom. The rise of African states had created its own effects over the international relations.
The causes for the rise: (1) The Christian missionaries were the earliest people who formed the basis for the rise of the African Countries. (2) Stanley Livingston, Mangoberg etc. were people who showed the path of penetration into Africa after great difficulties. (3) The Europeans who established Colonies in Africa disclosed the facts about Africa to the World. (4) The Europeans who went and settled there established roads, dug mines, constructed industries were able to enrich their economy. (5) The apartheid policy adopted by the whites creted an indelible scar in the minds of the people of Africa. (6) The Second World War enabled the Africans to have contacts with European powers. In the War, the Africans were treated equally. They understood the dedication for the rights. (7) The charter of UNO also stressed the need for human rights. The leaders of the member nations indicated the need for the freedom of African States. The autocracy of imperialists where condemned. The Trusteeship system also compelled the freedom of African States. (8) The economic crisis that emerged after the Second World War affect the economy of the nations of the World. As it was difficult for them to control themselves they cannot concentrate on the Colonies. This was an impetus for the African States to demand their independence. (9) The oppositions and revolts which took place against the imperialist in other parts of the World were lessons for the African States. For instance the Indian freedom struggle was an eye opener for them. (10) The newly liberated Asian Countries such as India also devoted attention towards the freedom of African States. (11) The Bandung Conference of 1955 also stressed the freedom of Afro-Asian Countries. (12) They expressed their views in the UNO and Commonwealth of nations.
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African Liberation movement: The leaders of African wanted freedom for their States. They also demanded the liberation of all the States of Africa. The idea of United Africa was prominent. The following leaders were popular in achieving the liberation. (1) W.E. Dubbois was an American Negro leader who by his National Academy of the Negroes worked for the Negroes. (2) Marcus Aeroleus Corvy was a Negro leader from Jamaica. By his slogan ‘return to Africa’, he initiated nationalism. (3) Sig encouraged the spirit of nationalism in Nigeria. He started the Nigeria and Cameruns Natinal Council for that. (4) Kwame Enkruma initiated nationalism in the State called Gold Coast. (5) At Tansania Julius Nyrere fought for the freedom. (6) At Kenya, Zoma Kenyatta through his Mav Mav movement introduced nationalism. (7) With the use of Uganda People’s Congress Obetto fought for the freedom of Uganda. (8) Leopaid Shenkor fought for the liberation of Senegal. (9) Habib Bhursiba through his Neo Jestur wanted freedom for Tunisia. (10) Banbella was the leader who fought for the freedom of Algeria. (11) Shakkul Pasha of Egypt established the party called ‘Wafth’ and worked for the liberation of Egypt.
The rise of National States in Africa: Due to the efforts of the national leaders of Africa gradually the African States attained freedom. (1) Siberia is the State located in the West African Coast for setting the Negro Slaves liberated from America. (2) Abyssinia, i.e. modern Ethiopia was annexed by Fascist Italy in 1936 and it attained independence after the II World War. (3) Egypt and Lybia : Both these Countries were liberated during 1951. (4) Ghana : It attained freedom from the British yoke in 1957. In 1960, it became a republic. Its President Enkruma fought for the freedom of other African Countries. In 1958, at Cairo and in 1960 at Adis Ababa he convened the African liberation Conference and stressed that the Imperialist powers should vaccate Africa. Because of his efforts in 1960, nearly 17 African States attained independence.
African Liberation and UNO: For the liberation of African States, UNO took keen effort. (1) In 1960, a resolution was passed in the General Assembly about it. It informed that UNO should take steps for the freedom of African States. (2) So, in 1961, a Special Commission was appointed. (3) In 1965, in South Rhodesia lan smith formed the minority white rule. UNO took economic measures against this. (4) In the same way, UNO passed a resolution in favour of the freedom of Namibia. (5) The African Union Organisation also fought for the freedom of African States. (6) Because of the efforts of that Organisation before 1967 except Zimbabve, Angola, Mozambique, Namibia almost all the African States attained significance.
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Organisation of African Union: President of Ghana, Enkruma in 1958 convened a Conference. In 1961, another Conference was convened at the Capital of Ethiopia. In 1962, another Conference was convened at Casablanca. In 1963, at Adis Ababa another Conference was convened. 31 African States participated in it. This Conference paved the way for the establishment of OAU. It had the following provisions. (1)(a) There will be four wings in it. (b) the Committee having the members of the States. (c) The Committee of the Foreign ministers of the States met at times when there were problems. (d) A Tribunal was convened to deal with the problem among the nations.
Achievements of the Organisation of the African Union: Within a span of four years, the foreign ministers met nearly 16 times and tried to solve the problems. (1) It has succeeded in getting the representation for the African States in U.N. Security Council and Social and Economic Councils. (2) It established voluntary agencies for helping the African liberation Organisations. (3) It condemned the apartheid policy of South Africa. So that Namibia attained freedom from South Africa. (4) It works for the establishment of African common market. (5) It tried to solve the border issues between Algeria and Moracco, Ethiopia, Somaliland and Kenya.
Results at the International level: (1) African influence has been establishment at UNO. (2) No African States views can be set aside. (3) Most of the Africa States adopt non-alignment policy. (4) It has reduced the tensions of cold war.
II. THE APARTHEID POLICY OF SOUTH AFRICA Apartheid is the word which means seclusion or isolation. The South Africans adopted this against the negroes of that area. They kept the negroes from the normal life of others due to the following reasons. (1) The blacks were people of low origin by birth. (2) The whites were superior and born only to rule while the blacks were people of low origin by birth. (3) The low class negroes should not mix with the highly cultured whites. (4) They believed that the mixing between them will lead to a mixed race and that will reduce their status and prestige. (5) They did not like to give equal opportunity for the black people even though they were the majority. Due to the fear of losing their political and economic privileges they do not want to give any rights to the native people.
The White Colony of South Africa: In South Africa most of the whites have migrated due to the following reasons. (1) The Europeans for the first time occupied the Cape Colony. The Dutch were the earliest settlers. Their successors were known as Boers. They had their own farms and the negro slave were working there. The freedom-loving people belonging to the superior race lived there. (2) The geographical and weather conditions were also congenial for the way of life of the white people. They had cultivable lands for Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 131
wheat and pasture lands for the cattle in plenty. (3) The National resources were also plenty. Diamond and God are available in plenty. 47% of World Gold is available from South Africa. Copper and Uranium are also available in plenty. (4) By the decisions of the Vienna Congress of 1815 Colony was given to the British. The geographical setting was favourable to them. The Europeans during those days reached India and China only through the Cape route. So the British were particular in preserving it. (5) There they established the Netal, Transval and Orange Free State State Colonies. In 1910, these Colonies were united in the Name of South African Union as a domination. (6) Its total population is about 15 million. Among them the Europeans were only two million. The minority whites enjoyed 67% of the total wealth of South Africa.
Apartheid: To have the monopoly enjoyment of the resources of South Africa, the whites adopted this policy. They refused to give rights and privileges to the black people. The negroes of South Africa are known for their standard of literacy. By the following Act the blacks are isolated.
