Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC): Implications for the National Development Plan Mpumalanga le diprofinsi tse ding moo ho (NDP) of 2011 bapisonang ditshebeletso tsa bolulo le moruo ka hara masepala e mets’elela ka palo. Diphetho tsa taba tsena di bontsha tshebeletso Christine Khoza & Lodene Willemse tsa bolulo le moruo ka hare ho MDC di le betere ho feta tsa Mpumalanga, hape hape ho bonahala ditshebeletso tsa MDC di hlile di le ka hodimo dimo ho feta diprofinsi tse ding; sena Peer reviewed and revised se bontsha katleho ea projeke ea MDC. Ho fetisisa, bo masepala ba bontshitseng ho ba le ditshebeletso tsa moruo ka selemo sa 1996, (e Abstract leng Emalahleni, Steve Tshwete le Mbombela) ba bontshitse ba tswelapele ho atleha le The economic successes of the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) project ka 2011 le ha be lematsa bo masepala ba demonstrate that corridor development can provide solutions to economic development futsaneileng (joalo ka Nkomazi, Victor Khayne in landlocked African countries. However, the National Development Plan (NDP) (2011) le Emakhazeni) ho atleha ka mokho ba cites a lack of employment opportunities and under-maintained infrastructure among atlehang ka teng. Dipuisano tsa hore na NDP the inhibitors of economic development, including the area within the MDC, where (2011) e amme hakae e teng mona. infrastructure maintenance has, in fact, been praised. This article aims to establish the socio-economic performance of the MDC region between 1996 and 2011, by comparing it to Mpumalanga and the other provinces, and comparing the socio- 1. INTRODUCTION economic performance of the six MDC municipalities with each other. Results indicate that the socio-economic performance of the MDC region is consistently better than Transport corridor development is viewed Mpumalanga and, in certain cases, the region even outperforms the other provinces, as a means of enhancing economic thus demonstrating the success of the MDC project. Furthermore, the municipalities that development in landlocked African showed stronger economic potential in 1996 (Emalahleni, Steve Tshwete and Mbombela) countries. The South African Development continued to prosper in 2011 at the expense of the poorer municipalities (Nkomazi, Victor Community signed an agreement in 2008 Khayne and Emakhazeni). Policy implications for the NDP (2011) are discussed. to introduce policies that would promote free trade in the region (Roodt, 2008: 91). This agreement may well have sprung SOSIO-EKONOMIESE PRESTASIE VAN MUNISIPALITEITE LANGS DIE from observations of certain economic MAPUTO ONTWIKKELINGSKORRIDOR (MOK): IMPLIKASIES VIR DIE successes in the Maputo Development NASIONALE ONTWIKKELINGSPLAN (NOP) VAN 2011 Corridor (MDC), which is regarded as the pioneering project of the Spatial Die ekonomiese suksesse van die Maputo Ontwikkelingskorridor (MOK)-projek dra by tot die idee dat korridorontwikkeling oplossings vir die ekonomiese ontwikkling van Development Initiatives (SDIs) (1996) omringende Afrikalande kan bied. Nietemin noem die Nasionale OntwikklingsPlan (NOP) (Rogerson, 2001: 324) that followed (2011) dat die gebrek aan werksgeleenthede en infrastruktuur wat nie onderhou word the Reconstruction and Development nie, ondermeer deel van die onderdrukkers van ekonomiese ontwikkeling is, insluitend Plan (RDP) (1994) and the Growth, die area binne die MDC, waar die onderhoud van infrastruktuur geprys was. Die artikel Employment and Redistribution (GEAR) beoog om die sosio-ekonomiese prestasie van die MOK-streek tussen 1996 en 2011 macroeconomic strategy (1996). The RDP te bepaal deur dit met Mpumalanga en die ander provinsies te vergelyk, en om ‘n was aimed at redressing past imbalances vergelyking van die ses MOK-munisipaliteite se sosio-ekonomiese prestasie met mekaar of the apartheid government policies te doen. Resultate dui aan dat die sosio-ekonomiese prestasie van die MOK-streek by providing basic services to everyone aanhoudend beter as Mpumalanga is, en in sekere gevalle presteer die streek selfs (Pillay, Tomlinson & Du Toit, 2006: 1), and beter as die ander provinsies; dus word die sukses van die MOK-projek gedemonstreer. GEAR wanted to enhance the country’s Bowendien hou die munisipaliteite wat ‘n sterker ekonomiese potensiaal in 1996 toon (Emalahleni, Steve Tshwete en Mbombela) aan om in 2011 vooruitgang ten koste van die participation in the globalised economy, armer munisipaliteite (Nkomazi, Victor Khayne en Emakhazeni) te toon. Beleidsimplikasies and minimise the government’s role in the vir die NOP (2011) word bespreek. provision of services (Pycroft, 2000: 113). In line with GEAR, the National Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) implemented SDIs DITSHEBELETSANO MMOHO LE MAPUTO DEVELOPMENT CORRIDOR, KA in 1996 in an attempt to unlock under- MANTSWE A MANG E LENG (MDC) LE MASEPALA TABENG TSA BOLULO utilised economic development potential LE MORUO OA NAHA: DITLHAHISO TSA NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT PLAN at specific locations in the country. The (NDP) EA SELEMO SA 2011 SDIs’ vision is to facilitate economic growth, job creation and social development Dikatleho tsa moruo projekeng ea Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) di bontsha (especially for historically disadvantaged hore twelopele e phethahetseng e khona ho fana ka di karabo tsa ho tswedisa moruo people), rehabilitate primary infrastructure oa dinaha tsa Afrika tse seng pela leoatle pele. Le ha ho le joalo, National Development networks by means of corridor Plan (NDP) ea selemo sa 2011 e bontsha ho e na mekhoa ea mesebetsi e mengata, development, promote investment in mme le tswelopele ea meruo le ea naha e se teng haholo. Sepheo sa serapa sena ke ho bontsa ho tiia hoa mekhoa ea MDC ea ho phethahatsa tshebeletso tsa bolulo le these corridors and surrounding areas, and moruo ho mahareng a selemo sa 1996 le selemo sa 2011. Sena se tla etsoa ka bapisa
Dr Christine Khoza, Chief Integrative Analyst: Census Inputs and Outputs, Statistics South Africa, 170 Andries Street, Pretoria, 0002. Phone: +27 12 310 2916, fax: +27 12 310 8125, email:
