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The Bobo Doll Experiment

The Bobo Doll Experiment

REFERENCE SECTION Landmark Studies in

The Little Albert Experiment ...... R2 Pavlov and Conditioned Reflex Theory ...... R3 The Rorschach Test ...... R4 Defense Mechanisms ...... R5 Skinner’s Superstitious Pigeons ...... R6 REM Sleep and Dreaming ...... R7 Piaget and Object Permanence ...... R8 Asch on Group ...... R9 Harlow’s Study of Contact Comfort ...... R10 The Origin of Form ...... R11 The Bobo Doll Experiment ...... R12 The Milgram Experiment ...... R13 Internal and External Control ...... R14 Learning to Feel Helpless ...... R15 Facial Expressions and Culture ...... R16 The Stanford Prison Experiment ...... R17 Identifying Mental Illness in a Mental Hospital ...... R18 Multiple ...... R19 Cultural Values and Human ...... R20 The Minnesota Twins Study ...... R21 Ethical Principles of

and Code of Conduct ...... R22

The ’s Bookshelf ...... R34

English and Spanish Glossary ...... R64

Index ...... R92

Credits and Acknowledgments ...... R108

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Background Experiment The LittleAlbert with theoutsideenvironment. It heldthathumanbehavior waslearnedprimarilythrough experiences calledbehaviorism.study describedhere resulted inanalternativetheory processes dominatedthefield.IntandemwithIvanPavlov’s the work, that humanbehavior waslargely aproduct of unconscious,internal had shownnosuch fear. Thus, Watson had though atthestartofexperiment he immediately recoiledinfear oftherateven Although therewas noloudnoise, Albert The babyreactedjustas Watson hadexpected. Results andInterpretation the ratwithoutnoise. experiment’s nextstep,settingAlbertto separate sessions,Watsonthenmovedtothe this stepatotalofseventimesovertwo does notneedtobelearned.Afterrepeating which thereactionitcauses,orstimulates, example ofanunconditionedstimulus,onefor a hammerbehindthebaby.Thatnoiseisan Watson chosebangingonametalbarwith is knowntocauseinstinctivefearinhumans. the rat,andthenmakingaloudnoise,which the babynexttooneofneutralstimuli, become clear later. were similarlywhiteandsomewhatfurrywill objects andevenreached forthem. Why they cotton. Albert expressed interestinthese rabbit, afakewhitebeard, andwhite provoke areaction)included awhiterat, a neutral stimuli(socalledbecausetheydonot things thatdidnotscareBaby Albert. These Albert.” Watson beganbyidentifying several baby boyknownas “Baby Albert ously hadviewedasbenign. Hissubjectwas a infant tofearthingsthatthechild previ- sought tofindoutifhecouldteach ahuman John B. Watson, theexperiment’s mainauthor, Study Methodology The core of the experiment involved setting The coreoftheexperimentinvolvedsetting In psychology’s early years, ’s theory Inpsychology’searlyyears,SigmundFreud’s theory B.” or B.” or white, fluffy objects. white, fluffy Little Albertlearned tofear “Little “Little hnigCritically Thinking thing, orstimulus—inthiscase, therat. response—in thiscase, fear—to aparticular tion, ahumantohave aparticularemotional demonstrated thathecouldteach, orcondi- 2 Predict 2. 1.Identify responses. Watson, J.B.,andRayner,R.(1920).Conditionedemotional the subjectofsuchharmfultreatment. grounds anexperimentmakingahumanbaby ers todaywouldstronglyrejectonethical process called conditioning canbelostovertimethrougha quent experiments,however,haveshownthat can belearned—hasheldupovertime.Subse- that thelearninglastedforsometime. duced theresponseamonthlater,showing lesser degree.Healsowentbackandrepro- to inducefearoutsidethelaboratory,buta First, heshowedthattheobjectscontinued stimuli iscalled conditioned responsetoalargersetofsimilar he alsoreactedwithfear.Thistransferofa when awhiterabbitwasplacednexttoAlbert, start hadnotscaredthebaby.Sureenough, fear toanotherobjectthatattheexperiment’s ment bytryingtotransferthenewlytaught Watson followedupthispartoftheexperi- Watson’s basic insight—that even emotions Watson’s basicinsight—thatevenemotions Watson’s studyhadadditionalfindings. to enjoy whiterats andrabbits again later inlife? Journal ofExperimentalPsychology How mightatherapist have helped Albert What isbehaviorism? extinction. generalization. generalization. Moreover, research- 3, 1–14. Pavlov and Conditioned L Reflex Theory ANDMARK

Background This experiment conducted by the Russian scientist P. Pavlov led to his development of the conditioned reflex theory. That theory—also called classical conditioning—explains how noninstinctual are S TUDIES IN learned, one of the basic concerns of psychology. =dro Pavlov trained dogs to associate a sound with food. P

Study Methodology whether food was present. Pavlov then went SYCHOLOGY on to produce similar results with odors and , who was a physiologist, not a visual cues instead of sounds. psychologist, came up with this experiment Pavlov interpreted the experimental results while conducting another one using dogs as proof of two types of behavior. The first, to study the mechanics of food digestion. In called an unconditioned reflex, was instinc- that experiment, Pavlov connected a tube to tual behavior that need not be learned. Such the dogs’ salivary glands and then collected behavior was triggered by what he called an and measured the amount of saliva the dogs unconditioned stimulus—in this case, food. produced when given food. During the course Pavlov called the second type of learned of that experiment, Pavlov observed an unex- behavior a conditioned reflex. It is learned pected result that could not be explained as by repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus—in an instinctual physiological response. Namely, this case, a metronome—with an uncondi- nonfood stimuli that regularly took place dur- tioned stimulus (food). By doing so, the neutral ing feedings—footsteps, for instance—began to stimulus is converted into what Pavlov called cause the dogs to salivate even in the absence a conditioned stimulus. of food. The hypothesis that this was learned, Pavlov’s use of empirical experimentation not instinctual, behavior prompted Pavlov to to discover the conditioned reflex helped bring set up a new experiment. much-needed respect to the emerging field To study the noninstinctual behavior he of psychology. Moreover, the experiment led observed during his earlier experiment, Pavlov Pavlov himself to switch from physiology to created a controlled environment that sepa- psychology, making him one of the discipline’s rated the dogs from all stimuli other than that pioneers. Pavlov was so influential that introduced by the experimenter. The experi- numerous other experiments have cited this ment itself consisted of playing a metronome, one—more than a thousand just since 2000. a device used to keep time in music, at the same time as feeding the dogs. This sequence Pavlov, . P. (1927). Conditioned Reflexes. London: Oxford was repeated for several days. Then, Pavlov University Press. began playing the metronome by itself without feeding the dogs. Thinking Critically Results and Interpretation 1. Identify What basic question did Pavlov’s As Pavlov theorized, playing the metronome experiment address? always at the same time as the feedings 2. Explain How is a neutral stimulus converted caused the dogs to salivate profusely when- into a conditioned stimulus? ever they heard the metronome, regardless of

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Background The RorschachTest the inkblots couldalsobeusedtodiagnosepsychologicalproblems. Byblob of ink. theendof thestudy, Rorschach hadconcludedthat mentalillnessesinterpreteddifferent abstract formsmadefrom a asanexperimentaimedatcomparinghow peoplewith started test subjectthoughttheinkblot lookedlike. of theirdescription,and, course,whatthe respond, whethercoloror movement waspart responses, suchashowlongittookthemto of differentcriteriatointerpretthesubjects’ each lookedlike.Rorschachusedanumber some ofdifferentinkcolors,andaskwhat to showeachsubjectaseriesof10inkblots, diagnosed disorders.Thebasicprocedurewas such asschizophrenia.Othersubjectshadno mix ofpeople,somewithmentaldisorders more suggestiveofotherimages.) found thatsymmetricalinkblotstendedtobe a cloudmaylooklikeotherobjects.(Rorschach gestive ofvariousobjects,inasimilarwayas image thatwasambiguousenoughtobesug- half. Theresultwasarandomsymmetrical piece ofpaperandthenfoldingthein was aninkblotmadebydroppinginkona provides aclueintotheperson’sunconscious. a personprojectsontotheambiguousimage respond toanactualthing.Thus,themeaning project meaningontoit,sinceitdoesnotcor- guity causesthepersontolookinwardand make senseofanabstractimage,itsambi- with thetheorythatwhenapersontriesto introduced totheRorshach inkblottest. things? Ifso, inaway youhave alreadybeen same cloud formationsbutseenverydifferent Have youandafriendeverlookedatthe Study Methodology The subjects for the study consisted of a The subjectsforthestudyconsistedofa The toolusedinRorschach’sexperiment Hermann Rorschach’sexperimentstarted ThisstudybythepsychiatristHermannRorschach What doyou see in thisinkblot? hnigCritically Thinking mental conditions. For instance, “normal” sub- responses tendedtocorrelatewithspecific experiment. First, hefoundthatcertain Two majorfindingscameoutofRorschach’s Results andInterpretation 2 Explain 2. 1.Identify based onperception. Rorschach, H.(1942). patient’s mentalstate. therapy, asawayofgaininginsightintothe therapists, especiallyintheinitialstagesof theless, thetestisstillusedbymanypsycho- in diagnosingsomespecificconditions.None- some morerecentstudieshavefoundithelpful the inkblottestasadiagnostictool,although have tendedtoquestiontheeffectivenessof help diagnosepsychological disorders. the forminterpretivetest, couldbeusedto that theinkblottest, which Rorschach called participants. The secondmajorfindingwas depression saw moreanimalsthandidother answers thanthosewhowerenot. People with do so. People whoweredepressedgave fewer subjects withschizophrenia oftenrefusedto jects seldomfailedtoprovideananswer, while It should be noted that subsequent studies It shouldbenotedthatsubsequentstudies internal mentalstates? ambiguous images that makes themawindow into a major change inpsychology? and what otherunplannedexperiment, result caused According toRorschach, what isitabout What was theinitialpurposeof Rorschach’s New York: Grune and Stratton. NewYork:GruneandStratton. Psychodiagnostics: A diagnostic test Psychodiagnostics: Adiagnostictest Defense Mechanisms L

Background Sigmund Freud shaped the study of ANDMARK psychology more than any other person. However, Freud’s methodology was often unscientific. Other psychologists have explored and expanded upon his work, including his daughter, Anna Freud. Her work included a study of the Freudian concept of defense mechanisms. S TUDIES IN

Anna Freud, with her father and niece P

Study Methodology of development. For example, an insecure child SYCHOLOGY might imitate the behaviors of an infant such Sigmund Freud claimed that the human per- as thumb-sucking. Projection is the process of sonality consisted of three components. He projecting one’s anxieties onto someone else. called these components the ego, the superego, For example, a wife who is considering divorce and the id. When they work well together, a may accuse her husband of wanting to end the person is balanced, makes good decisions, and marriage. A person employing reaction forma- exhibits normal behavior. At times, however, tion lessens anxiety by expressing a reaction the components do not work together well. For opposite to the one actually felt. Finally, sub- example, the id, which seeks pleasure, may limation is the use of healthy and productive overwhelm the ego, which assesses real-world activities to relieve anxiety. Freud believed conditions. This imbalance can lead to free- that sublimation was a healthy response to floating anxiety, a sense of anxiety that does psychological distress. not seem to have a clear cause. Anna Freud’s concept of defense mecha- Freud argued that humans try to resolve nisms is perhaps impossible to prove empiri- their anxiety by way of defense mechanisms. cally. However, psychologists have found the These are tools that the mind uses to restore concept useful for describing and understand- balance between the id, ego, and superego. ing many varieties of human behavior. People use defense mechanisms to deceive the Freud made another major contribution to self or distort reality so that the anxiety dimin- psychology. Her work with children helped ishes. In her work, Freud’s daughter Anna establish as a legiti- refined the concept of defense mechanisms. mate field of study. Anna Freud took a more systematic approach to her studies, using research and . Freud, A. (1946). The ego and the mechanisms of defense. New For example, she studied the effects of stress York: International Universities Press. on children housed in orphanages that she and her colleagues had founded. Thinking Critically Results and Interpretation 1. Identify List five defense mechanisms that Anna Anna Freud identified 10 defense mechanisms, Freud identified. including repression, regression, projection, 2. Explain Why did Freud claim that sublimation was reaction formation, and sublimation. Repres- a healthy response to anxiety? sion is the denial of feelings that create anxi- ety. Regression is the return to an earlier stage

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Background Superstitious Pigeons Skinner’s experience rather thanfrom internalthoughts,asFreud argued. humanbehavior posits thatall,asopposedtosome, stemsfrom of radicalthat ledSkinnertodevelophistheory , which Itwasoneofconsequence thatinreality itdoesnot. several studies superstitious behavior—that is,behavior believedtoproduce a actions caused the food to appear, even though actions causedthefoodto appear, eventhough as resultingfromthebirds’ beliefthattheir tern some10,000timesbefore givingup. ment’s secondstagerepeatedthebehavior pat- feeding intervalwas lengthenedintheexperi- behavior pattern. However, thebirdwhose entirely, allthebirdsgraduallystoppedtheir of theexperiment, wherethefeedingstopped exaggerated andfranticway. Inthefinalstage pattern ithadadoptedearlier, butinamore lengthened continuedtodisplay thebehavior the birdwhosefeedingintervalhadbeen and pecking thefloor. Inthe secondstage, behavior patternssuch asspinningclockwise birds displayed avarietyofnewrepetitive During the15-secondinterval, mostofthe Results andInterpretation ing thebirdsaltogether. stage oftheexperiment, Skinnerstoppedfeed- to oneminuteforofthebirds. Inthelast ner slowlylengthenedthefeedinginterval second intervalsforseveraldays. Next, Skin- bers andthenfeedingthematregular15- eight pigeonsinseparateconditioningcham- menter. Skinnerstartedhisstudybyputting as inthiscase, fromthe outside bytheexperi- the labanimalviaaleverinsidecage, or a fooddishinsidethatcouldbefilledeitherby as theSkinnerbox, itconsistedofacagewith he calledaconditioningchamber. Also known B. F. Skinnerconductedhisstudywithwhat Study Methodology Skinner interpreted these behavior patterns Skinner interpretedthese behavior patterns ThisstudybyB.F. Skinnerinvolvedteachingpigeons hnigCritically Thinking Skinner came up with a mechanism he called Skinner cameupwithamechanismhecalled birds wereexhibitingsuperstitiousbehavior. bowls nomatterwhattheydid.Inshort,the the foodwasgoingtodropintofeeding 2 Analyze 2. 1.Identify Skinner, B.F.(1948). exhibited superstitiousbehavior. playing agame.Likethepigeons,boys responded todiscontinuedreinforcementwhen attention deficit/hyperactiviydisorder(ADHD) a similarmethodforstudyinghowboyswith experiments. Forexample,aresearcherused extinction, These processesarecalled reinforcement oritwouldeventuallystop. had tobemaintainedbymeansofregular ment. negative. Skinnercalledthisprocess ior isnotlearnedwhentheconsequencesare called this when itproducespositiveresults.Skinner According tothetheory,abehaviorislearned ior patternsarelearnedthroughexperience. operant conditioning Through this and similar experiments, Through thisandsimilarexperiments, The pigeons study has inspired many other The pigeonsstudyhasinspiredmanyother was lengthened react asitdid? in termsof how human behavior develops? colleagues andpigeons Skinner inhislab with Finally, Skinner found that a behavior Finally,Skinnerfoundthatabehavior respectively. reinforcement. How do Skinner’s ideasdiffer fromHow Freud’s doSkinner’s Why didthe pigeonwhosefeedinginterval Superstition in the pigeon. Journal of Superstition inthepigeon.Journalof 38, 168–172. toexplainhowbehav- Conversely,abehav- maintenance punish- and

REM Sleep L and Dreaming ANDMARK

Background Every person dreams, although some people may not recall dreaming. The universality of dreaming has led psychologists to wonder how important it is. Do we need to dream? William Dement tried to determine the value of dreaming S TUDIES IN by studying what happens when people do not dream.

Dreams can be pleasant or frightening. P

Study Methodology REM sleep, volunteers averaged 112 minutes SYCHOLOGY of dreaming. It appeared that when subjects William Dement built his study upon the lost dream time, they needed to make up for result of a 1953 study. Eugene Aserinsky and that lost time. Scholars now call this the REM- Nathaniel Kleitman had noted that while rebound effect. infants slept, there were periods of eye move- Dement also noticed that during the period ment. Aserinsky wondered if these eye move- of no-REM sleep, the test subjects went into ments were related to dreaming. He and his REM sleep more often. For example, one sub- colleague studied 20 adults. When the sleep- ject had to be awakened seven times the first ing volunteers exhibited eye movement, they night that volunteers were denied REM sleep. were awakened. Most reported that they were By the last night of that phase of the experi- dreaming at that time. This study showed that ment, that subject had to be awakened 23 dreaming occurred during a sleep period called times to stop REM sleep from occurring. REM (rapid eye movement) sleep. These results led Dement to conclude that The Aserinsky study made it possible to dreaming is necessary. In fact, Dement wrote pinpoint when a sleeping person was dream- a book for the nonscientist in which he pro- ing—during REM sleep. William Dement used posed more attention be paid to our need for a this information to learn if dreaming was nec- good night’s sleep during which we can dream. essary. The sleeping habits of eight volunteers Dement even called ours a “sleep-sick society.” were monitored for several nights. Then for the next three to seven nights, the volunteers Aserinsky, ., and N. Kleitman, N. (1953). Regularly occurring were awakened whenever they went into REM periods of eye mobility and concomitant phenomena during sleep. They were then allowed some nights of sleep. Science 118, 273–274. uninterrupted sleep, a period Dement called Dement, W. (1960). The effect of dream deprivation. Science 131, 1705–1707. the recovery phase. In the final phase of the experiment, volunteers were awakened only after REM sleep ended. In other words, they Thinking Critically were allowed to finish dreaming before they were awakened. 1. Explain How did Dement know that his test subjects were dreaming? Results and Interpretation 2. Define What is the REM-rebound effect? What does On average, Dement’s volunteers dreamed 80 the effect indicate about the importance of REM minutes per night. During the recovery phase, sleep? which took place after several nights of no

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Background Permanence Piaget andObject their lifetimes. their lifetimes. of mentaldevelopmentthatallhumanspassthrough in Thisfieldisdevoted tothestudyof development. thestages credited withfoundingthefieldof psychologycalledhuman interpreting the of that behavior. interpreting theobservations ofthatbehavior. reacted intermsoftrying to findit,andthen an object,hidingit,observing howthechild was reached,itinvolvedshowinganinfant objects existidependently.Oncethatpoint Piaget identifyingwheninfantsrecognizethat permanence. Theexperimentstartedwith ness stillexists—aconcepthecalledobject object thatdisappearsfromsensoryaware- when aninfantbeginstorecognizethat actions withobjects.Hisgoalwastofindout involved observinghisinfantchildren’sinter- subjects. of hisresearchheusedownchildrenas behavior. Inanotherunusualstep,formuch games andinformalinterviewstoobserve approach thatconsistedofusingopen-ended processes usinganunusual,unstructured from thoseofadults.Hedecidedtostudy learning processesarenaturallydifferent did notmake.Piagettheorizedthatchildren’s made errorsthatolderchildrenandadults seemed tofollowapattern.Theyconsistently he noticedthatthechildren’swronganswers Alfred Binet,gradingintelligencetests,when nence, illustrateshisoverall research method. discovery ofaconceptcalledobjectperma- This particularexperiment, which ledtothe development thatwentthroughfourstages. outlining aprocessofchildhood cognitive ’s mainlineofresearch involved Study Methodology Piaget’s object permanence experiment Piaget’s objectpermanenceexperiment Piaget wasworkingataboys’schoolrunby TheSwiss psychologistJeanPiagetis hnigCritically Thinking object permanenceataboutagetwo. Piaget birth andculminatinginthedevelopmentof Piaget identifiedsixsubstages, startingat Within thefouroverallstagesofdevelopment, Results andInterpretation 2 Analyze 2. 1.Identify York: BasicBooks. J. Piaget, Piaget, J.(1954).Thedevelopmentofobjectconcept.In stage ofdevelopment. parents tailorthelearningprocesstoachild’s and educationbecauseithelpseducators has real-worldrelevanceintermsofparenting sequent studiesinhumandevelopment.Italso step—has servedasatemplateformanysub- development ofobjectpermanenceisacrucial hood cognitivedevelopment—inwhichthe reasoning skills. that isessentialtothedevelopmentofcomplex object permanence, isamajor turningpoint infants canfindhiddenobjects. This ability, when outofsight. Bythefinalsubstage, understand thattheobjectscontinuetoexist infants clearly recognizeobjectsbutdonot himself orherself. Bythemiddlesubstage, views theoutsideworldasanextensionof found thatintheearlieststage, aninfant understanding of objectpermanence. Playing peekaboo canillustrate achild’s Piaget’s four-stageframeworkforchild- chologists toquestion hisconclusions? own children asresearch subjectscausesomepsy- The constructionofrealityinthechild What isobjectpermanence? Why might the factthat Piaget usedhis , pp. 3–96. New , pp.3–96.New Asch on Group Conformity L

Background Everyone at some time has felt ANDMARK pressure to go along with the group. This study conducted by the social psychologist Solomon Asch was among the first to study systematically how group pressure to conform influences individual behavior. S TUDIES IN

Source: Adapted from p. 32 of Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American 193(5), 31–35 Lines like those used in the Asch experiment P

Study Methodology power of conformity from another angle. Using SYCHOLOGY the same experimental design, Asch found Solomon Asch set about testing the power of that conformity fell to around 5 percent when conformity by creating what at first glance just one of the seven “cooperating subjects” seemed to be a simple visual test. The test went against the group and chose the right consisted of what appeared to be a group of answer. eight participants comparing several sets of Asch’s experiment is important because it two cards. For each set, one card had a single was the first to show just how powerful the line and the other had three differently sized pressure to conform is in molding individual lines, one of which was the same length as the behavior. Given that most individuals spend line on the single-lined card. The subjects were much of their lives within social groups, it is then asked to identify which of the three lines a finding that provides significant real-world on one card was the same length as the single insights into both the formation of individual line on the other card. behavior and group decision making. However, this seemingly straightforward Asch’s study has also been influential test was actually a ploy that all but one of the within the field of psychology, inspiring eight subjects was in on. The “trick” behind numerous subsequent studies. One such line the study was that every time a set of cards of research has found that there is an optimal was shown to the seven “subjects” who were group size for producing conformity. Confor- secretly cooperating with the experimenter, mity increases as the group’s size increases all of them picked the same wrong line on pur- until the group reaches about seven members. pose. Asch set the experiment up in this way After that, it gradually decreases as more to see whether the one unknowing participant group members are added. would conform to the group by choosing the same line everyone else did even though his Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific own eyes told him it was the wrong answer. American 193(5), 31–35. Results and Interpretation Thinking Critically Around one-third of the subjects consistently went along with the group by choosing the 1. Identify What aspect of the study’s design allowed wrong answer. About three-quarters of the the experimenter to produce the appearance of group subjects picked the wrong answer at least conformity? once. Clearly, group pressure was a significant 2. Predict How might an individual’s level of attach- influence on individual behavior. Moreover, in ment to a specific group influence the degree of indi- a follow-up experiment Asch demonstrated the vidual conformity to that group?

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Background Contact Comfort Harlow’s Studyof if love itself is a primary need. if love itselfisaprimary as foodandsecurity. Harlow designedanexperimenttodetermine Harry that children love needssuch theirmother becauseshemeetsprimary first personwelove isourmother. Behavioral psychologistshave argued has attracted theattentionof many psychologists.For mosthumans,the up toybear)intothecages. caused afearfulreaction(in thiscase,awind- more, attimesHarlowplaced anobjectthat milk fromthewire-meshsurrogate. Tolearn covered surrogate,whiletheotherhalfgot half themonkeysreceivedmilkfromcloth- a cagewithaccesstobothmodels.However, Eight infantrhesusmonkeyswereplacedin cloth. Thesecondwasmadeofwiremesh. wood coveredwithspongerubberandsoft heat. Thefirstmodelwasmadeofsmooth Both modelsdispensedmilkandprovided stand-in, mothersfortheinfantmonkeys. needed asmuchfoodorwater. provided somecomfortthatthebabymonkeys improved. Harlowwonderedifthesepads When theclothwasrestored,monkey from thecage,monkey’shealthdeclined. cages. Infact,iftheclothpadwasremoved to clothpadsthatlinedthebottomsoftheir that infantmonkeysbecameveryattached been inthewildbytheirmothers.Henoticed gers moreeffectivelythantheywouldhave humans andprotectedfromdiseasedan- The infantmonkeysinhislabwereraisedby biologically similartohumans,inhisstudies. to theirmothers. that—study thekindoflovethatbindsinfants ous aslove?HarryHarlowsetouttodojust How doesonestudyanemotionasmysteri- Study Methodology Harlow built two types of surrogate, or Harlow builttwotypesofsurrogate,or Harlow usedrhesusmonkeys,whichare Because itisamongthemostpowerful of emotions, love laboratory monkeys Harlow andoneof the hnigCritically Thinking infant monkeys strongly preferred to spend infant monkeysstronglypreferredtospend No matterwhich modelprovidedmilk, the Results andInterpretation 2 Explain 2. 1.Analyze 13, 673–685. Harlow, H.F.(1958).Thenatureoflove. hospitals, andorphanages. tings, includingthehome,daycarecenters, other peopleisimportantinallchildcareset- children. Itprovedthatphysicalcontactwith just forparentsbutallpeoplewhocare the confidencetoexploretheirenvironment. sense ofsecurityinthepresencedangerand fulfilled someneed. Itprovidedthemwitha fort themonkeysreceivedfromsoftcloth placed inthecage. Heconcluded thatthecom- were morewillingtoplay withnewobjects covered surrogatewas inthecage, theinfants Harlow alsodiscoveredthatwhenacloth- to thecloth-covered surrogateforcomfort. bear was inthecage, allthemonkeysrushed the cloth-covered “mother.” When thescary surrogate stillspentmostoftheirtimewith keys whoreceivedmilkfromthewire-mesh time withthecloth-covered surrogate. Mon- Harlow’s experiment has implications not Harlow’s experimenthasimplicationsnot experiment? might otherpsychologistsoffer? Why didHarlow userhesusmonkeys inthis What criticismsof experiments Harlow’s American Psychologist AmericanPsychologist The Origin of L Form Perception ANDMARK

Background Psychologists have long been fascinated by infants, and many studies focus on infants’ abilities and development. However, studying infants is difficult, as they cannot communicate what they are thinking. S TUDIES IN Robert Fantz devised a study of infants’ ability to perceive form, or patterns, shapes, and sizes. Robert Fantz studied what holds infants’ attention. P

Study Methodology Results and Interpretation SYCHOLOGY By the middle of the twentieth century, psy- Fantz discovered that infants stared longer at chologists agreed that human infants can per- objects covered with complex patterns such as ceive , , and movement. However, swirls or checkerboards than at objects with- many scholars argued that infants could not out patterns. At eight weeks, the infants began perceive shapes and patterns. preferring certain patterns. For example, they To determine if human infants could see stared longer at a bull’s-eye than at stripes. forms, Robert Fantz first performed an experi- The chicks had preferred forms that resem- ment with newly hatched chicks that had not bled seeds. What accounted for the shapes yet encountered grain or seeds, their natural that attracted the attention of human infants? foods. He placed objects of different shapes Fantz believed that humans were drawn to and sizes in front of the chicks. He discovered shapes that resembled human features. In a that they pecked at round objects and spheres second experiment, he exposed infants to oval more than they did triangles and flat objects. disks covered with -and-white patterns. That is, they pecked at objects shaped like As Fantz had hypothesized, the more the pat- seeds. The chicks could perceive forms. tern resembled a human face, the more inter- Testing human infants was harder, because esting the infants found the pattern. human babies have limited control over their Fantz’s research proved that infants’ minds body movements. Newborns cannot peck are not blank slates. They possess inborn or point at things. Fantz realized, however, abilities that shape how they respond to their that they do stare. (In developmental psy- environment. His study led other researchers chology, the term for staring is preferential to expand investigations into the ways that looking.) Fantz and his colleagues built a box infants perceive the world around them. with openings for presenting various objects. They first experimented by placing infant Fantz, R. L. (1961). The origin of form perception. Scientific American 204 (May), 61–72. in the box to see if they stared at the objects. They did, so the researchers then placed babies ranging in age from 1 to 15 Thinking Critically weeks into the box. The babies were presented with objects of various shapes and with differ- 1. Explain Why did Fantz measure how long infants stared at an object? ent patterns on them in the box openings. The length of time that the infants stared at each 2. Analyze Why might human infants respond to form was recorded. patterns that resemble a human face?