(a) Homland constitution: (1) By this Act separate districts are created for the negroes. Menta, Singal, Bou Thatswana etc. were those districts. The self rule was given to them to some extent. They were given certain life facilities. Medical, Education and other basic requirements are settled. Fund Homeland or Fundustan was created mainly to give a good life for the Africans. It also aimed at a secluded life for them. (2) The movement of the Africans was restricted. Identity Cards were given to them. It was told that if they come out without the identification card that will be a punishable crime. (3) To avoid mixing up of races many preventive laws the whites. They should not mingle with the whites in the public places. For the African black people, separate arrangements were made. Separate play grounds, Schools and Hospitals were established for the African natives. (4) The blacks were avoided from involving in handicrafts. They were appointed only in minor Government posts. Only works of manual nature were assigned to them. The workers received more wages when compared with the wages of the workers of other areas. (5) The right to vote the blacks was a restricted one. Majority of them do not have the right to vote. In general, the natives of Africa were treated as second rate citizens.
African National Congress: To claim their rights and privileges they created an Organisation called African National Congress. They adopted non-violent Gandhian principles at the initial period. The Government was so autocratic. It killed many people. This African National Congress involved in sever measures. So it was restricted. Guerrila tactics were employed by the nationalist. In 1956, the Africa poet Benjamin Molaice was hanged against the wishes of the World Nations.
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Opposition of World Nations: Many Nations have condemned the apartheid policy of South African Countries like India cancelled all their relations with South Africa.
Commonwealth: South Africa was a member of the Commonwealth. In 1961, it came out of it due to the opposition shown to apartheid adopted by it. The non-alignment countries have also condemned the apartheid of South Africa. Nations like Zimbabve, Mozambique, Jambia etc. opposed it. Rajiv Gandhi, the then Prime Minister created an African Fund to assist the Nations of Africa.
UNO and Apartheid: UNO in its preamble itself has referred to human equality. It recommended fundamental rights to all. It insists on the recognition of the fundamental rights and independence of all the nations. In the first meeting of UNO itself, India accused South Africa due to its policy of apartheid. From that time onwards UNO has condemned the apartheid of South Africa. In 1962, it announced that diplomatic relations with South Africa must be cancelled. In 1963, UNO announced that the raw materials should not be exported to South Africa. In 1966, South Africa was forbidden from being a trustee of Namibia. In 1967 it stressed an economic blockade. 1974, it was expelled from UNO. But such genuine measures of UNO could not set aside the apartheid. From 1948 onwards only the supporters of apartheid were Prime Ministers. Dr.Molon was significant. In 1988, President D.Clark came forward to reduce the stress on apartheid. Nelson Mandela, the African National Congress leader was released after 27 years of imprisonment. The restrictions on the National Congress were also removed Namibia got independence.
End of Apartheid: On 8th February 1993, the South African Government and the African National Congress came to an agreement. On February 13th, 1993, a treaty was signed. In the election held in April 1994, Nelson Mandela became the President of the Republic. By that the apartheid was nailed.
THE NON-ALIGNMENT MOVEMENT Introduction: After the II World War, there were mutual envy, rivalry and enemity among USA and USSR. They opposed each other in all possible ways. Both of them wanted to oppose each other’s policies and principles. They also sought supporters for their principles. Britain, France, Italy etc. the West European Countries supported America. Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hangary were the East European Countries which supported USSR. They offered economic and other supports. The NATO, SEATO, CENTO, the Warsaw Pact etc. were certain military alliances which created cold war tensions. There arose the fear of attack among them and Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 133
the arrival of the III World War. At this critical juncture to avoid war and to maintain peace this new venture of non-alignment movement was attempted.
Meaning: Without joining any imperialistic or superpower independent policies will be adopted. The non-aligned countries will not participate in the military alliances. Without showing any support to the policies of any big power decisions will be taken independently in the non-alignment movement.
Nature: Though it seemed to be a principle of neutrality it is not so. It will be mainly not to support any nation in all their activities. It also does mean the adoption of the policy of isolation. It stressed on mutual self-help and not military security. It will have no stand for opportunism. At all critical issues it will take firm and correct decisions. It is generally based on the principle of peaceful co-existence. By this no country will try to thrust its policies over others. A Country will have cordial relationship with even the powers which have contradictory views. So it can be called a way for conciliation.
Origin: Jawaharlal Nehru of India is treated as the Father of Non-alignment movement. According to him this was the basic principle of the foreign policy of India. He informed that India will never join any power bloc but will have its own independent foreign policy. In the Bandung Conference he insisted that Panch Sheel and non-alignment should be adopted. Col.Nasser of Egypt, Marshall Titto of Yogoslavia etc. had the same opinion. By the efforts of these three this movement came into existence. The Non-alignment Conferences: Total No.of No. Year Place of Conference President Participants 1 1961 Belgrade (Yugoslavia) Marshall Titto 25 2 1964 Cairo (Egypt) Abdul Nasser 47 3 1970 Luccasa (Zambia) Kennath Gouda 53 4 1972 Algiers (Algeria) Boumidiyan 75 5 1976 Colombo (Sri Lanka) Sirimavo Bhandaranayake 85 6 1979 Havana (Cuba) Fedel Castro 92 7 1983 New Delhi (India) Mrs.Indira Gandhi 101 8 1986 Harare (Zimbabve) Mughabe 101 9 1989 Belgrade (Yugoslavia) Derotaravik 104 10 1992 Jakarta (Indonesia) Sukarto 106 11 1995 Cortajena (Columbia) Samper Pisano 113 12 1998 Turban (South Africa) Nelson Mandela 113
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Development and activities: The number of members increased heavily and quickly. In almost all the Conferences, all the leaders participated. They have decided the following aspects : 1. The members should not join any military alliance. 2. The issues of the World should be estimated independently. The decision of the big powers should not be accepted blindly. 3. The freedom and territorial rights of the nations should be approved and recognised. 4. Non-interference in the internal problems of other Nations. 5. Adoption of the policies of peaceful co-existence and mutual co-operation and mutual co-operation with other Countries. 6. Abolition of imperialism of any kind. 7. Removal of Apartheld. 8. Complete elimination of the principle of aggression. 9. Creation of economic Co-operation and removal of economic inequalities on the basis of Internaional economic System. 10. Execution of World Peace, Disarmament and abolition of Nuclear Weapons.
Results: 1. Due to the non-alignment movement, the cold war tension has been reduced greatly. 2. Among the 160 World Nations, 102 Nations are adopting this Independent Policy. 3. This has weakened imperialistic big powers. 4. The strength of UNO has increased by the adoption of this policy. 5. There are ample scopes for settling the World issues by this way. For instance, the problem of Rhodesia was avoided due to the efforts of non-alligned countries. It also assisted the creation of uniform policy regarding apartheid. 6. They help each other in their economic development. The two major powers also support the non-aligned Countries without any hesitation.