49 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63) ensure a holistic participatory approach residents, and for its contribution to 2. Corridor development to development (DTI, 1999). the long-term unemployment rate of and its potential Mpumalanga, which was the highest The National Government proposed socio-economic in the country between 2009 and 2010. 11 SDIs, of which the MDC was the growth: evidence Rehabilitation to the N4 road also first incepted in 1996 between South from the literature came at a high cost for impoverished Africa and Mozambique, consisting Mpumalanga communities who were of road and rail infrastructure to 2.1 Defining and classifying prohibited from selling goods informally transport goods from the greater corridor development along the road and obtaining an Gauteng region and industrial income. Impoverished communities Various terms are used interchangeably areas in Mpumalanga to the port of were also impacted by the lack of to refer to the phenomenon known Maputo. The Trans African Concessions basic service provision, especially as development corridors, i.e. company (TRAC) built three toll health facilities and, in instances development axes, connecting axes, gates in Middelburg, Machado and where services were provided, they concentration axes, urban axes, Nkomazi in Mpumalanga and two in were inaccessible to certain sectors, growth axes, development lines, ribbon Mozambique (Matola Bulk Terminal, e.g., farming communities located far development, or development spines handling general mining cargo such as from local markets. This resulted in a to name a few (Geyer, 1989: 114; coal) and Maputo Terminal (handling number of community protests over Potter, 1963). The majority of the earlier general cargo) (Söderbaum, 2001: 4; poor service delivery (Campbell, Maritz definitions use the term ‘development United States Agency International & Hauptfleisch, 2008: 4; Roodt 2008: centres’ to refer to larger cities or towns Development [USAID], 2008: 22). A 92-94; Söderbaum & Taylor, 2003). that are located along or on opposite one-stop border post has been built for Rogerson (2001: 334) also noted that sides of the development corridor/axis, clearing freights on the South African loopholes existed in the guidelines and and which serve as centres to activate side in Komatipoort (USAID, 2008: 11-17). specifications in the contract that was social and economic activity along the Commodities transported from Gauteng awarded to TRAC, which ensured once corridor or axis. Development centres outweigh all others, with the road freight more that the previously advantaged can also be called development nodes, consisting mostly of basic consumer group benefitted the most. growth poles, growth centres, core goods and construction material, and regions or gravity points. For the purpose rail freight consisting mostly of coal. Scant research could be found of this article, the term ‘development The Maputo Corridor Logistics Initiative comparing the socio-economic centres’ is used (Geyer, 1989: 115). was established in 2004 to coordinate performance of the municipalities along the development of logistics policies the MDC to Mpumalanga province A development axis is a growing between the public and private sectors and the other provinces in the country. development area that connects (Söderbaum, 2001: 4; USAID, 2008: 22). Furthermore, the question does not two or more development centres At present, the N4 national road is seem to be answered as to whether (Friemann, 1966). Spatial and functional mostly used, because the rail cargo such socio-economic growth can be organisation of regions occurs along declined due to a lack of maintenance observed in official statistics between a linear development axis consisting (Driver & De Barros, 2000: 5; USAID, 1996 and 2011. Consequently, the aims of an agglomeration of development 2008: 24). of this article are to compare the extent centres (Tuppen, 1977: 4). Whebell of socio-economic growth that has (1969: 1-2) postulated the concept Different opinions exist as to whether occurred along the MDC region as a of a linear urban system or corridor in the MDC project was able to live whole (Victor Khanye, Emalahleni, Steve opposition to Christaller and Losch’s up to its expectations as the most Tshwete, Emakhazeni, Mbombela and principles of central and non-central advanced international development Nkomazi)1 to the Mpumalanga province place theory, to denote a linear corridor in Africa. The MDC project and the eight other provinces in the pattern of major towns joined by highly is praised for attracting international country, and to compare the extent developed ‘bundles’ of transport routes. investment to Africa, propelling of socio-economic growth that has His corridor hypothesis was based on Mpumalanga’s population growth by occurred is also compared between the following three main assumptions: encouraging people to move into the the six municipalities that form the people are attracted to certain areas; region in search of job opportunities, MDC to determine which municipalities the resulting innovations in technology, rehabilitating the N4 road infrastructure have demonstrated the greatest accessibility and knowledge will spread from Emalahleni to Maputo, increasing socio-economic growth, and which from a few points of origin (mostly from the economic growth rate of areas municipalities indicate stagnated socio- very large areas) at various speeds of along the road infrastructure, and economic growth. The findings have dissemination, and this happens mostly encouraging property and socio- a significant impact on the economic along routes that require the least economic development in nodal points development strategies mentioned in effort. Development axes require the along the MDC at a faster rate than the new National Development Plan following attributes to be regarded as those further away (Campbell, Maritz & (NDP) (NPC, 2011). such: a primary development centre Hauptfleisch, 2008: 12; Hauptfleisch & that shows economic dominance over Marx, 2011: 9-10; Rogerson, 2001: 341; other centres at both ends of the axis; Roodt, 2008: 92-94; Söderbaum & Taylor, the linked development centres must 2003). The MDC project is, however, be mutually dependent, and an axis criticised for its failure to create must create the potential for further job opportunities for Mpumalanga physical and economic growth and
