EMERGENCIES UNIT FOR UNITED NATIONS (UN-EUE)

Afar Region: Drought Emergency not yet over

Overview and Perspective, February 2003 François Piguet, UN-Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia

1. Introduction and background The humanitarian situation in the and peripheral areas has temporarily improved, following rain in December (daada). Grazing conditions as well as fodder availability are relatively improved in central part of Afar Region. At the same time, such areas are facing large livestock movements from Awash riverbanks and the highlands with risks of high degree of overgrazing. Elsewhere, the situation in more contrasted and water stress is still ongoing in the northern part of the Region.

Since May 2002, Afar Region is facing drought conditions inducing an emergency situation characterised by numerous animal deaths. Governmental bodies as well as several agencies (both international and national) are providing relief and rehabilitation supports. Mid-term situation will depend on next rain in March and April (sugum). Good rains might drive Afar Region out of the present emergency. On the contrary, emergency situation will go on leading severe humanitarian consequences, as Afar pastoralists couldn’t rely on camel milk like in 2002.

Animal diseases have increased due to transition from drought to wet season and the poor condition of moving animals rise great concerns about all endemic epizooties. Already Afar Regional State’s Contingency Emergency Plan issued in September 2002 has stressed on the need for animal feed with hay and pellet. Despite Federal government’s request to shift from contingency plan, The Regional Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Bureau in Assaita assures that rain was not enough to rehabilitate grazing, taking into account the past months overgrazing.

2. Mission Results

2.1 Climatic conditions After late December daada rains in zone 1 and 4, up to a northern limit located between (west) and Sardo (along the highway), grazing condition as well as fodder availability might be relatively fair up to sugum in March and April if rain onset is not delayed. However, northern part of Afar Region (Eli Daar woreda, zone 1 & zone 2) did not receive significant rain, resulting in a continued water stress with water trucking along road and in Eli Daar woreda. Along the Eritrean border, people coming from Eli Daar remote kebeles are presently looking for water in Bure. Further in zone 2,

1 only rivers running down the highlands brought some water and River flowed down to lake Afdera.

In Yalo, along the escarpment (north of zone 4), UN-EUE assessment team has reported livestock stress and observed five hour treks between grazing and watering locations. At the same time, tension among Afar clans are raising due to access restrictions to pasture.

In zone 3, rain occurred around Ayale Mountain ( woreda), but the southern plain of Allidegi, one of the main grazing areas, didn’t get significant rain. Northern limit of the rain and livestock stress in Yalo, Afar Zone Due to variable intensity and duration of 4 (Photo by F. Piguet, UN-EUE, January 2003) the rain, in many places browsing condition for camels and goats has improved in absence of proper grass regeneration for cattle. With mostly erratic rains, areas having received good rain are now facing risks of animal’s concentrations and tensions among Afar pastoralists.

Rains represent only a temporary remission. Moreover, animal health remains their main concern. Unusual pastoralists and livestock movements have taken place due to unexpected grazing availability. Most of the livestock seen previously in the highlands went back to the lowlands. From the opposite direction, a lot of livestock moved out of the Awash riverbanks towards zone 4, initiating competition among pastoralists groups. Community leaders have decided to close some dry season grazing areas around Kaluan ( woreda, zone 4), hence tension for clashes heightened.

According to Afar Pastoralist Development Association (APDA), people in remote areas are facing food supply difficulties, particularly in northern part of woreda, an area bordering zone 4 and zone 2. Ayalo Mataro along the road to , Afar Zone 4 (Photo by F. Therefore, pastoralists are increasing their Piguet, UN-EUE, January 2003) mobility. Afar are currently walking between three and seven days to reach Logia with only a few grazing and water along the way. In Logia, they sell some goats for 30 to 50 ETB per head. Therefore, they are using camel caravans to bring and sell relief food from Aura to Terru. Then, they move to Logia and Yalo, where they sell animals. A round trip takes about 20 days. As these caravans are the only way to supply those areas, no camel remains currently available in the area.