The defects: (1) It tries to find an unity among the Countries of different Continents. So the disparities among them did not encourage them properly. (2) All the Countries do not have an Uniform Constitutional set up. Different forms of Government also prevail in them. So, it will be difficult to have an unanimous decision. (3) There are cultural and economic variations. The standard of life and history also differ. Anyhow this policy of non-alignment brings an unity. (4) Majority of the non-aligned Countries are economically backward Countries. They are forced to depend upon the super powers for the technical developments and economic prosperity. (5) Their Military strength is so weak. So, the Super powers can easily set aside the views of smaller nations. (6) The non-alignment movement is a mere resolution forming group and they have no strength or capacity to execute them. (7) The issues and problems among the non-alignment nations have also Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 135
weakened them. The Iran-Iraq War, the aggression of Kuwait by Iraq, Moracco-Algiers rift, Egypt-Arab States issues are suitable examples. The non-aligned countries could not settle those issues. (8) It is believed that the non-alignment countries are mostly the supporters of Russia. It is also accused that they condemn the views of America in an aggressive voice but pay no heed to Russia’s issue. (9) The free and independent foreign policy adopted by nations avoid unanimous opinions.
The future of non-alignment: The changing political trend arrests the need for non-alignment. There is no bi- polarisation. The two opposition groups have disappeared. The rivalry among the imperial and super powers have disappeared. The meeting of the American and Russian leaders have also reduced the tension. So, the need for the non-alignment has also reduced.
VIETNAM ISSUE Introduction: During the cold war period the Vietnam issue also complicated the problem. It is located in the Eastern part of Indo-China Peninsula. It consists of Annam, Tongking and Cochin, China, Cambodia and Laos. During the early 20th Century, they were the colonies of Britain. The opposition shown by the Vietnamese were all suppressed. In 1941, Ho-Chi-Min, the Communist leader formed an organisation for the liberation of Vietnam. It was known as Vietmin. It fought to remove the French rule.
II World War and Vietnam: In the II World War, when France surrendered to Germany. In 1940, Japan annexed Vietnam. The people of Vietnam treated the Japanese as foreigners. But the war of independence continued. On 11, March 1945 the Japanese gave freedom to Vietnam. Bavo-Tai was made as its ruler. But Japan surrender on 11, March 1945. On 2nd September 1945, the Democratic Republic of vietnam was created. Hanoy became its capital and Ho- Chi-Min was its President.
The decision of the Potsdom Conference: (1945) The leaders of the allied powers, met at Potsdom, decided the North Vietnam and South Vietnam should be kept by the Chinese and British armed forces respectively. So, the Chinese submitted their area to Vietnam and the British to the French.
Civil War (1946 – ’54) The French wanted to bring the entire Vietnam under its control. They did not recognise the Republic of Vietnam under Ho-chi-Min. But Russia, China and other Communist Countries approved it. America, Britain and West European Countries did not recognise it. After the II World War, there emerged a cold war between the U.S.A. and Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 136
U.S.S.R. and that had its own echo over the divided force of Vietnam also. France which decided to capture North Vietnam continued the War for eight long years. But they could not succeed even with the help of the Americans. In 1954, the Vietmin army besieged the Tian-Pion-bhu Fort. After 55 days it fell. So, the French sued for peace.
Geneve Conference (1954) To solve the Vietnam issue, this Conference was convened. Russia, China, Britain, France, USA etc. took part in it. The Indian representative V.K.Krishnamenon turned out a tremendous task for the success of it. The following decisions were taken : (1) France agreed to leave that Area. (2) Laos, Combodia, Vietnam etc. attained freedom. Laos and Combodia became neutral countries. (3) Vietnam was divided into two. While Ho-chi-Min was in- charge of North Vietnam. Tow Bavo-Tai rule was controlled by South Vietnam. (4) After 1956, it was decided to a form national government after plebescite. (5) A Board consisting of India, Poland and Canada was appointed.
Civil War again: The Geneva Conference did not create a permanent peace. No election was conducted. Both the powers accused each other. In South Vietnam which came under Dian Dhieum, it was a despotic rule. Being a Catholic Christian, he was opposed by the Buddhists. There prevailed chaos and confusion. In the South Vietnam, a new Nationalist front under the name ‘Vietkong’ was convened. They opposed the ruler.
American intervention: During cold war, America adopted the policy to avoid the spread of Communism. It had a vigilant watch over the spread. So, it came forward to support Dian Thiem against the Communists. It was an echo of the effects over Laos, Combodia, Thailand etc. So, it sent army and weapons to that area. 18,000 advisors were also sent. But the Communist instrusion could not be avoided. The American air crafts bombed the Cities. The Viet kongs attacked the warships of America at Tonkin gulf. So, North Vietnam was attacked by America. At Maylay 567 persons died. The Americans could not control the Communist supported North Vietnam.
Opposition to American support: The entire World looked at the efforts of North Vietnam with admiration. Majority of the World Nations supported Vietnam. America could not succeed in the War. America’s Vietnam policy was criticised and opposed. The American’s felt that their Country is wasting their money and energy at Vietnam.
Paris Peace Talks (1968 – 1973) American President Johnson wanted peace talks after stopping the War. Due to the efforts of the U.N.General Secretary UThant peace talks started. In USA, Nixon became Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 137
President. In North Vietnam, Ho-chi-Min died and he was succeeded by Dr.Dhas. On 27, January 1973, Peace Treaty was signed. The American Army left Vietnam. War was stopped. It was decided to unite Vietnam.
Vietnam Verification (1975) In 1974, North Vietnam and Vietkongs attacked South Vietnam against the peace of Paris. America condemned this and did not stop the War. During April 1975, Saigon, the Capital of South Vietnam fell. It was called as Ho-chi-Min Nagar. On 24, June 1976, both were united. Hanoi became its Capital.
Results of the Vietnam War: (1) It was a failure of the army and diplomacy of U.S.A. (2) America cannot control the spread of Communism in South West Asia. (3) The historical truth that no national power of people could be suppressed. (4) It caused a heavy damage to men and material on both sides. (5) The prestige of America was reduced. (6) UNO did not play any role in it.
COMMON WEALTH Introduction: Commonwealth is an unique Organisation. As pointed out by Nehru, people differ from continents, religion, life ways, race and feeling have been united into one and that is Commonwealth. It is a historical perspective. The Colonies of U.K. even after independence have their contact with it through this Organisation called Commonwealth.
History: In the 19th Century in the British empire, there was no sunset. Its empire was a well spread one in all the Continents, big seas and islands. At places like Australia, Canada, Newzealand, South Africa and British settled. In Countries like India, Burma, Srilanka, Rhodesia, Gold Coast, Ghuayana etc. they created their Colonies.