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Background Experiment The BoboDoll at studiedaggression inchildren. To Bandura andhiscolleagues helpanswerthesequestions,Albert Is aresult of humanbiology?Isitalearnedbehavior? is not surprisingthatpsychologistsare interested inaggression. root of many human troubles throughout ourhistory, soit including a Bobo doll. including aBobodoll. another roomthatcontained severaltoys, these toys.Thechildrenwere thentakento ers toldthechildrentheycould notplaywith angry. Sotofrustratethechildren,research- to inciteaggression,thechildrenshouldbe appealing toys.Theresearchersreasonedthat taken toadifferentroomwithattractive, quietly withtheTinkertoysentiretime. sive behaviorwatchedanadultwhoplayed doll. Childrenwhoweretoobservenonaggres- was alsoverballyaggressive,shoutingatthe punch itinthenose,andsitonit.Theadult doll (calledaBobodoll)withmallet,kickit, ute theadultwouldstrikeaninflatedclown exposed toaggressivebehavior,afteronemin- room playedwithTinkertoys™.Inthegroup contained toysandactivities.Anadultinthe of boysandgirls. sive. Each groupcontainedthesamenumber group watched adultswhowerenotaggres- adults behaving aggressively, whilethethird the controlgroup. The secondgroupobserved into threegroups. The firstgroupservedas to sixyearsold. The children wereorganized boys and36girlsranginginagefromthree To testhishypothesis, Bandurastudied36 model thatbehavior insimilarcircumstances. who observedaggressioninanadultwould a learnedbehavior. Hetheorizedthatchildren Albert Banduramaintainedthataggressionis Study Methodology After watching the adult, each child was After watchingtheadult,eachchildwas Each childwasbroughtintoaroomthat Onecouldargue thataggression hasbeenatthe hnigCritically Thinking to strike the Bobo doll than were the children to striketheBobodollthanwerechildren witnessed adultaggressionweremorelikely The studyrevealedthatthechildren whohad Results andInterpretation 2 Predict 2. 1.Analyze Abnormal andSocialPsychology aggression throughimitationofaggressivemodels. Bandura, A.,Ross,D.,andS.A.(1961).Transmissionof tion tolearnedaggression. ing systemsdevelopedfromsuchpublicatten- on mediaviolence,andparentaladvisoryrat- doll experiment.Congresshasheldhearings vised violencefollowedpublicationoftheBobo a result,manystudiesonchildrenandtele- children whowatchviolenceonTVshows.As son. Thisstudyraisedconcernsaboutyoung on adultstheysawinfilmsratherthanper- showed thatchildrenmodeledtheirbehavior else’s aggressivebehavior.Inalaterstudyhe a behaviorlearnedbyobservingsomeone sive femaleadult. strike thedolliftheyhadwatched anaggres- beat theBobodoll. Girlsweremorelikelyto especially iftheboyshadseenamaleadult were morelikelytobeaggressivethangirls, who hadobservedanonaggressiveadult. Boys blow-up doll? different ifitinvolved anotherhuman insteadof a Bandura concluded that aggression was Bandura concludedthataggressionwas impact of genderonmodelingbehavior? experiment Bandura infront of aphotofrom theBobodoll Would theoutcomeof thestudy What doesthisstudysuggestaboutthe 63,575–582. have have Journal of Journal of been been The Milgram Experiment L

Background The Milgram experiment is a landmark ANDMARK experiment in , the field devoted to the study of human behavior within groups. It was in part an attempt by its author, Stanley Milgram, to understand why otherwise normal people helped commit wartime atrocities. S TUDIES IN

Experiment assistants and participant P

Study Methodology Results and Interpretation SYCHOLOGY The experiment began with a hypothesis— With regular prompting from the fake that the urge to obey authority is strong authority figure, all the study’s participants enough to cause people to violate their own shocked the fake subject beyond the point moral and ethical beliefs. However, designing where he appeared to be yelling in pain and an experiment to test that proposition posed a became despondent and refused to answer. dilemma—how could it be done without actu- At this point, when the fake authority figure ally harming someone in the process? demanded they continue, 65 percent did so all Stanley Milgram devised a clever, if still the way to the highest shock level. The study controversial, experiment. Its centerpiece was showed that humans are highly susceptible to a fake, yet very convincing, machine suppos- pressure from authority figures. edly capable of administering electric shocks There was another major finding as well. at 30 increasingly stronger levels. During the Many of the study’s unknowing subjects experiment, the machine was controlled by the showed signs of extreme stress even as they subject, who did not know that it was a fake. obeyed their orders. This second finding con- In the study, two other persons secretly acted tinues to be a source of ethical debate among out roles. One played an authority figure who psychologists. In short, can deceiving study directed the experiment. The other played a subjects and placing them under extreme subject who was supposedly receiving electric stress ever be justified? shocks. Milgram’s study has obvious real-world Milgram recruited 40 male subjects of dif- implications. Given the apparent ease with ferent ages and occupations. They were told which humans can ignore their own moral that they were participating in a study on the and ethical beliefs in the face of authority, one impact of punishment on learning and that might argue that it is important to place strict their role was to question another subject guidelines on the use of authority. (who, as mentioned, was collaborating with the experimenter) and administer increasingly Milgram, S. (1963). Behavioral study of obedience. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 67, 371–378. higher-level shocks for each wrong answer. The sham subject then gave wrong answers on purpose. If the unknowing subject hesitated to Thinking Critically administer the shock, he was ordered to do so by the person playing the authority figure. The 1. Identify In what two ways was the experiment prob- lematic in terms of ethics? more the subject hesitated, the stonger the commands became. 2. Analyze How might the study have been an attempt to understand the sources of wartime atrocities?

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Background External Control Internal and control individualsthinktheyhave over theirlives. existence of aspecificpersonalitytrait influencinghow much of theindividualpersonality. Thestudydemonstrated the is alandmarkinthefieldof psychologydevoted tostudy nals” ontheI. E. Scaleweremorelikelythan study, thosewhowereidentified as “inter- test. For example, inonegambling-related The studiesconfirmedthe resultsofRotter’s Results andInterpretation the internalandexternallocusesofcontrol. studies’ resultswouldconfirmtheexistenceof used theI-EScale.Rottertheorizedthatthose subsequent studiesbyRotterandothersthat later andinvolvedexaminingtheresultsof the statementwithwhichheorsheagreed. it tofate.Foreachpair,thesubjectidentified to individualeffort,whiletheotherattributed ments. Onestatementattributedanoutcome having subjectsreadaseriesofpairedstate- or externalpersonality.Thescaleconsistedof identify asubjectashavingeitheraninternal I-E Scale the firststep,hedevelopedatestcalled events areoutsideoftheircontrol. while thoseinthesecondtendtobelievethat control oftheeventssurroundingtheirlives, first grouptendtobelievethattheyarein or anexternallocusofcontrol. Those inthe in whathecalledaninternallocusofcontrol personality iswhethertheindividualbelieves that onetraitmakesupanindividual’s an individualunique. Julian Rottertheorized mean themixofbehaviors, ortraits, thatmake When psychologists refertopersonality, they Study Methodology The second part of the study took place The secondpartofthestudytookplace Rotter’s studyconsistedoftwosteps.In This experiment, conductedbyJulianRotter, Thisexperiment, that he hoped would enable him to thathehopedwouldenablehimto hnigCritically Thinking study foundthatintryingtoachieve agoal, might getlucky andwin. Similarly, another other words, theyresistedthenotionthat grounds thattheywerenotlikelytowin. In “externals” toavoid betswithhighoddsonthe 2 Analyze 2. 1.Identify 80, 1–28. external controlofreinforcement. Rotter, J.B.(1966).Generalizedexpectanciesforinternalversus of-control personality. trol, theindividualdevelopsanexternal-locus- to comefromthingsoutsidetheperson’scon- other hand,mostofthereinforcementsappear internal-locus-of-control personality.If,onthe own actions,thentheindividualdevelopsan viewed bytheindividualasaresultoftheir the thingsthatreinforcethosebehaviorsare course oflearningmanybehaviors,most out foranindividualovertime.If,the how theprocessofconditionedlearningplays internal-external personalitytraitintermsof hands. ognized thattheoutcomewas intheirown than externals. This was becausetheyrec- internals tendedtobemorehighlymotivated Rotter explained the development of the Rotter explainedthedevelopmentof of control? than someonecharacterized byanexternal locus such assmoking,more easily to stopabadhabit, demonstrates aninternal locusof control beable What isanexternallocusof control? Why might someone whose personality Why mightsomeonewhosepersonality Psychological Monographs control your life? Does chance orchoice

Learning to L Feel Helpless ANDMARK

Background One basic insight of psychology is that much of human behavior is learned. This experiment by the behavioral psychologist showed that among the “bad” behavior patterns that can be learned is S TUDIES IN a mistaken belief in helplessness.

Dogs learned helplessness in the Seligman experiment. P

Study Methodology Results and Interpretation SYCHOLOGY The basic theory behind Martin Seligman’s Seligman reasoned that if his theory was cor- experiment was that repeated exposure to an rect, then the dogs that could not escape the unpleasant, inescapable situation can result shock in the study’s first part would be far less in the mistaken feeling that other events are likely than dogs from the other two groups beyond one’s control. To test the proposition, to learn how to escape the avoidable shock. Seligman designed a two-part experiment. Seligman’s statistical analysis supported that The subjects were 24 dogs divided into three hypothesis. Between 70 percent and 80 per- groups of 8 dogs each. The “unpleasant situa- cent of the “no-escape” dogs from the first part tion” his subjects were exposed to was a mild of the experiment failed to escape the shock electrical shock. in the second part when they could have done The first part of the study involved two of so. Meanwhile, almost all the dogs in the other the three groups. It consisted of placing a pair two groups—both the “escape” dogs in the first of dogs, one from each group, into a harness. part and the third control group—escaped For each harnessed pair, the dog from one quickly and easily. group could easily escape the shock by moving The results of this experiment led Seligman its head from side to side, while the dog from and others to argue that learned helplessness the other group could not escape the shock no is one cause of mental illness. This conclusion matter what it did. (The harness was rigged so can have a practical application in treating the that the dog’s shock ended when the other dog depression and anxiety some people develop figured out how to stop the shock; that way, after natural disasters and other traumatic both dogs received the same amount of shock events beyond their control. time.) The second part of the study included the Seligman, M. E. P., and Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of Experimental Psychology 74, 1–9. third group, which was a control group. Selig- man administered shocks to all the dogs, one at a time, in a box that was set up so that the Thinking Critically dog could jump over a partition and avoid the shock. For each of the dogs, Seligman recorded 1. Identify What mental illness can develop from an individual’s mistaken feeling of helplessness? whether it learned to escape the shock and, if so, how long it took to learn the behavior. 2. Analyze What ethical issue is involved in the experi- ment, and what factor is balanced against that ethical issue in order to justify such an experiment?

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Background and Culture Facial Expressions the globe, ordofactorssuchasculturethe globe, changetheirmeaning? other words,dofacialexpressions express thesameemotions across meaning of facialexpressions remained constantacross cultures. In happy, sad,orangry. Psychologist Paul Ekmanwondered ifthe determine aperson’smood.We make faceswhenweare different modern culture. modern culture. group, werefamiliarwith some aspectsof picture. Membersofthesecond, muchsmaller spoke noEnglishandhad never seenamotion had nocontactwithmoderncultures.They two groups.Membersofthefirstgrouphad had limitedcontactwithmoderncultures. Guinea, wheremembersoftheForetribehad They foundsuchpeoplein1971New who hadnotbeenexposedtomediaimages. had universalmeanings,theyneededsubjects the hypothesisthatcertainfacialexpressions long beenexposedtocertainimages.Totest media, peopleinindustrializedcountrieshad their studywasflawed.Inanageofglobal for everyphotograph. study participantidentifiedthesameemotion Chile, Japan,andtheUnitedStates.Every participants werefromArgentina,Brazil, the emotionreflectedinexpression.Study human facesandaskedvolunteerstoname the firststudy,theyshowedphotographsof sions andcertainemotionswereuniversal.In if thelinksbetweencertainfacialexpres- Friesen conductedtwostudiestodetermine happy andfrownwhenwe’resad? phies. Isitlikelythatweallsmilewhenwe’re behavior toreligiousbeliefsandbasicphiloso- different, fromconceptsofbeautyandrules There aresomanyways inwhich culturesare Study Methodology Ekman and Friesen divided the Fore into Ekman andFriesendividedtheForeinto The researchersrealized,however,that Paul EkmanandhiscolleagueWallace Facial expressions are onecuethathumansuseto hnigCritically Thinking The stories were simple; for example, the The storiesweresimple;forexample,the that correspondedtotheeventsinstory. pick outaphotographwithfacialexpression members ofeachgroupandaskedthemto 2 Infer 2. 1.Analyze Psychology in thefaceandemotion. Ekman, P.,andFriesen,W.V.(1971).Constantsacrosscultures even today. retain theseexpressionsandtheirmeanings danger andhelpedthemtosurvive.Humans that signaledfearwarnedotherhumansof of earlyhumans.Forexample,theexpression sion maybetheresultofsurvivalmechanisms which theFore oftenconfusedwithsurprise. selected. The oneexceptionwas thatoffear, emotions thatpeoplefromothercountrieshad the sameexpressionstorepresent expressions areuniversal. The Fore picked The psychologists discoveredthatmanyfacial Results andInterpretation all ofWesterners,notmemberstheFore. friends havecomeforavisit.Thephotoswere “happiness” storywasaboutsomeonewhose Trained translators read brief stories to Trained translatorsreadbriefstoriesto These findingsindicatethatfacialexpres- tages, andinwhat way mightthey expressions may study today? 17,124–129. Besides thosethat show fear, what facial Why tore-create mightitbedifficult this Smiles andlaughter are universal. have pro have Journal of Personality and Social Journal ofPersonalityandSocial vided evolutionary advan- have have done so? The Stanford L Prison Experiment ANDMARK

Background A team of researcherss ledd by the social psychologist Philip Zimbardo designedd thiss studyy ass a wayy off testing the theory thatt the sociall setting—in thiss case an inherentlyy oppressive prison environment—iss an importantt factorr in molding individuall behavior. S TUDIES IN

Interactions between guards and prisoners were a focus off the experiment. P

Study Methodology to abuse, none off them tried to stop the more SYCHOLOGY abusive ones. In one representative incident, The subjects in Philip Zimbardo’s now-famous the prisoners refused to help a fellow prisoner prison studyy were 24 male college students, who was beingg abused byy the guards. They all of whom had been tested and found to voted not to give up theirr blankets in exchange be healthyy and psychologicallyy normal. This for the release off the “misbehaving” prisoner ensured that none of the subjects started the from solitary confinement. experiment with “abnormal”” individual per- In the end, the shocking results off the sonalityy traits that might taint the results. Stanford prison experiment led to its termina- At the start off the study, halff the subjects tion in just sixx days instead of two weeks. The were randomlyy assigned the role of prisoner. experiment showed how social factors, which The otherr halff became mockk prison guards. in this case involved an uneven distribution Afterr a staged arrest and bookingg process con- off powerr and control between prisoners and ducted with the help of the local police depart- guards, can triggerr the rapid development of ment, the “prisoners” were sent to a “jail” abnormal behavior patterns. created in the basement off a campus building, The Stanford experiment continues to be where theyy were placed in the custodyy off the relevant today. The 2004 scandal involvingg the realistically dressed “guards” forr what was to tr eatm en t ooff ppsoesrisoners at theteAbubu GhGabraib mili- bbe a ttwo-weekk mockk iiimprisonment. t taryy prison in Iraq brought the Stanford study Results and Interpretation backk into public awareness.

Shortlyy afterr the experiment began, the behav- Zimbardo, P. G. (1972). The pathologyy off imprisonment. ior of both the prisoners and the guards under- Societyy 9 (6), 4–8. went a dramatic change. Within the first two Haney, C., Banks, W. C., and Zimbardo, P. G. (1973). Interper- days, a prisoner “riot”” took place, which was sonal dynamics in a simulated prison, Internationall Journall of Criminologyy andd Penologyy 1, 69–97. ruthlesslyy put down byy the guards usingg icy blasts from a fire extinguisher. Thereafter, the prisoners became despondent and depressed. Thinking Critically Several were so traumatized byy the experience that theyy had to be released within the first 1. Identify Whatt was the underlying theoryy off this few days. experiment? As forr the guards, manyy of them used their 2. Draww Conclusions How mightt this experimentt sup- position off authorityy to physically and men- portt the idea thatt improving the prison environment tally abuse the prisoners. Moreover, while can have a positive impactt on prisoners’ behavior? some guards did theirr jobs without resorting

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py10se_bm_landmark.indd R17 5/8/09 12:32:52 PM LANDMARK STUDIES IN PSYCHOLOGY R18

Background in aMentalHospital Identifying MentalIllness the provider’s . the provider’s abnormal behavior andadiagnosisof suchadisordermaybetheresult of In a1973 study, David Rosenhan discovered thatthelinkbetween abnormal behavior maybediagnosedashaving apsychologicaldisorder. mental healthcare providers observebehavior. Apersonexhibiting interesting aspect of the study was that the interesting aspectofthestudy wasthatthe pants, rarelycarryingona conversation.One typically ignoredquestions fromthepartici- participants asiftheywere mentallyill.They ior, doctorsandotherhospitalstafftreatedthe diagnosis ofschizophrenia in remission. nosed withschizophrenia were releasedwitha in thehospital. All sevenwhohadbeendiag- One participantwas releasedafter52days was 19days. The shorteststay was 7days. The average hospitalstay fortheparticipants Results andInterpretation taking asanothersymptomoftheirdisorder. openly, sincethedoctorsinterpretednote- staff, butlaterrecordedtheirobservations ences. Atfirst,theytriedtohidethisfromthe toilet, however.) flushed anymedicationtheyreceiveddownthe and weremodelpatientsinallways. (Theyall mentally ill. They cooperatedwiththestaff in normalbehavior, neverpretendingtobe Most important, participantsalways engaged gave honestanswerstothedoctors’questions. schizophrenia. Onceadmitted, participants admitted—all butonewithadiagnosisof other symptomsbesidesthevoices. All were chiatric hospital. The “patients” reportedno participant appliedforadmissiontoapsy- said “empty,”that “hollow,”and “thud,” each ticipated inthestudy. Claimingtohearvoices David Rosenhanandsevenvolunteerspar- Study Methodology Even thoughtheyexhibitednormalbehav- The participantstooknotesontheirexperi- In determining if a person suffers from mental illness, from mentalillness, Indeterminingifapersonsuffers How doesthesettingaffectdiagnosis? hnigCritically Thinking as hospital patients received little personal as hospitalpatientsreceivedlittlepersonal gative journalists.Rosenhannotedthateven accused thestudyvolunteersofbeinginvesti- were notmentallyill.Somepatientseven hospital stafftosuspectthattheparticipants genuine patientsweremorelikelythanthe 2 Predict 2. 1.Analyze 179, 250–258. Rosenhan, D.L.(1973).Onbeingsaneininsaneplaces. ing labelstopatients. increased awarenessofthedangersapply- greater careindiagnosticproceduresandhas usually thesame.Hisresearchhasledto after publishinghisarticle.Theresultswere patients. place determinedhowthestaffperceived Instead, thesettinginwhichbehaviortook not thekeytounderstandingdiagnosis. being abnormal.Patientbehavior,then,was Doctors interpretedmanynormalbehaviorsas admitted tothehospitalmustbementallyill. chiatrists andstaffassumedthatanypatient large quantitiesofmedication. attention fromdoctors,thepatientsweregiven Rosenhan repeated his study several times Rosenhan repeatedhisstudyseveraltimes Rosenhan concludedthathospitalpsy- after reading Rosenhan’safter study? approach theproblem of diagnosingmentalillness psychological disorders? ognize that studyparticipants didnot mental hospitalwere more likely to rec- than doctors How mightamentalhealthprofessional Why doyou thinkthat patients inthe have have Science

Multiple Intelligences L

Background For most of the twentieth century, psychologists used tests ANDMARK to measure . However, some critics noted that the tests were not reliable. Test scores were influenced by factors other than intelligence, such as race and social class. These concerns led Howard Gardner and other psychologists to search for new definitions of intelligence. S TUDIES IN

What type of intelligence did Pablo Picasso exhibit? P

Study Methodology Later, Gardner added an eighth intelli- SYCHOLOGY gence—naturalist intelligence. A person with To revise our understanding of intelligence, this quality is able to “recognize and classify Howard Gardner studied how the brain works. plants, minerals, and animals, including rocks He noted that different parts of the brain car- and grass and all variety of flora and fauna.” ried out different tasks. People who suffered He cited Charles Darwin as a good example. from brain injuries often lost certain mental To define an intelligence, Gardner estab- skills. He also studied prodigies, people who lished eight signs. Examples include evidence possess an outstanding ability in one area of that the intelligence has developed over evolu- life but are unremarkable in others. For exam- tionary time, and the ability to study the intel- ple, an individual may be average in most ligence with psychological experiments. ways yet have musical talent far beyond that of an average person. Results and Interpretation From his studies, Gardner concluded that Published in 1983, Gardner’s theory of mul- intelligence is not a single, unified level of tiple intelligences became popular with many ability. Instead, Gardner argued that human scholars. It influenced educational systems as beings possess multiple intelligences. An indi- teachers sought to understand how students vidual may have great ability in one area, be learn. Critics, however, have charged that average in other, and below average in yet there is no scientific basis for Gardner’s theory. another. They point out that it is impossible to prove Gardner listed seven types of intelligence. or disprove. Some critics claim that Gardner’s Linguistic intelligence is skill with words and categories do not reflect intelligence but, language. Musical intelligence is a heightened rather, different styles of thinking. ability with music. People with high logical- mathematical intelligence are good with Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple numbers and analysis. Spatial intelligence is intelligences. New York: Basic Books. the ability to mentally manipulate images. Dancers and athletes in particular possess Thinking Critically body-kinesthetic intelligence. Intrapersonal intelligence is the ability to know one’s own 1. Explain How did Gardner’s study of brain function- motivations and emotions, while interpersonal ing lead to the theory of multiple intelligences? intelligence is the skill of identifying other 2. Support a Position Besides Gardner’s seven people’s feelings and desires. intelligences, what other types of intelligences might psychologists claim exist?

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Background Human Behavior Cultural Valuesand in which they affect humanbehavior.in whichtheyaffect TriandisPsychologist Harry cultures studieddifferent andtheways todetermineexactlyhow culturecan bedifficult shapesbehavior. influences yourbehavior. However, andit complex, cultures are very individualist attitudes. Finally, thethirdstudy the Japanese hadsomecollectivist andsome andis discoveredthatthePuerto Ricansand participants fromJapan and PuertoRico. Tri- ues. The secondstudyincluded Americans and United Statesemphasizeindividualisticval- The firststudyrevealedthatcitizensofthe Results andInterpretation either individualisticorcollectivist. sured theirattitudestowardvaluesthatwere ticipants completedquestionnairesthatmea- organized threestudies.Ineachstudy,par- not deeplyloyaltoanyingroupinparticular. member ofseveralingroupsbuttypicallyare it isinacollectivistculture.Peoplemaybe success. Theingroupisnotasimportant more emphasisonpersonalsatisfactionand group becomesdifficultorunpleasant. even iftheindividual’s relationshipwiththe assistance. Such loyaltytotheingrouppersists viduals receiveemotionalsupportandother for theircommitmenttotheingroup, indi- important thanindividualsuccess. Inreturn success andsurvivaloftheingroupismore as afamilyortribelargenation. The which theybelong. An ingroup may beassmall individuals areloyaltoaspecificingroup In what Triandis calledcollectivistcultures, to organizeculturesintotwobroadcategories. Harry Triandis usedtheconceptofingroup Study Methodology To learn more, Triandis and his colleagues To learnmore,Triandisandhiscolleagues Individualist cultures,incontrast,place Psychologists agree thattheculture youlivein hnigCritically Thinking with others and believed that groups provided with othersandbelievedthatgroupsprovided attitudes. PuertoRicansprizedinteractions Rican cultureemphasizedsomecollectivist Ricans. This studyagainindicatedthatPuerto compared responsesof Americans andPuerto 2 Predict 2. 1.Identify Social Psychology tives onself-ingrouprelationships. (1988). Individualismandcollectivism:Cross-culturalperspec- Triandis, H.,Bontempo,R.,Villarreal,M.,Asai,andLucca,N. more likelytosufferfromloneliness. people livinginindividualisticculturesare attitudes. Forexample,studiesindicatethat his ideastoexploreavarietyofbehaviorsand tial. Psychologistsandsociologistshaveused as collectivist. examples. MostotherregionsTriandislabeled the UnitedStates,CanadaandAustraliaare both physicalandsocialmobility.Besides a frontier,largenumbersofimmigrants,and Some qualitiesthatthesecountriesshareare and countriesinfluencedbythoseregions. are foundinnorthernandwesternEurope cultures. Hefoundthatindividualistcultures more concernedwithself-reliance. positive support. Americans, however, were Triandis’s workprovedtobeveryinfluen- Triandis wasabletomapthetwotypesof individualistic andcollectivistcultures? in individualisticcultures? attitudes aboutvalues. The studyexamined Puerto Rican How mightdivorce rates differbetween What values might beimportant topeople 54,323–338. Journal of Personality and Journal ofPersonalityand The Minnesota Twins Study L

Background Scientists have long debated the forces that shape ANDMARK human personality. For most of the twentieth century, scholars argued that factors in one’s environment—the influence of parents and teachers, for example—shape personalities. However, some psychologists wondered about the role of heredity and genetics in forming personality. Psychologists at the University of Minnesota designed an experiment to S

help determine whether nature (genetics) or nurture (environment) is TUDIES IN more important in determining who we are. These twins were raised apart but share many characteristics. P

Study Methodology Results and Interpretation SYCHOLOGY We may not like to think that heredity plays a The study of the database showed that mem- significant role in our personalities. We would bers of the MZA group and the MZT group had rather think that our ability to make friends very similar test results. If environment were or to persevere in the face of difficulty is due wholly responsible for personality, the twins more to our virtues than to our genes. raised apart would in some ways be very dif- To study the effects of genes on personality, ferent from one another. However, twins raised psychologist Thomas Bouchard enlisted the apart were about as similar to one another in participation of monozygotic twins. Commonly personality as were twins raised together. This called identical twins, monozygotic twins outcome indicated that genes play a major role share the same genetic makeup. Bouchard and in the development of personality. his colleagues at the University of Minnesota The study’s authors did not completely opened a registry for twins born in Minnesota dismiss the role of environment. For example, from 1936 to 1955. They organized the twins they noted that a person’s intelligence quo- who registered into two groups. The first tient (IQ) could improve with proper training. group consisted of monozygotic twins raised Critics claimed that other studies of twins together (MZT). The second group was made have shown that environment plays a greater up of monozygotic twins who had been sepa- role than the University of Minnesota study rated at an early age and raised apart (MZA). found. Despite such criticisms, Bouchard and Volunteers from each group were given a wide his fellow psychologists changed the debate array of tests. Scholars studied the twins’ over nature and nurture. Scientists continue health, religious beliefs, reaction times, and to conduct research on the influence of genet- even listed their personal belongings. The test- ics on personality. ing took about 50 hours to complete. The psychologists used the test results to Bouchard, T., Lykken, D., McGue, M., Segal, N., and Tellegen, A. (1990). Sources of human psychological differences: The create a database of information about the two Minnesota study of twins reared apart. Science 250, 223–229. groups of twins. The psychologists rated the level of shared personality traits among mem- bers of the MZT group. They then rated the Thinking Critically similarity of the same traits of the MZA group. 1. Explain Why did the Bouchard study use monozy- Comparing the results of the tests on the two gotic twins? groups allowed the psychologists to evaluate 2. Predict How might this study affect our understand- the role of heredity and environment in form- ing of the importance of genetics? ing personalities.

R21 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct

PREAMBLE welfare of animal subjects of research. When conflicts occur among psychologists’ obligations or concerns, Psychologists are committed to increasing scientific they attempt to resolve these conflicts in a responsible and professional knowledge of behavior and people’s fashion that avoids or minimizes harm. Because psy- understanding of themselves and others and to the chologists’ scientific and professional judgments and use of such knowledge to improve the condition of actions may affect the lives of others, they are alert to SYCHOLOGISTS individuals, organizations, and society. Psycholo- and guard against personal, financial, social, organiza- P gists respect and protect civil and human rights and tional, or political factors that might lead to misuse of the central importance of freedom of inquiry and their influence. Psychologists strive to be aware of the expression in research, teaching, and publication. possible effect of their own physical and mental health They strive to help the public in developing informed on their ability to help those with whom they work. judgments and choices concerning human behavior. In doing so, they perform many roles, such as researcher, educator, diagnostician, therapist, supervisor, consul- PRINCIPLE B: FIDELITY AND tant, administrator, social interventionist, and expert RESPONSIBILITY witness. This Ethics Code provides a common set of Psychologists establish relationships of trust with RINCIPLES OF principles and standards upon which psychologists P those with whom they work. They are aware of their build their professional and scientific work. professional and scientific responsibilities to society This Ethics Code is intended to provide specific and to the specific communities in which they work. standards to cover most situations encountered by Psychologists uphold professional standards of psychologists. It has as its goals the welfare and conduct, clarify their professional roles and obliga- THICAL protection of the individuals and groups with whom tions, accept appropriate responsibility for their E psychologists work and the education of members, behavior, and seek to manage conflicts of interest students, and the public regarding ethical standards that could lead to exploitation or harm. Psychologists of the discipline. consult with, refer to, or cooperate with other profes- The development of a dynamic set of ethical stan- sionals and institutions to the extent needed to serve dards for psychologists’ work-related conduct requires the best interests of those with whom they work. a personal commitment and lifelong effort to act They are concerned about the ethical compliance of ethically; to encourage ethical behavior by students, their colleagues’ scientific and professional conduct. supervisees, employees, and colleagues; and to consult Psychologists strive to contribute a portion of their with others concerning ethical problems. professional time for little or no compensation or personal advantage. PRINCIPLE C: INTEGRITY GENERAL PRINCIPLES Psychologists seek to promote accuracy, honesty, and This section consists of General Principles. General truthfulness in the science, teaching, and practice of Principles, as opposed to Ethical Standards, are psychology. In these activities psychologists do not aspirational in nature. Their intent is to guide and steal, cheat, or engage in fraud, subterfuge, or inten- inspire psychologists toward the very highest ethical tional misrepresentation of fact. Psychologists strive ideals of the profession. General Principles, in contrast to keep their promises and to avoid unwise or unclear to Ethical Standards, do not represent obligations and commitments. In situations in which deception may be should not form the basis for imposing sanctions. Rely- ethically justifiable to maximize benefits and mini- ing upon General Principles for either of these reasons mize harm, psychologists have a serious obligation distorts both their meaning and purpose. to consider the need for, the possible consequences of, and their responsibility to correct any resulting PRINCIPLE A: BENEFICENCE AND mistrust or other harmful effects that arise from the NONMALEFICENCE use of such techniques. Psychologists strive to benefit those with whom they work and take care to do no harm. In their profes- PRINCIPLE D: JUSTICE sional actions, psychologists seek to safeguard the Psychologists recognize that fairness and justice welfare and rights of those with whom they interact entitle all persons to access to and benefit from the professionally and other affected persons, and the contributions of psychology and to equal quality in the processes, procedures, and services being conducted