1 Collectively, all six municipalities are referred to as the MDC region for the purpose of the study.
50 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) development. A development axis can, therefore, be defined as
a linear concentration of development that occurs between two mutually dependent primary development centres that creates a favourable milieu on and in the vicinity of the axis for further physical development at one or both primary centres on the axis (Geyer, 1989: 120). More recent studies mostly make use of the term ‘development corridors’, referring to bundles of infrastructure (highways, rail links, bus lanes, cycle paths, canals, short sea or air connections) that link two or more urban areas (Priemus & Zonneveld, Figure 2: Generic components of corridor development 2003: 167). Marriam & Freeman (2001: 7) Source: Meyer & Oranje, 2001: 7 define a corridor as
a linear spatial element and perceptual requirements (Marriam and services in urban places known as consisting of two outer nodes & Freeman, 2001: 7-10; Warnich & ‘development centres or growth poles’. and strips and/or inner nodes Verster, 2005: 345). Whebell (1969: Meyer & Oranje (2001: 5-12) provide a of high intensity non-residential 5-8) outlines the economic stages very well-outlined structure to describe and/or high density residential associated with corridor development the phases of corridor development. land use that are connected by at least one mass public as subsistence agriculture; commercial This differs slightly from Whebell’s transport route which may be exchange; rail transport dominance; explanation. They start off by indicating fed by supporting feeder routes. the early automobile period, and rapid that all corridors require certain ‘forces The South African National Department transit and ‘metropolitanism’. In the of attraction’. These forces set in motion of Transport (1998: 3) defines corridors first stage, accessibility to opportunities the movement of people and activities as “high volume transport routes that was important for settlement locations. between the two outer nodes/centres link major activity centres that are In the second and third stages the at the boundary of the corridor, the highly concentrated with passenger focus turned to the accumulation inner nodes/centres between the two and freight movements.” The Cape and employment of local capital to outer, the land running directly along Metropolitan Council (1996: 43) businesses through increased social the spine/corridor connecting the inner illustrates the concept of development and economic interaction and and outer nodes/centres as well as corridors by referring to the ‘string entrepreneurial activity, which results the land between the inner and outer of beads’ concept (Figure 1) where in the improvements of transportation nodes/centres not bordering directly centres/nodes and subcentres/ routes, particularly railway on to the spine (Figure 2). Any of these components can be ‘attractors’ or ‘senders’ of people or activities or both. The main purpose of a corridor is to transform senders to attractors mostly by means of public investment and incentive schemes.
Corridors can contain a single attractor where movement flows in a one-way direction from the outer nodes (the sender) to the attractor (where the sender and attractor may be reversed) (Figure 3a), or a dual attractor where Figure 1: String of beads concept both outer nodes act as attractors, but, Source: Cape Metropolitan Council, 1996: 43. in this instance, the flow will not be of equal magnitude (Figure 3b). Multiple development, and ultimately factory subnodes occur along the main or multi-nodal attractors have inner development. In the fourth stage, with movement channel, generating areas and one or both outer nodes/centres the dawn of the early automobile era, of higher-density development. as attractors (Figure 3c), while strip the existing geographical situations attractors encourage development So how does corridor development became reinforced, and further growth along a portion of the strip that can occur? Certain pre-conditions are occurred along the development be located anywhere between two needed for corridor development centres and the corridor, resulting in the outer nodes (Figure 3d). Ultimately, including economic, organisational/ fifth stage, the development of rapid mature corridor development occurs institutional, political, planning, physical transport and ‘metropolitanism’. This where the areas in-between the inner and transport, as well as behavioural enabled the agglomeration of retailing and outer nodes/centres, which are
51 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63)
adjacent and non-adjacent to the spine/corridor respectively, act as attractors, resulting in a corridor with an array of movements to and from all the components in the corridor (Figure 3e) (Meyer & Oranje, 2001: 5-12).
Von Malchus (1976), in Geyer (1989: 119-121), noted that not all development corridors are exactly the same, but that functional and planning corridors/axes exist. Functional corridors/ axes are distinguished more by the content of the corridor/axes than on the actual function itself, as seen by his distinction between industrial, residential and traffic axes – whereas planning corridors/axes refer to the instrumental attributes of corridors/axes and their application as a possible planning A instrument. Consequently, planning corridors/axes are used to distinguish between those used to regulate and initiate haphazard development and those used for development renewal (Geyer, 1989: 120-121; Von Malchus, 1976). Priemus & Zonneveld (2003: 172) seem to agree with Von Malchus’s (1976), in Geyer (1989: 119-121), distinction of corridors. However, instead of grouping them into functional and planning corridors/axes, they show different types of functional corridors/ axes. These include infrastructure corridors/axes (which focus on traffic engineering), economic development corridors/axes (where there is supposed to be an implicit and explicit relationship between opportunities for economic development and major traffic corridors/axes), and urbanisation B corridors/axes (where the corridor/ axes determines the direction for future urbanisation for residential and work activities).
This distinction between different types of corridors is even further enhanced by Warnich & Verster (2005: 345-347) who classify corridors into activity corridors and growth corridors, and Priemus & Zonneveld (2003: 172) who distinguish between infrastructure, economic development, and urbanisation corridors/axes. Activity corridors are structures along which social activities in the form of high-density mixed use development and economic development can be promoted and integrated in the city to ensure higher quality of life for its residents. For an activity corridor to function optimally, it requires a major transport route, public transport modes, linkages between C centres/nodes and subcentres/ subnodes, intense human interaction,
52 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC)
along the axes, the chronology to the different phases of corridor development from infancy to maturity and old-age/dormant stages, and the dynamic of corridors to the degree of development, be it primary, secondary or tertiary (Figure 4). The spatial classification can be based on urbanisation referring to geographic locations of any size. Development corridors/axes can also be classified according to content that is based on the concentration of land uses and the interaction of these land uses, resulting in residential, industrial, commercial or urban corridors/axes. Finally, the instrumental classification is based on the instrumental value of corridors/ axes. This includes the size and vitality of the primary centres, the distance
D in-between these centres, their mutual
E