Durham Report: By this report, the settlements such as Canada, South Africa, Australia etc. had the right of independence in their internal affairs. (1) Balfour Report: By the Balfour Report of 1926, they became independent states. But they agreed to show allegiance to the British crown. (2) West Minister Act: This Act passed in 1931 declared their independence in all respects including army, foreign relations etc. But they lived as Commonwealth due to their support to British crown. (3) Indian Independence: Upto that time, the British settlements were treated as Commonwealth nations. But after 1947, i.e. after Indian independence the position changed. India did not want to give up all her contacts with Britain. It wanted to continue that relationship as a member of the Commonwealth. Because of that, the word ‘British’ Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 138
was removed from the British common wealth of nations. It became a body of the nations voluntary acceptance. Many Asian and African states relieved from the clutches of Britain became members of the Common wealth. It was left to the option of the States. Burma, Somaliland, Sudan etc. were not members in it.
Special features: (1) British crown: British crown is treated as the Chief symbol of the Commonwealth of nations. (2) It is an Organisation of States having total sovereignty. They form their own Government and follow their own policies. They need not have unanimous opinions regarding issues. (3) All members are treated equally and they have equal status. No special rights or prerogatives are given to anybody. (4) The States have become members on their own individual accord. They have no coercion or compulsion. They can get out it at their own will. In 1961, South Africa left the Common wealth due to the problem of apartheid. In 1971, Pakistan became a non-member when Bangladesh was recognised by many nations. (5) It is not associated with any other big power of imperial power. It is not controlled by the British Government. It is not an Union. It has no constitution of its own. It has no agreement or treaty. It functions on customs and traditions based on an unwritten constitution. The issues among the member nations are not brought here. (6) It finds an unity among diversities. They have become members only on the ground that they have been part of British empire.
Structure: 1. The British crown is the integrated symbol of the Commonwealth. 2. (a) The meeting of the leaders of the Commonwealth takes place once in two years. (b) In that meeting, the members exchange their ideas about international situations. The 24th Conference was held at Delhi in 1983 under the Chairmanship of Mrs.Indira Gandhi. The 25th Conference in 1985 met at Nassav, the capital of Bahamas. The 26th Conference was convened at Voncoover, capital of Canada in 1987. In 1989, the 27th conference met at Kualalumpur. The 28th conference took place at Harere of Zimbabve. In 1995, it met at Auckland and in 1997 it met at Edinburg. In 1987, Fiji islands were removed from the Commonwealth. In 1989 and 1992, Pakistan and South Africa became members again. The Conference in 1999 met at Turban. 54 member states participated in it. 3. The Secretariat of the Commonwealth functions from London. It makes arrangements for the Conference and integrates its activities. 4. The Parliament of the Commonwealth, the economic council are the other wings of the Commonwealth. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 139
It conducts common wealth sports meets after every four years. It conducts conferences to deal with other aspects such as education, health etc.
The uses: (1) It serves as an organisation without any disparities such as language, continent, race, ideas etc. So, it serves as a reflection of the UNO. (2) It paves the way for arriving at conclusions by peace talks. (3) It has made arrangements for bi-lateral trade agreements among nations. They assist the economic development of the members. (4) The ambassadors of the member nations are known as High Commissioners. (5) In 1950, it created the economic plan called the Colombo plan. It helps the undeveloped an underdeveloped countries. By this Scheme, nearly 22,000 million pounds have been spent so far. It has given technical assistance to the tune of Rs.30 million. (6) The devote much attention in maintaining the cultural and traditional values of the member nations. It denies to approve nation which emerged due to military coup. In 1993, it removed Nigeria from the Common wealth. But, it was readmitted in 1998 when democracy was revived. The same thing occurred in Pakistan and Fiji islands.
The Commonwealth and international relations: With the fall of the prestige of Britain in the international arena, the Commonwealth also met with a retrogression. As it has no specific political or economic goal, it could not achieve anything. The members have no uniform opinion about disarmament, collective security etc. The members will not interfere in the internal problems of another member. After Britain’s entry into the European common market, it cannot extend large scale economic supports to its members. Its functions are mere club activities. It is unable to settle its issue among its members. But it must be remembered that it is an Organisation which is for the Unity of the Nations.
SOUTH ASIAN ASSOCIATION FOR REGIONAL CO-OPERATION (SAARC) Introduction: UN Charter’s 52nd Article accepts the creation of regional alliances. They help each other to promote cultural, economic prosperities of others. It will promote the welfare of all. The diplomatic, political alliances also known as military pacts will be one of this. This economic alliance will be another form. The European Economic Community, Organisation of American Union, Organisation of American States etc. could be cited suitable examples for this. SAARC also could be treated as one among them.
Origin: The SAARC emerged mainly for the economic welfare of the nations. India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, Srilanka and Maldives are the seven nations included in it. For the economic development and to enhance standard of living of the people this came into being. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 140
The President of Bangladesh Mr.Ershad stressed the need for such an Organisation. So, in 1985 May the foreign ministers of the seven states met at Timbu and made arrangements to establish this. The first SAARC Conference met at Dacca on 7, 8 December 1985. This Conference approved the SAARC charter.
SAARC Charter: The leaders of the Countries like Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Sri Lanka, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan wanted to promote UNO, Sovereignty of the non-aligned countries, territorial integration, recognition of the foreign policies of other nations, world peace, co- ordination etc.
Since every nation has to depend upon the other every one of them should recognise peace, freedom, social justice, economy, wealth and prosperity. The South Asian Countries which have historical and cultural unity should understand each other and must improve their relations for their welfare and development.
The South Asian nations should indulge in the efforts of development for their mutual benefits. The idea of national dependency should also be created among themselves. The co-operation, relationships, exchanges and friendship are the basic factors among the members. They are all mentioned in the preamble of the charter of the SAARC.
Aims: 1. Promotion of the welfare and standard of living of the people of South Asian nations. 2. Through economic development enhancing the growth, efficiency and utilise them totally. 3. Promoting collective security. 4. Approaching each others, problems by mutual understanding of all. Viewing the problems of others in a humanitarian way. 5. Mutual assistance and help in economic, social, cultural and technical spheres. 6. Strentgthening co-operative activities among the developing and other countries. 7. In maintaining the common welfare encouraging international co-operation. 8. Co-operating with the regional associations in this regard.
Structure and functions: (1) A council of the foreign ministers of the seven states should be created and that should adopt the following works: (a) Framing the principles. (b) Reviewing the progress of the activities. (c) Searching and including new avenues. (d) Creation of centres of functioning. (e) Taking decisions on the common welfare of the nations. (2) The meeting of the heads of states should held once in a year. (3) The decisions in all aspects should be
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 141
unanimous. (4) The individual and personal issues of a member state should not be discussed.
Conference: Conference I : (1) it met at Dacca in 1985 under the presidentship of Ershad. (2) it approved the charter of the SAARC. (3) It decided to have co-operative and endeavours in fields such as agriculture, village development, population, health, information and publicity, science and technology, transport, space research, sports and culture, avoidance of intoxicants and women development. (4) It appointed a committee to avoid terrorism.
Conference II: (1) Met in 1986 at Bangalore under the chairmanship of Rajiv Gandhi, the then Indian Prime Minister. (2) (a) It decided to establish a permanent secretariat for SAARC at Katmandu and that started to function from January 1987. (b) Abul Hassan of Bangladesh was its secretary. (c) He was expected to be in Office for two years. (3) For the sake of co- operation, the following items were included : (a) Exchange of schemes relating to atomic energy. (b) Promotion of tourism. (c) Creation of archieves. (d) Exchange of students and researchers.