R22 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS by psychologists. Psychologists exercise reasonable tion appears appropriate and the intervention does judgment and take precautions to ensure that their not violate any confidentiality rights that may be potential biases, the boundaries of their competence, involved. (See also Standards 1.02, Conflicts Between and the limitations of their expertise do not lead to or Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other Governing condone unjust practices. Legal Authority, and 1.03, Conflicts Between Ethics E

and Organizational Demands.) THICAL PRINCIPLE E: RESPECT FOR PEOPLE’S 1.05 Reporting Ethical Violations RIGHTS AND DIGNITY If an apparent ethical violation has substantially Psychologists respect the dignity and worth of all harmed or is likely to substantially harm a person or people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, organization and is not appropriate for informal reso- P confidentiality, and self-determination. Psychologists lution under Standard 1.04, Informal Resolution of RINCIPLES OF are aware that special safeguards may be necessary to Ethical Violations, or is not resolved properly in that protect the rights and welfare of persons or communi- fashion, psychologists take further action appropriate ties whose vulnerabilities impair autonomous decision to the situation. Such action might include referral to making. Psychologists are aware of and respect cul- state or national committees on professional ethics, to tural, individual, and role differences, including those state licensing boards, or to the appropriate institu- based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, tional authorities. This standard does not apply when culture, national origin, religion, sexual orientation, an intervention would violate confidentiality rights disability, language, and socioeconomic status and

or when psychologists have been retained to review P consider these factors when working with members of

the work of another psychologist whose professional SYCHOLOGISTS such groups. Psychologists try to eliminate the effect conduct is in question. (See also Standard 1.02, Con- on their work of biases based on those factors, and flicts Between Ethics and Law, Regulations, or Other they do not knowingly participate in or condone activi- Governing Legal Authority.) ties of others based upon such prejudices. 1.06 Cooperating With Ethics Committees Psychologists cooperate in ethics investigations, proceedings, and resulting requirements of the APA or ETHICAL STANDARDS any affiliated state psychological association to which 1. Resolving Ethical Issues they belong. In doing so, they address any confiden- 1.01 Misuse of Psychologists’ Work tiality issues. Failure to cooperate is itself an ethics violation. However, making a request for deferment If psychologists learn of misuse or misrepresentation of adjudication of an ethics complaint pending the of their work, they take reasonable steps to correct or outcome of litigation does not alone constitute nonco- minimize the misuse or misrepresentation. operation. 1.02 Conflicts Between Ethics and Law, 1.07 Improper Complaints Regulations, or Other Governing Legal Psychologists do not file or encourage the filing of eth- Authority ics complaints that are made with reckless disregard If psychologists’ ethical responsibilities conflict with for or willful ignorance of facts that would disprove law, regulations, or other governing legal authority, the allegation. psychologists make known their commitment to the Ethics Code and take steps to resolve the conflict. If 1.08 Unfair Discrimination Against Complainants the conflict is unresolvable via such means, psycholo- and Respondents gists may adhere to the requirements of the law, Psychologists do not deny persons employment, regulations, or other governing legal authority. advancement, admissions to academic or other pro- 1.03 Conflicts Between Ethics grams, tenure, or promotion, based solely upon their having made or their being the subject of an ethics and Organizational Demands complaint. This does not preclude taking action based If the demands of an organization with which psy- upon the outcome of such proceedings or considering chologists are affiliated or for whom they are working other appropriate information. conflict with this Ethics Code, psychologists clarify the nature of the conflict, make known their commitment to the Ethics Code, and to the extent feasible, resolve 2. Competence the conflict in a way that permits adherence to the 2.01 Boundaries of Competence Ethics Code. (a) Psychologists provide services, teach, and conduct research with populations and in areas only within 1.04 Informal Resolution of Ethical Violations the boundaries of their competence, based on their When psychologists believe that there may have education, training, supervised experience, consulta- been an ethical violation by another psychologist, tion, study, or professional experience. they attempt to resolve the issue by bringing it to the attention of that individual, if an informal resolu-

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R23 (b) Where scientific or professional knowledge in the 2.05 Delegation of Work to Others discipline of psychology establishes that an under- Psychologists who delegate work to employees, standing of factors associated with age, gender, gender supervisees, or research or teaching assistants or who identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national origin, use the services of others, such as interpreters, take religion, sexual orientation, disability, language, or reasonable steps to (1) avoid delegating such work to socioeconomic status is essential for effective imple- persons who have a multiple relationship with those mentation of their services or research, psychologists being served that would likely lead to exploitation or have or obtain the training, experience, consultation, loss of objectivity; (2) authorize only those responsi- or supervision necessary to ensure the competence bilities that such persons can be expected to perform of their services, or they make appropriate refer- competently on the basis of their education, training, rals, except as provided in Standard 2.02, Providing or experience, either independently or with the level Services in Emergencies. of supervision being provided; and (3) see that such (c) Psychologists planning to provide services, teach, persons perform these services competently. (See also

SYCHOLOGISTS or conduct research involving populations, areas, Standards 2.02, Providing Services in Emergencies;

P techniques, or technologies new to them undertake 3.05, Multiple Relationships; 4.01, Maintaining Con- relevant education, training, supervised experience, fidentiality; 9.01, Bases for Assessments; 9.02, Use of consultation, or study. Assessments; 9.03, Informed Consent in Assessments; (d) When psychologists are asked to provide services and 9.07, Assessment by Unqualified Persons.) to individuals for whom appropriate mental health 2.06 Personal Problems and Conflicts services are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the competence necessary, psycholo- (a) Psychologists refrain from initiating an activ- gists with closely related prior training or experience ity when they know or should know that there is a may provide such services in order to ensure that ser- substantial likelihood that their personal problems RINCIPLES OF vices are not denied if they make a reasonable effort will prevent them from performing their work-related P to obtain the competence required by using relevant activities in a competent manner. research, training, consultation, or study. (b) When psychologists become aware of personal (e) In those emerging areas in which generally recog- problems that may interfere with their performing nized standards for preparatory training do not yet work-related duties adequately, they take appropriate THICAL exist, psychologists nevertheless take reasonable steps measures, such as obtaining professional consultation E to ensure the competence of their work and to protect or assistance, and determine whether they should clients/patients, students, supervisees, research limit, suspend, or terminate their work-related duties. participants, organizational clients, and others from (See also Standard 10.10, Terminating Therapy.) harm. (f) When assuming forensic roles, psychologists are or 3. Human Relations become reasonably familiar with the judicial or admin- 3.01 Unfair Discrimination istrative governing their roles. In their work-related activities, psychologists do not 2.02 Providing Services in Emergencies engage in unfair discrimination based on age, gender, gender identity, race, ethnicity, culture, national In emergencies, when psychologists provide services origin, religion, sexual orientation, disability, socioeco- to individuals for whom other mental health services nomic status, or any basis proscribed by law. are not available and for which psychologists have not obtained the necessary training, psychologists may 3.02 Sexual Harassment provide such services in order to ensure that services Psychologists do not engage in sexual harassment. are not denied. The services are discontinued as soon Sexual harassment is sexual solicitation, physical as the emergency has ended or appropriate services advances, or verbal or nonverbal conduct that is are available. sexual in nature, that occurs in connection with the 2.03 Maintaining Competence psychologist’s activities or roles as a psychologist, and that either (1) is unwelcome, is offensive, or creates a Psychologists undertake ongoing efforts to develop and hostile workplace or educational environment, and the maintain their competence. psychologist knows or is told this or (2) is sufficiently 2.04 Bases for Scientific and Professional severe or intense to be abusive to a reasonable person Judgments in the context. Sexual harassment can consist of a Psychologists’ work is based upon established scien- single intense or severe act or of multiple persistent tific and professional knowledge of the discipline. (See or pervasive acts. (See also Standard 1.08, Unfair Dis- also Standards 2.01e, Boundaries of Competence, and crimination Against Complainants and Respondents.) 10.01b, Informed Consent to Therapy.) 3.03 Other Harassment Psychologists do not knowingly engage in behavior that is harassing or demeaning to persons with whom they interact in their work based on factors such as

R24 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS those persons’ age, gender, gender identity, race, eth- organizations involved. This clarification includes the nicity, culture, national origin, religion, sexual orienta- role of the psychologist (e.g., therapist, consultant, tion, disability, language, or socioeconomic status. diagnostician, or expert witness), an identification of who is the client, the probable uses of the services 3.04 Avoiding Harm provided or the information obtained, and the fact E Psychologists take reasonable steps to avoid harming that there may be limits to confidentiality. (See also THICAL their clients/patients, students, supervisees, research Standards 3.05, Multiple Relationships, and 4.02, participants, organizational clients, and others with Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality.) whom they work, and to minimize harm where it is foreseeable and unavoidable. 3.08 Exploitative Relationships

Psychologists do not exploit persons over whom they P

3.05 Multiple Relationships have supervisory, evaluative, or other authority such RINCIPLES OF (a) A multiple relationship occurs when a psychologist as clients/patients, students, supervisees, research is in a professional role with a person and (1) at the participants, and employees. (See also Standards same time is in another role with the same person, 3.05, Multiple Relationships; 6.04, Fees and Financial (2) at the same time is in a relationship with a person Arrangements; 6.05, Barter With Clients/Patients; closely associated with or related to the person with 7.07, Sexual Relationships With Students and Super- whom the psychologist has the professional relation- visees; 10.05, Sexual Intimacies With Current Ther- ship, or (3) promises to enter into another relationship apy Clients/Patients; 10.06, Sexual Intimacies With in the future with the person or a person closely

Relatives or Significant Others of Current Therapy P associated with or related to the person. Clients/Patients; 10.07, Therapy With Former Sexual SYCHOLOGISTS A psychologist refrains from entering into a multiple Partners; and 10.08, Sexual Intimacies With Former relationship if the multiple relationship could reason- Therapy Clients/Patients.) ably be expected to impair the psychologist’s objectiv- ity, competence, or effectiveness in performing his 3.09 Cooperation With Other Professionals or her functions as a psychologist, or otherwise risks When indicated and professionally appropriate, exploitation or harm to the person with whom the psychologists cooperate with other professionals in professional relationship exists. order to serve their clients/patients effectively and Multiple relationships that would not reasonably be appropriately. (See also Standard 4.05, Disclosures.) expected to cause impairment or risk exploitation or 3.10 Informed Consent harm are not unethical. (a) When psychologists conduct research or provide (b) If a psychologist finds that, due to unforeseen assessment, therapy, counseling, or consulting ser- factors, a potentially harmful multiple relationship vices in person or via electronic transmission or other has arisen, the psychologist takes reasonable steps forms of communication, they obtain the informed con- to resolve it with due regard for the best interests of sent of the individual or individuals using language the affected person and maximal compliance with the that is reasonably understandable to that person Ethics Code. or persons except when conducting such activities (c) When psychologists are required by law, institu- without consent is mandated by law or governmental tional policy, or extraordinary circumstances to serve regulation or as otherwise provided in this Ethics in more than one role in judicial or administrative Code. (See also Standards 8.02, Informed Consent to proceedings, at the outset they clarify role expecta- Research; 9.03, Informed Consent in Assessments; and tions and the extent of confidentiality and thereafter 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy.) as changes occur. (See also Standards 3.04, Avoiding (b) For persons who are legally incapable of giving Harm, and 3.07, Third-Party Requests for Services.) informed consent, psychologists nevertheless (1) pro- 3.06 Conflict of Interest vide an appropriate explanation, (2) seek the individu- al’s assent, (3) consider such persons’ preferences and Psychologists refrain from taking on a professional best interests, and (4) obtain appropriate permission role when personal, scientific, professional, legal, from a legally authorized person, if such substitute financial, or other interests or relationships could consent is permitted or required by law. When consent reasonably be expected to (1) impair their objectiv- by a legally authorized person is not permitted or ity, competence, or effectiveness in performing their required by law, psychologists take reasonable steps to functions as psychologists or (2) expose the person or protect the individual’s rights and welfare. organization with whom the professional relationship exists to harm or exploitation. (c) When psychological services are court ordered or otherwise mandated, psychologists inform the individ- 3.07 Third-Party Requests for Services ual of the nature of the anticipated services, including When psychologists agree to provide services to a per- whether the services are court ordered or mandated son or entity at the request of a third party, psycholo- and any limits of confidentiality, before proceeding. gists attempt to clarify at the outset of the service (d) Psychologists appropriately document written or the nature of the relationship with all individuals or oral consent, permission, and assent.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R25 (See also Standards 8.02, Informed Consent to (c) Psychologists who offer services, products, or Research; 9.03, Informed Consent in Assessments; and information via electronic transmission inform 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy.) clients/patients of the risks to privacy and limits of confidentiality. 3.11 Psychological Services Delivered To or Through Organizations 4.03 Recording (a) Psychologists delivering services to or through Before recording the voices or images of individuals organizations provide information beforehand to to whom they provide services, psychologists obtain clients and when appropriate those directly affected permission from all such persons or their legal by the services about (1) the nature and objectives representatives. (See also Standards 8.03, Informed of the services, (2) the intended recipients, (3) which Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research; of the individuals are clients, (4) the relationship 8.05, Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research; the psychologist will have with each person and the and 8.07, Deception in Research.) organization, (5) the probable uses of services provided SYCHOLOGISTS and information obtained, (6) who will have access to 4.04 Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy P the information, and (7) limits of confidentiality. As (a) Psychologists include in written and oral reports soon as feasible, they provide information about the and consultations, only information germane to the results and conclusions of such services to appropriate purpose for which the communication is made. persons. (b) Psychologists discuss confidential information (b) If psychologists will be precluded by law or by obtained in their work only for appropriate scientific organizational roles from providing such information or professional purposes and only with persons clearly to particular individuals or groups, they so inform concerned with such matters. those individuals or groups at the outset of the service.

RINCIPLES OF 4.05 Disclosures

P 3.12 Interruption of Psychological Services (a) Psychologists may disclose confidential informa- Unless otherwise covered by contract, psycholo- tion with the appropriate consent of the organizational gists make reasonable efforts to plan for facilitating client, the individual client/patient, or another legally services in the event that psychological services are authorized person on behalf of the client/patient unless prohibited by law.

THICAL interrupted by factors such as the psychologist’s

E illness, death, unavailability, relocation, or retire- (b) Psychologists disclose confidential information ment or by the client’s/patient’s relocation or financial without the consent of the individual only as man- limitations. (See also Standard 6.02c, Maintenance, dated by law, or where permitted by law for a valid Dissemination, and Disposal of Confidential Records purpose such as to (1) provide needed professional of Professional and Scientific Work.) services; (2) obtain appropriate professional consulta- tions; (3) protect the client/patient, psychologist, or 4. Privacy And Confidentiality others from harm; or (4) obtain payment for services from a client/patient, in which instance disclosure is 4.01 Maintaining Confidentiality limited to the minimum that is necessary to achieve Psychologists have a primary obligation and take rea- the purpose. (See also Standard 6.04e, Fees and sonable precautions to protect confidential information Financial Arrangements.) obtained through or stored in any medium, recogniz- ing that the extent and limits of confidentiality may be 4.06 Consultations regulated by law or established by institutional rules When consulting with colleagues, (1) psychologists do or professional or scientific relationship. (See also not disclose confidential information that reasonably Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others.) could lead to the identification of a client/patient, research participant, or other person or organization 4.02 Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality with whom they have a confidential relationship (a) Psychologists discuss with persons (including, to unless they have obtained the prior consent of the the extent feasible, persons who are legally incapable person or organization or the disclosure cannot be of giving informed consent and their legal representa- avoided, and (2) they disclose information only to tives) and organizations with whom they establish a the extent necessary to achieve the purposes of the scientific or professional relationship (1) the relevant consultation. (See also Standard 4.01, Maintaining limits of confidentiality and (2) the foreseeable uses of Confidentiality.) the information generated through their psychological activities. (See also Standard 3.10, Informed Consent.) 4.07 Use of Confidential Information for Didactic (b) Unless it is not feasible or is contraindicated, the or Other Purposes discussion of confidentiality occurs at the outset of the Psychologists do not disclose in their writings, relationship and thereafter as new circumstances may lectures, or other public media, confidential, person- warrant. ally identifiable information concerning their clients/ patients, students, research participants, organiza- tional clients, or other recipients of their services that

R26 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS they obtained during the course of their work, unless 5.04 Media Presentations (1) they take reasonable steps to disguise the person When psychologists provide public advice or comment or organization, (2) the person or organization has via print, internet, or other electronic transmission, consented in writing, or (3) there is legal authorization they take precautions to ensure that statements (1) for doing so. are based on their professional knowledge, training, E

or experience in accord with appropriate psychological THICAL 5. Advertising and literature and practice; (2) are otherwise consistent Other Public Statements with this Ethics Code; and (3) do not indicate that a professional relationship has been established with 5.01 Avoidance of False or Deceptive Statements the recipient. (See also Standard 2.04, Bases for (a) Public statements include but are not limited to Scientific and Professional Judgments.) P paid or unpaid advertising, product endorsements, RINCIPLES OF grant applications, licensing applications, other 5.05 Testimonials credentialing applications, brochures, printed matter, Psychologists do not solicit testimonials from current directory listings, personal resumes or curricula vitae, therapy clients/patients or other persons who because or comments for use in media such as print or elec- of their particular circumstances are vulnerable to tronic transmission, statements in legal proceedings, undue influence. lectures and public oral presentations, and published materials. Psychologists do not knowingly make public 5.06 In-Person Solicitation statements that are false, deceptive, or fraudulent Psychologists do not engage, directly or through P concerning their research, practice, or other work agents, in uninvited in-person solicitation of business SYCHOLOGISTS activities or those of persons or organizations with from actual or potential therapy clients/patients or which they are affiliated. other persons who because of their particular circum- (b) Psychologists do not make false, deceptive, or stances are vulnerable to undue influence. However, fraudulent statements concerning (1) their training, this prohibition does not preclude (1) attempting to experience, or competence; (2) their academic degrees; implement appropriate collateral contacts for the (3) their credentials; (4) their institutional or associa- purpose of benefiting an already engaged therapy tion affiliations; (5) their services; (6) the scientific client/patient or (2) providing disaster or community or clinical basis for, or results or degree of success of, outreach services. their services; (7) their fees; or (8) their publications or research findings. 6. Record Keeping and Fees (c) Psychologists claim degrees as credentials for their 6.01 Documentation of Professional and Scientific health services only if those degrees (1) were earned Work and Maintenance of Records from a regionally accredited educational institution or Psychologists create, and to the extent the records (2) were the basis for psychology licensure by the state are under their control, maintain, disseminate, store, in which they practice. retain, and dispose of records and data relating to 5.02 Statements by Others their professional and scientific work in order to (1) facilitate provision of services later by them or (a) Psychologists who engage others to create or place by other professionals, (2) allow for replication of public statements that promote their professional research design and analyses, (3) meet institutional practice, products, or activities retain professional requirements, (4) ensure accuracy of billing and pay- responsibility for such statements. ments, and (5) ensure compliance with law. (See also (b) Psychologists do not compensate employees of Standard 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality.) press, radio, television, or other communication media in return for publicity in a news item. (See also 6.02 Maintenance, Dissemination, and Disposal Standard 1.01, Misuse of Psychologists’ Work.) of Confidential Records of Professional and (c) A paid advertisement relating to psychologists’ Scientific Work activities must be identified or clearly recognizable as (a) Psychologists maintain confidentiality in creat- such. ing, storing, accessing, transferring, and disposing of records under their control, whether these are written, 5.03 Descriptions of Workshops and Non-Degree- automated, or in any other medium. (See also Stan- Granting Educational Programs dards 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality, and 6.01, To the degree to which they exercise control, psy- Documentation of Professional and Scientific Work chologists responsible for announcements, catalogs, and Maintenance of Records.) brochures, or advertisements describing workshops, (b) If confidential information concerning recipients of seminars, or other non-degree-granting educational psychological services is entered into databases or sys- programs ensure that they accurately describe the tems of records available to persons whose access has audience for which the program is intended, the not been consented to by the recipient, psychologists educational objectives, the presenters, and the fees use coding or other techniques to avoid the inclusion of involved. personal identifiers.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R27 (c) Psychologists make plans in advance to facilitate tive, administrative, or other) and is not based on the the appropriate transfer and to protect the confidenti- referral itself. (See also Standard 3.09, Cooperation ality of records and data in the event of psychologists’ With Other Professionals.) withdrawal from positions or practice. (See also Standards 3.12, Interruption of Psychological Services, 7. Education and Training and 10.09, Interruption of Therapy.) 7.01 Design of Education and Training Programs 6.03 Withholding Records for Nonpayment Psychologists responsible for education and training Psychologists may not withhold records under their programs take reasonable steps to ensure that the control that are requested and needed for a client’s/ programs are designed to provide the appropriate patient’s emergency treatment solely because payment knowledge and proper experiences, and to meet the has not been received. requirements for licensure, certification, or other goals for which claims are made by the program. (See also 6.04 Fees and Financial Arrangements Standard 5.03, Descriptions of Workshops and Non- SYCHOLOGISTS (a) As early as is feasible in a professional or sci- Degree-Granting Educational Programs.) P entific relationship, psychologists and recipients of psychological services reach an agreement specifying 7.02 Descriptions of Education compensation and billing arrangements. and Training Programs (b) Psychologists’ fee practices are consistent with law. Psychologists responsible for education and training (c) Psychologists do not misrepresent their fees. programs take reasonable steps to ensure that there is a current and accurate description of the program (d) If limitations to services can be anticipated content (including participation in required course- or because of limitations in financing, this is discussed program-related counseling, , experien- with the recipient of services as early as is feasible. RINCIPLES OF tial groups, consulting projects, or community service), (See also Standards 10.09, Interruption of Therapy, P training goals and objectives, stipends and benefits, and 10.10, Terminating Therapy.) and requirements that must be met for satisfactory (e) If the recipient of services does not pay for services completion of the program. This information must be as agreed, and if psychologists intend to use collection made readily available to all interested parties. agencies or legal measures to collect the fees, psy- THICAL chologists first inform the person that such measures 7.03 Accuracy in Teaching E will be taken and provide that person an opportunity (a) Psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure to make prompt payment. (See also Standards 4.05, that course syllabi are accurate regarding the subject Disclosures; 6.03, Withholding Records for Nonpay- matter to be covered, bases for evaluating progress, ment; and 10.01, Informed Consent to Therapy.) and the nature of course experiences. This standard does not preclude an instructor from modifying course 6.05 Barter With Clients/Patients content or requirements when the instructor consid- Barter is the acceptance of goods, services, or other ers it pedagogically necessary or desirable, so long as nonmonetary remuneration from clients/patients in students are made aware of these modifications in a return for psychological services. Psychologists may manner that enables them to fulfill course require- barter only if (1) it is not clinically contraindicated, ments. (See also Standard 5.01, Avoidance of False or and (2) the resulting arrangement is not exploitative. Deceptive Statements.) (See also Standards 3.05, Multiple Relationships, and (b) When engaged in teaching or training, psycholo- 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements.) gists present psychological information accurately. 6.06 Accuracy in Reports to Payors (See also Standard 2.03, Maintaining Competence.) and Funding Sources 7.04 Student Disclosure of Personal Information In their reports to payors for services or sources of Psychologists do not require students or supervisees research funding, psychologists take reasonable steps to disclose personal information in course- or program- to ensure the accurate reporting of the nature of the related activities, either orally or in writing, regarding service provided or research conducted, the fees, sexual history, history of abuse and neglect, psycho- charges, or payments, and where applicable, the iden- logical treatment, and relationships with parents, tity of the provider, the findings, and the diagnosis. peers, and spouses or significant others except if (1) (See also Standards 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality; the program or training facility has clearly identi- 4.04, Minimizing Intrusions on Privacy; and 4.05, fied this requirement in its admissions and program Disclosures.) materials or (2) the information is necessary to evalu- 6.07 Referrals and Fees ate or obtain assistance for students whose personal problems could reasonably be judged to be preventing When psychologists pay, receive payment from, or them from performing their training- or professionally divide fees with another professional, other than in an related activities in a competent manner or posing a employer-employee relationship, the payment to each threat to the students or others. is based on the services provided (clinical, consulta-

R28 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS 7.05 Mandatory Individual or Group Therapy Dispensing With Informed Consent for Research; and (a) When individual or group therapy is a program or 8.07, Deception in Research.) course requirement, psychologists responsible for that (b) Psychologists conducting intervention research program allow students in undergraduate and gradu- involving the use of experimental treatments clarify

ate programs the option of selecting such therapy from to participants at the outset of the research (1) the E practitioners unaffiliated with the program. (See also experimental nature of the treatment; (2) the services THICAL Standard 7.02, Descriptions of Education and Train- that will or will not be available to the control group(s) ing Programs.) if appropriate; (3) the means by which assignment (b) Faculty who are or are likely to be responsible for to treatment and control groups will be made; (4) evaluating students’ academic performance do not available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to P

themselves provide that therapy. (See also Standard RINCIPLES OF 3.05, Multiple Relationships.) withdraw once a study has begun; and (5) compensa- tion for or monetary costs of participating including, 7.06 Assessing Student and Supervisee if appropriate, whether reimbursement from the Performance participant or a third-party payor will be sought. (See (a) In academic and supervisory relationships, also Standard 8.02a, Informed Consent to Research.) psychologists establish a timely and specific process 8.03 Informed Consent for Recording for providing feedback to students and supervisees. Information regarding the process is provided to the Voices and Images in Research student at the beginning of supervision. Psychologists obtain informed consent from research P

participants prior to recording their voices or images SYCHOLOGISTS (b) Psychologists evaluate students and supervisees for data collection unless (1) the research consists on the basis of their actual performance on relevant solely of naturalistic observations in public places, and and established program requirements. it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in 7.07 Sexual Relationships With a manner that could cause personal identification or Students and Supervisees harm, or (2) the research design includes deception, Psychologists do not engage in sexual relation- and consent for the use of the recording is obtained ships with students or supervisees who are in their during debriefing. (See also Standard 8.07, Deception department, agency, or training center or over whom in Research.) psychologists have or are likely to have evaluative 8.04 Client/Patient, Student, and Subordinate authority. (See also Standard 3.05, Multiple Relation- Research Participants ships.) (a) When psychologists conduct research with clients/ patients, students, or subordinates as participants, 8. Research and Publication psychologists take steps to protect the prospective 8.01 Institutional Approval participants from adverse consequences of declining or When institutional approval is required, psychologists withdrawing from participation. provide accurate information about their research (b) When research participation is a course require- proposals and obtain approval prior to conducting the ment or an opportunity for extra credit, the prospec- research. They conduct the research in accordance tive participant is given the choice of equitable with the approved research protocol. alternative activities. 8.02 Informed Consent to Research 8.05 Dispensing With Informed (a) When obtaining informed consent as required Consent for Research in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, psychologists Psychologists may dispense with informed consent inform participants about (1) the purpose of the only (1) where research would not reasonably be research, expected duration, and procedures; (2) their assumed to create distress or harm and involves (a) right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the study of normal educational practices, curricula, or the research once participation has begun; (3) the fore- classroom management methods conducted in educa- seeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; (4) tional settings; (b) only anonymous questionnaires, reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected naturalistic observations, or for to influence their willingness to participate such as which disclosure of responses would not place partici- potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; (5) any pants at risk of criminal or civil liability or damage prospective research benefits; (6) limits of confidenti- their financial standing, employability, or reputation, ality; (7) incentives for participation; and (8) whom to and confidentiality is protected; or (c) the study of contact for questions about the research and research factors related to job or organization effectiveness participants’ rights. They provide opportunity for the conducted in organizational settings for which there is prospective participants to ask questions and receive no risk to participants’ employability, and confidenti- answers. (See also Standards 8.03, Informed Consent ality is protected or (2) where otherwise permitted by for Recording Voices and Images in Research; 8.05, law or federal or institutional regulations.

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R29 8.06 Offering Inducements for Research (d) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to minimize Participation the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal (a) Psychologists make reasonable efforts to avoid subjects. offering excessive or inappropriate financial or other (e) Psychologists use a procedure subjecting animals inducements for research participation when such to pain, stress, or privation only when an alternative inducements are likely to coerce participation. procedure is unavailable and the goal is justified by its (b) When offering professional services as an induce- prospective scientific, educational, or applied value. ment for research participation, psychologists clarify (f) Psychologists perform surgical procedures under the nature of the services, as well as the risks, obliga- appropriate anesthesia and follow techniques to avoid tions, and limitations. (See also Standard 6.05, Barter infection and minimize pain during and after surgery. With Clients/Patients.) (g) When it is appropriate that an animal’s life be ter- minated, psychologists proceed rapidly, with an effort 8.07 Deception in Research to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted SYCHOLOGISTS (a) Psychologists do not conduct a study involving procedures.

P deception unless they have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s 8.10 Reporting Research Results significant prospective scientific, educational, or (a) Psychologists do not fabricate data. (See also applied value and that effective nondeceptive alterna- Standard 5.01a, Avoidance of False or Deceptive tive procedures are not feasible. Statements.) (b) Psychologists do not deceive prospective partici- (b) If psychologists discover significant errors in their pants about research that is reasonably expected to published data, they take reasonable steps to correct cause physical pain or severe emotional distress. such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or

RINCIPLES OF (c) Psychologists explain any deception that is an other appropriate publication means.

P integral feature of the design and conduct of an experi- ment to participants as early as is feasible, preferably 8.11 Plagiarism at the conclusion of their participation, but no later Psychologists do not present portions of another’s than at the conclusion of the data collection, and work or data as their own, even if the other work or permit participants to withdraw their data. (See also data source is cited occasionally. THICAL Standard 8.08, Debriefing.) E 8.12 Publication Credit 8.08 Debriefing (a) Psychologists take responsibility and credit, (a) Psychologists provide a prompt opportunity for including authorship credit, only for work they have participants to obtain appropriate information about actually performed or to which they have substantially the nature, results, and conclusions of the research, contributed. (See also Standard 8.12b, Publication and they take reasonable steps to correct any mis- Credit.) conceptions that participants may have of which the (b) Principal authorship and other publication credits psychologists are aware. accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional (b) If scientific or humane values justify delaying contributions of the individuals involved, regard- or withholding this information, psychologists take less of their relative status. Mere possession of an reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm. institutional position, such as department chair, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contributions to (c) When psychologists become aware that research the research or to the writing for publications are procedures have harmed a participant, they take acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or in reasonable steps to minimize the harm. an introductory statement. 8.09 Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research (c) Except under exceptional circumstances, a student (a) Psychologists acquire, care for, use, and dispose is listed as principal author on any multiple-authored of animals in compliance with current federal, state, article that is substantially based on the student’s and local laws and regulations, and with professional doctoral dissertation. Faculty advisors discuss standards. publication credit with students as early as feasible (b) Psychologists trained in research methods and and throughout the research and publication process experienced in the care of laboratory animals super- as appropriate. (See also Standard 8.12b, Publication vise all procedures involving animals and are respon- Credit.) sible for ensuring appropriate consideration of their 8.13 Duplicate Publication of Data comfort, health, and humane treatment. Psychologists do not publish, as original data, data (c) Psychologists ensure that all individuals under that have been previously published. This does not their supervision who are using animals have received preclude republishing data when they are accompa- instruction in research methods and in the care, main- nied by proper acknowledgment. tenance, and handling of the species being used, to the extent appropriate to their role. (See also Standard 2.05, Delegation of Work to Others.)