2 Obviously, areas located between Dubti, Aura and Afdera, Terru woreda particularly, remain inaccessible due to lack of roads. Security in those areas, mostly in Afdera and Terru woreda, is reported to be very precarious following the competition over salt extraction and the presence of uncontrolled gunmen.

2.2 Pastoralist economy Recent livestock movements are similar to those conducted after karma, the main rainy season, when Awash riverbanks become unhealthy and therefore people and animals move away. Present situation might drive to large animal concentration, overgrazing and tension among pastoralists groups. Leaving the Awash valley, most of the animals went to the west in zone 4, to the east towards Shinile and to the north to Djibouti. Part of the Awsa herds remain between and Assaita, where agro-pastoralists have been obliged to shift back to pure pastoralism due to lack of rain and water in River Awash. Persistent animal concentrations worsen grazing condition. As far as livestock output is concerned, there is some milk available, mostly goat and camel milk. However, starting from now, camel milk, which has been so important during the second half of 2002, will decrease drastically according to the breeding cycle.

Comparing to November – December, animal market prices increased slightly. In market, camels reached 1400 ETB for an adult and 400 to 500 ETB for a young one. Cattle are currently sold at 600 or 700 ETB for an animal in good condition and 100 to 200 ETB for an emaciated one. Goat prices are between 10 and 70 ETB a head depending on the animal condition. In Assaita, market prices are generally a bit lower and cattle in good physical condition are currently sold for 500 ETB. The urban demand has boosted goats and sheep prices. An adult female goat is sold for 100 ETB and a fat male up to 150 ETB, meanwhile only 60 ETB for a young one. Sheep prices reach 100 ETB in average. Small livestock are in good condition. Cattle prices have slightly increased compared to the end of 2002, due to a relatively better physical condition. Consequently, pastoralists’ terms of trade have improved.

Recent market assessments in and Alamata have shown that Afar are less present on markets in the highlands. On January 19, UN-EUE didn’t see any Afar livestock or petty trader in Alamata’s market. However, South Tigray livestock is actually improving due to the availability of crop residues, following meher harvest. Milk and ghee are available and even their prices decreased from 7 to 5.5 ETB for 250g. of ghee. Further, Afar and Highlanders are still exchanging goods, mostly livestock, grain and salt all along the regional border. Transactions are partly barter exchanges like in Yalo for example. If Afar pastoralists stay away from larger markets like Alamata, local markets in Yalo or in Chifra appear to be more active.

2.3 Animal health Livestock condition according to the animals seen in Galaha and Chifra (zone 1) as well as in zone 4 shows improvement as far as grazing is concerned, but endemic animal diseases remain one of the biggest concerns. Animal health specialists fear diseases outbreak. In Geega valley, a remote area located between Chifra, Dubti and Aura, cases

3 of anthrax have been reported. Most of the interviewed pastoralists have noticed several animal diseases: pasteurolosis, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), anthrax, internal and external parasites, skin and lungs infections as well as diarrhoea. Several animal diseases have been reactivated by the transition from drought to rain.

At the end of 2002, APDA has conducted a survey on animal death in Assaita and Afambo woreda. The 120 families interviewed owned up to 14,000 cattle1 of which about 7,900 died due to drought condition and subsequent animal diseases. Cattle death reached between 5% and 80%. Other type of livestock has been less affected. In / Agboli (north of Dubti woreda), a significant number of camels died and cases of malnutrition in Afdera woreda are related to the fact that there is no milk. Presently, the availability of camel milk has dropped down due to camel diseases affecting the lactating process. On the other hand, recent rains rescue animals in many other places.