Conference III: (1) Met in 1987 November at Katmandu under the presidentship of the King of Nepal. (2) it insisted on the co-operation of the members of suppressing terrorism. (3) For the sake of South Asian Association, two lakh tons of rice, wheat and other grains should be preserved. (4) India readily agreed to give 1,53,200 tons of grains. (5) (a) Co-operation should be made available among people. (b) for that it decided to establish a people to people move. (6) It decided to have co-operation in the following areas : Trade and handicrafts, relief measures during accidents, environmental pollution protection.
Conference IV: (1) It met at Islamabad in December 1988 under the chairmanship of Benazir Bhutto, the Prime Minister of Pakistan. (2) The following decisions were taken then. (a) To reduce the expense for army and weapons. (b) The abolition of terrorism. (c) To have unified resources for the development of the basic needs of the people. (d) To issue SAARC passport to the parliament members, Chief Justices of the nations. It was decided to expand it to others gradually. (e) Pakistan came forward to establish a centre of Human resources development. It was created to encourage SAARC – 2000 scheme. (f) The attempts to use force was condemned. (g) It celebrated the year 1989 as the year of ‘Indoxicants Preventive year’. (h) In 1990 celebrated as the year of female children. (i) It celebrated the South Asian sports festival in India.
Conference V: It met at Maldiv under the Presidentship of Khayum in 1900.
Conference VI: It was convened at Colombo in 1993 and Premadasa presided over it. It discussed the co-operation in the field of economics. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 142
Confernce VII: Met at Dacca under the Presidentship Sheik Hassina of Bangladesh in 1993.
Conference VIII: Met at New Delhi in 1995 under the Chairmanship of Narasimha Rao of India and that discussed about the special trade rights among the members of the SAARC.
Conference IX: It took place at Maldives in 1997 under the Presidentship of Khayum. It suggested free trade among members before 2001.
Conference X: Met at Colombo in 1998 and Chandrika of Srilanka presided over it.
Special activities: The activities are carried out with specific measures. (1) Research for utilising revised resources was arranged at Pakistan. (2) To give training in the decentralised village development programme and administration, a team was imported from Bangladesh. (3) Seminar on land resumption was convened at Delhi. (4) At Bangladesh, a seminar was conducted to deal with the welfare of the Village Children. (5) Regional Space Research activities were carried out at India and Srilanka. (6) Special SAARC Quiz programmes and sports festivals are arranged.
Estimate: It has not achieved anything tangible. It took stern measures against terrorism. It tried to inculcate the spirit of co-operation among the members. It tries to eliminate the hurdles which obstruct political co-operation. India is accused for its big brother attitude over the other members. It restricted the anti-Presidential activities at Maldives. They attempt Co-operation in Socio-cultural aspects.
THE RECENT INTERNATIONAL HAPPENINGS (A) The East Dimmor issue: It is one of the islands of South East Asia. It was a Portuguese Colony. The Western part of it was a part of Indonesia. It covers an area of 14,874 KMs. It has a population of 5,87,000 people of 75% of them were Christians. The natives wanted freedom from Portuguese.
In 1970, when the rule of Salasser came to an end in Portugal, there was confusion in the politics. In 1975, Portugal got out from Dimmor. Indonesia did not like the independence of that area. So, it created an interim government there. In 1976 it was annexed as a province of Indonesia. UNO and World nations refused to accept this annexation. The people started a revolutionary party called Brattalin. The revolutionary societies opposed Indonesia. The Dimmorian Democratic union was created and that continued gureilla warfare. There was no peace. It was affected by famine. In 1983, UNO approved the self determination of that country. Catholic Bishop Carlos Filipi Shimanosvello Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 143
and Jossramoss Horda wanted to settle this issue by peace. So, they were awarded Nobel Prize in 1997. In 1998, the rule of Sukarto in Indonesia come to an end, after 35 years, due to student’s agitation. In 1999, a plebescite was arranged by UNO and 75% of the people opted for the independence of Dimmor. Indonesian army left Dimmor. It was an issue settled by UNO.
(B) Bosnian Crisis: After the First World War, Yogoslavia emerged as an Independent State. It became a Communist Country under Marshall Titto. But it did not come under the iron curtain and adopted a neutral policy. In 1990, due to the fall of Communism Yugoslavia also divided into six divisions called Slovania, Grocia, Serbia, Bosnia, Hersegovina and Kossova. Now, it is functioning as five separate states.
After 1993 when Slovania and Grocia attained independence Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted their freedom. But due to racial issues it was not at all possible. There was 44% Muslims, 31% Catholics and 17% Crotes. The Crotes and Catholics wanted whom Independent Bosnia. But, the Serbians opposed it. They wanted united living with Yugoslavia. On 29 February 1992, a plebescite was arranged at Bosnia to know about its independence.
The Serbians neglected it. Since 79% of the people liked freedom, Bosnia declared its independence. The Serbians opposed it and attacked the people of Bosna. Civil war broke out. The Muslims were affected. Muslims and Crotes were driven out of Bosnia. Nearly 25% of the people of Yugoslavia were refugees.
The Muslims and Crotes of Bosnia were imprisioned. Nearly 1,05,000 people were arrested and imprisoned in the 94 refugee camps. Even basic requirements were not provided. Red Cross Society and other voluntary agencies could not help them. So, an UN Peace Force was sent to Bosnia. 14,000 Soldiers, 530 Police Officials and 519 Adminsitrative Officials were sent. Satheesh Nambiar was an Indian President over the UN forces. But, due to the Serbian activities Bosnian activities of UNO were delayed. Economic barrier was imposed on Yugoslavia.
On 21 November 1995, at Daiden in America a Peace Treaty was signed among them. The American Foreign Secretary Warren Christopher and Richard Halbrook were responsible for this. But, the treaty was not totally put into practice. All the parties accused each other. Terrorism and disturbances continued. Now there is peace due to the efforts of the forces of NATO. Nearly 2.5 lakhs of Bosnians were killed. 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina are left with Muslims and Crotes. 49% is occupied by the Serbs.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 144
(c) Kossova crisis: Due to the fall of Yugoslavia, the Kossova issue also started. In 1389, Kossova became a part of Ottoman Turks. It is populated by Muslims. They were belonging to Albanian race. In 1991, when Yugoslavia was affected it was felt that Kossova will become independent. But, it did not take place. Only in 1995, they fought for their freedom. They involved in guerilla tactics.
The Serbians were particular in disallowing Kossova’s independence. They were involved in terrorism. The Kossova Muslims were affected by this. They ran away of Albania and Macedonia. At Macedonia, there were nine lakhs of refugees. The European Union advised that Yugoslavia should give self rule to the people of Kossova. Kossova was also asked to accept self rule by giving up of their agitations. Kossova was to give up its fight for independence. The President of Yogoslavia murdered nearly 3000 Kossav people within three months.