R30 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS 8.14 Sharing Research Data for Verification the usefulness and proper application of the (a) After research results are published, psychologists techniques. do not withhold the data on which their conclu- (b) Psychologists use assessment instruments whose sions are based from other competent professionals validity and reliability have been established for

who seek to verify the substantive claims through use with members of the population tested. When E reanalysis and who intend to use such data only for such validity or reliability has not been established, THICAL that purpose, provided that the confidentiality of the psychologists describe the strengths and limitations of participants can be protected and unless legal rights test results and interpretation. concerning proprietary data preclude their release. (c) Psychologists use assessment methods that are This does not preclude psychologists from requiring appropriate to an individual’s language preference and P that such individuals or groups be responsible for competence, unless the use of an alternative language RINCIPLES OF costs associated with the provision of such informa- is relevant to the assessment issues. tion. (b) Psychologists who request data from other psy- 9.03 Informed Consent in Assessments chologists to verify the substantive claims through (a) Psychologists obtain informed consent for reanalysis may use shared data only for the declared assessments, evaluations, or diagnostic services, purpose. Requesting psychologists obtain prior written as described in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, agreement for all other uses of the data. except when (1) testing is mandated by law or govern- mental regulations; (2) informed consent is implied

8.15 Reviewers because testing is conducted as a routine educational, P

Psychologists who review material submitted for institutional, or organizational activity (e.g., when SYCHOLOGISTS presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal participants voluntarily agree to assessment when review respect the confidentiality of and the propri- applying for a job); or (3) one purpose of the testing etary rights in such information of those who submit- is to evaluate decisional capacity. Informed consent ted it. includes an explanation of the nature and purpose of the assessment, fees, involvement of third parties, 9. Assessment and limits of confidentiality and sufficient opportunity for the client/patient to ask questions and receive 9.01 Bases for Assessments answers. (a) Psychologists base the opinions contained in their (b) Psychologists inform persons with questionable recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or evalu- capacity to consent or for whom testing is mandated ative statements, including forensic testimony, on by law or governmental regulations about the nature information and techniques sufficient to substantiate and purpose of the proposed assessment services, their findings. (See also Standard 2.04, Bases for using language that is reasonably understandable to Scientific and Professional Judgments.) the person being assessed. (b) Except as noted in 9.01c, psychologists provide (c) Psychologists using the services of an interpreter opinions of the psychological characteristics of obtain informed consent from the client/patient to use individuals only after they have conducted an exami- that interpreter, ensure that confidentiality of test nation of the individuals adequate to support their results and test security are maintained, and include statements or conclusions. When, despite reasonable in their recommendations, reports, and diagnostic or efforts, such an examination is not practical, psycholo- evaluative statements, including forensic testimony, gists document the efforts they made and the result discussion of any limitations on the data obtained. of those efforts, clarify the probable impact of their (See also Standards 2.05, Delegation of Work to Oth- limited information on the reliability and validity of ers; 4.01, Maintaining Confidentiality; 9.01, Bases for their opinions, and appropriately limit the nature and Assessments; 9.06, Interpreting Assessment Results; extent of their conclusions or recommendations. (See and 9.07, Assessment by Unqualified Persons.) also Standards 2.01, Boundaries of Competence, and 9.06, Interpreting Assessment Results.) 9.04 Release of Test Data (c) When psychologists conduct a record review or (a) The term test data refers to raw and scaled scores, provide consultation or supervision and an individual client/patient responses to test questions or stimuli, examination is not warranted or necessary for the and psychologists’ notes and recordings concerning opinion, psychologists explain this and the sources of client/patient statements and behavior during an information on which they based their conclusions and examination. Those portions of test materials that recommendations. include client/patient responses are included in the definition of test data. Pursuant to a client/patient 9.02 Use of Assessments release, psychologists provide test data to the cli- (a) Psychologists administer, adapt, score, interpret, ent/patient or other persons identified in the release. or use assessment techniques, interviews, tests, or Psychologists may refrain from releasing test data instruments in a manner and for purposes that are to protect a client/patient or others from substantial appropriate in of the research on or evidence of harm or misuse or misrepresentation of the data or

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R31 the test, recognizing that in many instances release of 9.10 Explaining Assessment Results confidential information under these circumstances is Regardless of whether the scoring and interpreta- regulated by law. (See also Standard 9.11, Maintain- tion are done by psychologists, by employees or ing Test Security.) assistants, or by automated or other outside services, (b) In the absence of a client/patient release, psycholo- psychologists take reasonable steps to ensure that gists provide test data only as required by law or court explanations of results are given to the individual or order. designated representative unless the nature of the relationship precludes provision of an explanation of 9.05 Test Construction results (such as in some organizational consulting, Psychologists who develop tests and other assessment preemployment or security screenings, and forensic techniques use appropriate psychometric procedures evaluations), and this fact has been clearly explained and current scientific or professional knowledge for to the person being assessed in advance. test design, standardization, validation, reduction or 9.11 Maintaining Test Security

SYCHOLOGISTS elimination of bias, and recommendations for use.

P The term test materials refers to manuals, instru- 9.06 Interpreting Assessment Results ments, protocols, and test questions or stimuli and When interpreting assessment results, including auto- does not include test data as defined in Standard 9.04, mated interpretations, psychologists take into account Release of Test Data. Psychologists make reasonable the purpose of the assessment as well as the various efforts to maintain the integrity and security of test test factors, test-taking abilities, and other character- materials and other assessment techniques consistent istics of the person being assessed, such as situational, with law and contractual obligations, and in a manner personal, linguistic, and cultural differences, that that permits adherence to this Ethics Code. might affect psychologists’ judgments or reduce the

RINCIPLES OF accuracy of their interpretations. They indicate any P significant limitations of their interpretations. (See also 10. Therapy Standards 2.01b and c, Boundaries of Competence, and 10.01 Informed Consent to Therapy 3.01, Unfair Discrimination.) (a) When obtaining informed consent to therapy as required in Standard 3.10, Informed Consent, psychol- 9.07 Assessment by Unqualified Persons

THICAL ogists inform clients/patients as early as is feasible Psychologists do not promote the use of psychological E in the therapeutic relationship about the nature and assessment techniques by unqualified persons, except anticipated course of therapy, fees, involvement of when such use is conducted for training purposes with third parties, and limits of confidentiality and provide appropriate supervision. (See also Standard 2.05, sufficient opportunity for the client/patient to ask Delegation of Work to Others.) questions and receive answers. (See also Standards 4.02, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality, and 9.08 Obsolete Tests and Outdated Test Results 6.04, Fees and Financial Arrangements.) (a) Psychologists do not base their assessment or (b) When obtaining informed consent for treatment for intervention decisions or recommendations on data or which generally recognized techniques and procedures test results that are outdated for the current purpose. have not been established, psychologists inform (b) Psychologists do not base such decisions or recom- their clients/patients of the developing nature of the mendations on tests and measures that are obsolete treatment, the potential risks involved, alternative and not useful for the current purpose. treatments that may be available, and the voluntary 9.09 Test Scoring and Interpretation Services nature of their participation. (See also Standards 2.01e, Boundaries of Competence, and 3.10, Informed (a) Psychologists who offer assessment or scoring Consent.) services to other professionals accurately describe the purpose, norms, validity, reliability, and applica- (c) When the therapist is a trainee and the legal tions of the procedures and any special qualifications responsibility for the treatment provided resides applicable to their use. with the supervisor, the client/patient, as part of the informed consent procedure, is informed that the (b) Psychologists select scoring and interpretation therapist is in training and is being supervised and is services (including automated services) on the basis of given the name of the supervisor. evidence of the validity of the program and procedures as well as on other appropriate considerations. (See 10.02 Therapy Involving Couples or Families also Standard 2.01b and c, Boundaries of Compe- (a) When psychologists agree to provide services to tence.) several persons who have a relationship (such as (c) Psychologists retain responsibility for the appropri- spouses, significant others, or parents and children), ate application, interpretation, and use of assessment they take reasonable steps to clarify at the outset (1) instruments, whether they score and interpret such which of the individuals are clients/patients and (2) tests themselves or use automated or other services. the relationship the psychologist will have with each person. This clarification includes the psychologist’s

R32 ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS role and the probable uses of the services provided relevant factors, including (1) the amount of time that or the information obtained. (See also Standard 4.02, has passed since therapy terminated; (2) the nature, Discussing the Limits of Confidentiality.) duration, and intensity of the therapy; (3) the circum- (b) If it becomes apparent that psychologists may be stances of termination; (4) the client’s/patient’s per- sonal history; (5) the client’s/patient’s current mental called on to perform potentially conflicting roles (such E as family therapist and then witness for one party in status; (6) the likelihood of adverse impact on the cli- THICAL divorce proceedings), psychologists take reasonable ent/patient; and (7) any statements or actions made by steps to clarify and modify, or withdraw from, roles the therapist during the course of therapy suggesting appropriately. (See also Standard 3.05c, Multiple or inviting the possibility of a posttermination sexual Relationships.) or romantic relationship with the client/patient. (See also Standard 3.05, Multiple Relationships.) P 10.03 Group Therapy RINCIPLES OF When psychologists provide services to several persons 10.09 Interruption of Therapy in a group setting, they describe at the outset the roles When entering into employment or contractual and responsibilities of all parties and the limits of relationships, psychologists make reasonable efforts confidentiality. to provide for orderly and appropriate resolution of responsibility for client/patient care in the event that 10.04 Providing Therapy to Those Served by Others the employment or contractual relationship ends, with In deciding whether to offer or provide services to paramount consideration given to the welfare of the

those already receiving mental health services else- client/patient. (See also Standard 3.12, Interruption of P

where, psychologists carefully consider the treatment Psychological Services.) SYCHOLOGISTS issues and the potential client’s/patient’s welfare. Psychologists discuss these issues with the client/ 10.10 Terminating Therapy patient or another legally authorized person on behalf (a) Psychologists terminate therapy when it becomes of the client/patient in order to minimize the risk of reasonably clear that the client/patient no longer confusion and conflict, consult with the other service needs the service, is not likely to benefit, or is being providers when appropriate, and proceed with caution harmed by continued service. and sensitivity to the therapeutic issues. (b) Psychologists may terminate therapy when threat- ened or otherwise endangered by the client/patient 10.05 Sexual Intimacies With Current Therapy or another person with whom the client/patient has a Clients/Patients relationship. Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with (c) Except where precluded by the actions of clients/ current therapy clients/patients. patients or third-party payors, prior to termination 10.06 Sexual Intimacies With Relatives or psychologists provide pretermination counseling and Significant Others of Current Therapy suggest alternative service providers as appropriate. Clients/Patients Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with individuals they know to be close relatives, guard- ians, or significant others of current clients/patients. Psychologists do not terminate therapy to circumvent this standard. 10.07 Therapy With Former Sexual Partners Psychologists do not accept as therapy clients/patients persons with whom they have engaged in sexual intimacies. 10.08 Sexual Intimacies With Former Therapy Clients/Patients (a) Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with former clients/patients for at least two years after cessation or termination of therapy. (b) Psychologists do not engage in sexual intimacies with former clients/patients even after a two-year interval except in the most unusual circumstances. Psychologists who engage in such activity after the two years following cessation or termination of therapy and of having no sexual contact with the former client/patient bear the burden of demonstrat- ing that there has been no exploitation, in light of all

ETHICAL PRINCIPLES OF PSYCHOLOGISTS R33 The Psychologist’s Bookshelf

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THE PSYCHOLOGIST’S BOOKSHELF R63 English and Spanish Glossary

MARK AS IN RESPELLING EXAMPLE Phonetic Respelling a alphabet a *AL-fuh-bet and Pronunciation Guide a¯ Asia ay AY-zhuh Some of the vocabulary terms in ä cart, top ah KAHRT, TAHP this textbook have been respelled LOSSARY to help you pronounce them. The e let, ten e LET, TEN G letter combinations used in the e¯ even, leaf ee EE-vuhn, LEEF respelling throughout the narra- i it, tip, British i IT, TIP, BRIT-ish tive are explained in the following ¯ı site, buy, Ohio y SYT, BY, oh-HY-oh phonetic respelling and pronuncia- tion guide. The guide is adapted iris eye EYE-ris from Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate PANISH k card k KAHRD Dictionary, 11th Edition; Mer- S o¯ over, oh OH-vuhr, RAYN-boh riam-Webster’s Geographical u˙ book, wood ooh BOOHK, WOOHD Dictionary; and Merriam-Webster’s Biographical Dictionary. o˙ all, orchid aw AWL, AWR-kid o˙i foil, coin oy FOYL, KOYN

˙ out ow OWT e e cup, butter uh KUHP, BUHT-uhr ü rule, food oo ROOL, FOOD NGLISH AND yü few yoo FYOO E zh vision zh VIZH-uhn

*A syllable printed in capital letters receives heavier emphasis than the other syllable(s) in a word.

achievement test test that measures the amount of knowledge one has in specific academic areas (p. 427) absolute threshold the weakest amount of a particular prueba de logro evaluación que mide el conocimien- stimulus that can be sensed (p. 97) to adquirido en áreas académicas específicas umbral absoluto menor cantidad de un estímulo en (pág. 427) particular que puede percibirse (pág. 97) active coping response to a stressor that reduces acculturation the process of adapting to a new or stress by changing the situation to eliminate or different culture (p. 413) lessen the negative effects of the stressor (p. 488) aculturación proceso de adaptarse a una cultura afrontamiento activo respuesta a un factor es- nueva o diferente (pág. 413) tresante en la que se modifica la situación para eliminar o disminuir los efectos negativos del factor achievement knowledge and skills gained from y así reducir el estrés (pág. 488) experience and education (p. 249) logro destrezas y conocimientos obtenidos a través active listening empathic listening in which the de la experiencia y la educación (pág. 249) listener acknowledges, restates, and clarifies the speaker’s thoughts and concerns (p. 542) achievement motivation the desire to persevere with escucha activa escucha empática en la que el recep- work and to avoid distraction in order to reach tor reconoce, reformula y aclara los pensamientos y personal goals (p. 375) las preocupaciones del emisor (pág. 542) motivación de logro deseo de perseverar mediante el trabajo y de evitar las distracciones para alcan- actor-observer bias the tendency to attribute one’s own zar objetivos personales (pág. 375) behavior to situational factors but to attribute the behavior of others to dispositional factors (p. 577) sesgo actor-observador tendencia a atribuir la con- ducta propia a factores situacionales y la conducta de otros a factores disposicionales (pág. 577)

R64 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY addiction/adicción approach-avoidance confl ict/confl icto de atracción-evitación addiction a compulsive need for and use of a habit- anchoring heuristic the process of making decisions forming substance (p. 145) based on certain ideas or standards held by the E adicción necesidad y uso compulsivos de una decision maker (p. 233) NGLISH AND sustancia que genera hábito (pág. 145) heurística de anclaje el proceso de tomar decisiones adolescent growth spurt a sudden, brief burst of physi- a partir de ciertas ideas o normas propias de quien cal growth during which adolescents typically make toma la decisión (pág. 233) great gains in height and weight (p. 307) anorexia nervosa an eating disorder characterized by estirón de la adolescencia una explosión repentina extreme weight loss due to self-starvation (p. 321) y breve de crecimiento físico durante la que los ado- anorexia nerviosa trastorno de la alimentación lescentes suelen crecer considerablemente en peso y caracterizado por la pérdida extrema de peso que se

estatura (pág. 307) debe a la inanición voluntaria (pág. 321) S affiliation the desire to join with others and to be a anterograde amnesia the inability to form new PANISH part of something larger than oneself (p. 378) memories because of brain trauma (p. 205) afiliación deseo de unirse a otros y de formar parte amnesia anterógrada la incapacidad de formar de algo más grande que uno mismo (pág. 378) recuerdos nuevos a causa de un trauma cerebral (pág. 205)

afterimage the visual impression that remains after G the original image has been removed (p. 104) antianxiety drug a type of medication that relieves LOSSARY imagen persistente impresión visual que permanece anxiety disorders and panic disorders by depressing después de que desaparece la imagen original the activity of the central nervous system (p. 550) (pág. 104) fármaco ansiolítico tipo de medicamento que alivia agoraphobia a fear of crowded, public places (p. 506) los trastornos de ansiedad y pánico mediante la agorafobia miedo a los lugares públicos en los che depresión de la actividad del sistema nervioso cen- hay mucha gente (pág. 506) tral (pág. 550) algorithm a problem-solving strategy that eventually antidepressant drug a type of medication used to treat leads to a solution; usually involves trying random major depression by increasing the amount of one solutions to a problem in a systematic way (p. 221) or both of the neurotransmitters noradrenaline and algoritmo estrategia para resolver problemas que serotonin (p. 550) finalmente ofrece una solución; suele consistir en fármaco antidepresivo tipo de medicamento que se probar al azar una serie de soluciones para resolver usa para tratar las depresiones graves mediante un problema de manera sistemática (pág. 221) el aumento de la cantidad de noradrenalina o de serotonina, o de ambos neurotransmisores a la vez altered state of consciousness a type of consciousness (pág. 550) other than normal waking consciousness (p. 131) estado alterado de conciencia cualquier estado de antipsychotic drug a type of medication used to reduce conciencia diferente del estado de conciencia nor- agitation, delusions, and hallucinations by blocking mal de vigilia (pág. 131) the activity of dopamine in the brain; also called a major tranquilizer (p. 551) altruism unselfish regard for the welfare of others fármaco antipsicótico tipo de medicamento que se (p. 605) usa para reducir la agitación, el delirio y las alu- altruismo preocupación desinteresada por el cinaciones mediante el bloqueo de la actividad de bienestar de los demás (pág. 605) la dopamina en el cerebro; también se conoce como Alzheimer’s disease an irreversible, progressive brain tranquilizante mayor (pág. 551) disorder characterized by the deterioration of approach-approach conflict a type of conflict involving memory, language, and eventually, physical a choice between two positive but mutually exclu- functioning (p. 345) sive options (p. 475) enfermedad de Alzheimer trastorno del cerebro conflicto de atracción-atracción tipo de conflicto que irreversible y progresivo caracterizado por el implica una elección entre dos opciones positivas deterioro de la memoria, del lenguaje y, finalmente, pero excluyentes entre sí (pág. 475) del funcionamiento físico (pág. 345) approach-avoidance conflict a type of conflict involving amphetamine a type of stimulant often used to stay a single goal that has both positive and negative awake or to reduce appetite (p. 146) aspects (p. 475) anfetamina tipo de estimulante que suele usarse conflicto de atracción-evitación tipo de conflicto que para permanecer despierto o para reducir el apetito implica un objetivo único que tiene aspectos tanto (pág. 146) positivos como negativos (pág. 475)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R65 aptitude test/prueba de aptitud avoidance-avoidance confl ict/confl icto de evitación

aptitude test a test that is designed to predict a auditory nerve the cranial nerve that carries sound person’s future performance or capacity to learn from the cochlea of the inner ear to the brain (p. 427) (p. 108) prueba de aptitud prueba desarrollada para pre- nervio auditivo nervio craneal que lleva el sonido decir el rendimiento o la capacidad para aprender desde la cóclea del oído interno hacia el cerebro de una persona (pág. 427) (pág. 108) archetypes original models from which later forms authoritarian a leadership or parenting style that

LOSSARY develop; in Jung’s personality theory, archetypes stresses unquestioning obedience (p. 288)

G are primitive images or concepts that reside in the autoritario tipo de liderazgo o estilo de crianza que collective unconscious (p. 401) se basa en la obediencia sin cuestionamientos arquetipos modelos originales a partir de los que (pág. 288) se desarrollan formas posteriores; en la teoría de la authoritarian leader a leader who makes decisions for personalidad de Jung, los arquetipos son imágenes the group and tells other group members what to PANISH o conceptos primitivos que se encuentran en el do (p. 593) S inconsciente colectivo (pág. 401) líder autoritario líder que toma las decisiones del association areas areas of the cerebral cortex that are grupo y ordena qué hacer a los demás miembros involved in such mental operations as thinking, (pág. 593) memory, learning, and problem solving (p. 76) authoritative a leadership or parenting style based on áreas de asociación áreas de la corteza cerebral recognized authority or knowledge and character- relacionadas con operaciones mentales como el ized by mutual respect (p. 288) pensamiento, la memoria, el aprendizaje y la reso- autoritativo tipo de liderazgo o estilo parental lución de problemas (pág. 76)

NGLISH AND basado en la autoridad o el conocimiento admitidos

E associationism the theory that our understanding of que se caracteriza por el respeto mutuo (pág. 288) the world occurs through ideas associated with autonomic nervous system the subdivision of the pe- similar sensory experiences and perceptions (p. 17) ripheral nervous system that regulates body func- asociacionismo teoría que afirma que comprende- tions, such as respiration and digestion (p. 71) mos el mundo a través de ideas asociadas a percep- sistema nervioso autónomo subdivisión del sistema ciones y experiencias sensoriales similares (pág. 17) nervioso periférico que regula las funciones corpo- attachment an active and intense emotional relation- rales, como la respiración y la digestión (pág. 71) ship between two people that endures over time availability heuristic the tendency to make decisions (p. 285) on the basis of information that is available in one’s apego relación emocional activa e intensa entre dos immediate consciousness (p. 232) personas que perdura en el tiempo (pág. 285) heurística de la disponibilidad tendencia de una per- attitude an enduring belief about people, places, or sona a tomar decisiones a partir de la información objects that evokes certain feelings and influences disponible en su conciencia inmediata (pág. 232) behavior (p. 563) aversive conditioning a type of counterconditioning actitud creencia duradera acerca de personas, that links an unpleasant state with an unwanted lugares u objetos que evoca ciertos sentimientos behavior in an attempt to eliminate the behavior e influye en la conducta (pág. 563) (p. 547) attraction in social psychology, an attitude of liking condicionamiento aversivo tipo de contracondicio- (positive attraction) or disliking (negative attrac- namiento que une un estado desagradable con una tion) (p. 581) conducta no deseada para eliminar esa conducta atracción en psicología social, una actitud de gusto (pág. 547) (atracción positiva) o disgusto (atracción negativa) avoidance-avoidance conflict a type of conflict involv- (pág. 581) ing a choice between two negative or undesirable attribution theory the suggestion that there is a ten- options (p. 475) dency to explain a person’s behavior in terms of the conflicto de evitación-evitación tipo de conflicto que situation or the person’s personality (p. 577) implica una elección entre dos opciones negativas o teoría de la atribución la propuesta de que hay una indeseables (pág. 475) tendencia a explicar la conducta de una persona de acuerdo con la situación o la personalidad de la persona (pág. 577)

R66 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY axon/axón bystander effect/efecto espectador axon a long tubelike structure attached to a neuron binocular cues visual cues for depth that require the that transmits impulses away from the neuron cell use of both eyes (p. 119) E body (p. 67) claves binoculares claves visuales mediante las NGLISH AND axón estructura larga en forma de tubo unida a cuales se percibe la profundidad, para las que se una neurona que transmite impulsos desde el requiere el uso de ambos ojos (pág. 119) cuerpo celular de la neurona (pág. 67) biofeedback a system for monitoring and feeding back axon terminals small fibers branching out from an information about certain biological processes, such axon (p. 68) as blood pressure (p. 140) terminales axonales pequeñas fibras del axón que biorretroalimentación sistema de monitoreo y se ramifican (pág. 68) retroalimentación de información sobre ciertos pro-

cesos biológicos, como la presión arterial (pág. 140) S biological perspective the psychological perspective PANISH that emphasizes the influence of biology on behav- ior (p. 23) perspectiva biológica perspectiva psicológica que enfatiza la influencia de la biología en la conducta balance theory the view that people have a need to or- (pág. 23) G

ganize their perceptions, opinions, and beliefs in a LOSSARY manner that is in harmony with those of the people bipolar disorder a disorder in which a person’s mood around them (p. 376) changes from depression to wild elation and back teoría del equilibrio teoría que afirma que las perso- again (p. 510) nas necesitan organizar sus percepciones, opiniones trastorno bipolar trastorno en el que los estados de y creencias de una manera que esté en armonía con ánimo de una persona se alternan una y otra vez las de las personas que las rodean (pág. 376) entre la depresión y la euforia descontrolada (pág. 510) basic research research that is conducted for its own sake, that is, that has no immediate application blind spot the part of the retina that contains no (p. 12) photoreceptors (p. 103) investigación básica investigación que se realiza punto ciego la parte de la retina que no contiene con el único fin de investigar, es decir, que no tiene fotorreceptores (pág. 103) aplicación inmediata (pág. 12) bulimia nervosa an eating disorder in which enormous behavior any action that people can observe or quantities of food are consumed and then purged by measure (p. 5) means of laxatives or self-induced vomiting (p. 321) conducta toda acción que se puede observar o bulimia nerviosa trastorno de la alimentación que medir (pág. 5) se caracteriza por la ingesta de enormes cantidades de comida y su posterior purga mediante laxantes o behaviorism the school of psychology, founded by John vómitos inducidos (pág. 321) Watson, that defines psychology as the scientific study of observable behavior (p. 20) bystander effect the tendency for a person to be less conductismo escuela de la Psicología, fundada por likely to give aid if other bystanders are present John Watson, que define la psicología como el estu- (p. 606) dio científico de la conducta observable (pág. 20) efecto espectador tendencia por la cual es menos probable que una persona ayude a otra si hay otras behavior-rating scales systematic means of recording the personas mirando (pág. 606) frequency with which certain behaviors occur (p. 423) escala de evaluación de la conducta método sistemático para registrar la frecuencia de ciertas conductas (pág. 423) bereaved mourning after the death of a loved one (p. 354) aflicción estado de duelo después de la muerte de un ser querido (pág. 354) bias a predisposition to a certain point of view despite the facts (p. 41) sesgo predisposición a mantener determinado punto de vista a pesar de los hechos (pág. 41)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R67 /estudio de caso closure/cierre

cerebrum the large mass of the forebrain, consisting of two hemispheres (p. 75) cerebro gran masa del encéfalo anterior, que consta case study an in-depth study of a single person or de dos hemisferios (pág. 75) group to reveal some universal principle (p. 45) chaining in operant conditioning, combining the steps estudio de caso estudio exhaustivo de una sola per- of a sequence to progress toward a final action sona o un solo grupo realizado para revelar algún (p. 170)

LOSSARY principio universal (pág. 45) encadenamiento en el condicionamiento operante,

G catatonic stupor an immobile, expressionless, coma- la combinación de los pasos de una secuencia con el like state associated with schizophrenia (p. 520) objetivo de progresar hacia una acción final estupor catatónico estado de inmovilidad y falta de (pág. 170) expresión, similar a un estado de coma, asociado a childhood the stage of life that follows infancy and la esquizofrenia (pág. 520) spans the period from the second birthday to the PANISH beginning of adolescence (p. 279)

S catharsis in psychology, the release of aggressive energy through action or fantasy (p. 602) niñez etapa de la vida que sigue a la infancia y catarsis en psicología, la liberación de la energía abarca el período que se extiende desde los dos años agresiva mediante la acción o la fantasía (pág. 602) hasta el comienzo de la adolescencia (pág. 279) cell body the part of a neuron that produces the en- chromosome a microscopic threadlike structure in the ergy needed for the activity of the cell (p. 67) nucleus of every living cell; it contains genes, the cuerpo celular parte de la neurona que produce la basic units of heredity (p. 85) energía necesaria para la actividad celular (pág. 67) cromosoma estructura microscópica filiforme que

NGLISH AND se halla en el núcleo de todas las células vivas; con- cellular damage theories the view that aging occurs be-

E tiene los genes, las unidades básicas de la herencia cause body cells lose the capacity to reproduce and (pág. 85) maintain themselves as a result of damage (p. 344) teorías del daño celular concepción que afirma que chunking the mental process of organizing information el envejecimiento ocurre porque las células del into meaningful units, or “chunks” (p. 198) cuerpo pierden la capacidad de reproducirse y man- agrupación proceso mental de organizar la infor- tenerse sanas tras sufrir un daño (pág. 344) mación en unidades de significado o bloques de información (pág. 198) central nervous system the part of the nervous system that consists of the brain and spinal cord (p. 67) circadian rhythm a regular sequence of biological pro- sistema nervioso central parte del sistema nervioso cesses, such as temperature and sleep, that occurs que comprende el encéfalo y la médula espinal every 24 hours (p. 133) (pág. 67) ritmo circadiano secuencia regular de procesos biológicos, como la temperatura y el sueño, que central route a method of persuasion that uses ocurre cada 24 horas (pág. 133) evidence and logical arguments to influence people (p. 568) classical conditioning a type of learning in which a vía central método de persuasión en el que se usan neutral stimulus comes to elicit an unconditioned pruebas y argumentos lógicos para influir en las response when that neutral stimulus is repeatedly personas (pág. 568) paired with a stimulus that normally causes an unconditioned response (p. 159) cerebellum the area of the brain that is responsible condicionamiento clásico tipo de aprendizaje en el for voluntary movement and balance (p. 73) que un estímulo neutro logra provocar una respues- cerebelo área del encéfalo que controla el mov- ta incondicionada cuando se asocia repetidamente imiento voluntario y el equilibrio (pág. 73) a un estímulo que suele provocar una respuesta cerebral cortex the bumpy, convoluted surface of the incondicionada (pág. 159) brain; the body’s control and information-process- a small, exclusive group of people within a ing center (p. 75) larger group (p. 313) corteza cerebral la superficie irregular y convoluta clique grupo pequeño y exclusivo de personas den- del encéfalo; el centro del control corporal y del tro de un grupo más grande (pág. 313) procesamiento de la información (pág. 75) closure the tendency to perceive a complete or whole figure even when there are gaps in sensory infor- mation (p. 116) cierre tendencia a percibir una figura completa o entera incluso cuando faltan elementos en la infor- mación sensorial (pág. 116)