The Regional Pastoral and Agro-pastoral Bureau in Assaita is planning a new vaccination campaign against anthrax and black leg, as well as bovine and ovin pasteurellosis. Vaccines have been requested at federal level, but if such answer is under federal responsibility during an emergency phase, after the rain vaccination initiative is currently under the regional government’s responsibility. Already FAO through UNDP funding has purchased vaccines. The planned vaccination campaign will contribute to preserve breeding animals. Due to the ongoing emergency, the new vaccination campaign will operate free of charge. Even sensitive areas like zone 3 affected by the ongoing conflict between Afar and Issa might be fully covered. But access problems remain in Simurobi Gele’alo and Fursi woreda (zone 5).

2.4 Water supply issues Northern part of Afar remains under water stress and water trucking along Afdera road and in Eli Daar woreda are still ongoing. Following a special inquiry about people looking for water in Bure, Mr. Billali Mohamed, Eli Daar woreda Administrator met in Assaita, has assured that no unusual influx of people has been reported. Nevertheless, there is a serious water shortage in Eli Daar woreda, even if recent movements of people - mainly from kebele Lamassa, Adgeno and Endebo - towards Bure town for water supply take place every year. At this stage, there is no real emergency, added the Administrator, but the situation is getting more and more serious and the long-term presence of the army means further competition for water.

Since the beginning of the Ethio-eritrean war in 1998, Bure’s borehole is not functioning as well as Mande’s one, has precised the Administrator. Currently, water trucking is taking place from Sulula, where the army has repaired the borehole. Pastoral and Agro- pastoral Bureau in Assaita is planning to build additional underground concrete water tanks birkeds and water pounds in order to upgrade water storage capacity in the area.

1 In Afambo and Assaita woreda, pastoralists are currently taking care of large herds owned by the Sultan of Awsa, Ali Mirah.

4 No significant rain occurred in the northern part of Afar. In Guyah and Gululbleh Af, along Afdera road, the situation remains precarious as water supply relying exclusively on water trucking. Animal feed depends on cut and carry fodder from the neighbouring hills. For those communities, food aid is their main resource as their movements are singularly restricted by the lack of water.

Presently, World Vision (WV) and APDA are responsible for water trucking along Afdera road on the basis of temporary contracts. In the long run, such situation makes people more vulnerable and at the same time water trucking is attracting more people. About 130 households are presently settled in Gululbleh Af and newcomers from Eli Daar’s remote kebeles are still coming to Guyah, most people are willing to stay on a long-term basis. DPPB and the Regional Water team of experts assessed water shortage. Camels used for water transport in Guyah, North of Dupti woreda (Photo Assaita authorities are willing to by F. Piguet, UN-EUE, June 2002) investigate for all geological documentation and maps available and, according to that first assessment, there is some hope for ground water catchment in Gululbleh Af, but not in Guyah located some 15 km east.

2.5 Food aid distribution Most of the difficulties reported are related to inadequate and erratic food distribution particularly in remote areas like north Dubti and all off-road locations in zone 4. The question of the use and appropriateness of supplementary food, Corn Soya Blend (CSB) locally known as fafa, remains under question despite some improvements noticed since October 2002.

WV has taken over the food aid distribution for Assaita, Dubti and Afambo woreda. Operations started on December 29, 2002 with currently 13,000 beneficiaries in Assaita, 8,000 in Afambo and 4,800 in Guyah (Dubti woreda). WV is distributing grain (maize and wheat) and CSB. Oil distribution has been delayed to February due to logistic constrains.

The new distribution system based on family rations calculated for 4 persons per family brings a lot of changes, comparing to the previous one, when clan leaders used to share what they have received. Food aid rations are based on 12.5 kg grain per person per month as well as CSB for the children. The new system of distribution based on individual registration is contested by some of the community leaders who were benefiting from the old system by increasing the number of beneficiaries.

5 Up to January 2003, Afar Region had 448,000 beneficiaries and then the figure has practically doubled with 786,200 beneficiaries. Distributions take place under the responsibility of the kebele administrators supervised by a distribution committee at woreda level with representatives from woreda council, police, women affairs, political party, justice office and social and economic development service office.