So, the European Union decided to take military action on Yugoslavia. The cities were attacked by the NATO army. Properties were damaged. Loss of life was also heavy. Now there is peace.
(D) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty: Since the spread of atomic energy was a danger to mankind steps were taken to prevent them. In 1963, the complete Test Ban treaty was signed. In 1968, the Non Proliferation treaty was signed. All the nations did not sign them. Particularly China and France refused.
In 1994, a Conference was convened at Geneva to avoid atomic weapons totally. America requested to form a treaty on that line. But, China and France refused to sign that resolution. Any-how a draft treaty was prepared. According to that, (a) No atomic tests should be executed under water, land or air. (b) The nations who have the knowledge of atomic energy should not exchange that with other powers.
But, France executed its tests from September 1995 to January 1996 in the South Pacific Region. They were happy that they have achieved their limit in the use of atomic energy. They were ready even to sign the CTBT.
In 1996, September a resolution was submitted in the General Assembly regarding nuclear weapons test. 158 stood in favour of the resolution. Only India, Bhutan and Libya opposed it.
India’s foreign policy was for the creation of the World without atomic energy. India insists that Atomic energy should be used for promotion and development of mankind. This Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 145
was the system followed even during the time of Nehru. Even then, India refuse to sign the treaty due to the following reasons : (1) It was not a total ban treaty. This is mainly due to the possibility of Computer simulations. As the decision can be made by a Computer, this is not accepted by India. (2) No decision has been taken to destroy the bombs and other weapons already prepared. (3) If the atomic weapons are not destroyed it will create two sets of nations viz, the nations having atomic weapons and nations which do not possess atomic weapons. (4) it is a matter pertaining to the security of India. While a neighbour state is having the capacity to produce atomic weapons, it will not be fair and justifiable on the part of India to sign a treaty. So, it is difficult to know whether CTBT will be put into practice or not.
(E) North Ireland The six districts of the North Eastern Ireland are known as Alster. Its total population is 15,78,000 and it is a part of Britain. In 1922, when Ireland attained freedom Alster became a part of Britain. Mainly on religious grounds, they wanted to be with Britain. But, the people of Ireland were so particular in having that area with them. They involved in terrorist activities. The Irish liberation army wanted peace by calling themselves as Sin-Bien political party. On 1998, Good Friday peace was signed. Alster was given Independence. A Council was appointed to look after its administrative affairs.
THE RECENT INTERNATIONAL HAPPENINGS (A) The East Dimmor issue: It is one of the islands of South East Asia. It was a Portuguese Colony. The Western part of it was a part of Indonesia. It covers an area of 14,874 KMs. It has a population of 5,87,000 people of 75% of them were Christians. The natives wanted freedom from Portuguese.
In 1970, when the rule of Salasser came to an end in Portugal, there was confusion in the politics. In 1975, Portugal got out from Dimmor. Indonesia did not like the independence of that area. So, it created an interim government there. In 1976 it was annexed as a province of Indonesia. UNO and World nations refused to accept this annexation. The people started a revolutionary party called Brattalin. The revolutionary societies opposed Indonesia. The Dimmorian Democratic union was created and that continued gureilla warfare. There was no peace. It was affected by famine. In 1983, UNO approved the self determination of that country. Catholic Bishop Carlos Filipi Shimanosvello and Jossramoss Horda wanted to settle this issue by peace. So, they were awarded Nobel Prize in 1997. In 1998, the rule of Sukarto in Indonesia come to an end, after 35 years, due to student’s agitation. In 1999, a plebescite was arranged by UNO and 75% of the people opted for the independence of Dimmor. Indonesian army left Dimmor. It was an issue settled by UNO.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 146
(B) Bosnian Crisis: After the First World War, Yogoslavia emerged as an Independent State. It became a Communist Country under Marshall Titto. But it did not come under the iron curtain and adopted a neutral policy. In 1990, due to the fall of Communism Yugoslavia also divided into six divisions called Slovania, Grocia, Serbia, Bosnia, Hersegovina and Kossova. Now, it is functioning as five separate states.
After 1993 when Slovania and Grocia attained independence Bosnia and Herzegovina wanted their freedom. But due to racial issues it was not at all possible. There was 44% Muslims, 31% Catholics and 17% Crotes. The Crotes and Catholics wanted whom Independent Bosnia. But, the Serbians opposed it. They wanted united living with Yugoslavia. On 29 February 1992, a plebescite was arranged at Bosnia to know about its independence.
The Serbians neglected it. Since 79% of the people liked freedom, Bosnia declared its independence. The Serbians opposed it and attacked the people of Bosna. Civil war broke out. The Muslims were affected. Muslims and Crotes were driven out of Bosnia. Nearly 25% of the people of Yugoslavia were refugees.
The Muslims and Crotes of Bosnia were imprisioned. Nearly 1,05,000 people were arrested and imprisoned in the 94 refugee camps. Even basic requirements were not provided. Red Cross Society and other voluntary agencies could not help them. So, an UN Peace Force was sent to Bosnia. 14,000 Soldiers, 530 Police Officials and 519 Adminsitrative Officials were sent. Satheesh Nambiar was an Indian President over the UN forces. But, due to the Serbian activities Bosnian activities of UNO were delayed. Economic barrier was imposed on Yugoslavia.
On 21 November 1995, at Daiden in America a Peace Treaty was signed among them. The American Foreign Secretary Warren Christopher and Richard Halbrook were responsible for this. But, the treaty was not totally put into practice. All the parties accused each other. Terrorism and disturbances continued. Now there is peace due to the efforts of the forces of NATO. Nearly 2.5 lakhs of Bosnians were killed. 51% of Bosnia and Herzegovina are left with Muslims and Crotes. 49% is occupied by the Serbs.
(c) Kossova crisis: Due to the fall of Yugoslavia, the Kossova issue also started. In 1389, Kossova became a part of Ottoman Turks. It is populated by Muslims. They were belonging to Albanian race. In 1991, when Yugoslavia was affected it was felt that Kossova will become independent. But, it did not take place. Only in 1995, they fought for their freedom. They involved in guerilla tactics.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 147
The Serbians were particular in disallowing Kossova’s independence. They were involved in terrorism. The Kossova Muslims were affected by this. They ran away of Albania and Macedonia. At Macedonia, there were nine lakhs of refugees. The European Union advised that Yugoslavia should give self rule to the people of Kossova. Kossova was also asked to accept self rule by giving up of their agitations. Kossova was to give up its fight for independence. The President of Yogoslavia murdered nearly 3000 Kossav people within three months.
So, the European Union decided to take military action on Yugoslavia. The cities were attacked by the NATO army. Properties were damaged. Loss of life was also heavy. Now there is peace.
(D) Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty: Since the spread of atomic energy was a danger to mankind steps were taken to prevent them. In 1963, the complete Test Ban treaty was signed. In 1968, the Non Proliferation treaty was signed. All the nations did not sign them. Particularly China and France refused.