R68 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY cochlea/cóclea conditioned response/respuesta condicionada cochlea the fluid-filled structure of the inner ear that cognitive restructuring a method of coping in which transmits sound impulses to the auditory nerve one changes the thoughts one has in a particular E (p. 108) situation (p. 439) NGLISH AND cóclea estructura del oído interno llena de fluido reestructuración cognitiva método de afrontamiento que transmite impulsos sonoros al nervio auditivo por el que una persona cambia los pensamientos (pág. 108) que tiene en una situación particular (pág. 439) cognitive activities private, unmeasurable mental collective unconscious Jung’s concept of a shared, processes such as dreams, perceptions, thoughts, inherited body of memory that all humans have and memories (p. 5) (p. 401) actividades cognitivas procesos mentales privados inconsciente colectivo concepto desarrollado por

que no pueden medirse, como los sueños, las per- Jung que describe un conjunto heredado y compar- S

cepciones, los pensamientos y los recuerdos (pág. 5) tido de recuerdos que tienen todos los seres huma- PANISH cognitive anchor a persistent belief that develops early nos (pág. 401) in life and shapes the way a person sees and inter- commitment a pledge or promise between two people prets the world (p. 564) to share a life together (p. 583) anclaje cognitivo creencia persistente que se desa- compromiso promesa o acuerdo entre dos personas rrolla en los primeros años de vida y determina para compartir una vida en común (pág. 583) G LOSSARY la manera en que una persona ve e interpreta el common fate the tendency to perceive objects that are mundo (pág. 564) moving together as belonging together (p. 117) cognitive consistency the state in which a person’s destino común tendencia a percibir objetos que se thoughts and behaviors match his or her beliefs mueven juntos como si formaran un grupo and the expectations of others (p. 376) (pág. 117) consistencia cognitiva estado en el que los pensa- complementary the colors across from each other on mientos y las conductas de una persona se corre- the (p. 103) sponden con sus creencias y con las expectativas de complementarios se dice de los colores que se en- los demás (pág. 376) cuentran uno frente a otro en el círculo cromático cognitive-dissonance theory the theory that suggests (pág. 103) that people make attitudinal changes to reduce the concept a mental structure used to categorize objects, tension that occurs when their thoughts and atti- people, or events that share similar characteristics tudes are inconsistent with their actions (p. 377) (p. 215) teoría de la disonancia cognitiva teoría que su- concepto estructura mental que se usa para cate- giere que las personas cambian sus actitudes para gorizar objetos, personas o sucesos que comparten reducir la tensión que surge cuando sus pensamien- características similares (pág. 215) tos y actitudes no se corresponden con sus acciones (pág. 377) concrete-operational stage according to Piaget, the stage of cognitive development during which chil- cognitive evaluation a process in which a person dren acquire the ability to think logically (p. 297) forms beliefs based on evidence from many sources etapa operacional concreta según Piaget, etapa del (p. 563) desarrollo cognitivo durante la que los niños evaluación cognitiva proceso por el cual una per- adquieren la capacidad de pensar lógicamente sona fundamenta sus creencias con pruebas que (pág. 297) provienen de muchas fuentes (pág. 563) conditional positive regard the expression of love or cognitive perspective the perspective that emphasizes esteem given only when an individual exhibits suit- the role of thought processes in determining behav- able behavior (p. 291) ior (p. 23) estimación positiva condicional expresión de amor o perspectiva cognitiva la perspectiva que enfatiza el estima que se da únicamente cuando un individuo rol de los procesos de pensamiento en la determi- exhibe una conducta adecuada (pág. 291) nación de la conducta (pág. 23) conditioned response a learned response to a previ- ously neutral stimulus (p. 160) respuesta condicionada respuesta aprendida ante un estímulo que antes era neutro (pág. 160)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R69 conditioned stimulus/estímulo condicionado creativity/creatividad

conditioned stimulus a previously neutral stimulus continuity the perceptual tendency to group stimuli that, because of pairing with an unconditioned into continuous patterns (p. 117) stimulus, now causes a conditioned response continuidad tendencia perceptiva a agrupar estímu- (p. 160) los en patrones continuos (pág.117) estímulo condicionado estímulo neutro que, debido continuous reinforcement the reinforcement of a a la asociación con un estímulo incondicionado, desired response every time it occurs (p. 168) provoca una respuesta condicionada (pág. 160) refuerzo continuo refuerzo de una respuesta

LOSSARY conditioning a type of learning that involves stimu- deseada cada vez que ocurre (pág. 168) G lus-response connections, in which the response is control group in an experiment, the group that does conditional on the stimulus (p. 159) not receive the treatment (p. 52) condicionamiento tipo de aprendizaje basado en grupo de control en un experimento, el grupo que relaciones de estímulo-respuesta, en el que el es- no recibe el tratamiento (pág. 52) tímulo condiciona la respuesta (pág. 159)

PANISH conventional moral reasoning the level of moral devel- conductive deafness hearing loss caused by damage to

S opment at which a person makes judgments based the middle ear, thus interfering with the transmis- on conventional standards of right and wrong sion of sound waves to the cochlea (p. 108) (p. 298) sordera conductiva pérdida de la audición provo- razonamiento moral convencional nivel de desarrollo cada por una lesión en el oído medio que dificulta moral en el que una persona hace juicios basándose la transmisión de las ondas sonoras hacia la cóclea en normas convencionales sobre el bien y el mal (pág. 108) (pág. 298) conform to change one’s attitudes or behavior in accor- convergent thinking directed thinking; thinking that is

NGLISH AND dance with generally accepted standards (p. 595) limited to available facts (p. 217) E conformar cambiar las actitudes o conductas per- pensamiento convergente pensamiento dirigido; sonales de acuerdo con normas aceptadas por todos pensamiento limitado a los datos disponibles (pág. 595) (pág. 217) congruence agreement; in psychology, consistency corpus callosum the nerve fibers that connect the left between one’s self-concept and one’s experience and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex (p. 75) (p. 411) cuerpo calloso conjunto de fibras nerviosas que congruencia acuerdo; en psicología, coherencia en- conectan los hemisferios izquierdo y derecho de la tre el concepto que una persona tiene de sí misma y corteza cerebral (pág. 75) su experiencia (pág. 411) correlation the relationship between variables (p. 48) consciousness awareness of oneself and one’s correlación relación entre variables (pág. 48) environment (p. 129) conciencia reconocimiento de uno mismo y counterconditioning a therapy procedure based on de su entorno (pág.129) classical conditioning that replaces a negative re- sponse to a stimulus with a positive response construct idea that cannot be seen or measured (p. 162) directly (p. 35) contracondicionamiento procedimiento terapéutico constructo idea que no se puede ver ni medir basado en el condicionamiento clásico que reempla- directamente (pág. 35) za una respuesta negativa a un estímulo con una contact comfort the instinctual need to touch and respuesta positiva (pág. 162) be touched by something soft, such as skin or fur cramming preparing hastily for an exam (p. 439) (p. 286) memorización intensiva preparación breve y ace- comodidad de contacto necesidad instintiva de tocar lerada para un examen (pág. 439) y sentir algo suave, como la piel o el pelaje (pág. 286) creativity the ability to invent new solutions to prob- lems or to create original or ingenious materials context-dependent memories information that is more (p. 260) easily retrieved in the context or situation in which creatividad capacidad de inventar nuevas solucio- it was encoded and stored (p. 193) nes a problemas o crear materiales originales o recuerdos contextuales información que se recuerda ingeniosos (pág. 260) más fácilmente en el contexto o la situación donde se codificó y almacenó (pág. 193)

R70 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY critical period/período crítico dendrites/dendritas critical period a stage or point in development during which a person or animal is best suited to learn a E

particular skill or behavior pattern (p. 276) NGLISH AND período crítico etapa o momento del desarrollo en decay disintegration; in psychology, the fading away que una persona o un animal está más preparado of memory over time (p. 204) para aprender una destreza o un patrón de con- deterioro desintegración; en psicología, la desapa- ducta específicos (pág. 276) rición gradual de la memoria con el paso del tiempo cross-linking a possible cause of aging in which pro- (pág. 204) teins within a cell bind together, toughening body deductive reasoning a form of thinking in which con- tissues and eventually leading to the breakdown of clusions are inferred from premises; the conclusions various bodily processes (p. 345) are true if the premises are true (p. 230) S entrecruzamiento posible causa del envejecimiento; razonamiento deductivo forma de pensamiento en la PANISH enlace de proteínas dentro de una célula respon- que se infieren conclusiones a partir de premisas; sable de que se endurezcan los tejidos del cuerpo y, las conclusiones son verdaderas si las premisas son con el tiempo, fallen diversos procesos fisiológicos verdaderas (pág. 230) (pág. 345) defense mechanisms psychological distortions used to G cross-sectional method a method of research that looks remain psychologically stable or in balance (p. 398) at different age groups at the same time in order to mecanismos de defensa distorsiones psicológicas LOSSARY understand changes that occur during the life span que se usan para permanecer estable o equilibrado (p. 46) desde el punto de vista psicológico (pág. 398) método transversal método de investigación por defensive coping a response to a stressor that tem- el que se observan grupos de distintas edades al porarily reduces stress but may be harmful in the mismo tiempo para comprender los cambios que long run because it neither changes the situation ocurren durante el ciclo vital (pág. 46) nor removes the stressor (p. 488) crowd large groups of people who share attitudes and afrontamiento defensivo respuesta a un factor a group identity (p. 313) estresante que reduce temporalmente el estrés multitud grupo grande de personas que comparten pero puede ser perjudicial a largo plazo porque no actitudes y una identidad grupal (pág. 313) modifica la situación ni elimina el factor estresante crystallized intelligence accumulated skills, knowledge, (pág. 488) and experience (p. 264) delusion an erroneous belief, as of persecution or inteligencia cristalizada destrezas, experiencias y grandeur, that may accompany certain psychotic conocimientos acumulados (pág. 264) disorders (p. 147) culture-bound syndrome a cluster of symptoms that delirio creencia errónea, por ejemplo, de perse- is considered a recognizable disease only within a cución o de grandeza, que puede acompañar ciertos specific culture or society (p. 500) trastornos psicóticos (pág. 147) síndrome limitado a una cultura conjunto de sínto- dementia a serious loss of cognitive function (p. 345) mas que se consideran una enfermedad reconocible demencia pérdida grave de las funciones cognitivas solo dentro de una cultura o sociedad específicas (pág. 345) (pág. 500) democratic leader a leader who encourages group members to express and discuss their ideas and to make their own decisions (p. 593) líder democrático líder que anima a los miembros del grupo a expresar y debatir sus ideas, y a tomar sus propias decisiones (pág. 593) dendrites the branchlike extensions of a neuron that receive impulses and conduct them toward the cell body (p. 67) dendritas extensiones ramificadas de una neurona que reciben impulsos y los conducen hacia el cuerpo de la célula (pág. 67)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R71 dependent variable/variable dependiente drives/impulsos

dependent variable in an experiment, the factor that discrimination (1) in classical conditioning, the ability is being measured and that may change in response to distinguish the conditioned stimulus from other to manipulations of the independent variable stimuli that are similar (p. 161); (2) unfair treat- (p. 52) ment of a person or group based on prejudice variable dependiente en un experimento, el factor (p. 573) que se mide y que puede variar de acuerdo con las discriminación (1) en el condicionamiento clásico, la manipulaciones de la variable independiente capacidad de distinguir el estímulo condicionado de

LOSSARY (pág. 52) otros estímulos similares (pág. 161); (2) tratamiento

G depersonalization a dissociative disorder characterized injusto de una persona o grupo basado en prejuicios by persistent or recurrent feelings of detachment (pág. 573) from one’s mental processes or body (p. 516) dissociation the separation of certain personality despersonalización trastorno disociativo caracte- components or mental processes from conscious rizado por sentimientos persistentes o recurrentes thought (p. 516)

PANISH de desapego de los propios procesos mentales o disociación separación de ciertos componentes de la

S corporales (pág. 516) personalidad o procesos mentales del pensamiento depressant a drug that reduces neural activity and consciente (pág. 516) slows body functions (p. 145) distress stress that is damaging or negative (p. 473) depresivo fármaco que reduce la actividad neuronal angustia estrés que resulta perjudicial o negativo y lentifica las funciones fisiológicas (pág. 145) (pág. 473) depression a psychological disorder characterized by distributed learning learning that occurs regularly and extreme sadness, an inability to concentrate, and is distributed over time (p. 181)

NGLISH AND feelings of helplessness and great sadness (p. 510) aprendizaje distribuido aprendizaje que ocurre regu-

E depresión trastorno psicológico caracterizado por larmente y se distribuye en el tiempo (pág. 181) una tristeza extrema, la incapacidad de concen- divergent thinking a thought process that attempts to trarse y sentimientos de impotencia y gran tristeza generate multiple solutions to a problem; nondi- (pág. 510) rected thinking (p. 217) detoxification the removal of a poisonous or otherwise pensamiento divergente proceso de pensamiento harmful substance, such as alcohol or other drugs, que intenta generar múltiples soluciones a un pro- from the body (p. 149) blema; pensamiento no dirigido (pág. 217) desintoxicación eliminación del cuerpo de una sus- double-blind study an experiment in which neither tancia venenosa o dañina, como el alcohol u otras the participant nor the researcher knows whether drogas (pág. 149) the participant has received the treatment or the developmental psychology the branch of psychology placebo (p. 54) that studies the physical, cognitive, and social estudio doble ciego experimento en el que ni los changes that occur throughout the life cycle (p. 275) participantes ni el investigador saben quiénes reci- psicología del desarrollo rama de la psicología que bieron el tratamiento y quiénes, el placebo (pág. 54) estudia los cambios físicos, cognitivos y sociales que dream analysis a technique used by psychoanalysts to ocurren durante el ciclo vital (pág. 275) interpret the content of patients’ dreams (p. 540) difference reduction a problem-solving method that in- análisis de los sueños técnica que usan los psicoa- volves reducing the difference between the present nalistas para interpretar el contenido de los sueños situation and the desired one (p. 223) de los pacientes (pág. 540) reducción de la diferencia método de resolución de drives conditions of arousal or tension within an problemas que consiste en reducir la diferencia organism that motivate the organism; usually entre la situación presente y la deseada (pág. 223) associated with a need (p. 365) difference threshold the minimum amount of differ- impulsos condiciones de excitación o tensión dentro ence that can be detected between two stimuli de un organismo que lo motivan; suelen estar aso- (p. 98) ciados a una necesidad (pág. 365) umbral de diferencia menor diferencia que se puede detectar entre dos estímulos (pág. 98) diffusion of responsibility the sharing of responsibility for a decision or behavior among the members of a group (p. 591) difusión de la responsabilidad fenómeno por el que todos los miembros de un grupo comparten la responsabilidad por una decisión o una conducta (pág. 591)

R72 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY echoic memory/memoria ecoica experimental group/grupo experimental

empty-nest syndrome a sense of depression and a loss of purpose that some parents experience when the E youngest child leaves home (p. 341) NGLISH AND echoic memory the sensory register that briefly holds síndrome del nido vacío sentimiento de depresión y traces of aural stimuli (p. 197) pérdida de los objetivos que sienten algunos padres memoria ecoica registro sensorial que retiene breve- cuando el hijo o la hija más joven se va de la casa mente los restos de los estímulos aditivos (pág. 197) (pág. 341) ego in psychoanalytic theory, the personality compo- encoding the translation of information into a form nent that is conscious and that controls behavior that can be stored in memory (p. 190) (p. 397) codificación traducción de la información a una el Yo (ego) en la teoría psicoanalítica, el compo- forma que se puede almacenar en la memoria S nente de la personalidad que es consciente y con- (pág. 190) PANISH trola la conducta (pág. 397) endocrine system the glands that secrete hormones ego integrity according to Erikson, the belief in late into the bloodstream (p. 81) adulthood that life is still meaningful and worth- sistema endocrino conjunto de glándulas que while; also the wisdom to accept one’s approaching secretan hormonas que llegan al flujo sanguíneo G death (p. 347) (pág. 81) LOSSARY integridad del Yo según Erikson, la creencia en la episodic memory memory of specific experienced adultez tardía de que la vida aún tiene significado events (p. 189) y de que vale la pena vivirla; también la sabiduría memoria episódica memoria específica de sucesos para aceptar la propia muerte que se acerca vividos (pág. 189) (pág. 347) ethics rules and standards for proper and responsible eidetic imagery the maintenance of a very detailed behavior (p. 55) visual memory over long periods of time (p. 197) ética conjunto de reglas y normas para una con- imaginería eidética permanencia de un recuerdo ducta apropiada y responsable (pág. 55) visual muy detallado durante un período de tiempo ethnography the study of human cultures (p. 461) extendido (pág. 197) etnografía estudio de las culturas humanas elaborative rehearsal methods for remembering new (pág. 461) information by creating meaningful links to infor- eustress stress that is positive or motivating (p. 473) mation already known (p. 191) eustrés estrés que es positivo y que motiva repaso de elaboración métodos para recordar infor- (pág. 473) mación nueva mediante la creación de vínculos sig- nificativos con información conocida (pág. 191) euthanasia the act of killing or enabling the death of a hopelessly sick or injured individual in a relatively electroconvulsive therapy a radical treatment for painless way; also called mercy killing (p. 353) psychological disorders that involves passing an eutanasia acto de matar o posibilitar la muerte de electric current through the brain of an anesthe- una manera relativamente indolora de un indi- tized patient (p. 551) viduo enfermo o herido que no tiene esperanzas de terapia electroconvulsiva tratamiento radical para recuperación; también se conoce como “muerte por trastornos psicológicos que consiste en aplicar una compasión” (pág. 353) corriente eléctrica al cerebro de un paciente anes- tesiado (pág. 551) evaluation apprehension concern that others are judg- ing one’s performance (p. 591) emotional appeal a type of persuasive communication temor a la evaluación preocupación de que los that influences behavior on the basis of feelings demás evalúen el rendimiento propio (pág. 591) rather than on an analysis of the issues (p. 569) apelación a las emociones tipo de comunicación evolutionary perspective the theory that focuses on the persuasiva que influye en la conducta basándose en evolution of behavior and mental processes (p. 23) los sentimientos en lugar de basarse en un análisis perspectiva evolutiva teoría que se centra en la del tema (pág. 569) evolución de la conducta y los procesos mentales (pág. 23) emotions states of feeling that involve physical arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experimental group in a study, the participants who experience (p. 380) receive the treatment (p. 52) emociones sentimientos que provocan reacción grupo experimental en un estudio, los participantes física, conductas expresivas y experiencia consci- que reciben el tratamiento (pág. 52) ente (pág. 380)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R73 explicit memory/memoria explícita fundamental attribution error/error fundamental de atribución

explicit memory memory of specific information forced-choice format a method of presenting test ques- (p. 189) tions that requires a respondent to select one of memoria explícita memoria de información especí- several possible answers (p. 428) fica (pág. 189) formato de elección forzada método de presentar explicit norms spoken or written rules of social behav- preguntas en una prueba donde el participante ior, such as traffic rules (p. 595) debe elegir una de varias respuestas posibles normas explícitas reglas de conducta social orales o (pág. 428)

LOSSARY escritas, como las normas del tráfico (pág. 595) formal-operational stage according to Piaget, the stage G extinction in classical conditioning, the disappearance of cognitive development during which people begin of a conditioned response when an unconditioned to think logically about abstract concepts (p. 297) stimulus no longer follows a conditioned stimulus etapa operacional formal según Piaget, etapa del (p. 161) desarrollo cognitivo durante la que las personas extinción en el condicionamiento clásico, la desa- comienzan a pensar lógicamente sobre conceptos PANISH parición de una respuesta condicionada cuando abstractos (pág. 297) S un estímulo incondicionado deja de seguir a un free association in psychoanalysis, the uncensored ut- estímulo condicionado (pág. 161) tering of all thoughts that come to mind (p. 540) extrinsic rewards something external given in re- asociación libre en psicoanálisis, la expresión sin sponse to the attainment of a goal, such as good censura de todos los pensamientos que vienen a la grades (p. 376) mente (pág. 540) recompensa extrínseca algo externo que se da como free radical an unstable molecule present in the respuesta por el cumplimiento de un objetivo, por human body that is thought by some scientists to

NGLISH AND ejemplo, una buena calificación (pág. 376) be a cause of aging (p. 344)

E extrovert a person who tends to be active and self- radical libre molécula inestable presente en el cuer- expressive, and who gains energy from interaction po humano que, según algunos científicos, es una with others (p. 394) de las causas del envejecimiento (pág. 344) extrovertido/a persona que suele ser activa y functional fixedness a barrier to problem solving that expresar sus emociones, y que obtiene energía de la involves the tendency to think of objects only in interacción con los demás (pág. 394) terms of their common uses (p. 226) firmeza funcional obstáculo a la resolución de pro- blemas que supone una tendencia a pensar en los objetos solo en términos de su uso corriente (pág. 226) functionalism the school of psychology, founded by , that emphasizes the purposes of flooding a fear-reduction technique based on the prin- behavior and mental processes and what they ac- ciples of classical conditioning that involves expos- complish for the individual (p. 19) ing the individual to a harmless stimulus until fear funcionalismo escuela de la Psicología, fundada por responses to that stimulus are extinguished (p. 162) William James, que enfatiza los propósitos de la técnica de inmersión técnica de reducción del miedo, conducta y de los procesos mentales y lo que apor- basada en los principios del condicionamiento tan al individuo (pág. 19) clásico, que consiste en exponer al individuo a un estímulo inofensivo hasta que las respuestas de fundamental attribution error a bias in social percep- miedo frente a ese estímulo se extinguen (pág. 162) tion characterized by the tendency to assume that others generally act on the basis of their disposi- fluid intelligence the ability to respond quickly to novel tions, even when there is evidence suggesting the situations (p. 264) importance of their situations (p. 577) inteligencia fluida capacidad de responder rápida- error fundamental de atribución sesgo en la percep- mente ante situaciones nuevas (pág. 264) ción social caracterizado por la tendencia a suponer foot-in-the-door effect the tendency for people to com- que otras personas actúan generalmente a partir ply with a large request after they have agreed to de su forma de ser, aun cuando hay pruebas que smaller requests (p. 599) sugieren la importancia de la situación en la que se efecto del pie en la puerta tendencia de las personas encuentran (pág. 577) a cumplir un pedido más importante después de haber aceptado pedidos menores (pág. 599)

R74 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY gate theory/teoría de la puerta heredity/herencia

generativity according to Erikson, the ability to create, originate, and produce throughout adulthood E (p. 339) NGLISH AND gate theory the suggestion that only a certain amount generatividad según Erikson, capacidad de crear, of information can be processed by the nervous originar y producir durante la adultez (pág. 339) system at a given time (p. 113) genes the basic building blocks of heredity (p. 85) teoría de la puerta la propuesta de que el sistema genes unidades básicas que constituyen la herencia nervioso solamente puede procesar cierta cantidad (pág. 85) de información en un momento determinado the school of psychology that (pág. 113) emphasizes the tendency to organize perceptions of gender classifications of sex, based on mostly nonbio- individual parts into meaningful wholes (p. 21) S logical traits such as physical structure and appear- psicología de la Gestalt escuela de la Psicología que PANISH ance (p. 447) enfatiza la tendencia a organizar percepciones de par- género clasificaciones de sexo basadas principal- tes individuales en unidades significativas (pág. 21) mente en rasgos que no son biológicos, como la gifted a term used to describe children with IQ scores estructura y la apariencia físicas (pág. 447)

above 130 or children with outstanding talent for G gender roles the differing sets of behaviors that a cul- performing at much higher levels than others of the LOSSARY ture considers appropriate for males or females same age and background (p. 259) (p. 447) superdotado/a término que se usa para describir a roles de género distintos patrones de conducta que un niño o una niña que tiene un coeficiente intelec- una cultura considera apropiados para el hombre y tual superior a 130 o un talento excepcional que la mujer (pág. 447) le permite alcanzar un rendimiento muy superior gender schema the set of traits and behaviors by which al de otros niños de su misma edad y su mismo a child learns to classify male and female gender entorno (pág. 259) roles and by which the child models and measures group polarization the strengthening of a group’s his or her own relation to those roles (p. 457) shared attitudes over time (p. 592) esquema de género conjunto de rasgos y conductas polarización grupal consolidación en el tiempo de con los que un niño aprende a clasificar los roles las actitudes que comparte un grupo (pág. 592) masculinos y femeninos, y que toma como referen- cia para compararse y establecer su relación con esos roles (pág. 457) gender stereotypes oversimplified generalizations about the characteristics of males and females (p. 447) estereotipos de género generalizaciones simplifica- hallucination a false sensory perception that occurs in das en exceso sobre las características masculinas y the absence of any actual stimulus (p. 146) femeninas (pág. 447) alucinación percepción sensorial falsa que ocurre en ausencia de un estímulo real (pág. 146) gender typing the process by which people learn to conform to gender roles (p. 454) hallucinogen a psychedelic drug, such as LSD, that tipificación de género proceso por el que las per- distorts perceptions and evokes sensory images in sonas aprenden a adaptarse a los roles de género the absence of actual sensory input (p. 148) (pág. 454) alucinógeno droga psicodélica, como el LSD, que distorsiona la percepción y provoca imágenes sen- general adaptation syndrome (GAS) the three-stage soriales en ausencia de un estímulo sensorial real sequence of behavior in response to stress, consist- (pág. 148) ing of an alarm reaction, a resistance stage, and an exhaustion stage (p. 480) health psychology the school of psychology concerned síndrome general de adaptación (SGA) la secuencia with the relationship between psychological factors de conducta en tres etapas de respuesta al estrés; and the prevention and treatment of physical ill- consiste en una reacción de alarma, una etapa de ness (p. 483) resistencia y una etapa de agotamiento (pág. 480) psicología de la salud escuela de la Psicología que estudia la relación entre los factores psicológicos y generalization the tendency to respond in the same la prevención y el tratamiento de las enfermedades way to stimuli that have similar characteristics físicas (pág. 483) (p. 161) generalización tendencia a responder de la misma heredity the genetic transmission of traits from one manera ante estímulos con características similares generation to the next (p. 85) (pág. 161) herencia transmisión genética de rasgos de una generación a la siguiente (pág. 85)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R75 heritability/heredabilidad identity moratorium/moratoria de identidad

heritability the proportion of variation among individ- uals that can be attributed to genes (p. 262) heredabilidad proporción de variación entre indi- viduos que puede atribuirse a los genes (pág. 262) iconic memory the sensory register that briefly holds heuristic a strategy for making judgments and solving mental images of visual stimuli (p. 197) problems; rules of thumb (p. 221) memoria icónica registro sensorial que mantiene heurística estrategia para hacer juicios de valor y brevemente imágenes mentales de estímulos

LOSSARY resolver problemas; regla general (pág. 221) visuales (pág. 197) G homeostasis an internal balance or equilibrium that id in psychoanalytic theory, the reservoir of uncon- is achieved through adjustments of the nervous scious psychic energy that strives to satisfy basic system (p. 366) sexual and aggressive drives (p. 397) homeostasis equilibrio interno que se logra me- el Ello (id) en la teoría psicoanalítica, el depósito de diante ajustes del sistema nervioso (pág. 366) energía psíquica inconsciente que busca satisfacer PANISH impulsos básicos sexuales y agresivos (pág. 397)

S hormones chemicals produced by the endocrine glands that regulate specific body functions (p. 81) identity who you are and what you stand for (your hormonas sustancias químicas producidas por las values) (p. 334) glándulas endocrinas que regulan funciones fisio- identidad quiénes somos y qué defendemos lógicas específicas (pág. 81) (nuestros valores) (pág. 334) hospice a type of care for terminally ill patients; an identity achievement a stage in identity development organization that provides such care (p. 353) in which a person has committed to an occupational hospicio tipo de atención para enfermos terminales; direction and made decisions about important life

NGLISH AND una organización que brinda esa atención (pág. 353) questions (p. 317)

E logro de identidad etapa del desarrollo de la iden- humanistic perspective the psychological view that tidad en la que una persona se compromete con stresses the human capacity for self-fulfillment and una dirección ocupacional y toma decisiones sobre the importance of consciousness, self-awareness, cuestiones importantes de la vida (pág. 317) and the freedom to make choices (p. 24) perspectiva humanista perspectiva psicológica que identity crisis a period of inner conflict during which enfatiza la capacidad humana de autorrealización y one examines one’s values and makes decisions la importancia de la conciencia propia y la libertad about one’s life direction (p. 316) para tomar decisiones (pág. 24) crisis de identidad período de conflicto interior en el que una persona examina sus valores y toma deci- humanistic therapy a treatment method based on the siones sobre el rumbo de su vida (pág. 316) assumption that most people are basically good and have a natural tendency to strive for self-actualiza- identity diffusion the constant search for meaning and tion (p. 542) identity without committing oneself to a set of per- terapia humanista método de tratamiento basado en sonal beliefs or an occupational path (p. 317) la suposición de que todas las personas son bási- difusión de identidad búsqueda constante de sentido camente buenas y tienen una tendencia natural a e identidad sin comprometerse con un conjunto de luchar por la actualización propia (pág. 542) creencias personales o un camino ocupacional (pág. 317) hypnosis a condition in which people appear to be highly suggestible and to behave as if they are in a identity foreclosure the act of making a commitment trance (p. 140) based on other’s values in order to avoid an identity hipnosis condición en la que las personas parecen crisis (p. 317) muy sugestionables y parecen comportarse como si hipoteca de identidad aceptación de un compromiso estuvieran en trance (pág. 140) basado en los valores de otros para evitar una crisis de identidad (pág. 317) hypothalamus the neural structure located below the thalamus that controls temperature, hunger, thirst, identity moratorium a period of time in the develop- and various aspects of emotion (p. 74) ment of identity in which a person delays making hipotálamo estructura neuronal ubicada debajo del a decision about important issues but actively tálamo que controla la temperatura, el hambre, la explores various alternatives (p. 316) sed y varios aspectos de las emociones (pág. 74) moratoria de identidad período del desarrollo de la identidad en el que una persona se demora en hypothesis a prediction or assumption about behavior tomar una decisión sobre cuestiones importantes that is tested through scientific research (p. 35) pero explora activamente alternativas diversas hipótesis predicción o suposición sobre la conducta (pág. 316) que se evalúa mediante la investigación científica (pág. 35)

R76 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY identity status/estatus de identidad intrinsic rewards/recompensas intrínsecas identity status according to Marcia, one of four reac- inferiority complex according to Adler, feelings of inad- tion patterns or processes in the development of equacy and insecurity that serve as a central source E identity during adolescence (p. 316) of motivation (p. 401) NGLISH AND estatus de identidad según Marcia, uno de los cua- complejo de inferioridad según Adler, sentimientos tro patrones o procesos de reacción en el desarrollo de inadecuación e inseguridad que sirven como de la identidad durante la adolescencia (pág. 316) fuente central de motivación (pág. 401) implicit memory memory of which you are not con- insomnia a sleep disorder characterized by recurring sciously aware; generally includes skills and proce- problems in falling asleep or staying asleep (p. 136) dures one has learned (p. 189) insomnio trastorno del sueño caracterizado por memoria implícita memoria de la que uno no es problemas recurrentes para contraer el sueño o

consciente; suele incluir destrezas y procedimientos permanecer dormido (pág. 136) S aprendidos (pág. 189) instincts complex, unlearned behaviors that are pres- PANISH implicit norms unspoken, unwritten standards of be- ent throughout a species (p. 365) havior for a group of people (p. 595) instintos conductas complejas no aprendidas que normas implícitas normas de conducta para un están presentes en todos los miembros de una espe- grupo de personas que no se especifican de manera cie (pág. 365) G oral ni escrita (pág. 595) intelligence the capacity to learn from experience, LOSSARY imprinting the process by which animals form strong solve problems, and adapt to a changing attachments during a critical period very early in environment (p. 249) life (p. 286) inteligencia capacidad de aprender de la experien- impronta proceso por el que los animales forman cia, resolver problemas y adaptarse a un entorno fuertes lazos de apego durante un período crítico en cambiante (pág. 249) los primeros momentos de la vida (pág. 286) intelligence quotient the ratio of mental age to chrono- incubation effect the tendency to arrive at a solution logical age multiplied by 100; the average perfor- after a period of time away from the problem mance for a given age is assigned a score of 100 (p. 228) (p. 253) efecto de incubación tendencia a hallar una solu- coeficiente intelectual razón de la edad mental a la ción después de pasar un tiempo sin pensar en el edad cronológica, multiplicada por 100; el ren- problema (pág. 228) dimiento promedio para una edad determinada se independent variable the factor that is manipulated by representa con un puntaje de 100 (pág. 253) the researcher to determine its effect on another interference the process that occurs when new infor- variable (p. 52) mation in short-term memory pushes or crowds out variable independiente factor que manipula el and replaces what was already there (p. 198) investigador para determinar su efecto sobre otra interferencia proceso que ocurre cuando la infor- variable (pág. 52) mación nueva que ingresa en la memoria de corto inductive reasoning a form of thinking that involves plazo empuja la información que se encontraba allí using individual cases or particular facts to reach a o se acumula y la reemplaza (pág. 198) general conclusion (p. 230) intimacy feelings of closeness and concern for another razonamiento inductivo modalidad de pensamiento person (p. 583) que consiste en usar casos individuales o hechos intimidad sentimientos de cercanía y preocupación particulares para llegar a una conclusión general por otra persona (pág. 583) (pág. 230) intoxication a state of drunkenness characterized by infancy in humans, the stage of life from birth to age impaired coordination and judgment (p. 145) two (p. 279) intoxicación estado de ebriedad caracterizado por infancia en los seres humanos, etapa de la vida que una reducción en la coordinación y el juicio comprende desde el nacimiento hasta los dos años (pág. 145) de edad (pág. 279) intrinsic rewards internal rewards, such as self- infantile amnesia the inability to remember events satisfaction, that are given in response to the that occurred during one’s early years (before age attainment of a goal (p. 376) three) (p. 205) recompensas intrínsecas recompensas internas, amnesia infantil incapacidad de recordar sucesos como la autosatisfacción, que se obtienen al que ocurrieron durante los primeros años de vida alcanzar un objetivo (pág. 376) (antes de los tres años de edad) (pág. 205)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R77 introspection/introspección living will/testamento vital

introspection an examination of one’s own thoughts language acquisition device the inborn ability of and feelings (p. 17) humans to acquire language (p. 235) introspección examen de los pensamientos y sen- dispositivo de adquisición del lenguaje capacidad timientos propios (pág. 17) innata de los seres humanos de adquirir el lenguaje introvert a person who tends to be interested in his (pág. 235) or her own thoughts and feelings, and who turns latent content according to Freud, the hidden meaning inward rather than to other people for ideas and of a dream (p. 540)