Figure 3: The types of corridors developed by different sender and attracter nodes/centres in the corridor: single attractor, dual attractor, multi-nodal attractor, strip attractor, and e) the total area attractor). Source: Meyer & Oranje, 2001: 8-10 availability of services, intensification of important for a corridor to be classified interdependence, and the physical, development and public investment as a growth corridor. Growth corridors economic and political administrative in the immediate vicinity of the activity are said to ultimately develop into an circumstances in which they are corridor (Warnich & Verster, 2005: 345- activity corridor (Warnich & Verster, situated (Geyer, 1989: 120-127). 346). Thus, activity corridors are similar to 2005: 347). communication corridors/axes that refer To this end, Geyer provides an outline to more than simply traffic movement. 2.2 Impacts of corridor of the fundamental properties of Instead, they focus on the role of development on local development corridors or axes to help communication infrastructure that links communities distinguish between the different types development centres with dynamic of corridors (Figure 4). These properties As indicated by the descriptions of characteristics in a diverse, vibrant and include morphology, chronology, the research that follows, there are interactive way (Geyer, 1989: 115). dynamic, scale of urbanisation, various viewpoints as to whether Growth corridors, on the other hand, geographic, content and instrumental corridor development has a positive refer to a more extensive scale of a (Geyer, 1989: 119-127). or negative impact on local metropolitan area and can exist in communities. Notwithstanding the various forms of maturity. Its potential Morphology refers to the number of aforementioned, the majority of studies for further growth and development is development centres that are located indicate similar positive and negative
53 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63)
26-27; Kleynhans, 2002: 85; Mitchell & Anderson, 2011: 10). Positive social Property • Classification impacts relate to improved living standards and improved access to service delivery such as health care, education and markets (African Development Bank Group, 2009: • Mono-centred axes (special cases only) 9-10; Mitchell & Anderson, 2011: 10; Morphology • Bi-centred axes Phyrum, 2007). • Multi-centred axes In nearly every world region, the negative impacts of corridor development seem to outweigh the • Potential axes • Axes in infant stage of development positive ones (Hobbs, 1992: 1-3). There Chronology • Axes in mature stage of development are several issues relating to negative • Axes in old age (dormant) stage of development impacts, namely economic, social, environmental and operational. Economic effects include the increase • Tertiary (lowest order) axes of competition between cities and Dynamic • Secondary (middle order) axes towns with corridor development • Primary (highest order) axes and those without, negative spillover effects reducing the attractiveness of neighbouring areas, resulting in fewer investment opportunities, slower Spatial A • Intra-urban axes • Inter-urban axes economic growth than expected, (Scale of • Inter-metropolitan axes and increased income disparity. urbanisation) • Inter-megalopolitan axes Negative social impacts include the fragmentation of the population into smaller subpopulations, the increased • Local axes migration of a younger labour force Scale B • Regional axes • National axes into the corridor area, increased (Geographic) • International axes crime rates, and the increase in the • Intercontinental axes spread of HIV and AIDS. Negative environmental impacts include effects • Residential axes on climate change and global warming • Industrial axes through carbon emissions, and the Content • Commercial axes disturbance of ecosystems and the • Combination of two of 1, 2 and 3 natural habitat. Operational impacts • Urban axes can include a threat that corridor development may take place in certain • Communication function areas at the expense of neighbouring • Regulating haphazard development Instrumental well-established urban centres, • Initiating development difficulties in regulating traffic to create • Decongestion function synergy between urban patterns and traffic infrastructure networks, and a consequent increase in road accidents Figure 4: Classification of development corridors/axes according to their fundamental properties. due to inadequate infrastructure Source: Geyer, 1989: 122. networks (African Development Bank Group, 2009: 16; Forman & Deblinger, of manufacturing, wholesale, retail impacts worldwide, irrespective of the 2001: 45; Hobbs, 1992: 1-3; Keorodom, and services along the corridor geographic location. There are two Butphomvihane & Vanhnalat, 2007: development which stimulates overall aspects of positive impacts: economic 26-27; Pain, 2007: 11-12; Priemus & economic growth and employment and social. Positive economic impacts Zonneveld, 2003: 173-174; Stone & Strutt, opportunities to local communities, include improvements to infrastructure 2009: 9). and transportation in more peripheral and the integration of supply chains to areas, to ensure the development of ensure a more efficient flow (import and In the case of the MDC, impact studies multimodality which can enhance export) of goods (African Development focused mainly on the economic and integration and cooperation Bank Group, 2009: 9-10, 16; Keorodom, operational growth. Economically, between cities, the agglomeration Butphomvihane & Vanhnalat, 2007: it was found that municipalities near
2 The South African side of the border was used due to the fact that census data were easily obtainable for South Africa. Obtaining similar data from Mozambique would have proved more difficult and time consuming. The most important nodes in the six MDC municipalities have been added in the methodology.
3 The authors realise that other companies and organisations also provide statistics that could have been used in this article. However, the authors decided to use the census data, because Stats SA is recognised as the official source of statistics in the country. Although the authors agree that transportation and traffic flow data may have enhanced the article slightly, they are of the opinion that using such data would have gone beyond the scope of this study, which was to determine whether socio-economic growth and development have occurred in the MDC region in comparison to the Mpumalanga province and the other eight provinces in the country by using census data.
54 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) the N4 road grew at a faster rate than impacts on communities along the communities and the Mpumalanga those further away (Campbell, Maritz MDC, it appears that the negative province, limited research was found & Hauptfleisch, 2008: 8-12; Hauptfleisch outweighs the positive. Again, in pertaining specifically to the socio- & Marx, 2011: 2). There was also investigating the developmental economic performance of the MDC an improvement in freight logistics effects of the MDC, Rogerson (2001: region, using 1996, 2001 and 2011 which contributed to the success of 341) argued that “the success or Census data to determine whether operations (Driver & De Barros, 2000: 20; failure of the SDIs cannot be measured socio-economic growth had occurred. Söderbaum, 2001: 19; USAID, 2008: 24). simply in terms of their effects for Hauptfleisch & Marx’s (2011: 13-14) study changing the geographical patterns of 3. STUDY area and found an increase in education, health economic activities”. Methodology care and housing services, together To conclude, different ways were with increased job opportunities which provided to define and classify corridor This article seeks to compare the extent can be attributed to the MDC project. development and the stages of corridor of socio-economic growth that has In contrast to these positive impacts, development were outlined. Given occurred along the MDC region2 as a negative effects were also reported. these theories, it appears that the MDC whole (Victor Khanye, Emalahleni, Steve The reduced role of the state to act as constitutes a weak development axis Tshwete, Emakhazeni, Mbombela and facilitator in the MDC project to attract that is more pronounced in its structural Nkomazi) to the Mpumalanga province viable private investments hindered and content properties. In an era where and the eight other provinces in the the growth of local communities in the majority of African countries are still country. Secondly, the extent of socio- the MDC region (Söderbaum & Taylor, struggling with job creation, many turn economic growth that has occurred 2001). In addition, despite the colossal to corridor development to unlock the is also compared between the six amount of development in this regional economic activity of a country, despite municipalities that form the MDC (Figure corridor, the MDC project generally the fact that negative impacts seem 5) to determine which municipalities failed to create job opportunities for to outweigh positive ones worldwide. have demonstrated the most significant locals (Roodt, 2008: 102; Söderbaum Although a great deal of research has socio-economic growth, and which & Taylor, 2001). In essence, comparing been done on the evaluation and municipalities showed stagnated socio- the number of positive versus negative impacts of the MDC on its surrounding economic growth.