In 1994, a Conference was convened at Geneva to avoid atomic weapons totally. America requested to form a treaty on that line. But, China and France refused to sign that resolution. Any-how a draft treaty was prepared. According to that, (a) No atomic tests should be executed under water, land or air. (b) The nations who have the knowledge of atomic energy should not exchange that with other powers.
But, France executed its tests from September 1995 to January 1996 in the South Pacific Region. They were happy that they have achieved their limit in the use of atomic energy. They were ready even to sign the CTBT. In 1996, September a resolution was submitted in the General Assembly regarding nuclear weapons test. 158 stood in favour of the resolution. Only India, Bhutan and Libya opposed it.
India’s foreign policy was for the creation of the World without atomic energy. India insists that Atomic energy should be used for promotion and development of mankind. This was the system followed even during the time of Nehru. Even then, India refuse to sign the treaty due to the following reasons : (1) It was not a total ban treaty. This is mainly due to the possibility of Computer simulations. As the decision can be made by a Computer, this is not accepted by India. (2) No decision has been taken to destroy the bombs and other weapons already prepared. (3) If the atomic weapons are not destroyed it will create two sets of nations viz, the nations having atomic weapons and nations which do not possess atomic weapons. (4) it is a matter pertaining to the security of India. While a neighbour state is having the capacity to produce atomic weapons, it will not be fair and justifiable on Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 148
the part of India to sign a treaty. So, it is difficult to know whether CTBT will be put into practice or not.
(E) North Ireland The six districts of the North Eastern Ireland are known as Alster. Its total population is 15,78,000 and it is a part of Britain. In 1922, when Ireland attained freedom Alster became a part of Britain. Mainly on religious grounds, they wanted to be with Britain. But, the people of Ireland were so particular in having that area with them. They involved in terrorist activities. The Irish liberation army wanted peace by calling themselves as Sin-Bien political party. On 1998, Good Friday peace was signed. Alster was given Independence. A Council was appointed to look after its administrative affairs.
THE GULF WAR Introduction: There are so many gulfs available in the world. With regard to international relation, the gulf means only the Persian Gulf. The Persian Gulf was not at all a fertile region. It is one of the barren soils of the world. But today, it is the wealthiest place. It is mainly because of the availability of petroleum in that region. So, it captivated the attention of the big powers. Even a small incident which occurs in that place draws the attention of the world. The Gulf Countries: (1) Saudi Arabia is the most significant country which receives an annual income of 33,500 million dollars. (2) Kuwait is the next country which has an annual income of 8,500 million dollars. (3) Iraq receives an income of 22,000 million dollars a year. (4) Iran is the thickly populated gulf country. It gains an annual income of 8,500 million dollars a year. (5) The United Arab Emirate consists of Abudhabi, Dubai, Sharjah etc. Seven Sheikhs are ruling. It also received an annual income of 7,000 million dollars.
Oil diplomacy: Oil is not only the main source of income of the Gulf countries, but also the cause for the political uplift of those countries. This oil politics plays a significant role in the nations of the diplomatic world. When there was a problem between the Arab countries and Isreal, oil was used as a weapon. So to trouble the western countries which supported Israel, oil was used a means. By restricting the export of oil and enhancing the prices of oil, they gave a lot of troubles.
The Gulf crisis (1990 – ’91): Kuwait: The cause of the gulf war was oil. Upto the 19th century, Iraq and Kuwait were the provinces of the Ottoman Turks. Kuwait was in the Bangra province. It became an independent country under the Shaik of Sabha race. But, due to the fear of Turkey in 1981, Kuwait came under the protection of Britain. When Turkey was defeated in the first world Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 149
war, according to the treaty of Laussane Kuwait was declared as an independent state. Iraq became a mandated territory under Britain. In 1923, the Iraq, Kuwait, boundaries were demarcated.
Iraq-Kuwait issues: When both were kept under the control of Britain, there was no problem. In 1932, Iraq attained independence from the Mandate of Britain. So, it immediately claimed its right over Kuwait. But as Kuwait was under the protection of Britain, Iraq could not do anything.
In 1961, Britain gave up its protectorate over Kuwait, which became an independent country. Anyhow, it had its treaty with Britain. Iraq even now claimed rights over Kuwait. But, the Arab countries approved the independence of Kuwait. In 1963, the new Iraq government approved the freedom of Kuwait. Kuwait became a member of the UNO. In 1981, Kuwait was the country which was having the highest per capital income. The oil wealth of Kuwait, induced Iraq. In 1973, the army of Iraq captured some of the border lands of Kuwait. But, when it was retorted, Iraq withdrew. In 1980, when the Iran-Iraq war started Kuwait had a temporary relief. During the Iran – Iraq war, Kuwait supported Iraq and offered more than 30,000 Crores of rupees.
Aggression by Iraq: Iran-Iraq war came to an end i 1988. In this eight years war, Iraq did not achieve anything. It faced loss and financial debts. It was essential to find out ways and means for improving the economic resources. So, Iraq concentrated on Kuwait. There were other reasons also.
(1) Sadam Hussain, the head of Iraq wanted to be the leader of the Arab countries. He purchased weapons from Russia. The Iraq’s armed strength increased. (2) The opposition of Iraq against Kuwait’s independence was also favourable to him. (3) He satisfied himself by saying that it will not be wrong to annex Kuwait which was a part of Iraq once. (4) When Kuwait and United Arab Emirates produced more oil, there was a fall in the price of oil. This affected Iraq. In the OPEC when Iraq stressed the rise in the price of oil, Kuwait opposed it. (5) Iraq accused Kuwait that it had stolen oil worth of Rs.4,500 crore. So, it sent its forces to the borders of Kuwait. So, to protect Kuwait, American Navy attacked the Persian gulf. This created a tension.
To reduce the tension, the representation of these two countries met at Jettah during July 1990. Kuwait demanded compensation from Iraq. The loan borrowed from Kuwait was expected to be wiped off. Kuwait agreed to this and requested Iraq to sign a treaty. When Iraq refused the talks met with a failure. In 1990, Iraq’s aggression over
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 150
Kuwait took place, Kuwait was treated as the 19th provinces of Iraq. Thus it is obvious that the financial crisis of Iraq and her avariciousness caused the annexation of Kuwait.
Action of UNO: This aggression was brought to the notice of the security council of the UNO. It requested to stop the war and to withdraw the armed forces. Sadam Hussain did not accept such things. He informed that only when all the aggressions in west Asia are removed he will oblidge. He also refused to reconsider the views about Kuwait.
So, Iraq was brought under the economic blockade of the UNO. An army of USA was sent to Saudhi to look after the economic blockade. Such activities did not curtail the adamant nature of Sadam Hussain. So, an ultimaturn was given upto 15th January 1991. If Iraq failed to withdraw her force from Kuwait, aggression will be removed by the arms of other nations. So, 28 nations under USA formed an army.