LOSSARY energy (p. 394) contenido latente según Freud, el significado oculto

G introvertido/a persona que suele interesarse por de un sueño (pág. 540) sus propios pensamientos y sentimientos, y se latent learning learning that occurs but remains hid- repliega en sí mismo en busca de ideas y energía en den until there is a need to use it (p. 173) lugar de interactuar con otros (pág. 394) aprendizaje latente aprendizaje que permanece oculto hasta que surge la necesidad de usarlo PANISH (pág. 173) S lateralization the development, prior to birth, of the tendencies of the brain’s left and right hemispheres to specialize in certain functions (p. 455) juvenile delinquency a violation of the law committed lateralización desarrollo, previo al nacimiento, de by a child or adolescent (p. 324) las tendencias de los hemisferios izquierdo y dere- delincuencia juvenil violación de la ley cometida por cho del cerebro a especializarse en ciertas funciones un niño o un adolescente (pág. 324) (pág. 455)

NGLISH AND learning perspective the psychological perspective that E emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior (p. 25) perspectiva del aprendizaje perspectiva psicológica que enfatiza los efectos de la experiencia en la con- ducta (pág. 25) kinesthesis the sense that provides information about lens the transparent structure of the eye that focuses the position and movement of individual body parts light on the retina (p. 102) (p. 114) cristalino estructura transparente del ojo que re- cenestesia sentido que brinda información sobre la fracta la luz en dirección a la retina (pág. 102) posición y el movimiento de cada una de las partes del cuerpo (pág. 114) limbic system a group of neural structures at the base of the cerebral hemispheres that is associated with emotion and motivation (p. 74) sistema límbico grupo de estructuras neuronales que se halla en la base de los hemisferios cere- brales; se asocia con la emoción y la motivación (pág. 74) laboratory observation the study of behavior in a lithium a chemical used to treat the mood swings of controlled situation (p. 48) bipolar disorder (p. 550) observación de laboratorio estudio de la conducta en litio sustancia química que se usa para tratar los una situación controlada (pág. 48) cambios anímicos abruptos del trastorno bipolar laissez-faire leader a leader who stands back from deci- (pág. 550) sion-making and allows group members to explore living will legal document in which the signer requests and express their own ideas (p. 593) to be allowed to die rather than be kept alive by líder laissez-faire líder que no toma decisiones, sino artificial means if disabled beyond a reasonable que permite que los miembros del grupo exploren expectation of recovery (p. 353) sus propias ideas y las expresen (pág. 593) testamento vital documento legal en el que el language the communication of ideas through sounds firmante solicita que lo dejen morir en lugar de que and symbols that are arranged according to the lo mantengan vivo por medios artificiales en caso rules of grammar (p. 235) de quedar incapacitado sin esperanza razonable de lenguaje comunicación de ideas mediante sonidos recuperación (pág. 353) y símbolos que se ordenan según las reglas de la gramática (pág. 235)

R78 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY longitudinal method/método longitudinal mental set/disposición mental longitudinal method a type of research in which the means-end analysis a heuristic device in which a solu- same people are studied over a long time period tion to a problem is found by evaluating the differ- E (p. 46) ence between the current situation and the goal NGLISH AND método longitudinal tipo de investigación en el (p. 224) que se estudia a las mismas personas durante un análisis medios-fin dispositivo heurístico por el que período de tiempo extendido (pág. 46) se evalúa la diferencia entre la situación actual y long-term memory the type or stage of memory capable el objetivo para hallar una solución a un problema of large and relatively permanent storage (p. 199) (pág. 224) memoria a largo plazo tipo o etapa de memoria que meditation a systematic narrowing of attention that tiene una capacidad de almacenamiento grande y slows the metabolism and helps produce feelings of

relativamente permanente (pág. 199) relaxation (p. 140) S

meditación reducción sistemática de la atención PANISH que lentifica el metabolismo y ayuda a producir sentimientos de relajación (pág. 140) medulla a structure at the base of the brain stem that controls vital functions such as heartbeat and breathing (p. 73) G maintenance rehearsal the repetition of new informa- médula estructura situada en la base del tronco LOSSARY tion in an attempt to remember it (p. 191) encefálico que controla funciones vitales como el repaso de mantenimiento repetición de información ritmo cardíaco y la respiración (pág. 73) nueva con el fin de recordarla (pág. 191) memory the mental functions and processes by which mania a mood characterized by extreme excitement, information is encoded, stored, and retrieved; infor- elation, hyperactivity, and chaotic behavior (p. 511) mation stored in the mind (p. 189) manía estado anímico caracterizado por excitación memoria funciones y procesos mentales por los que extrema, euforia, hiperactividad y conducta caótica se codifica, se almacena y se recuerda la infor- (pág. 511) mación; la información se almacena en la mente manifest content according to Freud, the apparent and (pág. 189) remembered content of a dream (p. 540) menarche a female’s first menstrual period (p. 309) contenido manifiesto según Freud, el contenido menarca primer período menstrual de la mujer recordado y aparente de un sueño (pág. 540) (pág. 309) massed learning learning that does not occur regularly menopause the cessation of menstruation; also, the but occurs all at one time (p. 181) biological changes that a woman experiences dur- aprendizaje masivo aprendizaje que no ocurre ing the years of her declining ability to reproduce regularmente sino que ocurre todo de una sola vez (p. 341) (pág. 181) menopausia cese de la menstruación; también, los matching hypothesis the view that people tend to cambios biológicos que experimenta una mujer choose other people similar to themselves in attrac- durante los años en que disminuye su capacidad tiveness and attitudes in the formation of interper- reproductora (pág. 341) sonal relationships (p. 582) mental age the level of intellectual functioning, which hipótesis del emparejamiento la idea de que, al is compared to chronological age to give an IQ momento de formar relaciones interpersonales, las (p. 253) personas suelen elegir a otros que se les parecen en edad mental nivel de funcionamiento intelectual cuanto a atractivo y actitudes (pág. 582) que se compara con la edad cronológica para ob- maturation developmental changes that occur as a tener el coeficiente intelectual o CI (pág. 253) result of automatic, genetically determined signals mental retardation intellectual functioning that is (p. 275) below average, as indicated by an intelligence score maduración cambios que forman parte del desa- at or below 70 (p. 258) rrollo y que ocurren como resultado de señales au- retraso mental funcionamiento intelectual por tomáticas y determinadas genéticamente (pág. 275) debajo del promedio, señalado por un puntaje de inteligencia igual o inferior a 70 (pág. 258) mental set the tendency to approach a new problem in a way that has been successful in the past (p. 225) disposición mental tendencia a abordar un pro- blema nuevo de una manera que sido exitosa en el pasado (pág. 225)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R79 metacognition/metacognición negative reinforcers/refuerzos negativos

metacognition planning, evaluating, and monitoring multiple approach-avoidance conflict a conflict involv- mental activities; thinking about thinking (p. 217) ing a choice between two or more options, each of metacognición capacidad de planear, evaluar y which has both positive and negative aspects monitorear actividades mentales; pensamiento (p. 476) sobre el pensamiento (pág. 217) conflicto múltiple de atracción-evitación conflicto que midlife crisis a turning point experienced by many implica una elección entre dos o más opciones que people between ages 45 to 65, when they realize tienen aspectos tanto positivos como negativos

LOSSARY that life may be half over and they reassess the (pág. 476)

G next phase of their lives (p. 340) myelin a white, fatty substance that insulates axons crisis de la mediana edad momento decisivo que ex- and enables rapid transmission of neural impulses perimentan muchas personas entre los 45 y 65 años (p. 68) de edad, cuando se dan cuenta de que ya ha pasado mielina sustancia blanca y grasa que aísla los axo- la mitad de la vida y vuelven a evaluar la siguiente nes y propicia la transmisión rápida de impulsos

PANISH etapa (pág. 340) neuronales (pág. 68) S midlife transition a period in middle adulthood when a person’s perspective on his or her life may change significantly (p. 339) transición de la mediana edad período de la adultez intermedia en el que la perspectiva de una persona sobre su vida puede cambiar de manera significa- tiva (pág. 339) narcolepsy an uncommon sleep disorder characterized by brief attacks of REM sleep, often at inopportune

NGLISH AND migraine headache a headache characterized by sud- moments (p. 137)

E den onset and severe throbbing pain on one side of narcolepsia trastorno del sueño poco común ca- the head (p. 483) racterizado por breves ataques de sueño REM, a migraña dolor de cabeza caracterizado por un menudo en momentos inoportunos (pág. 137) comienzo súbito y un dolor severo y punzante en un lado de la cabeza (pág. 483) narcotic a type of drug that dulls the senses, re- lieves pain, and induces sleep; the term is usually modeling the process of learning behavior through the reserved for those drugs derived from the opium observation and imitation of others (p. 457) poppy plant (p. 145) modelado proceso de aprender una conducta me- narcótico tipo de droga que embota los sentidos, diante la observación y la imitación de otros alivia el dolor e induce el sueño; el término se suele (pág. 457) reservar para las drogas derivadas de la amapola, monocular cues cues for distance that need only one la planta del opio (pág. 145) eye to be perceived (p. 118) naturalistic observation the study of behavior in natu- claves monoculares claves para percibir la distancia rally occurring situations without manipulation or que se ven con un solo ojo (pág. 118) control on the part of the observer (p. 47) morpheme the smallest unit of meaning in a language observación naturalista estudio de la conducta en (p. 236) situaciones que ocurren naturalmente, sin manipu- morfema unidad mínima de significado en un len- lación ni control por parte del observador (pág. 47) guaje (pág. 236) need the biological or psychological requirements for motive a need or desire that energizes and directs the well-being of an organism (p. 365) behavior (p. 365) necesidad cada uno de los requisitos biológicos motivo necesidad o deseo que da energía a la o psicológicos necesarios para el bienestar de un conducta y la dirige (pág. 365) organismo (pág. 365) negative correlation the relationship between two vari- ables in which one variable increases as the other variable decreases (p. 49) correlación negativa relación entre dos variables en la que una variable aumenta a medida que la otra disminuye (pág. 49) negative reinforcers unpleasant stimuli that increase the frequency of behavior when they are removed (p. 166) refuerzos negativos estímulos desagradables que aumentan la frecuencia de una conducta cuando se eliminan (pág. 166)

R80 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY neuron/neurona operant conditioning/condicionamiento operante neuron a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system (p. 67) E neurona célula nerviosa; la unidad básica del NGLISH AND sistema nervioso (pág. 67) obese a condition characterized by excessive body fat neurotransmitter a chemical messenger that carries (p. 371) impulses across the synaptic gaps between neurons obeso/a se dice de quien sufre una afección (p. 68) caracterizada por una cantidad excesiva de grasa neurotransmisor mensajero químico que transmite corporal (pág. 371) impulsos a través de los espacios sinápticos de las objective test a test that has a group of standardized neuronas (pág. 68) test items and specific answers that are considered night terror a sleep disorder characterized by high to be correct (p. 431) S arousal and apparent terror; unlike nightmares, prueba objetiva prueba compuesta por un grupo de PANISH night terrors are seldom remembered (p. 136) preguntas de evaluación estandarizadas y respues- terror nocturno trastorno del sueño caracterizado tas específicas que se consideran correctas por un despertar brusco y un sentimiento de terror (pág. 431) evidente; a diferencia de las pesadillas, los terrores object permanence the awareness that people and G nocturnos no suelen recordarse (pág. 136) objects continue to exist even when they cannot be LOSSARY nonconscious descriptive of bodily processes, such as perceived (p. 295) the growing of hair, of which we are not aware permanencia del objeto comprensión de que las (p. 131) personas y los objetos siguen existiendo aun cuando inconsciente se dice de los procesos fisiológicos, no pueden percibirse (pág. 295) como el crecimiento del pelo, de los cuales no somos learning by observing and conscientes (pág. 131) imitating the behavior of others (p. 173) nondirective therapy a type of therapy in which the cli- aprendizaje observacional aprendizaje que ocurre ent rather than the therapist is encouraged to take a partir de la observación y la imitación de la con- the lead (p. 542) ducta ajena (pág. 173) terapia no directiva tipo de terapia en la que se obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) a type of anxiety anima al paciente, en lugar de al terapeuta, a disorder characterized by obsessions—unwanted tomar la iniciativa (pág. 542) thoughts, ideas, or mental images that occur over norm an established standard of performance or and over again (p. 507) behavior (p. 424) trastorno obsesivo-compulsivo (TOC) tipo de trastor- norma regla establecida de comportamiento o no de ansiedad caracterizado por obsesiones (pensa- conducta (pág. 424) mientos, ideas o imágenes mentales no deseados que aparecen una y otra vez) (pág. 507) norm group a group of test takers whose scores establish the norm for a particular test (p. 425) olfactory nerve the nerve that transmits information grupo de norma grupo de participantes en una about odors from receptor neurons to the brain prueba cuyos puntajes establecen la norma para (p. 112) esa prueba en particular (pág. 425) nervio olfativo nervio que transmite la información de los olores desde las neuronas receptoras hasta el nurturance loving care and attention (p. 449) cerebro (pág. 112) crianza atención y cuidado brindados con afecto (pág. 449) open-ended format test format in which there are no right or wrong, clearly specified answers (p. 433) formato abierto formato de prueba en el que no hay respuestas correctas o erróneas claramente espe- cificadas (pág. 433) operant conditioning learning that is strengthened when behavior is followed by positive reinforcement (p. 165) condicionamiento operante aprendizaje que se re- fuerza cuando después de una conducta se obtiene un refuerzo positivo (pág. 165)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R81 opponent-process theory/teoría de los procesos opuestos placebo/placebo

opponent-process theory according to Solomon, the peripheral nervous system the neurons that connect idea that an intense emotion often is followed by its the central nervous system to the rest of the body, opposite (p. 382) including the muscles and glands (p. 67) teoría de los procesos opuestos según Solomon, la sistema nervioso periférico conjunto de neuronas idea de que después de una emoción intensa suele que conectan el sistema nervioso central con el darse la emoción opuesta (pág. 382) resto del cuerpo, incluidos los músculos y las overregularization the formation of plurals and the glándulas (pág. 67)

LOSSARY past tense of irregular nouns and verbs according to peripheral route a method of persuasion characterized

G rules of grammar that apply to regular nouns and by an emphasis on factors other than the message verbs; characteristic of the speech of young children itself (p. 568) (p. 239) vía periférica método de persuasión caracterizado sobrerregularización la formación de plurales y for- por poner el énfasis en factores distintos del men- mas verbales irregulares según reglas gramaticales saje en sí (pág. 568)

PANISH que se aplican a sustantivos, adjetivos y verbos personality the patterns of feelings, thoughts, and S regulares; es característico del discurso de los niños behavior that set people apart from one another pequeños (pág. 239) (p. 393) personalidad los patrones de sentimientos, pensa- mientos y conducta que distinguen a una persona de otra (pág. 393) personality disorder a pattern of inflexible traits that disrupts social life or work and causes distress

NGLISH AND panic attack a relatively short period of intense fear or (p. 525)

E discomfort, characterized by terror and other fright- trastorno de personalidad patrón de rasgos inflexi- ening sensations such as shortness of breath, rapid bles que afecta la vida social o el trabajo y provoca heart rate, or other distressing physical symptoms angustia (pág. 525) (p. 506) person-centered therapy a humanistic therapy, devel- ataque de pánico período relativamente corto de oped by , in which the therapist creates miedo o incomodidad intensos, caracterizado por el an accepting, empathic environment to facilitate terror y otras sensaciones alarmantes, como falta the client’s growth (p. 542) de aire, pulso cardíaco acelerado y otros síntomas terapia centrada en la persona terapia humanista, físicos de angustia (pág. 506) desarrollada por Carl Rogers, en la que el terapeuta partial reinforcement a type of conditioned learning in crea un entorno de empatía y aceptación para fa- which only some of the responses are reinforced vorecer el crecimiento del paciente (pág. 542) (p. 168) persuasion the attempt to influence people’s attitudes refuerzo parcial tipo de aprendizaje condicionado en and choices through argument, entreaty, or expla- el que solo se refuerzan algunas de las respuestas nation (p. 568) (pág. 168) persuasión intento de influir en las actitudes y passion an aroused state of intense desire for another elecciones de los demás mediante argumentos, person (p. 583) ruegos o explicaciones (pág. 568) pasión estado emocional de deseo intenso por otra phobia an excessive, irrational fear out of proportion persona (pág. 583) to the actual danger (p. 505) patriarchy a social organization marked by the suprem- fobia miedo excesivo e irracional, desproporcionado acy of males in the clan, family, or society (p. 334) con respecto al peligro real (pág. 505) patriarcado organización social que se distingue por phoneme the basic sound unit in a spoken language la supremacía de los hombres en el clan, la familia (p. 236) o la sociedad (pág. 334) fonema unidad básica de sonido de un lenguaje pressure from friends to conform to their hablado (pág. 236) goals, attitudes, and behavior (p. 314) photoreceptors neurons that are sensitive to light presión paritaria presión de los amigos para que (p. 102) una persona actúe conforme a los objetivos, acti- fotorreceptores neuronas sensibles a la luz (pág. 102) tudes y conducta de ellos (pág. 314) placebo an inert substance used in controlled experi- perception the psychological process of organizing and ments to test the effectiveness of another substance interpreting sensory stimulation (p. 97) (p. 53) percepción el proceso psicológico de organizar e placebo sustancia inerte que se usa en experimen- interpretar estímulos sensoriales (pág. 97) tos controlados para probar la efectividad de otra sustancia (pág. 53)

R82 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY pons/protuberancia anular programmed theories/teorías programadas pons a brain structure located at the top of the brain prefrontal lobotomy a radical form of psychosurgery stem that is involved in respiration, movement, and in which a section of the frontal lobe of the brain is E sleep (p. 73) severed or destroyed (p. 552) NGLISH AND protuberancia anular estructura cerebral situada en lobotomía prefrontal forma radical de psicocirugía la parte superior del tronco cerebral que interviene en la que se extirpa o se destruye una sección del en la respiración, el movimiento y el sueño (pág. 73) lóbulo frontal del cerebro (pág. 552) positive correlation a relationship between variables in prejudice an unjustifiable, and usually negative, which one variable increases as the other variable attitude toward a person or group (p. 572) also increases (p. 48) prejuicio actitud injustificada, y generalmente correlación positiva relación entre variables en la negativa, hacia una persona o un grupo (pág. 572)

que una variable aumenta a medida que la otra premise a statement or assertion that serves as the S también aumenta (pág. 48) basis for an argument (p. 230) PANISH positive reinforcers encouraging stimuli that increase premisa afirmación o enunciado que sirve de base a the frequency of a behavior when they are present- un argumento (pág. 230) ed (p. 166) preoperational stage in Piaget’s theory, the stage dur- refuerzos positivos estímulos alentadores que

ing which a child learns to use language but does G aumentan la frecuencia de una conducta cuando se not yet think logically (p. 296) LOSSARY presentan (pág. 166) etapa preoperacional en la teoría de Piaget, etapa postconventional moral reasoning according to Kohl- durante la que un niño aprende a usar el lenguaje berg, a level of moral development during which pero todavía no piensa lógicamente (pág. 296) moral judgments are derived from a person’s own primacy effect (1) the tendency to recall the initial moral standards (p. 298) item or items in a series (p. 197); (2) the tendency razonamiento moral posconvencional según Kohl- to form opinions of others based on first impres- berg, nivel de desarrollo moral en el que los juicios sions (p. 577) morales se derivan de las normas morales propias efecto de primacía (1) tendencia a recordar el ele- de una persona (pág. 298) mento inicial o los elementos iniciales de una serie posthypnotic suggestion instructions given to a person (pág. 197); (2) tendencia a formar opiniones acerca under hypnosis that are supposed to be carried out de otras personas a partir de la primera impresión after the hypnosis session has ended (p. 142) (pág. 577) sugestión poshipnótica instrucciones que se dan a primary reinforcers stimuli, such as food or warmth, una persona bajo hipnosis que, se supone, se ejecu- that have reinforcement value without learning tan cuando termina la sesión de hipnosis (pág. 142) (p. 166) post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) a disorder caused refuerzos primarios estímulos, como la comida o el by a distressing event outside the range of normal calor, que tienen valor de refuerzo sin aprendizaje human experience and characterized by intense, (pág. 166) persistent feelings of anxiety and avoidance of primary sex characteristics the organs that make stimuli associated with the event (p. 508) sexual reproduction possible, such as the ovaries trastorno de estrés postraumático (TEPT) trastorno and testes (p. 308) causado por un acontecimiento angustiante que características sexuales primarias los órganos se halla fuera del rango de la experiencia humana responsables de la reproducción sexual, como los normal y se caracteriza por sentimientos intensos y ovarios y los testículos (pág. 308) persistentes de ansiedad, y por el intento de evitar los estímulos asociados con el acontecimiento (pág. 508) principle a basic truth or law (p. 7) principio una verdad o ley básicas (pág. 7) preconscious descriptive of information that is not con- scious but is retrievable into conscious awareness prodigy a child who develops a special skill or talent to (p. 130) an adult level (p. 259) preconsciente se dice de la información que no es prodigio un niño o una niña que desarrolla una consciente pero que puede hallarse y hacerse con- destreza o un talento especial al nivel de un adulto sciente (pág. 130) (pág. 259) preconventional moral reasoning according to Kohl- programmed theories the view that aging is the result berg, a level of moral development in which moral of genetics (p. 344) judgments are based on fear of punishment or teorías programadas concepción que afirma que el desire for pleasure (p. 298) envejecimiento es el resultado de la genética razonamiento moral preconvencional según Kohl- (pág. 344) berg, nivel de desarrollo moral en el que los juicios morales se basan en el miedo al castigo o el deseo de placer (pág. 298)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R83 projection/proyección pupil/pupila

projection in psychoanalytic theory, the defense psycholinguistics the psychology of language (p. 235) mechanism by which people attribute their own psicolingüística psicología del lenguaje (pág. 235) unacceptable impulses to others (p. 399) psychological constructs theoretical entities, or con- proyección en la teoría psicoanalítica, mecanismo cepts, that enable one to discuss something that de defensa por el que las personas atribuyen sus cannot be seen, touched, or measured directly (p. 5) propios impulsos inaceptables a otras personas constructos psicológicos entidades teóricas, o (pág. 399) conceptos, que permiten hablar de algo que no se

LOSSARY projective test a psychological test that presents puede ver, tocar ni medir directamente (pág. 5) G ambiguous stimuli designed to elicit a response psychological disorder a behavior pattern or mental that reflects the test taker’s feelings, interests, and process that causes serious personal suffering or biases (p. 433) interferes with a person’s ability to cope with every- test proyectivo prueba psicológica que presenta es- day life (p. 499) tímulos ambiguos para suscitar una respuesta que trastorno psicológico patrón de conducta o proceso PANISH refleja los sentimientos, intereses y sesgos de mental que provoca un sufrimiento personal grave S la persona (pág. 433) en una persona o que interfiere con su capacidad de prototype an original model on which others in the actuar en la vida cotidiana (pág. 499) same category are patterned (p. 215) psychology the scientific study of behavior and mental prototipo modelo original que sirve para crear otros processes (p. 5) de la misma categoría (pág. 215) Psicología estudio científico de la conducta y los proximity the perceptual tendency to group together procesos mentales (pág. 5) visual and auditory events that are near each other psychosurgery biological treatments in which specific

NGLISH AND (p. 116) areas or structures of the brain are removed or E proximidad tendencia perceptiva a agrupar los destroyed to change behavior (p. 552) sucesos visuales o auditivos que están cerca psicocirugía tratamientos biológicos en los que se (pág. 116) eliminan o se destruyen áreas o estructuras especí- psychiatrist a medical doctor who specializes in the ficas del cerebro para modificar la conducta treatment of psychological problems and who can (pág. 552) prescribe medication for clients (p. 10) psychotherapy the application of psychological psiquiatra médico especializado en el tratamiento principles and techniques to influence a person’s de problemas psicológicos que puede prescribir thoughts, feelings, or behaviors in an attempt to medicamentos a los pacientes (pág. 10) help that person overcome psychological disorders psychoanalysis the school of psychology, founded by or adjust to problems in living (p. 535) Sigmund Freud, that emphasizes the importance psicoterapia aplicación de técnicas y principios of unconscious motives and internal conflicts as psicológicos para influir en los pensamientos, los determinants of human behavior (p. 19) sentimientos o la conducta de una persona, con el psicoanálisis escuela de la Psicología, fundada por fin de ayudarla a superar trastornos psicológicos o Sigmund Freud, que enfatiza la importancia de los a afrontar problemas de la vida (pág. 535) motivos inconscientes y los conflictos internos como puberty the period of sexual maturation; the onset of determinantes de la conducta humana (pág. 19) one’s ability to reproduce (p. 308) psychoanalytic perspective the perspective that stress- pubertad período de maduración sexual; el comien- es the influences of unconscious forces on human zo de la capacidad reproductora (pág. 308) behavior (p. 24) pupil the opening in the center of the eye that adjusts perspectiva psicoanalítica perspectiva que enfatiza to the amount of light entering (p. 102) la influencia de las fuerzas inconscientes en la con- pupila apertura del centro del ojo que se ajusta a la ducta humana (pág. 24) cantidad de luz que llega al ojo (pág. 102) psychodynamic thinking the theory that most of what exists in an individual’s mind is unconscious and consists of conflicting impulses, urges, and wishes (p. 20) pensamiento psicodinámico teoría que afirma que la mayor parte de lo que existe en la mente de un individuo es inconsciente y consiste en impulsos y deseos que entran en conflicto (pág. 20)

R84 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY random sample/muestra aleatoria representativeness heuristic/heurística de la representatividad

recognition a memory process in which one identifies objects or events that have previously been encoun- E tered (p. 202) NGLISH AND random sample a survey population, selected by reconocimiento proceso de la memoria por el que se chance, which fairly represents the general popula- identifican objetos o sucesos hallados previamente tion (p. 40) (pág. 202) muestra aleatoria población elegida al azar para recombination the mental rearrangement of elements realizar una encuesta y que representa aproxima- of a problem (p. 227) damente a la población general (pág. 40) recombinación reorganización mental de los ele- rapid-eye-movement sleep a stage of sleep character- mentos de un problema (pág. 227) ized by rapid eye movements and linked to dream- reflex an automatic, unlearned response to a sensory S ing; also called REM sleep (p. 134) stimulus (p. 279) PANISH fase de movimiento ocular rápido del sueño etapa reflejo respuesta automática y no aprendida a un del sueño caracterizada por movimientos oculares estímulo sensorial (pág. 279) rápidos y relacionada con la actividad de soñar; regression in psychoanalytic theory, a defense mecha- también llamada fase REM (por su sigla en inglés)

nism by which an individual retreats to an earlier G (pág. 134) stage of development when faced with anxiety LOSSARY rational-emotive behavior therapy a confrontational (p. 398) cognitive therapy, developed by Albert Ellis, that regresión en la teoría psicoanalítica, mecanismo encourages people to challenge illogical, self-defeat- de defensa por el que un individuo vuelve a una ing thoughts and attitudes (p. 545) etapa de desarrollo anterior como reacción ante la terapia racional-emotiva terapia cognitiva de con- ansiedad (pág. 398) frontación, desarrollada por Albert Ellis, que anima reinforcement a stimulus or event that follows a a la persona a desafiar las actitudes y los pensa- response and increases the frequency of that mientos ilógicos y contraproducentes (pág. 545) response (p. 165) rationalization in psychoanalytic theory, the defense refuerzo estímulo o suceso que sigue a una mechanism by which an individual finds justifi- respuesta y aumenta su frecuencia (pág. 165) cations for unacceptable thoughts, impulses, or relearning learning something a second time, usually behaviors (p. 398) in less time than it was originally learned (p. 204) racionalización en la teoría psicoanalítica, el me- reaprendizaje aprendizaje de algo por segunda vez, canismo de defensa por el que un individuo encuen- generalmente en menos tiempo que la primera vez tra justificaciones para pensamientos, impulsos o (pág. 204) conductas inaceptables (pág. 398) reliability the extent to which a test yields consistent reasoning the process of drawing logical conclusions results (p. 254) from facts and arguments (p. 230) confiabilidad grado en que una prueba ofrece resul- razonamiento proceso de sacar conclusiones lógicas tados coherentes (pág. 254) a partir de hechos y argumentos (pág. 230) replicate to repeat a research study, usually with dif- recall nonimmediate retrieval of learned information ferent participants and in different situations, to (p. 203) confirm the results of the original study (p. 36) recuerdo recuperación posterior de información replicar repetir un estudio de investigación, gene- aprendida (pág. 203) ralmente con otros participantes y en situaciones recency effect (1) the tendency to recall the last item diferentes, para confirmar los resultados de la in a series (p. 197); (2) the tendency for people to investigación original (pág. 36) change their opinions of others based on recent representativeness heuristic the process of making de- interactions (p. 577) cisions about a sample according to the population efecto de recencia (1) tendencia a recordar el último that the sample appears to represent (p. 233) elemento de una serie (pág. 197); (2) tendencia hu- heurística de la representatividad proceso de tomar mana a cambiar la opinión de otra persona a partir decisiones acerca de una muestra de acuerdo con la de interacciones recientes (pág. 577) población que la muestra parece representar reciprocity in interpersonal relationships, the ten- (pág. 233) dency to return feelings and attitudes that are expressed about us (p. 582) reciprocidad en las relaciones interpersonales, ten- dencia de una persona a responder con sentimien- tos y actitudes similares a los que recibe (pág. 582)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R85 repression/represión selective attention/atención selectiva

repression in psychoanalytic theory, the defense mecha- nism that removes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feel- ings, and memories from one’s consciousness (p. 398) represión en la teoría psicoanalítica, mecanismo de sales resistance the ability to refuse a request or sales defensa que elimina de la conciencia los pensamien- pitch (p. 570) tos, sentimientos y recuerdos que provocan ansie- resistencia a la venta capacidad de rechazar discur- dad (pág. 398) sos de pedidos o de ventas (pág. 570) LOSSARY resistance in psychoanalysis, a blocking from sample a representative segment of a target popula- G consciousness of issues that might cause anxiety tion (p. 40) (p. 540) muestra segmento representativo de una población resistencia en psicoanálisis, el acto de bloquear de objetivo (pág. 40) la conciencia las ideas que pueden provocar ansie- dad (pág. 540) scapegoat a person or group unfairly blamed for the problems of others (p. 574) PANISH reticular activating system the part of the brain that is