Figure 5: Local municipalities in Mpumalanga province
55 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63)
The MDC is located in the Mpumalanga Emakhazeni and Dullstroom (which is 4. SOCIO-ECONOMIC GROWTH province, located approximately 350 booming, due to increased tourism COMPARISON BETWEEN km from Johannesburg. Mpumalanga activities), with third- and fourth-order THE MDC, MPUMALANGA is one of the fastest growing provinces nodes mostly catering to the more rural PROVINCE AND THE COUNTRY in the country, with the mining, energy populations (Emakhazeni Municipality, This section compares the demographic and manufacturing sectors dominating 2010: 38, 58-59). The largest contributor profile, economic profile and household its economy and contributing to the economy in Victor Khanye is significantly to the country’s Gross service delivery of the MDC region with the transport sector, mining (especially Domestic Product. Despite the Mpumalanga province and the other coal and silica) and agricultural aforementioned, the growth in formal provinces in order to establish whether activities, particularly maize production. employment opportunities remains socio-economic growth has occurred in Victor Khanye is also characterised very low, resulting in the growth of the MDC region. It is expected that the informal activities and a lack of formal by high levels of unemployment and results will reflect better socio-economic education opportunities (Mpumalanga illiteracy. The prominent towns and growth in the MDC compared to province, 2004: 11-24). settlements include Abor, Argent, Mpumalanga province and the Delmas and Brakfontein (Victor Khanye other provinces. There is variation in the economic Municipality, 2012: 34, 37, 40). Nkomazi’s development level, population density, economy is characterised by high 4.1 Demographic profile and dominant spatial settlement types levels of poverty, unemployment, and among these municipalities. Four The MDC was already the preferred self-employment due to the lack of local municipalities, of which three destination for 70.9% of the labour force education and consequent technical are located in the MDC, contribute (people aged between 15 and 64) with the most to the province’s economy. skills required in the other sectors of the inception of the MDC project in These municipalities are Steve Tshwete, the economy. The main employment 1996, indicating the highest percentage Emalahleni and Mbombela. Steve sectors include community services, of the labour force between Tswhete’s local economy is dominated agriculture, trade, and manufacturing. Mpumalanga and the other provinces by manufacturing, mining, electricity The main urban centres in Nkomazi are (Figure 6). A decline of 8.7% is shown in and communication services, Malalane, Hectorspruit, Marloth Park the MDC’s labour force in 2001, while a mostly in the primary and secondary and Komatipoort (Nkomazi Municipality, slight increase up to 66.6% is observed nodes of Middelburg, Hendrina and 2012: 17, 28-29). in 2011. Conversely, Mpumalanga’s Kwazamokuhle. Tertiary nodes are labour force started out much smaller Statistics South Africa’s3 programme dominated by mining and power in 1996, but grew incrementally with containing the entire Census stations (Steve Tshwete Municipality, roughly 4% per Census year, while information (SuperCross) was used 2010: 38, 73). Emalahleni is strategically the other provinces showed a smaller located where the N4 and N12 to extract the 1996, 2001 and 2011 increase in the labour force per year. highways of the MDC merge, and is Census data for the six municipalities The aforementioned findings could known as the energy mecca of South that together make up the MDC region contribute to the role of the MDC Africa due to its rich deposits in coal and the nine provinces in the country. project to facilitate job creation through reserves and power stations. Not The raw values for the six municipalities, enhanced economic growth, resulting surprisingly, the economic activities are MDC region (consisting of the totals for in a natural increase in in-migration in centred on mining, power stations and, the six municipalities), Mpumalanga search of job opportunities and better to a lesser extent, business activities and and the eight other provinces in living conditions (DTI, 1999). agriculture. The most important towns the country were converted to Educational attainment is of national or settlements ranked on population percentages, which were used to concern, as indicated in the size and land-use diversity include make the comparisons between the government’s national education Emalahleni complex, the Ga-Nala socio-economic performance of the intervention programmes, including and Thubelihle area as well as Ogies MDC region, Mpumalanga province basic education for all, adult basic and Phola (Emalahleni Municipality, and the eight other provinces, and the education, and no-school-fee 2013: 37-38, 42). Unlike the other six municipalities. schools (NPC, 2011: 266). Educational municipalities, Mbombela performs well in terms of trade and accommodation, finance and business services, as well 80% as government services. These occur mostly in the regional activity nodes located in the Nelspruit CBD, Riverside 60% Park, and the industrial areas, and first-order activity nodes (White River, Hazyview and Swalala) (Mbombela 40% Municipality, 2012: 38, 84).