Iraq: On January 15th, the deadline given came to an end. On 17th, the UN army started the Operation Desert Storm. Iraq used the rocket called scud over Israel and Saudi Arabia. But, America supplied the ‘patriot’ to counter the attack of scuds. But, Sadam Hussain did not worry. He felt that an attack over Israel will enable the country to enter the war. But the UN force and the Arabs will not accept it. So, there will be schism in the army of UNO. Further he underestimated the qualities of USA. He felt that he can give gain the support of Palestine by accepting their needs. By Islamic faith, the support of Islamic nations can be obtained. He also expected that the death of 6,000 American soldiers will make her to surrender. During February 24, the infantry started its attack. Within 100 hours, Sadam stopped the war and asked the enemies to surrender. He announced that he will withdraw from Kuwait on 28th of February.
Results of the war: The 40 days war made Iraq as a graveyard. 20,000 Iraq ‘s were murdered. 60,000 soldiers were wounded. 300 women and children were killed in the trenches. 1,20,000 crore dollar worth of buildings were destroyed. The President of Iraq was to be removed from power. It was decided to destroy the army of Iraq. Iraq on its part burnt the oil wells. This was a victory for George Bush of America. It was revealed that UNO served as a puppet in the hands of U.S.A. Russia did not take serious part in the war due to her internal problems. It insisted that all the efforts should be take to solve the problems of West Asia.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 151
OIL DIPLOMACY OF THE ARAB COUNTRIES Introduction: Like the various ways and means used for influencing one nation, oil is also a source with regard to Arab countries. Diplomacy, financial assistance, talks, ambassadorial approaches etc. were certain measures. The Arab countries use oil as a weapon.
Need for oil: For transport, development of industries and development of science and technology, oil has become a significant aspect. For development of culture also, oil is needed. During the II World War, the axis powers failed mainly due to the non-availability of sufficient oil. Germany invaded Russia mainly due to the latter’s oil resources. Petroleum is hailed as blackgold. It is not available in all the countries and all parts of the world. Even the West European countries such as Britain and Germany and the Far Eastern nation Japan suffers due to lack of oil resources. The Middle Eastern countries, Russia, America, Venezulea etc. have this natural wealth. The Middle Eastern countries like Saudhi Arabia, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait etc. are the countries which have more than 1/3 of the oil wealth of the world. So, the imperialistic big powers concentrate on them.
In America, the demand for petroleum is more than the availability. As the stock position of oil is also deteriorating Laurence Disney has informed that we are fighting for oil. Another scholar has warned that but for Russia all the other nations have to depend upon the Gulf countries for their oil needs. So, oil plays a significant role in promoting the diplomacy of the middle eastern countries.
The Supremacy of the Western Imperialism: After the First World War on the basis of Mandatory system, Britain and France entered there. The availability of oil was brought to their notice. So, they were particular in defending the oil supremacy. Britain had already picked up a quarrel with Turkey due to the availability of oil at Mosuls.
The Arab countries though had oil, were unable to have the technical assistance to export them. The investment of capital at the initial stage was not upto the standard. So such investments were undertaken by American, Britain and French companies. In 1993, when oil was discovered at Saudhi Arabia, an American Company got all the rights for extracting and exporting oil. In Persia, the Anglo-Iran companies attained a lot of privileges. This firm was not more powerful even than the government. Its headquarters was located at London. Small country of the Persian gulf such as Kuwait was also brought under the control of Western powers.
After the II World War, there was a political awakening in the nations. They were able to understand the ways and means of the western powers in sucking their oil wealth. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 152
They were of the opinion that control on oil alone will be the way for their political suzerainty. It was clear that it was the root cause for economic achievements.
Success of oil politics: Israel was the enemy of the Arab states in western Asia. The Israelites who had already developed in science and technology gained economic aid from USA and developed their country. They were capable of defeating the Arab countries which were large in size and population. Particularly in the war fought between 1967 and 1973 Israel won it. The Arab countries realised that the support rendered by America and Western states were mainly responsible for their success. As they were aware of the fact that they can win them in the war they decided to utilise oil as a weapon.
In 1960, the 13 countries which produced and exported oil formed an organisation called OPEC. Among the 13, nine states formed a separate committee in 1968. They decided to have an integrated functioning in all matters. Oil politics was converted into a diplomatic policy and decided to bring the western countries to accept their views.
In the Arab-Israel war fought in 1973, America, Netherland, Denmark, Germany, Japan etc supported Israel. So, economic barrier was issued on Arab countries. This affected America and other countries. They accepted that Israel should vacate the areas of aggression. It was also decided to reduce 5% of oil production till Israel vacated.
During July 1989, Jerusalem was announced as the capital of Isreal. It wounded the religious and national feeling of the Arabs. So, the Arab countries warned the other nations which sent their ambassadors to Jerusalem. Netherland without minding the warnings established its embassy at Jerusalem. So the oil barrier was imposed on Netherland and it conceded.
Arab countries also affected the Western countries by raising the oil price. In 1974, the rate of uncleaned crude oil was increased from 241 dollars to 1065 dollars per barrel. Finally it reached 3500 dollars during the war. It was a heavy burden for the developing countries like India.
The political problems of west Asia affected the export of oil. In 1956, when there was a problem in the Suez canal, the export was affected. Further in 1980 due to the Iran- Iraq war, the oil production of that area was affected. It has its own echo over the Western countries.
Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 153
I. NEW TECHNIQUES IN THE INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS Introduction: The relations at the international level will not be uniform at all times. It is changing frequently. The scientific and technical growth has allowed such changes. When the super powers involve in aggression, the other nations could not avoid it.
In 1982, when Britain captured Falkland island near Argentina beyond 6000 miles, the other nations kept quite. Russia and few non-aligned countries condemned it. In the same way when the Russian army went into Afghanisthan, the western countries opposed it.
It will be much difficult to have any alliances with any nation which do not have Ambassadorial contacts. When China attacked Korea, Vietnam and India, there was no scope for talks with China. But, after Kissinger’s visit to China in 1970, position began to change. In 1971, the visit of Nixon to China led to the creation of embassies in China.
The absence of international rules and understandings means uncourteous acts of nations. In 1980, the Iranians kept the American embassy members as hostages.
The introduction of communism was felt as a permanent measure. After the fall of Russia, this position has changed. The East European powers have given up their communist faith.
There was a rivalry between Moscow and Peking with regard to communism. Both the powers informed that they have powers to interpret Marxism.
In 1986, when Breshnav introduced reform measures through his policies, he met will failure and dug the grave for communist Russia. But, it fought the cold war to an end. This bipolar politics came to an end. The two German divisions were united. The question of the existence of non-alignment has become a question now. In Palestine peace has been recovered. The Sattelite age has brought new technical revolution in various fields of progress. That too has its own echo over international relations. The states and people have begun to thing about mankind and international brotherhood. The atomic energy and petroleum products affect the environments. The intoxicants have also captivated united action for its removal. Terrorism is also another measure which had brought the nations nearer to each other for avoiding that.
Prepared by Dr. M. SEKAR Head & Associate Professor of History P.M.T. College Melaneelithanallur – 627 953, Sankarankovil, Tirunelveli. Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Tirunelveli. 154