S chivo expiatorio persona o grupo al que se acusa involved in attention, sleep, and arousal (p. 73) injustamente de ser responsable de los problemas sistema de activación reticular parte del cerebro que de otros (pág. 574) interviene en la atención, el sueño y la excitación (pág. 73) schedule of reinforcement a timetable for when and how often reinforcement for a particular behavior retina the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye that occurs (p. 168) contains the rods, cones, and neurons that process programa de refuerzo tabla horaria que especifica visual stimuli (p. 102) cuándo y cómo se reforzará una conducta determi-

NGLISH AND retina superficie interior del ojo sensible a la luz nada (pág. 168)

E que contiene los bastones, los conos y las neuronas que procesan los estímulos visuales (pág. 102) schema an idea or mental framework that helps one organize and interpret information (p. 200) retinal disparity a binocular cue for perceiving depth esquema idea o marco mental que permite organi- based on the difference between the two images zar e interpretar información (pág. 200) of an object that the retina receives as the object moves closer (p. 119) schizophrenia a serious psychological disorder charac- disparidad retiniana clave binocular que permite terized by loss of contact with reality and distor- percibir la profundidad a partir de la diferencia tions in thinking, perception, emotion, and behavior entre las dos imágenes de un objeto que registra la (p. 519) retina a medida que el objeto se acerca (pág. 119) esquizofrenia trastorno psicológico grave caracte- rizado por la pérdida de contacto con la realidad y retrieval the process of recalling information from distorsiones en el pensamiento, la percepción, la memory storage (p. 192) emoción y la conducta (pág. 519) recuperación proceso de recordar información alma- cenada en la memoria (pág. 192) secondary reinforcers stimuli that increase the prob- ability of a response because of their association retrograde amnesia the failure to remember events with a primary reinforcer (p. 166) that occurred prior to physical trauma because of refuerzos secundarios estímulos que aumentan la the effects of the trauma (p. 204) probabilidad de una respuesta debido a su aso- amnesia retrógrada incapacidad de recordar acon- ciación con un refuerzo primario (pág. 166) tecimientos ocurridos antes de un trauma físico, a causa de los efectos del trauma (pág. 204) secondary sex characteristics sexual characteristics that are not involved in reproduction, such as the risky shift the tendency to make riskier decisions as growth of facial hair in males and the rounding of a member of a group than as an individual acting hips and breasts in females (p. 308) alone (p. 591) características sexuales secundarias características cambio hacia el riesgo tendencia a tomar decisiones sexuales que no están asociadas con la reproduc- más riesgosas como miembro de un grupo que como ción, como el crecimiento del vello facial en los individuo (pág. 591) hombres y la redondez de la cadera y el busto en las mujeres (pág. 308) selective attention the focusing of attention on a par- ticular stimulus (p. 129) atención selectiva enfoque de la atención en un estímulo particular (pág. 129)

R86 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY self-actualization/actualización propia shaping/aproximación self-actualization according to , sensation the stimulation of sensory receptors and the the self-motivated striving to reach one’s potential transmission of sensory information to the central E nervous system (p. 97)

(p. 366) NGLISH AND actualización propia según Abraham Maslow, el sensación estimulación de los receptores sensoria- esfuerzo motivado por uno mismo para desarrollar les y la transmisión de la información sensorial al el potencial propio (pág. 366) sistema nervioso central (pág. 97) self-concept one’s view of oneself as an individual sensorimotor stage according to Piaget, the stage dur- (p. 410) ing which infants know the world mostly in terms autoconcepto opinión que tiene una persona sobre of their sensory impressions and motor activities sí misma como individuo (pág. 410) (p. 295)

etapa sensoriomotriz según Piaget, etapa en la que S self-efficacy expectation a person’s beliefs that he el infante conoce el mundo principalmente a partir PANISH or she can bring about desired changes or goals de sus impresiones sensoriales y actividades moto- through his or her own efforts (p. 478) ras (pág. 295) expectativa de autoeficacia confianza que tiene una persona de que puede provocar los cambios u objeti- sensorineural deafness deafness that usually results vos deseados con su propio esfuerzo (pág. 478) from damage to the inner ear or to the auditory nerve (p. 109) G self-esteem the value or worth that people attach to sordera neurosensorial sordera que suele producirse LOSSARY themselves (p. 291) a partir de una lesión en el oído interno o el nervio autoestima valor o estima que una persona siente auditivo (pág. 109) por sí misma (pág. 291) sensory adaptation the process by which people be- self-help group a type of therapy group in which mem- come more sensitive to weak stimuli and less sensi- bers share a common problem, such as alcoholism tive to unchanging stimuli (p. 98) (p. 538) adaptación sensorial proceso por el que las perso- grupo de autoayuda tipo de terapia grupal en el que nas se vuelven más sensibles a estímulos débiles los miembros tienen un problema en común, por y menos sensibles a los estímulos que no cambian ejemplo, el alcoholismo (pág. 538) (pág. 98) self-report an interview or questionnaire in which a sensory deprivation a state in which there is little or person reports his or her attitudes, feelings, and no sensory stimulation (p. 374) behaviors (p. 423) privación sensorial estado en el que la estimulación autoinforme entrevista o cuestionario en el que una sensorial es escasa o nula (pág. 374) persona informa sobre sus actitudes, sentimientos y conductas (pág. 423) sensory memory the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system (p. 197) self-serving bias the tendency to view one’s successes memoria sensorial registro inmediato e inicial de as stemming from internal factors and one’s fail- información sensorial en el sistema de la memoria ures as stemming from external factors (p. 577) (pág. 197) sesgo de beneficio propio tendencia a ver los éxitos propios como consecuencia de factores internos y separation anxiety beginning at about eight months, los fracasos como consecuencia de factores externos distress that is sometimes experienced by infants (pág. 577) when they are separated from their primary care- givers (p. 285) semantic memory memory of general knowledge and ansiedad por separación angustia que, a veces, ex- information (p. 189) perimentan los infantes a partir de los ocho meses memoria semántica memoria de conocimiento e de edad cuando deben separarse de quienes los información generales (pág. 189) cuidan (pág. 285) semantics the study of meaning in language; the rela- shaping in operant conditioning, a procedure in which tionship between language and the objects depicted reinforcement guides behavior toward closer ap- by the language (p. 237) proximations of the desired goal (p. 170) semántica estudio del significado en el lenguaje; la aproximación en el condicionamiento operante, pro- relación entre el lenguaje y los objetos que describe cedimiento en el que el refuerzo guía la conducta (pág. 237) hacia aproximaciones cada vez más cercanas al senile dementia a decrease in mental ability that objetivo deseado (pág. 170) sometimes occurs after the age of 65 (p. 345) demencia senil disminución de la capacidad mental que, a veces, ocurre a partir de los 65 años de edad (pág. 345)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R87 short-term memory/memoria a corto plazo sociocultural perspective/perspectiva sociocultural

short-term memory also called working memory, mem- socialization the process by which people, especially ory that holds information briefly before it is either children, learn socially desirable behavior by means stored in long-term memory or forgotten (p. 197) of verbal messages; the systematic use of rewards memoria a corto plazo tipo o etapa de memoria que and punishments, and other teaching methods guarda la información brevemente antes de que (p. 406) se almacene en la memoria a largo plazo o bien se socialización proceso por el que las personas, olvide; también llamada memoria de trabajo especialmente en la niñez, aprenden las conductas

LOSSARY (pág. 197) deseables desde el punto de vista social mediante

G signal-detection theory a method of distinguishing mensajes verbales, el uso sistemático de recompen- sensory stimuli that takes into account not only the sas y castigos, y otros métodos de enseñanza strength of the stimuli but also such elements as (pág. 406) setting and one’s physical state, mood, and atti- social-learning theory the theory that suggests that tudes (p. 99) people can change their environments or create

PANISH teoría de detección de señales método para distin- new ones (p. 25)

S guir los estímulos sensoriales en el que no solo se teoría del aprendizaje social teoría que sugiere que tiene en cuenta la fuerza de los estímulos, sino las personas pueden modificar su entorno o crear también otros elementos, como el ambiente y el es- uno nuevo (pág. 25) tado físico de la persona, su estado de ánimo y sus social loafing the tendency for people to exert less actitudes (pág. 99) effort toward completing a task when they are part similarity the perceptual tendency to group together of a group than when they are performing the task elements that seem alike (p. 117) alone (p. 591) similitud tendencia perceptiva a agrupar los ele- haraganería social tendencia de las personas a NGLISH AND mentos que parecen similares (pág. 117) esforzarse menos para terminar una tarea cuando E single-blind study a study in which the participants are forman parte de un grupo que cuando trabajan unaware of whether they are in the control group or individualmente (pág. 591) the experimental group (p. 53) social norm explicit and implicit rules that reflect estudio simple ciego estudio en el que los partici- social expectations and influence the ways in which pantes no saben si están en el grupo de control o en people behave in social situations (p. 595) el grupo experimental (pág. 53) norma social reglas explícitas e implícitas que sleep apnea a sleep disorder in which breathing is reflejan expectativas sociales e influyen en la forma interrupted (p. 137) en que las personas se comportan en situaciones apnea del sueño trastorno del sueño en el que se sociales (pág. 595) interrumpe la respiración (pág. 137) social perception the ways in which people form and the theory that personality is modify their impressions of others (p. 577) shaped and learning is acquired by the interaction percepción social maneras en que las personas of personal, behavioral, and environmental factors forman y modifican sus impresiones de los demás (p. 407) (pág. 577) teoría social cognitiva teoría que afirma que la social phobia an irrational fear of social situations in personalidad se forma y el aprendizaje se adquiere which one might be exposed to the close scrutiny of mediante la interacción de factores personales, others (p. 506) conductuales y ambientales (pág. 407) fobia social miedo irracional a situaciones sociales social decision scheme rules for predicting the final en las que una persona puede quedar expuesta al outcome of group decision-making (p. 591) escrutinio riguroso de otros (pág. 506) esquema de decisión social reglas para predecir el sociocultural perspective in psychology, the perspective resultado final de la toma de decisiones de un grupo that focuses on the influences of ethnicity, gender, (pág. 591) culture, and socio-economic status on behavior and social facilitation improved performance of tasks be- mental processes (p. 26) cause of the presence of others (p. 591) perspectiva sociocultural en psicología, perspec- facilitación social mejora en el rendimiento propio tiva que se centra en las influencias de la etnia, el ante la presencia de otras personas (pág. 591) género, la cultura y el nivel socioeconómico en la conducta y los procesos mentales (pág. 26)

R88 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY somatic nervous system/sistema nervioso somático successive approximations/aproximaciones sucesivas somatic nervous system the division of the peripheral storage the maintenance of encoded information over nervous system that connects the central nervous time (p. 191) E system with sensory receptors, muscles, and the almacenamiento mantenimiento de información NGLISH AND skin (p. 70) codificada durante un tiempo (pág. 191) sistema nervioso somático división del sistema stranger anxiety beginning at about eight months, nervioso periférico que conecta el sistema nervioso the fear of strangers that infants commonly display central con los receptores sensoriales, los músculos (p. 285) y la piel (pág. 70) ansiedad ante extraños miedo a los extraños que somatization the expression of psychological distress suelen mostrar los infantes y que comienza aproxi- through physical symptoms; it comes from the madamente a los ocho meses de edad (pág. 285)

Greek word for “body” (p. 517) stratified sample a sample drawn in such a way that S somatización expresión de un conflicto psicológico known subgroups within a population are rep- PANISH mediante síntomas físicos; viene de la palabra resented in proportion to their numbers in the griega que significa “cuerpo” (pág. 517) general population (p. 40) spinal cord a column of nerves within the spine that muestra estratificada muestra tomada de modo que transmits messages to and from the brain (p. 69) los subgrupos conocidos de una población queden médula espinal columna de nervios dentro de la representados según su proporción numérica dentro G columna vertebral que transmite mensajes hasta el de la población general (pág. 40) LOSSARY cerebro y desde él (pág. 69) stress the physical and mental strain a person experi- spontaneous recovery the reappearance of an extin- ences in association with demands to adapt to a guished conditioned response after some time has challenging situation (p. 473) passed (p. 161) estrés tensión física y mental que siente una per- recuperación espontánea reaparición de una res- sona ante la exigencia de adaptarse a una situación puesta condicionada extinguida después de que ha que supone un desafío (pág. 473) pasado cierto tiempo (pág. 161) stressor an event or circumstance that produces stress standard deviation a measure of the distance of every (p. 473) score to the mean (p. 54) factor estresante acontecimiento o circunstancia desviación estándar medida de la distancia entre que produce estrés (pág. 473) cada puntaje y la media (pág. 54) stroboscopic motion a visual illusion in which the standardized tests tests for which norms are based on perception of motion is generated by the rapid pro- the performance of a range of individuals (p. 424) gression of images or objects that are not actually pruebas estandarizadas pruebas cuyas normas se moving at all (p. 118) basan en el rendimiento de un rango de individuos movimiento estroboscópico ilusión óptica que con- (pág. 424) siste en percibir movimiento ante una progresión state-dependent memories information that is more rápida de imágenes u objetos que en realidad no se easily retrieved when one is in the same physiologi- mueven (pág. 118) cal or emotional state as when the memory was structuralism the school of psychology, founded by originally encoded or learned (p. 194) , that maintains that conscious ex- memoria dependiente del estado información que perience breaks down into objective sensations and se recuerda más fácilmente cuando se está en el subjective feelings (p. 18) mismo estado fisiológico o emocional que cuando se estructuralismo escuela de la Psicología, fundada codificó o aprendió esa información (pág. 194) por Wilhelm Wundt, que afirma que la experien- status offenses actions that are illegal when commit- cia consciente se divide en sensaciones objetivas y ted by a minor, such as consuming alcohol (p. 324) sentimientos subjetivos (pág. 18) infracciones de menores acciones que son ilegales successive approximations in operant conditioning, cuando las realiza un menor, por ejemplo, el con- a series of behaviors that gradually become more sumo de alcohol (pág. 324) similar to a desired behavior (p. 548) stimulant a drug that increases neural activity and aproximaciones sucesivas en el condicionamiento speeds up body functions (p. 146) operante, serie de conductas que gradualmente estimulante droga que aumenta la actividad neuro- se vuelven más similares a una conducta deseada nal y acelera las funciones fisiológicas (pág. 146) (pág. 548) stimulus motives desires for increased stimulation (p. 374) motivos de estímulo deseos de un aumento de es- timulación (pág. 374)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R89 superego/el Superyó (Superego) transference/transferencia

superego according to Freud, the part of personality that represents the individual’s internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (p. 398) el Superyó (Superego) según Freud, la parte de la target population the total group to be studied or personalidad que representa los ideales interiori- described and from whom samples may be drawn zados del individuo y brinda normas para el juicio (p. 39) (pág. 398) población objetivo grupo total que se desea estudiar

LOSSARY survey a research technique for acquiring data about o describir, del que se toman muestras (pág. 39)

G the attitudes or behaviors of a group of people, taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which usually by asking questions of a representative, a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be random sample (p. 39) perceived as repugnant because it is associated encuesta técnica de investigación para adquirir with negative stimulation (p. 160) datos sobre las actitudes y conductas de un grupo aversión al gusto tipo de condicionamiento clásico PANISH de personas; generalmente consiste en hacer pre- en el que un alimento previamente deseable o neu- S guntas a una muestra representativa y aleatoria tro pasa a percibirse como repugnante porque se lo (pág. 39) relaciona con un estímulo negativo (pág. 160) symbol an object or an act that stands for something test-retest reliability a method for determining the else (p. 215) reliability of a test by comparing a test taker’s símbolo objeto o acto que representa otra cosa scores on the same test taken on separate occasions (pág. 215) (p. 254) synapse the junction between the axon terminals of confiabilidad prueba-reprueba método para deter- minar la confiabilidad de una prueba; consiste en NGLISH AND the sending neuron and the dendrites of the receiv-

E ing neuron (p. 68) comparar los puntajes que obtiene una persona al sinapsis unión entre las terminales axonales de realizar la prueba en dos ocasiones distintas la neurona emisora y las dendritas de la neurona (pág. 254) receptora (pág. 68) thalamus the structure of the brain that relays mes- syntax the ways in which words and phrases are ar- sages from the sense organs to the cerebral cortex ranged into grammatical sentences (p. 236) (p. 73) sintaxis formas en que las palabras y frases se tálamo estructura del cerebro que transmite men- ordenan para formar oraciones gramaticales sajes desde los órganos sensoriales hacia la corteza (pág. 236) cerebral (pág. 73) systematic desensitization a type of countercondition- theory a statement that attempts to explain why ing, used to treat phobias, in which a pleasant, something is the way it is and happens the way it relaxed state is associated with gradually increas- does (p. 7) ing anxiety-triggering stimuli (p. 162) teoría enunciado que intenta explicar por qué algo desensibilización sistemática tipo de contracondi- es como es y sucede de la manera en que sucede cionamiento, usado para tratar fobias, en el que (pág. 7) se asocia un estado relajado y agradable con una thinking mental activity that involves understanding, exposición cada vez mayor al estímulo que provoca manipulating, and communicating information ansiedad (pág. 162) (p. 215) pensamiento actividad mental que implica com- prensión, manipulación y comunicación (pág. 215) trait an aspect of personality that is considered to be reasonably consistent (p. 393) rasgo aspecto de la personalidad que se considera coherente dentro de los términos razonables (pág. 393) transference in psychoanalysis, the patient’s transfer of emotions associated with other relationships to the therapist (p. 540) transferencia en psicoanálisis, tendencia del pa- ciente a asociar con el terapeuta emociones que en realidad siente por otras personas (pág. 540)

R90 ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY transformed score/puntaje transformado volunteer bias/sesgo del voluntario transformed score a score that has been changed from

a raw score in a systematic way (p. 254) E

puntaje transformado puntaje que se ha modificado NGLISH AND a partir de un puntaje bruto de manera sistemática validity the extent to which a test measures what it is (pág. 254) supposed to measure (p. 254) validez grado en que una prueba mide lo que se triangular model of love according to the psychologist supone que debe medir (pág. 254) Robert J. Sternberg, the components of love, which include passion, intimacy, and commitment (p. 583) validity scale a group of test items that suggest modelo triangular del amor según el psicólogo whether or not the test taker is answering honestly Robert J. Sternberg, los componentes del amor, (p. 424) que son la pasión, la intimidad y el compromiso escala de validez grupo de preguntas de una prueba S PANISH (pág. 583) que sugieren si el participante está respondiendo de manera honesta o no (pág. 424) two-sided argument a method of discrediting an op- ponent by presenting his or her argument and then variables factors that are measured or controlled in a refuting it (p. 568) scientific study (p. 52) variables factores que se miden o se controlan en argumento de dos puntos de vista método para desa- G un estudio científico (pág. 52)

creditar a un oponente que consiste en presentar su LOSSARY argumento y luego refutarlo (pág. 568) vestibular sense the sense that provides information about the position of the body (p. 114) sentido vestibular sentido que brinda información sobre la posición del cuerpo (pág. 114) visual acuity keenness or sharpness of vision (p. 103) acuidad visual agudeza o nitidez del sentido de la vista (pág. 103) unconditional positive regard a consistent expression of love and acceptance shown regardless of changing vocational interest inventories tests that are used to situations or behaviors (p. 291) help people make decisions about career options estimación positiva incondicional expresión cohe- (p. 428) rente de amor y aceptación que se muestra in- tests de interés vocacional pruebas que ayudan a dependientemente de los cambios de situación o las personas a tomar decisiones sobre sus opciones conducta (pág. 291) profesionales (pág. 428) unconditioned response in classical conditioning, an volunteer bias the concept that people who volunteer unlearned, automatic response (p. 160) to participate in research studies often differ from respuesta incondicionada en el condicionamiento those who do not volunteer (p. 42) clásico, respuesta no aprendida y automática sesgo del voluntario el concepto de que las personas (pág. 160) que participan en una investigación de manera voluntaria suelen actuar de modo diferente de los unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning, a que no son voluntarios (pág. 42) stimulus that elicits an unlearned, automatic response (p. 160) estímulo incondicionado en el condicionamiento clásico, estímulo que provoca una respuesta no aprendida y automática (pág. 160) unconscious according to Freud, a reservoir of mostly unacceptable thoughts, wishes, feelings, and memo- ries of which we are unaware but which influences our behavior (p. 130) inconsciente según Freud, un depósito de pensa- mientos, deseos, sentimientos y recuerdos, en su mayoría inaceptables, que la persona no conoce pero que influyen en su conducta (pág. 130)

ENGLISH AND SPANISH GLOSSARY R91 Index

KEY TO INDEX adults, 330–359; death and dying, 351–355; defi nition, 525; research ethics, 157, late adulthood, 343–350; middle R22–R23 c = chart g = graph m = map adulthood, 330–331, 338–342; sandwich amnesia, 204–206, 206c; anterograde, 205, q = quotation p = picture i =image generation, 330–331; sleep needed, 136c; 206c; dissociative, 516; infantile, stages of adulthood simulation, 356–357; 205–206, 206c; retrograde, 204–205, 206c young adulthood, 332–337 amok, 503 advertising: gender differences, 453; methods amphetamines, 146–148, 147c; of persuasion, 568–569; observation characteristics of, 146; hallucinations learning of attitudes, 563; social learning, and delusions, 146–147; 174 methamphetamines, 147–148 Abaya, Carol, 330 affi liation, 378 anabolic steroids, 80, 83c absolute threshold, 97–98, 97c Afghanistan, gender roles, 463 analogies, 224–225 abuse: child, 288–290; substance, 149, Africa, concept of death, 355 anal stage, 400 322–323, 488 afterimage, 104, 104i analytic psychology, 400

NDEX A.C. Nielsen, 38 age: intelligence and, 264; mental, 253; Analyzing Primary Sources, S9 I Academic Vocabulary, S16–S17 self-esteem, 291–292 Analyzing Secondary Sources, S10 acceptance, as stage of dying, 352 aggression, 602–607; Bandura and social- anchoring heuristic, 233 acceptance, conformity and need for, 596 learning theory, 407; biological view androgens, 309 accommodation, 295 of, 602; catharsis, 602–603; child care, anger, as stage of dying, 352 acculturation, 413–414 290–291; cognitive view, 603; cooperative animal magnetism, 139 acetylcholine, 69, 346 culture and, 604, 607; coping with animals: animal rights and research, 51; achievement: achievement motivation, stress, 488; Freud’s view of, 24; gender language and, 212–213; research and, 57 375–376; attitudes and, 566; defi ned, differences, 450–451, 450p; gender roles, animal senses, 100 249; vs. intelligence, 249; need for, and 451; gender typing, 456–457; learning animistic, 296, 296c salaries, 48–49 theorist view of, 603–604; media violence, anorexia nervosa, 321–322 achievement motivation, 375–376 174–175; psychoanalytic view of, anterograde amnesia, 205, 206c achievement tests, 427–428 602–603; sociocultural view, 604; sports antianxiety drugs, 550 acid, 148 and, 450, 450p; testosterone, 451; TV antidepressant drugs, 550 acrophobia, 115 viewing and violence, 603c, 604 antipsychotic drugs, 551; over prescription active coping, 488–490 aging. See also late adulthood: happiness of, 553 active listening, 542 and longevity, 415; successful, 347–349; antisocial personality disorders, 526 actor-observer bias, 577 theories on, 344–345 anvil, 108, 108i acupuncture, 484c agoraphobia, 506–507 anxiety: affi liation, 378; basic anxiety, 402; acute stress disorder, 508 AIDS, 145 defi ned, 505; drug therapy, 550; nervous addiction, 145; alcohol, 145; Ainsworth, Mary, 285 system and, 380; and, 8; methamphetamines, 147–148; narcotics, Al-Anon, 538 overeating, 371; performance and, 5–6; 145; nicotine, 146 alarm reaction, 480 sales resistance, 570; separation, 285; Adler, Alfred, 401, 419 Alateen, 538 stranger, 285; test taking, 436, 439 adolescents, 304–327; anabolic steroids, 83c; alcohol: addiction to, 145, 538; adolescents, anxiety disorders, 504–509; biological awkward age, 308; brain development, 322–323; as coping with stress, 488; as view, 509; explaining, 508–509, 509c; 310; challenges of, 320–325; crime, depressant, 145, 147c; effects of, 145, generalized , 507; 324–325; defi ned, 307; dieting, 371; 147c; intoxication, 145; self-help groups, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), differences in maturation rates, 309; 538 504, 507, 507c; overview of, 508c; panic eating disorders, 321–322; effects of Alcoholic Anonymous (AA), 538 disorder, 506–507; post-traumatic stress media violence, 174–175, 174c; growth Alex, (parrot), 212–213, 213p disorder (PTSD), 508; psychological view, spurt, 307–308; identity formation, Alloway, Tom, 163 508–509; specifi c phobias, 505–506, 506c; 316–319; parent relationship, 312; Allport, Gordon, 393 stress disorders, 507–508; systematic peers relationships, 313–314; physical alpha waves, 133 desensitization, 546 development, 306–309; pregnancy, altered states of consciousness, 131 AP Exam, 30–31, 60–61, 92–93, 124–125, 320, 324, 324c; rites of passage, 319; altruism: acts of, 588–589; athletes, 605c; 152–153, 184–185, 210–211, 244–245, sexual development, 308–309, 308c; bystander effect, 606; careers, 604c; 268–269, 302–303, 328–329, 358–359, sexuality, 324; sleep apnea, 138; sleep defi ned, 605; factors promoting and 388–389, 418–419, 442–443, 466–467, deprivation, 138; sleep needed, 136c; inhibiting, 605–606; heredity, 605 494–495, 530–531, 556–557, 586–587, social development, 311–314; stress of, Alzheimer’s disease, 345–346, 345c; 610–611 312; student achievement and sleep acetylcholine, 69; neuroimaging and, 8 Applewhite, Marshall, 600, 600p deprivation, 150–151; substance abuse, American Psychological Association (APA): Applying What You’ve Learned, 28–29, 58–59, 322–323 careers and, 62, 154, 270, 360, 468, 558, 90–91, 122–123, 150–151, 182–183, adoptee studies, 88; intelligence, 262 612; deception, 56; diversity in research 208–209, 242–243, 266–267, 300–301, adrenal gland, 81i, 82 and, 43; electroconvulsive therapy, 326–327, 356–357, 386–387, 416–417, adrenaline, 82; nicotine and, 146 551; ethical guidelines, 55, R22–R23; 440–441, 464–465, 492–493, 528–529, informed consent, 56; media violence, 554–555, 584–585, 608–609 174–175, 174c; personality disorders approach-approach confl ict, 475, 475c