The municipalities contributing less 20% to Mpumalanga’s economy include Emakhazeni, Victor Khanye and 0% Nkomazi. Emakhazeni’s economy is MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces based, to a large extent, on the tourism 1996 2001 2011 and agricultural sectors. The two most important business activity nodes are Figure 6: Labour force growth (people aged between 15 and 64)
56 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) attainment was classified into four is only calculated for 1996 and 2001, the MDC region has the highest categories: no schooling, primary since the subclassifications for 2011 are percentage of people being employed education (Grades 1-7), secondary not yet available. The primary sector in the infrastructure-related sector in education (Grades 8-12), and tertiary consists of agriculture, hunting, forestry, 1996 (7.7%) and 2001 (5.2%). This can education (Honours to Doctoral fishing, mining, and quarrying; the be ascribed to the construction of the degree) (Figure 7). Although the infrastructure-related sector consists MDC project. These results also indicate number of people with no schooling has of manufacturing, electricity, gas and that, despite the hype created about decreased significantly in Mpumalanga water supply, construction, transport, the MDC project and its resultant job and the other provinces, the biggest storage, and communication. The creation in the infrastructure-related decline is observed in the MDC, with wholesale, retail and services sector sector, this growth was, to a large the percentage of people with no consists of wholesale and retail trade, extent, limited to 1996 only, with the schooling dropping by roughly 10% per financial, insurance, real estate and growth failing to materialise in 2001. Census year. The percentage of people business services, community, social, Since wholesale, retail and trade do with primary education in Mpumalanga and personal services (Figure 8). not contribute as much to the MDC and the other provinces has increased economy (Mpumalanga province, As can be expected in a post-industrial and decreased over the three Census 2004: 11-24), it is not surprising that era, the percentage of people years, but the MDC showcases a this sector showed a slight decrease employed in the primary sector in the constant decline in the number of from 1996 to 2001 in the MDC, while MDC, Mpumalanga and the other people with primary education, thus this percentage started out slow in provinces has decreased over the two signalling a change for the better Mpumalanga; it grew similarly to the Census years. It is not surprising that the in terms of the citizens’ education other provinces. MDC indicates the highest percentage level. The percentage of people with of people who are employed in the Despite the post-apartheid secondary and tertiary education is primary sector in 1996 and 2001, which government’s attempts to eradicate consistently higher in the MDC than in can be attributed to the participation poverty and inequality between Mpumalanga, while the other provinces in commercial agricultural activities in population groups, South Africa remains only have a slightly higher percentage the region, and the local economies divided not explicitly according to of people with secondary education mostly being dominated by mining race, but due to market operations than the MDC in 2001 and 2011, with and quarrying activities (Mpumalanga and consequent economic inequalities. the tertiary education level in the province, 2004: 11-24). Similarly, Thus class distinctions remain inexplicitly other provinces being the highest of linked to race. Individual income
50% levels were only comparable between 2001 and 2011 Census data, due to it being grouped differently during 40% the 1996 period. Individual income includes security grants, money from 30% informal trade, and remuneration from formal employment (Figure 9). 20% The percentage of people falling in each income category has increased 10% over the 10-year period in the MDC, Mpumalanga and the other provinces. 0% These results thus indicate that there is a 1996 2001 2011 1996 2001 2011 1996 2001 2011 growing disparity between the rich and MDC Mpumalanga province Other provinces the poor in South Africa, with certain groups becoming much poorer (having No schooling Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education no income), while others demonstrate significant growth in the higher income Figure 7: Educational attainment categories. This overall pattern can be all in 2001 and 2011. The MDC thus 10% outperformed Mpumalanga and the other provinces in terms of secondary and tertiary education in 1996. These findings again demonstrate the success of the MDC project in improving the education level of citizens in the 5% MDC due to the employment sectors requiring higher education levels.
4.2 Economic profile 0% The employment sector will provide an 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 indication of where the labour force MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces is employed, and whether it relates to Primary sector Infrastructure related sector Wholesale, retail and services sector the MDC project or not. It is important to note that the employment sector Figure 8: Employment sector
57 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63)
50% such communities was problematic for the newly elected government, 40% especially due to the inability of some communities to pay for consumed 30% household services. Figures 10 to 12 present the percentage of people who 20% have access to piped water on site or 10% in the yard, flush or chemical toilets, and electricity supply. It is important to 0% note that, since the subclassifications for 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 the 2011 Census data for water are not MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces yet available, the researchers worked No incomeR 1 - R3 200 R3 201 - R12 800 R12 801 - R51 200 R51 201 + with the percentage of households who have access to a regional or Figure 9: Individual income local water scheme that is operated by the municipality or other water- accredited to the global economic 4.3 Household services service providers to make up the 2011 recession experienced since 2008/2009 According to the South African percentages in Figure 10. (Verick & Islam, 2010: 1-61). It is Constitution, everyone has the right interesting to note that the MDC region Given the government’s mandate to to access basic service provision. The outperformed Mpumalanga in terms provide basic services, it is not surprising removal of discriminative apartheid laws of the higher income patterns in 2001 that there has been an increase in propelled the previously disadvantaged and 2011, thus indicating the success the percentage of people who have groups to move closer to cities, resulting of the MDC project in attracting the access to piped water on site or in in the development of unplanned labour force and providing sufficient job the yard and those who have access informal settlements on the periphery opportunities and remuneration. to a flush or chemical toilet over of cities. The provision of basic water, the three Census years in the MDC, improved sanitation and electricity for Mpumalanga and the other provinces (Figures 10 and 11). The slight drop in the percentage of people who have 30% access to piped water on site or in the yard and those with flush or chemical toilets in the MDC in 2001 may be attributed to the increased labour 20% force migration to the MDC in search of employment opportunities. This would naturally have a negative impact on service delivery due to the government 10% being required to increase the services rendered to these areas. This pattern stabilised in 2011. Conversely, electricity usage has increased significantly 0% over the three years in the MDC, MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces Mpumalanga and the other provinces 1996 2001 2011 (Figure 12).
Figure 10: Piped water on site or in the yard 5. SOCIO-economic growth performance of the 20% MDC municipalities Even though economic development of all six municipalities has been reported 15% by some researches (Campbell, Maritz & Hauptfleisch, 2008: 8-12; Driver & De Barros, 2000; Hauptfleisch & Marx, 10% 2011: 2; USAID, 2008: 24), a variation in socio-economic growth is expected among the MDC municipalities, 5% because some are located directly along the corridor, while others are located further away. The aforementioned is the primary focus of 0% MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces this section.
1996 2001 2011
Figure 11: Flush or chemical toilets
58 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC)
is considered a richer municipality, 30% could be attributed to the high influx of people aged between 15 and 64, in search of job opportunities and better living conditions. However, they 20% do not necessarily have the relevant qualifications. The significant drop experienced in 2001 in those people with no schooling in Mbombela could indicate that either these migrants 10% moved out of Mbombela, or they improved their level of education (as observed by the higher percentage of people with primary and secondary education levels). Generally, the 0% richer municipalities (Emalahleni, Steve MDC region Mpumalanga province Other provinces Tshwete and Mbombela) have more 1996 2001 2011 people with secondary education than Figure 12: Electricity supply those with primary education. Despite the overall decrease in the percentage of people with tertiary education 100% from 1996 to 2001 to 2011, these municipalities also have more people 80% with tertiary education.