The food aid distribution system is also facing difficulties in targeting beneficiaries. According to DPPB and the regional authorities in Assaita, one of the main difficulties is related to the fact that people are moving and it is not easy to track them. People remain often out of the administrative structures, even if they are located in areas close to the distribution points. In Dubti woreda, there are currently four distribution points: Dubti, Guyah, Gululbleh Af and Mutoarba. In Eli Daar woreda, distributions take place at 4 sites and Bure people are concerned, as the distribution site is located in remote kebeles. In Terru woreda, a remote and relatively insecure area, people collect rations in Kaluan, the nearest administrative centre. Busidima and Ksikika kebeles in woreda didn’t get distribution following the heavy rains. Facing such difficulties, pastoralists went to Talalak and Dawe in zone 5 for possible sharing with relatives.

Another example that illustrates difficulties faced for food aid distributions: Dagaba and Daaba (north of Dubti woreda) received only a low food aid allocation and furthermore CSB is not well accepted, as people don’t know how to use it for children. Some beneficiaries say: “Government assists us with baby food”. Partly due to a lack of transport, food aid has been sold in Dubti and the money shared has produced about 5 ETB for each family. On the other hand, all kebele leaders are currently staying in Dubti, where they are controlling the food aid distribution.

2.6 Nutritional status and health issues Except for an increase in malaria and respiratory infections due to sudden climate changes, health situation remains stable, according to Médecins sans Frontières (MSF) team in Galaha tuberculosis (TB) hospital. TB activity is still increasing with 400 patients under DOT in December 2002 comparing to 191 a year ago with respectively 148 and 115 outdoor patients2. Among MSF patients, 30% are coming from zone 3, mostly Gewane, 30% from zone 1 (Assaita, Dubti) as well as zone 5. Only the last third are coming from Galaha and the surrounding areas. However, Galaha hospital activities, specially focused on TB treatment, are still increasing and MSF France is currently reaching limits in terms of health management mainly because of the high attractivity of the Galaha programme. MSF staff thinks that they are now reaching the maximum in terms of number of TB patients as well as those affected by other diseases.

For malnourished children mostly related with TB infection, nutritional status remains quite similar to that of October 2002 with an average of 25 to 30 cases admitted within the therapeutic feeding centre. However, after the heavy rain on December 25, 2002 with the subsequent River Mille over flood followed by 4 small rains, the number of malaria

2 DOT patients are taking TB treatment every day and outdoor patient once a month

6 cases increased drastically together with respiratory infections caused by sudden weather changes.

In December 2002, MSF has received a total of 1,453 patients, 1,191 in November and 1,348 in October 2002. There is also another concern with the increased number of clinical AIDS cases, even in terminal phase, coming from neighbouring regions. These patients are creating a social problem as they are generally coming alone, when Afar patients usually stay in Galaha together with a family attendant taking care of them.

Zoonotic diseases3 seem to become a permanent issue in Afar Region, as recent laboratory facilities make the screening of those infections more accurate. In Galaha, six cases of brucellosis have been registered in December. On the other hand, TB transmission modes brought suspicion over milk consumption. Zoonotic diseases appear as a key health issue, particularly with TB, brucellosis and anthrax. Brucellosis and TB present mostly goat and cow Galaha MSF-France TB Hospital, Therapeutic Feeding Centre (Photo by F. Piguet, UN-EUE, January 2003) milk transmission risks and camel milk for a less extend.

3. Camel milk, last resource at household level Despite the current crisis in Afar since May 2002 causing numerous animal deaths, debate pointed to the fact that the malnutrition rate in children under 5 years of age remains unexpectedly low. At several occasions during UN-EUE assessment trips, baby camels have been seen in various locations: Simurobi Gele’alo woreda (zone 5), and Gewane (zone 3), Chifra, Guyah and Sardo (zone 1). The presence of young camels has to be linked with the 2001 good karma rains, the main breeding season and testify for camel milk availability in pastoralist settlements, as well as some milk is currently marketed in urban areas. Over a total livestock population in the Afar of an estimated 4 million heads of which 3 million are small stock, cattle and camel populations could be estimated at 700,000 and 300,000 respectively (UN-EUE, Nov 2002).