60% 5.2 Economic profile of MDC
40% municipalities The primary sector includes agriculture, 20% hunting, forestry, fishing, mining, and quarrying; the infrastructure-related 0% Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi sector consists of manufacturing, electricity, gas and water supply, 1996 2001 2011 construction, transport, storage, and
Figure 13: Labour-force growth (people aged between 15 and 64) in MDC communication. The wholesale, municipalities retail and services sector consists of wholesale and retail trade, financial, 5.1 Demographic profile of MDC proximity to Johannesburg and Tshwane insurance, real estate and business municipalities in Gauteng province, which have the services, community, social, and strongest economies in South Africa. personal services (Figure 15). Similarly, The local municipality that had the Conversely, Nkomazi has shown slower as above, the employment sector is highest growth in the labour force growth than all the other provinces, but only calculated for 1996 and 2001, (people aged between 15 and 64) indicates the most significant growth since the subclassifications for 2011 is Mbombela (93.4%), which could between the three Census years, which are not yet available. Participation in possibly be explained by the fact that could be due to its close proximity to the primary sector is the highest in the the labour force was attracted to the the Mozambican side of the MDC. poorer municipalities (Victor Khanye, capital city of Mpumalanga province, Emakhazeni and Nkomazi), and an because they thought it offered the Educational attainment was again overall decrease from 1996 to 2001 most opportunities to improve their living classified into four categories: no is observed in all the municipalities, conditions (Figure 13). However, since schooling, primary education (Grades 1 except in the case of Nkomazi where 2001 and 2011, the labour force has to 7), secondary education (Grades 8 to an increase is detected. This could be been distributing themselves throughout 12), and tertiary education (Honours to attributed to the municipality’s reliance all the six municipalities which have Doctoral degree) (Figure 14). The poorer on agricultural activities of which some shown varying degrees of growth in municipalities (Nkomazi, Victor Khanye, of the people could be participating in the labour force. Those that contribute and, to a lesser extent, Emakhazeni) subsistence agriculture to make a living, more towards Mpumalanga’s economy (Mpumalanga province, 2004: 11-24) since many are self-employed (Nkomazi (Steve Tshwete and Emalahleni) reflect the poorest level of education Municipality, 2012: 17, 28-29). (Mpumalanga province, 2004: 11-24) (no schooling), with the percentage indicated the highest growth in the of people with primary education also The infrastructure-related sector labour force, while Victor Khanye, being higher than those with secondary indicated the highest growth in the which is considered one of the education in 1996 and 2001 in these stronger municipalities (Mbombela, poorer municipalities in Mpumalanga two municipalities. An improvement in Emalahleni and Steve Tshwete) in (Mpumalanga province, 2004: 11-24), the educational attainment is observed 1996, while the poorer municipalities has the third highest labour-force in these three municipalities in 2011. lagged behind in this regard (Figure 15). percentage. The aforementioned The higher percentage of people with Victor Khanye is the only municipality could be attributed to Victor Khanye’s no schooling in Mbombela, which that showed a slight increase in the
59 SSB/TRP/MDM 2013 (63)
60% experienced since 2008/2009 (Verick & Islam, 2010: 1-61). 50% Individual income levels were only 40% comparable between 2001 and 2011 30% Census data, due to it being grouped differently during the 1996 Census. 20% Individual income includes security 10% grants, money from informal economic activities, self-employment, and 0% 1996 2001 20111996 2001 20111996 2001 20111996 2001 20111996 2001 20111996 2001 2011 remuneration from formal employment Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi (Figure 16). The economic disparity
No schoolingP rimary education Secondary education Tertiary education between rich and poor in South Africa is very evident in the distribution of Figure 14: Educational attainment in MDC municipalities individual income in the six MDC municipalities. This picture manifests 20% itself in the blue and red bars indicating no income and R1-R3.200, respectively in Figure 16, being significantly higher 15% in all six municipalities than the green, yellow and purple bars each indicating a higher income category, respectively. 10% Despite all the municipalities demonstrating an increase in the percentage of people with no income 5% and R1-R3.200 from 1996 to 2011, the poorer municipalities (Nkomazi, Victor Khanye and Emakhazeni), as well as 0% 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 1996 2001 Mbombela, which is considered a richer Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi municipality (Mpumalanga province,
Primary sector Infrastructure related sector Wholesale, retail and services sector 2004: 11-24), demonstrate the highest increase in the percentage of people Figure 15: Employment sector in MDC municipalities with no income and R1-3.200 from 1996 to 2001 (Figure 16). Although all the municipalities also show an increase in 50% the people who earn higher incomes, the municipalities that perform better 40% economically (Emalahleni, Steve Tshwete and Mbombela) (Mpumalanga 30% province, 2004: 11-24) have the highest increase in people earning more. These 20% findings generally indicate that the poorer municipalities continue to be 10% in a difficult economic situation over time, while the richer municipalities continue to prosper at the expense of 0% 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 2001 2011 the poorer municipalities.
Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi
No incomeR 1 - R3 200 R3 201 - R12 800 R12 801 - R51 200 R51 201+ 5.3 Household services of MDC municipalities Figure 16: Individual income in MDC municipalities Figures 17 to 19 present the percentage of people who have access to piped percentage of people who are It is not surprising that Mbombela had water on site or in the yard, flush or employed in the infrastructure-related the highest percentage of people chemical toilets, and electricity supply. sector in 2001. The other provinces all who are employed in the wholesale, It is important to note that since the showed, on average, a 2% decrease in retail and services sector, which subclassifications for the 2011-census the percentage of people employed indicates similar results as in the policy data for water are not yet available, in the infrastructure-related sector document for this municipality (Figure the researchers worked with the in 2001, thus signalling that the 14) (Mbombela Municipality, 2012: 38, percentage of households who have MDC project did not sustain the job 84). Despite the wholesale, retail and access to a regional or local water opportunities created in this sector over services sector growing slightly between scheme operated by the municipality or the two Census periods, despite the 1996 and 2001 in five municipalities, a other water-service providers to make government’s continual investment significant drop in this sector is observed up the 2011 percentages in Figure 17. in the MDC project and region for in Mbombela, which could be due Steve Tshwete, Mbombela and, to this purpose. to the global economic recession a lesser extent, Emalahleni had the
60 Khoza & Willemse• Socio-economic performance of municipalities along the Maputo Development Corridor (MDC) highest access to the abovementioned 2011 in all the municipalities. Nkomazi 6. Conclusion services in 1996, which is again in line and Victor Khanye, and to a lesser The increased allocation of funds with those municipalities that perform Emakhazeni, which are considered the from the national government in the better economically (Mpumalanga poorer municipalities, are consistently MDC region implied that in-migration province, 2004: 11-24). The delivery of underperforming (Mpumalanga increased to this area as people these services dropped significantly in province, 2004: 11-24). migrated in search of employment the aforementioned MDC municipalities opportunities and, ultimately, better in 2001, but the delivery of these living standards. The aforementioned services picked up pace again in resulted in an overall more positive socio-economic development in 60% the MDC region in comparison to Mpumalanga province and the other 50% provinces, thus demonstrating the success of the MDC project for the 40% region. Despite the aforementioned, the MDC project had both positive and 30% negative effects on the socio-economic development of the municipalities 20% through which it runs. Municipalities with an export base that performed 10% well in terms of their socio-economic development in the past (Emalahleni, 0% Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi Steve Tshwete and Mbombela) continued to prosper throughout the 1996 2001 2011 Census years. Conversely, the poorer Figure 17: Piped water on site or in the yard in MDC municipalities municipalities (Nkomazi, Victor Khanye and Emakhazeni) continued to perform poorly in terms of their socio-economic 60% performance. These results indicate that there is a growing disparity between 50% the rich and the poor in South Africa, with the socio-economic performance 40% of certain municipalities continuing to prosper significantly at the expense of 30% the poorer municipalities. These results also confirm the findings of the literature 20% that, in some instances, insufficient employment opportunities are created 10% from corridor development. Some may argue that the MDC project is still 0% Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi in process. However, as the biggest infrastructural development is already 1996 2001 2011 implemented, little change to the aforementioned situation can be Figure 18: Flush or chemical toilet in MDC municipalities expected in the future. Consequently, the challenge lies in how to prevent corridor development from taking 50% place at the expense of certain municipalities, but to allow for a more 40% even distribution in terms of its resultant socio-economic impact.