Camels breed during the main rainy season (karma) and calves are born about a year later. Therefore, the lactating period is usually starting during the next karma rain with a peak of milk production after 2 or 3 months. In 2002, despite the current drought, benefited from this key nutritional resource. Young camels used to consume about

3 Animal to -being transmitted diseases like anthrax, brucellosis as well as TB

7 half of the milk production and the lactating period lasts from 8 to 18 months, according to climatic conditions and fodder availability (CIRAD, 1999).

Daily milking is usually two times a day and sometimes up to 3 – 4 times in order to stimulate milk production. On average, a lactating she-camel produces up to 2,500 liters of milk every year (CIRAD, 1999). Both in terms of quantity and quality, camel milk production is more nutritious than cattle because of its enriched fat and vitamin C.

During the lactating period, pastoral communities can rely daily on camel milk, but availability of camel milk decreases

Baby camels under tree shade in Simurobi Gele’alo woreda, Afar drastically after eight months. In the Horn of Zone 5 (Photo by F. Piguet, UN-EUE, July 2002) Africa, the average herd size is estimated at 40 heads and the minimum for subsistence is 28 heads of which 17 have to be females (CIRAD, 1999).

Bush and tree browsing, the main fodder for camels, offer better quality feed comparing to grass. Camels request 20% to 40 % less dry fodder than cattle. Furthermore, camels request six liters of water per 100 kg of body weight during the hottest season. Adult camels can live up to two weeks without needing to drink water; at the end, the intake drinking capacity could reach up to 150 liters within 3 minutes (ILRI, 2002).

3.1 Camel milk economy, social uses and changes Camel milk constitutes the basic staple food for pastoralists, particularly for children and elder people. Besides household consumption, camel milk is commonly shared according to resources sharing and social ties tradition with kinships and visitors. Nevertheless, since a few years, urban commercial demand is increasing, opening new perspectives for the camel husbandry.

Today, camel milk is marketed in Assaita, where regularly young pastoralist boys bring milk to some restaurants and other places for selling. Camel milk marketing takes place as well in Awash, Gewane and Melka Werer (UN-EUE, Nov 2002). Apart from exceptional cases that have always existed during the past years linked with recurrent dry spells, recent decrease of cow milk both in production and consumption is not only linked with the current drought. At the same time, Afar people have started to fear cattle milk due to the increased danger of catching diseases such as tuberculosis.

In Afar society traditionally camel milk is exclusively reserved for household consumption and social exchanges motivated by contractual lending of lactating animals (hantilla). Even if camel milk marketing appears to be unusual, this is an indication of an important social change process in the Afar society, related to the exceptional climatic

8 conditions they have to cope with as well as the health and sanitation situation within the region.

Drought stress and food stress will also affect lactation and the quantity of milk. Survival chances for a baby camel is up to 70% during its first year and in an extensive pastoral system like in Ethiopia, mortality among the baby camels can reach 30 to 50%, such high vulnerability is Camels in Amibara irrigated schemes, near Melka Sede (Photo by F. Piguet, UN-EUE, October 2002) depending on the year and the herd’s condition (CIRAD, 1999). Nevertheless, access restriction to the mother for baby camels could be a problem, according to the size of the young camel as long as he cannot reach ligneous or woody browsing. At this stage, milk restriction can lead to death of a baby camel.

3.2 Prospect for the future Animal products in semi-arid regions constitute a key issue for development, in order to reach the demand for animal proteins for rural and urban population as well as to take advantage of areas unsuitable for agricultural production. At this stage, camel production can be intensified, providing milk and meat. It is the most adapted husbandry for arid areas. Up to now, in connection with the market demand, cattle herds have increased among livestock currently held by the Afar. Pastoral economy in transition has moved out of the so-called “camel complex” according to Herkovits’ concept to give way to a “cattle culture” (UN-EUE, Sept. 2001), but pastoralists vulnerability has increased with regard to cattle weaknesses as those animals are much less drought resistant.

Milk availability within pastoralist’s settlements appears to be the main nutrition element for household food security. For the past ten months, families have not relied on cow milk, either for their children or for marketing. Only few goat and camel milk was remaining. Camel milk always is a key resource for a family’s daily dietary intake, as well as for fulfilling social obligations of sharing milking animals, together with the tradition of offering camel milk for free to all kin-men, affiliates and even outsiders. Scarcity of camel milk particularly affects group solidarity, as its consumption will be restricted to the family members, particularly children and elderly.

9 Measures to strengthen camel husbandry could support Afar pastoralists’ livelihood on several aspects. All along drought condition and food shortage in 2002, malnutrition rates remained reasonably low and camel milk availability is probably one of the explanations of the unexpected pastoralists resilience. Camel milk availability would also avoid pastoralists’ cash and asset depletion for food substitute purchase. At this stage, projects bringing food complement to livestock – particularly for camels - appear as one of the best conservative action during lean season or drought in order to avoid most of the female to become dry. On the other hand, the decision to rent camels for food aid distribution into remote areas could bring some complementary income to pastoralists and reinforce camel husbandry. Why relief agencies are paying easily expensive transport costs to truck companies and remain reluctant to inject some additional money to local economy?

4. Conclusions and Recommendations

The situation in Afar in general appears as improved but remains reversible. If the next rain in March – April (sugum) brings enough water for grazing, Afar pastoralists might start to get out of the drought crisis. If drought conditions are ongoing as it was in 2002, vulnerability will be much higher and expected malnutrition among children will raise, as Afar pastoralists will not be able to rely on camel milk production. This has been their last line of resource or coping mechanism all along 2002.

The overall situation should be seen much as a crisis of the terms of trade (animal / grain market), rather than actually getting the food shortage to the cause as of lack of rain. Due to the grassroot causes, the current crisis is far from over. Whether significant rains fall in March and April is critical and every effort must be made to prevent a second major wave of animal deaths and to prepare for a rehabilitation phase.

However, facing high risks of overgrazing and with the uncertainty of the next sugum rain, it appears necessary to go on with the Afar contingency plan and its animal feeding component. At this stage, it is highly important to preserve the breeding stock from further drought condition or for restocking. According to UN-EUE findings, recent rains shouldn’t justify the contingency planning cancellation.

According to the present situation, water stress in zone 2 and Eli Daar woreda - where more and more people are depending on water trucking - should be a priority in order to build on a long-term basis additional water sources and water storage capacity, particularly in Bure and Mande. Beside Sulule water point, there are only 3-drilled wells in Eli Daar town and about 400 steam wells bringing daily up to 80 litres each. Such water sources constitute only an added portion to the minimum water requirement. In a lesser extend, action should be taken south of zone 5 in Simurobi Gele’ alo woreda, where people also rely mostly on water trucking.

Awsa agro-pastoralists (e. g. Geartu and Andage kebeles in Assaita woreda), where people shifted back to pastoralism due to lack of water, are among the most vulnerable groups in the Afar Region. According to various sources (WV, ACF, APDA), these

10 groups are presenting more malnutrition cases than in other areas and, beside emergency relief; future rehabilitation programme should explore alternative activities and the recurrent question of water management and water sharing discussed.