30% Some important policy implications of this article for the NDP of 2011 include:
1. The decision about where future 20% corridors are developed should consider the social, environmental 10% and economic aspects and their potential effects to ensure that corridors are located in 0% strategic locations in order to Victor Khanye Emalahleni Steve Tshwete Emakhazeni Mbombela Nkomazi benefit the entire area instead 1996 2001 2011 of merely pockets. This is crucial since corridor development Figure 19: Electricity supply in MDC municipalities is expensive and expansive.
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Taking the abovementioned into Cape Metropolitan Council. 1996. development corridors. Pretoria: consideration while planning will Metropolitan Spatial Development University of Pretoria. [Online]. Available help avoid future problems. Framework: A guide for spatial from: http://upetd.up.ac.za/thesis/ development in the Cape Metropolitan submitted/etd-12192005-124739/ 2. Where a corridor has already been functional regional technical report. unrestricted/02chapter2D.pdf operating for a few years, as in the Cape Town: City of Cape Town. [Accessed: 22 June 2012]. case of the MDC, it is important to find innovative ways to improve Driver, A. & De Barros, J.G. 2000. The Marriam, B. & Freeman, P. 2001. its resultant social, environmental impact of the Maputo Development Towards a general theory of corridor and economic effects on the Corridor on freight flows: An initial development in South Africa. 20th South local communities, particularly investigation. Working Paper 00/38. African Transport Conference, 16-20 in the poorer municipalities that Cape Town: Development Policy July. Pretoria: Conference Planners. appear to be more negatively Research Unit & Centre for Strategic MBOMBELA MUNICIPALITY. 2012. Spatial affected by corridor development and International Studies. Development Framework. Draft 2011- at present. This can be achieved DTI (Department of Trade and 2030. Mbombela Municipality: Umsebe by approaching the private Industry). 1999. Spatial Development Development Planners. sector to play a role in improving Initiatives Programme. Pretoria: the corridors to allow them to Mitchell, S. & Anderson, N. 2011. Department of Trade and Industry. run through more decentralised Equity in development and access nodes, so that not merely the EMAKHAZENI MUNICIPALITY. 2010. to health services in the Wild Coast primary nodes located closer to the Spatial Development Framework. of South Africa: The community view corridor itself are benefiting. One Emakhazeni: Emakhazeni Municipality. through four linked cross-sectional way to ensure that the sections of studies between 1997 and 2007. BMC EMALAHLENI MUNICIPALITY. 2013. the corridors that run through the Health Services Research, 11(2S5), Integrated Development Plan. Draft. decentralised nodes are used more pp. 1-11. Emalahleni: Emalahleni Municipality. often is to charge higher fees in the MPUMALANGA PROVINCE. 2004. existing part of the corridors that Forman, R.T.T. & Deblinger, R.D. 2001. Provincial growth and development run through the primary nodes. The ecological road-effect zone of a strategy 2004-2014. Mbombela: Massachusetts (USA) suburban highway. 3. A thorough conceptualisation Mpumalanga Provincial Government. Conservation Biology, 14(1), pp. 36-46. for the structural and content National Department of Transport. classification of development Friedmann, J. 1966. Regional 1998. Business Plan 1998/9. Pretoria: corridors should be incorporated development policy: A case study of National Department of Transport. into the NDP planning process to Venezuela. MA, Cambridge: MIT-Press. ensure that the correct type of NKOMAZI MUNICIPALITY. 2012. Geyer, H.S. 1989. The terminology, development corridor is planned Integrated Development Plan 2012- definition and classification of according to the area’s functional 2013. Nkomazi: Nkomazi Municipality. development axes. South African and fundamental properties to Geographer, 16(1/2), pp. 113-129. NPC (National Planning ensure maximal socio-economic Commission). 2011. National benefits for the proposed corridor Hauptfleisch, A.C. & Marx, H.J. 2011. Development Plan 2030: Our future: development area. The potential impact on property Make it work. Pretoria: National and socio-economic development 4. The on-going monitoring and Planning Commission, Department The resulting from road transport corridors evaluation of loopholes in the Presidency. in Africa: A case study. In: Wamelink, contractual agreements with J.W.F., Geraedts, R.P. & Volker, L. Pain, K. 2007. Gateways and corridors investors into corridor development (eds). MISBE2011 - Proceedings of in globalisation: Planning sustainable projects should be achieved in the International Conference on infrastructures for transcontinental order to get rid of unwanted and Management and Innovation for a spaces of flow. In: Proceedings of embarrassing scenarios. Sustainable Built Environment, Paper 24, the 1st International Conference on 20-23 June. Amsterdam: Delft University Gateways and Corridors, 2-4 May. References list of Technology, pp. 1-15. Vancouver British Columbia: Centre for Transportation Studies, University of African Development Bank Group. Hobbs, R.J. 1992. The role of corridors in British Columbia. [Online]. Available 2009. Multinational: Nacala road conservation: Solution or bandwagon? from:
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