DISCLAIMER

The designations employed and the presentation of material in this document do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever of the UN concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

5 March 2003

UN-EUE Tel.: (251) (1) 51-37-25 PO Box 60252 Fax: (251) (1) 51-12-92 E-mail: [email protected] Ethiopia www.telecom.net.et/~undp-eue/

11 5. Annexes

Abbreviations

ACF Action Contre la Faim AIDS Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome ANRS Afar National Regional State APDA Afar Pastoralist Development Association CARE Cooperatives for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (in Afarigna: GUBLO) CCPP Contagious Caprine Pleuropneumonia CIRAD Centre International de Recherches sur l’Agriculture et le Développement CSB Corn Soya Blend DPPC Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Commission (Federal Government level) DPPB Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Bureau (Regional level) DPPD Disaster Prevention and Preparedness Department (Zonal level) ETB Ethiopian Birr FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FEWS Famine Early Warning System ICRC International Committee of the Red Cross ILRI International Livestock Research Institute LWF Lutherian World Federation MSF Médecins Sans Frontières MT Metric Ton NGO Non-Governmental-Organisation OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief SF Supplementary Feeding TB Tuberculosis TF Therapeutic Feeding ToT Terms of Trade UNDP United Nations Development Programme UN-EUE United Nations Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia UNICEF United Nations Children Fund WFP World Food Programme WV World Vision

Glossary

Birked Cemented underground water tanks Fafa Local name to designate Corn Soya Blend Hantilla Contractual lending of lactating animals among Afar pastoralists kinship. kebele Smallest administrative unit in Ethiopia (communal) woreda Local administrative unit (district)

12 Glossary of important meteorological and seasonal terms used for Ethiopian highland areas Meteorological Drought Defined Drought is a period of insufficient water initiated by reduced precipitation. The impacts of drought on crops and society are critical but not easily quantified. The result is that "drought" does not have a universal definition. "Meteorological drought" is defined as a sustained period of deficient precipitation with a low frequency of occurrence. While crops may be damaged by lack of precipitation and high temperatures in just a few days, such short periods are not considered to be meteorological droughts. A three-month period is defined by the American Meteorological Society to be the shortest period that can be defined as a drought. (Source: The American Meteorological Society)

Afar Rainy Seasons The small rains sugum normally occur in March – April and the heavy rains karma take place in July – August. Some areas along the escarpment (Tigray – Wollo) as well as the southern part of Afar near Awash town additionally could benefit from a slight shower period in December, called dadaa. In all these seasons, the occurrence of rainfall is highly erratic. The total amount of rain varies greatly from year to year resulting in severe droughts in some years. Moreover, temperatures are high throughout the region and throughout the year. The hottest months are May to August coinciding with the rainy months, which entail a deterrent effect on the effectiveness of moisture (UN-EUE, Sept 2001).

Literature list of referred papers and previous UN-EUE Afar mission reports

CIRAD-EMVT (1999) Guide de l’élevage du dromadaire, CD-ROM, CIRAD, Montpellier.

Kassa Negussie Getachew (2001), Among the Pastoral Afar in Ethiopia: Tradition, continuity and Socio- Economic Change, International Books, Utrecht.

Piguet F (2001) Even after good rains, Afar Pastoralists remain vulnerable. Report on Afar Region, UN- Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, September.

---, (2002), Afar Region: a Deeper Crisis Looms, UN-Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, October.

---, (2002), Cheffa Valley: refuge for 50,000 pastoralists and 200,000 animals, Present humanitarian situation and livestock conditions in selectd areas in and around Afar Region, Assessment Mission, 21 – 26 July 2002, UN-Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, August.

---, & Kassaye Hadgu, (2002), Afar and Kereyu pastoralists in and around struggle with deteriorating livelihood conditions, A case study from Fentale (Oromiya) and Aash-Fentale (Afar) woredas, Joint Assessment Mission, 2 – 4 July 2002, UN-Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, July.

---, (2002), Afar: insecurity and delayed rain threaten livestock and people, Assessment Mission, 29 May – 8 June 2002, UN-Emergencies Unit for Ethiopia, Addis Ababa, July.

UN-EUE, (2002) interview with Dr Pascal Bonnet, ILRI, November 15, Information department.

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