R92 INDEX brain

approach-avoidance confl ict, 475, 475c awareness: consciousness and, 129–130; Best, Lou Ann, 164 aptitude tests, 45, 427–428 direct inner, 130; sensory, 129 beta waves, 133 arachnophobia, 505, 506c axon, 67–68, 67i bias: cultural bias and intelligence tests, Arapesh, 461–462 axon terminals, 68 256; in research, 41–42; self-serving, 577; arbitrary inference, 545 single- and double-blind studies, 53–54; archetypes, 400c, 401 volunteer, 42 Archimedes, 225, 227 bilingualism, 239–240 Aristotle, 17, 73, 217 Binet, Alfred, 253, 423 artifi cial intelligence, 248 Bini, Cerletti, 551 artifi cialism, 296, 296c Bini, Lucio, 551 Asch, Solomon, 595–596; R9 Babinski refl ex, 279p, 280 binocular cues, 119 assimilation, 295 baby boomers, 340c biofeedback, 490; discovery of, 127; migraine association areas, 76 Bahrick, Harry, 202 headaches, 484; uses of, 127, 140 I

associationism, 17, 23 balance sheet, 231, 231i biological clock, 133 NDEX associations, memory and, 207 balance theory, 376–377 biological needs, 365 astrology, 2–3 Baltes, Margret, 348 biological perspective. See also heredity: athletes: anxiety and performance, 5–6; Baltes, Paul, 348 aggression, 451, 602; anxiety disorders, positive visualization, 6; sports and male Bandura, Albert, 173, 407, 408; R12 509; depression, 513; gender typing, aggression, 450, 450p bar/bat mitzvah, 319 454–455, 457c; health, 483; nature- attachment, 285–287; autism, 286–287, bar graphs, S5 nurture issue, 86–87, 86c; overview of, 287c; child care and, 290; contact Bard, Philip, 383 23, 25c comfort, 285–286, 285p; defi ned, 285; bargaining, as stage of dying, 352 biological psychologists, 12 development, 285; imprinting, 284, 286; Bargh, John, 219 biological therapy, 549–553; characteristics secure vs. insecure, 286; self-esteem and, Barnum effect, 2 of, 550; drug therapy, 550–551, 553; 291; separation anxiety, 285; stranger basic anxiety, 402 electroconvulsive therapy, 551–552; anxiety, 285 basic research, 12 lobotomy, 549, 552; psychosurgery, 552 attention, selective, 129 Bayley, Robert, 520 biopsychosocial perspective: dreams, 135; attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder Bearchum, Cecilia, 241p overview of, 25c, 26 (ADHD), 140 beauty, universals of, 581, 582c bipolar disorder, 510, 511; drug therapy, attitudes, 562–566; achievement and, Beck, Aaron, 513, 545, 546 550–551 566; behavior and, 564–565; cognitive Beckham, David, 504 birth order, 24c anchors, 564; cognitive evaluation, bedlam, 534 blindness: color, 105, 105i; Helen Keller, 563–564; conditioning, 563; defi ned, behavior: attitudes and, 564–565; defi ned, 94–95 563; development of, 563–564; implicit 5; explaining, 5; external forces infl uence blind study, 33 attitude tests, 430; observational on behavior lab, 406; functionalism and, blood pressure: biofeedback, 126–127, 140; learning, 563 19; learning perspective, 25; predicting meditation, 140 attraction, 580–583; defi ned, 581; differences and controlling, 6 Bobo Doll study, 407; R12 in body shape preferences, 581; gender behavioral perspective: attitude development body image, cultural difference on, 413, 413c differences and mate selection, 451; and, 563; somatoform disorders, 518 body language, 578 matching hypothesis, 582; mate selection behavioral-rating scales, 423 body senses: kinesthesis, 114; vestibular and physical attractiveness, 451; behaviorism: defi ned, 20; historical sense, 114 reciprocity, 582; similarity and, 581–582; perspective of, 19c, 20–21; learning, 25; body shape, gender differences in preferences, universals of beauty, 581, 582c as learning approach to personality, 406; 581 attribution theory, 577; depression, 512 reinforcement and, 21; socialization, 406 boomerang generation, 341c audience, in persuasion, 570 behavior modifi cation: classroom discipline, borderline personality disorders, 526 auditory nerve, 108, 108i 175–176; Pathways to Rewards program, , 241 Aurelius, Marcus, 431 177; personal contracts, 176; token Bouchard, Thomas, 88, 262 Australian aborigines, view of consciousness, economies, 176 Bower, Gordon, 194 143 behavior setting, 50 brain: adolescents, 310; aggression and, authoritarian leaders, 593 behavior therapy, 546–548; aversive 602; association areas, 76; autism, 293; authoritarian parenting, 288 conditioning, 547, 547c; biological perspective, 23; case study of authoritative parenting, 288 counterconditioning, 546–547; evaluation Phineas Gage, 64–65, 78; cerebral cortex, autism, 257; hypersensitivity, 96; incidence of, 548; goal of, 545, 546; operant 75–77; cognitive perspective, 23–24; of, 287, 287c; overview of, 286–287; conditioning, 547–548, 547c; successive concussion, 68; criminal minds, 15; early research on, 293; twin studies of, 87–88 approximation, 548; systematic beliefs about, 73; facts about, 75c; gender automatic thought processes, 219 desensitization, 546; token economy, 547 typing, 454p, 454; hemi-inattention, 72; autonomic nervous system, 71; Bem, , 376 injuries and personality changes, 64–65; parasympathetic nervous system, 71; Benoit, Chris, 80 language abilities, 76; lateralization, sympathetic nervous system, 71 bereavement, 354 454p, 455; left vs. right hemispheres, autonomy vs. shame and doubt stage, 402c Bernhardt, Sarah, 461p 76–77; methods of studying, 77–79, 77p; availability heuristic, 232, 232c Bernini, Gian Lorenzo, 259p neuroimaging of, 8; as part of central Averill, James, 380–381 Bernstein, Carl, 195 nervous system, 69–70, 69i; parts of, aversive conditioning, 547, 547c Bernstein, Paula, 84, 84p 73–75, 74; phrenology, 422; avoidance-avoidance confl ict, 475, 475c Best, Chuck, 164 schizophrenia, 522–523; senses and avoidant personality disorders, 526 Best, Deborah, 447 motor behavior, 75–76; stroke, 72

INDEX R93

py10se_bm_index.indd R93 5/8/09 12:30:14 PM Brainerd, Chuck

Brainerd, Chuck, 195 catastrophe, coping with, 491 classical conditioning, 156–163; adapting brain waves: during hypnosis, 140; during catatonic schizophrenia, 522 to environment, 160–161; applications sleep, 133–134, 133c catatonic stupor, 520 of, 161–162; counterconditioning, 162; Branch Davidians, 600 catharsis, 602–603 defi ned, 159; discrimination, 161; Bransetter, Ryan, 241p CAT scans, 23 examples of, 158; extinction, 160–161; breathing, coping with stress, 490 Cattell, James, 423 fear and, 156–157; fl ooding, 162; Bridges, Katherine, 380 cause and effect, S2 generalization, 161; key concepts of, brightness constancy, 120, 120i cell body, 67, 67i 159–160, 160c; learning from virtual rat, Broca’s area, 76 cellular damage theory of aging, 344–345 163; Little Albert experiment, 156–157; Brody, Jane, 483 central nervous system, 67, 69–70, 69i; brain, Pavlov’s experiment, 159–160, 159p; Brown, Monica Lin, 444 69–70, 69i; function of, 69–70; spinal spontaneous recovery, 161; stimulus Browne, Kingsley, 444 cord, 69–70, 69i and response, 160, 160c; systematic Browning, Christopher, 594 central route, as method of persuasion, 568, desensitization, 162; taste aversion, 160 Buddhism, 607; meditation, 143; nirvana, 568c client-centered therapy, 542 143; view of consciousness, 143 central tendency, measures of, 54 clinical psychology, 10, 10c, 536 Buettner, Dan, 343 cerebellum, 73, 74i clinical psychologist, 558

NDEX Building Your Vocabulary, S16 cerebral cortex, 75–77; association areas, 76; , 313 I bulimia nervosa, 321–322 hemispheres of, 75; language abilities, closure, 21, 116, 116i bullying, 272–273; self-esteem of bullies, 292 76; left vs. right hemisphere of, 76–77; cocaine, 147c, 148 business samurai, 487 pain reaction, 113; senses and motor cochlea, 108, 108i Bussey, Kay, 457 behavior, 75–76 cochlear implant, 109, 110, 110i bystander effect, 606 cerebrum, 75 codeine, 145, 147c chaining, 170–171 cognition. See social cognition; thinking Charcot, Martin, 141 cognitive activities, 5 Chavez, Martin, 51 cognitive anchors, 564 child care, 290–291 cognitive appraisal, theory of, 383–384 children/childhood. See also adolescents: cognitive consistency, 376 abuse and neglect, 288–290; attachment, cognitive development: Kohlberg’s theory California Psychological Inventory (CPI), 431, 285–287; autism, 286–287, 287c; of moral development, 297–299; late 432–433 bullying, 272–273; child care, 290–291, adulthood, 345–346; Piaget’s theory of, Cameron, David, 363 290c; cognitive development, 294–299; 294–297, 295c, 296c Campbell Interest and Skills Survey (CISS), defi ned, 279; developmental psychology, cognitive-dissonance theory, 377–378 428–429 274–277; divorce, 337; effects of media cognitive evaluation, attitude development, cancer, 485–486; cigarette smoking, 146; violence, 174–175, 174c; Freud’s stages 563–564 positive attitude, 486; psychological of personality development, 399–400; cognitive learning: behavior modifi cation, aspects, 485–486; risk factors, 485; gender typing, 453–458; gifted, 259–260; 175–176; classroom discipline, 175–176; supertasters, 111 imaginative play, 283; infantile latent learning, 173; modeling, 173–174; Cannon, Walter, 66, 383, 480 amnesia, 205–206, 206c; language observational learning, 172, 173–175; Cannon-Bard theory, 383 development, 237–239, 238c; motor personal contracts, 176; PQ4R, 178–181; capture-bonding, 600 development, 280–281, 280c; Mozart token economies, 176 Careers in Psychology, 12–13, 62, 154, 270, effect, 283; night terrors, 137; over cognitive perspective: aggression, 603; 360, 468, 558, 612 prescription of antipsychotic drugs, 553; antisocial personality disorders, 527; Carlsmith, James, 377 parenting styles, 287–288; perceptual anxiety disorders, 508–509; depression, Carr, Gerald, 373 development, 281–282, 281c, 282p; 512–513; overview of, 23–24, 25c Carstensen, Laura, 348 physical development, 278–283; physical cognitive restructuring, 439 cartoons, 4, 185, 204, 216, 245, 252, 299, 306, growth, 279; positive regard, 411; cognitive therapy, 544–546; Beck’s, 545–546; 311, 338, 368, 396, 398, 420, 436, 443, preschool programs and intelligence, evaluation of, 546; goal of, 545; rational- 449, 512, 539, 557, 587; interpreting, S11 263; prodigy, 259–260, 259p; psychosocial emotive behavior therapy (REBT), 545 Case Studies: acts of altruism, 588–589; stages of development, 402; refl exes, cold parenting, 287–288, 288c animals and language, 212–213; 280; seatbelts, 278; self-esteem, 291–292; collective unconscious, 401 biofeedback and consciousness, 126–127; sleep needed, 136c; sleepwalking, 137; collectivism, 412 brain of Phineas Gage, 64–65; bullying, social development, 284–293; thinking , 105, 105i 272–273; happiness of nations, 362–363, and language lab, 242–243 , 120 362m; Hawthorne effect, 32–33; Helen China: coping with earthquake, 491; funeral color psychology, 101 Keller, 94–95, 94p; memory and surgery customs, 355 commitment, 583 for epilepsy, 186–187; not guilty by choleric type, 393c, 394 common fate, 117 reason of insanity, 496–497; sandwich cholesterol, heart disease and, 484, 485 communication styles, gender differences, generation, 330–331; shaping black Chomsky, Noam, 235 449–450 experience, 560–561; social science vs. chromosomes, 85 , 10c, 13 false science, 2–3; virtual therapy, , 101 competition, aggression and, 604, 606 532–533; women in combat, 444–445; cigarette smoking. See smoking , 103, 103i work personality type, 420–421 circadian rhythms, 133 compulsions, 507 case study, 45 Clark, Kenneth Bancroft, 27 computer-assisted learning, 171 case-study method, 45–46, 46c Clark, Mamie, 27 CASPER, 425 Clarke-Stewart, Alison, 337

R94 INDEX development

Computerized Assessment System for creative self, 401 dating, 314 Psychotherapy Evaluation and Research creativity: defi ned, 260; divergent thinking, Day of the Dead, 355, 355p (CASPER), 425 217; Exceptional Creator, 246–247; deafness, 94–95; cochlear implant, 109, 110, computerized axial tomography (CAT), 79 fl exibility, 227; insight and incubation, 110i; conductive, 108; debate of, 109c, computers, testing and, 425 227–228; intelligence and, 260; middle 110; Helen Keller, 94–95; sensorineural, concept, 215 adulthood, 339; problem solving, 109; in world today, 109, 109c concrete-operational stage, 295c, 297 227–228; recombination, 227 death and dying, 351–355; bereavement, concussion, 68 cretinism, 82 354; causes of, 232c; cultural perspectives conditional positive regard, 291 crime, adolescents and, 324–325 on, 355; dying with dignity, 352–354; conditioned response, 160, 160c Crinella, Francis, 349 euthanasia, 353; funeral, 354; hospice, conditioned stimulus, 160, 160c critical period, 276 353; living will, 353; stages of dying, 352 conditioning: attitude development and, 563; Critical Thinking Skills, S1–S21 decay, 204, 206c classical, 156–163; defi ned, 159; operant, Cronin, Rich, 453 deception, in research, 56 I

164–171 Cross, Gary, 453 decibels, 107, 107c NDEX conductive deafness, 108 cross-cultural psychology, 10c, 14 decision making, 229–233; anchoring cones, 102i, 103 cross-linking, 345 heuristic, 233; availability heuristic, confi dentiality, research and, 56 cross-sectional method, 46–47, 47c, 275 232, 232c; balance sheet, 231, 231i; confl ict: as source of stress, 475–476; types crowds, 313; crowding and stress, 50 deductive reasoning, 230; by groups, of, 475–476, 475c crystal, 147–148 591–592; inductive reasoning, 230–231; conformity, 594–597; Asch’s study of, crystallized intelligence, 264 representativeness heuristic, 232–233; 595–596; cults and, 600; cultural cults: characteristics of, 600; conformity and, shortcuts to, 231–233; weighing costs infl uences, 596; defi ned, 595; importance 600 and benefi ts, 231 of groups in, 595; need for acceptance, Cultural Diversity in Psychology: cooperation deductive reasoning, 230 596; reasons for, 596–597; social norms and aggression, 607; culture-bound Deep , 248 and, 595 syndromes, 503; disappearing languages, deep tendon refl ex, 70 Confucius, 607 241; gender roles around world, 463; defense mechanisms: coping with stress, congruence, 411 grief and death, 355; Kenneth Clark 488, 488c; types of, 398–399, 399c; consciousness, 126–153; altered states of, and, 27; multicultural perspective on unconscious, 131 131, 139–143; behaviorist view of, 20; consciousness, 143; in research, 43; rites defensive coping, 488 biofeedback, 126–127, 140; as construct, of passage, 319 de Grasse Tyson, Neil, 560–561, 561p 129; defi ning, 129–130; as direct inner cultural infl uences: aggression, 604; Delgado, José, 78 awareness, 130; drugs and, 144–149; conformity, 596; culture-bound delta waves, 134 humanistic perspective, 24; hypnosis, syndromes, 500, 503; emotions and, delusions: amphetamines, 147; defi ned, 147; 139, 140–142; levels of, 130–131, 130i; 382; gender roles, 461–463; nonverbal schizophrenia, 520 meditation, 140; multicultural communication, 579 Dement, William, 134 perspectives on, 143; as sense of self, 130; culture-bound syndromes, 500, 503 dementia, 345–346 as sensory awareness, 129; sleep, Current Research in Psychology: adolescent democratic leaders, 593 132–138; stream of consciousness, 18, 128 brain, 310; attitudes and achievement, dendrites, 67–68, 67i constructs, 35, 129 566; autistic mind, 293; automatic denial, 488c; defense mechanism, 399c; as contact comfort, 285–286, 285p thought processes, 219; cochlear stage of dying, 352 context-dependent memory, 192–193 implant, 110; coping with catastrophe, dependent personality disorders, 526 continuity, 117, 117i 491; cults and conformity, 600; dependent variables, 52 continuous development, 276–277 emotional development of boys, 452; depersonalization, 516–517 continuous reinforcement, 168, 169c emotional intelligence and success, depersonalized disorder, 516–517 control groups, 33, 52–53 265; environmental psychology, 50; depressants: alcohol, 145, 147c; conventional moral reasoning, 298, 298c , 385; characteristics of, 145; narcotics, 145, convergence, 119 Genographic Project, 89; implicit 147c convergent thinking, 216i, 217, 227 attitude tests, 430; learning from virtual depression: bipolar disorder, 510, 511; conversion disorder, 518 rat, 163; memory and witnesses, 195; cognitive therapy for, 546; defi ned, 510; Cooper, William, 553 neuroimaging and cognitive research, 8; drug therapy, 550; explaining, 511–513; Copernicus, Nicolaus, 18 over prescription of drugs, 553; positive major, 510, 510c; neuroimaging and, 8; Corbitt, J. D., 382 psychology, 415; post-traumatic stress postpartum depression, 511; as stage of corpus callosum, 75, 76–77 disorder and Iraq war veterans, dying, 352 correlation, 48–49; limits of, 49; negative, 49; 514; sleep deprivation in teens, 138; depth perception, 118–119; binocular cues, positive, 48–49; S20 socioemotional selectivity, 350 119; monocular cues, 118–119, 119i cortical steroids, 82 Descartes, René, 34 corticosteroids, 480 Determining Relevance, S12 Costa, Paul T., Jr., 394 detoxifi cation, 149 Cougar Ace, 220, 220p Developing and Testing Hypthoeses, S13 , 10c, 11, 536 development: attachment, 285; cognitive, counterconditioning, 162, 546–547 294–299; critical period, 276; couples therapy, 537–538 Damasio, Antonio, 64, 78 environment and, 275–276; heredity and, crack cocaine, 148 Damasio, Hanna, 64 275–276; identity, 316–319; maturation, cramming, 180p, 181, 439 Darley, John, 606 275; moral, 297–299; motor, 280–281, Creating Minds (Gardner), 246 Darwin, Charles, 13, 23, 381–382 280c; perceptual, 281–282, 281c, 282p;

INDEX R95 developmental psychology

physical, 278–283, 306–309; sexual, hallucinogens, 147c, 148–149; marijuana, emotions lab, 386–387; importance of, 308–309, 308c; social, 284–293, 311–314; 147c, 148; narcotics, 145, 147c; nicotine, 379, 380; infants, 380; James-Lange stages vs. continuity, 276–277; study of, 144, 146, 147c; stimulants, 146–148, theory, 383, 384; opponent-process theory, 275 147c; treatment for drug abuse, 149, 323 382; theories of, 382–384, 383c developmental psychology, 10c, 11–12, drug therapy, 550–551, 553; antianxiety empty-nest syndrome, 341 274–277; critical period, 276; defi ned, drugs, 550; antidepressant drugs, 550; encoding, 190–191, 193c 275; heredity and environment, 275–276; antipsychotic drugs, 551, 553; lithium, endocrine system, 80–83, 81i; adrenal gland, maturation, 275; stages vs. continuity, 550–551; mood stabilizing drugs, 550; 81i, 82; ovaries, 82–83; pituitary gland, 276–277; study of development, 275 over prescription of, 553 81, 81i; testes, 82; thyroid gland, 81i, 82 developmental psychologist, 360 DSM-IV-TR, 501–502, 501c Engel, George, 26 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental DuBois, D. L., 39 environment: aging process, 344–345; Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), 501–502, 501c Du Bois, W.E.B., 560, 560p development, 275–276; intelligence, diets/dieting: French paradox, 470–471; Dully, Howard, 549, 549p, 552 262–263; language acquisition, 235; keeping weight off, 372; obesity and, nature-nurture issue, 86–87, 86c 371–372 environmental psychology: behavior setting, difference reduction, 223 50; current research in, 50; early days of,

NDEX difference threshold, 98 50; fi eld of study, 10c, 12–13 I diffusion of responsibility, 591 epilepsy: animal senses and, 100; split-brain directed thinking, 216, 217 operation, 76–77; surgery as treatment direct inner awareness, 130 ear: anatomy of, 107–108, 108i; cochlear for, and memory, 186–187 discipline, classroom, 175–176 implant, 109, 110, 110i; locating sound, episodic memory, 189 discrimination: in classical conditioning, 161; 108 Epstein-Barr virus, 481 defi ned, 573; prejudice, 573 eardrum, 108 Erikson, Erik: ego integrity, 347; generativity, disorganized schizophrenia, 521–522 early adulthood. See young adulthood 339; identity formation, 316, 318; on dispersion, 54 eating, naturalistic observation of, 47–48 intimate relationships, 334; stages of displacement, 399c eating disorders, 321–322 psychosocial development, 277, 402, dissociation, 516 Ebbinghaus, Hermann, 202, 203, 204 402c–403c dissociative amnesia, 516 echoic memory, 197 essay questions, 438 dissociative disorders, 515–517; ecstasy, 147c, 149 esteem needs, 410 characteristics of, 516; depersonalized Edison, Thomas, 217 estrogen, 309; function and production of, disorder, 516–517; dissociative amnesia, educational psychology, 10c, 11 82–83; menopause, 341 516; dissociative fugue, 516; dissociative educational psychologist, 270 Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of identity disorder, 516; explaining, 517 ego, 397 Conduct, R22–R33 dissociative fugue, 516 egocentrism, 296, 296c ethics: animal research, 57; APA guidelines, dissociative identity disorder, 516 ego integrity, 347 55, R22–R33; confi dentiality, 56; distress, 473 Egon Zehnder International, 265 deception, 56; defi ned, 55; informed distributed learning, 180p, 181 eidetic memory, 197 consent, 56; Little Albert experiment, distribution, 54 Einstein, Albert, 217, 246, 260 156–157; in research, 157; research and, divergent thinking, 216i, 217, 227 Ekman, Paul, 382 55–57; resolving ethical issues, 55; use of diversity. see also Cultural Diversity elaborative rehearsal, 191, 206 data, 56–57 in Psychology; cultural infl uences: elderly. See late adulthood ethnic groups, 26 in research, 27, 43; sociocultural electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), 551–552 ethnicity: acculturation and self-esteem, perspective, 26 electroencephalograph (EEG), 78; hypnosis, 413–414; heart disease, 43; identity divorce, 336–337, 336c 140; stages of sleep, 133–134, 133c formation, 318; self-concept and self- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 85, 85i Eliot, T. S., 246 esteem, 413; sociocultural perspective, domestic violence, diversity in research of, 43 Elizabeth I, Queen, 460p 26; of U.S. population, 41 dopamine: Parkinson’s disease, 69; Ellis, Albert, 545, 546 ethnography, 461 schizophrenia, 69, 522, 551 embryo, physical growth of, 279 eustress, 473 double-blind study, 53c, 54 emotional appeals, 569, 569p euthanasia, 353 Down syndrome, 85 emotional intelligence, 251; success and, 265 Evaluating Information on the Internet, S14 Drawing Conclusions, S4 Emotional Intelligence (Goleman), 251 evaluation apprehension, 591 dream analysis, 397, 539, 540–541 emotional quotient, 22 evolutionary perspective: altruism, 605; dreams: biopsychological view, 135; Freud emotions, 379–385; adrenaline, 82; aging overview of, 23, 25c on, 135, 540; Jung’s archetypes, 401; and, 350; anger, 380–381; Cannon-Bard evolutionary psychology, play and emotions, REM and, 134–135; remembering theory, 383; cognitive appraisal theory, 385 dreams lab, 135 383–384; color and, 101; commonsense Exceptional Creator, 246–247 drive-reduction theory of motivation, 366 approach, 382; defi ned, 380; emotional exercise: coping with stress, 490; heart drives, 365; hunger, 369–370; thirst, 365 development of boys, 452; emotional disease, 484, 485, 490 drug abuse: adolescents, 322–323; discomfort and psychological disorders, exhaustion stage, 480 counseling for, 149; treatment for, 149 500; evolutionary psychology, 385; facial experimental groups, 52–53 drug prevention, 323 expressions, 381–382, 381p; happiness, experimental method, 52–57; central drugs, 144–149; addiction to, 145; 380; happiness of nations, 362–363, tendency and dispersion, 54; double- adolescents, 322–323; alcohol, 145, 147c; 362m; identifying motivations and blind study, 53c, 54; experimental and amphetamines, 146–148, 147c; cocaine, control groups, 52–53; independent and 147c, 148; depressants, 145, 147c;

R96 INDEX Greenpeace

dependent variables, 52; limitations of, Flynn Effect, 252 rates and, 309; physical, 448; research 52; placebo effect, 53; single-blind study, Fogg, B. J., 567 pools and, 43; self-esteem, 291; touch as 53–54, 53c foot-in-the-door effect, 599 nonverbal communication, 578 experimental psychology, 10c, 12 forced-choice format, 428 gender roles, 444–465. See also gender experimental psychologist, 62 forebrain, 73–75, 74i typing; aggression, 451; around world, experimentation, 6 , 10c, 14 463; cultural variations, 461–462; Experiments: hypothetical snack-bar, 58–59; forgetting, 202–206; amnesia, 204–206, defi ned, 447; function of, 447; gender Milgram’s obedience experiment, 206c; kinds of, 204–206, 206c; recall, division in the home lab, 455; historical 608–609; reinforcement and punishment, 203; recognition, 202; relearning, 204; perspective of, 460–461, 460i–461i; 182–183; student achievement and sleep repression, 204, 206c; speed of, 203c women in combat, 444–445 deprivation, 150–151 formal-operational stage, 295c, 297, 316 gender schema, 457–458 explicit memory, 189 fraternal twins, 88 gender-schema theory, 457–458, 457c explicit norms, 595 free association, 540 gender stereotypes: defi ned, 447; identifying I extinction: classical conditioning, 160–161; Freeman, Walter, 549 simulation, 464–465 NDEX operant conditioning, 170 free radicals, 344–345 gender typing, 453–458; aggression, extrasensory perception (ESP), 36 French paradox, 470–471 456–457; biological perspective, 454–455, extrinsic rewards, 376 Freud, Sigmund, xxii, 521c; aggression, 24, 457c; brain lateralization, 454p, 455; extroversion, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator 602; automatic thought, 219; case- defi ned, 454; gender-schema theory, (MBTI) based on, 420 study method, 45; cocaine, 148; creative 457–458, 457c; heredity, 454–455, extroverts, 394 mind of, 246; defense mechanisms, 457c; hormones, 455; modeling, 457; eye contact, 578–579 131, 398–399, 399c, 488, 488c; dreams, psychoanalytic theory, 456, 457c; eyes: anatomy of, 102–103, 102i; blind spot, 135, 397, 540; evaluation of, 402–403; psychological view, 456–458, 457c; social- 102i, 103; light-dark adaptation, 98, 103; free association, 540; gender typing, learning theory, 456–457, 457c rods and cones, 102i, 103; structure and 456; historical perspective, 19–20, 19p; general adaptation syndrome, 480 function of, 102–103, 102i; visual acuity, hypnosis, 141, 397; id, ego, superego, generalization: case-study method, 45; in 103 398; identity formation, 318; infantile classical conditioning, 161; of research Eysenck, Hans, 393–394, 393c amnesia, 205; psychoanalysis, 19–20, results, 41 397, 540; repression, 204, 206c; stage generalized anxiety disorder, 507 of personality development, 399–400; generativity, 339 unconscious, 19–20, 130, 131, 397 generativity vs. stagnation stage, 403c friendship, 582–583; adolescents, 313 genes/genetics. See also heredity: biological frontal lobe, 75, 76 perspective, 23; defi ned, 85; Genographic frustration, 473–474 Project, 89; heritability, 262 Facebook, 567 functional fi xedness, 226 genetic disorders, 85 facial expressions: emotions, 381–382, 381p; functionalism, 18–19 genital stage, 400 as nonverbal communication, 578; social functional MRI (fMRI), 79 genius, profi le lab, 266–267 perception and, 576 fundamental attribution error, 577 Genographic Project, 89 false science, 2 funerals, 354, 355 genpuka, 319 family therapy, 538 Gesell, Arnold, 276 Fantz, Robert, 281 Gestalt principles of perception, 116; closure, Faulkner, William, 128 116, 116i; common fate, 117; continuity, fear: classical conditioning, 156–157, 117, 117i; fi gure-ground perception, 116, 161–162; counterconditioning, 162; 116i; proximity, 116, 117i; similarity, 117, fl ooding, 162; systematic desensitization, 117i 162 Gage, Phineas, 64–65, 78 Gestalt psychology, 20i, 21 Festinger, Leon, 376, 377 Galen, 431 ghost sickness, 503 fetus, physical growth of, 279 Gall, Franz Joseph, 422 ghrelin, 261 fi eld research, 47 Galton, Francis, 423 Gibson, Edward, 373 fi ght-or-fl ight response, 66, 71, 480, 480c Gandhi, Mohandas, 246 Giedd, Jay, 310 fi gure-ground perception, 116, 116i Gardner, Howard, 246–247, 250 Gilligan, Carol, 299, 452 Finland, personal space, 579 Gardner, Randy, 134 glass ceiling, 446 fi refi ghters, women, 571, 571p gate theory of pain, 113 Glennie, Evelyn, 109 fi rst-shift scheme, 592 gender, 26, 447 glittering generalities, 569 fi ve-factor model, 394–395, 394c gender differences: adolescent friendship, goals: achievement motivation, 375–376; fi xed-action patterns, 365 313; adolescents growth spurt, 307–308; learning, 376; performance, 375–376 fi xed-interval schedule, 168–169, 169c advertising, 453; aggression, 450–451, Goleman, Daniel, 251 fi xed-ratio schedule, 169, 169c 450p; body shape preferences, 581; Goodall, Jane, 51 fl ashbacks, 148 causes of obesity, 371; cognitive abilities, Graduate Record Examination (GRE), 423 fl ashbulb memories, 189 448–449; communication styles, Graham, Jeff, 163 Flavell, J. H., 217, 277 449–450; eating disorders, 321–322; Graham, Martha, 246 fl exibility, creativity and, 227 fi nancial impact of divorce, 336, 336c; grammar, 238–239 fl ooding, 162 heart disease, 43; identity formation, Grandin, Temple, 257, 257p Flowers, Tyrone, 315, 315p 318; implicit attitude tests, 430; grandparenthood, 346–347 fl uid intelligence, 264 Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, Greece, ancient, 16–17 Flynn, James, 252 299; mate selection, 451; maturation Greenpeace, 562, 562p

INDEX R97 Greenspan, Stanley

Greenspan, Stanley, 86c acquisition, 235; nature-nurture issue, Hutus, 588–589 group behavior, 590–593; decision- 86–87, 86c; obesity, 371; schizophrenia, hwa-byung, 503 making, 591–592; leadership, 592–593; 522; twin studies, 84, 87–88 hypertension, heart disease, 484, 485 polarization, 592; risky shift, 591; social heritability, 262 hyperthyroidism, 82 facilitation, 590; social loafi ng, 591; Herodotus, 16 hypnosis: achieving, 141; defi ned, 140; sports fan riots, 590 heroin, 145, 147c explaining, 141; Freud on, 141, 397; group therapy, 537–538 heuristics: anchoring heuristic, 233; history of, 139, 140–141; memory and, growth hormone, 81 availability heuristic, 232, 232c; defi ned, 142; myths and facts about, 141c; pain growth spurt, 307–308 221; in problem solving, 221–222; prevention, 142; quitting bad habits and, Guilford, J. P., 217 representativeness heuristic, 232–233 142; role theory, 141; uses of, 142 hierarchy of needs, 366–367, 367i, 410 hypnotic suggestibility, 141 hikikomori, 503 hypochondriasis, 518 Hildegard of Bingen, 482 hypothalamus, 74, 74i, 78; aggression and, Hinckley, John, Jr., 496, 522 602; role in hunger, 369–370 hindbrain, 73, 74i hypothesis, 35; developing and testing, S13 Hinduism, view of consciousness, 143 hypothyroidism, 82

NDEX habits, 19 hippocampus, Alzheimer’s disease, 8 I haka, 450p Hippocrates, 17, 393, 431, 520c Hall, G. Stanley, 312 Hirsch, B. J ., 39 hallucinations: amphetamines, 146; , 16–21; ancient defi ned, 146; fl ashbacks, 148; LSD, 148; Greece, 16–17; behaviorism, 20–21; marijuana, 148; schizophrenia, 520 contemporary perspectives, 23–26; happiness, 380; longevity, 415; of nations, functionalism, 18–19; Gestalt psychology, iconic memory, 197 362–363, 362m, 380; positive psychology, 21; Middle Ages, 17; psychoanalysis, icons, 197 415 19–20; reinforcement, 21; scientifi c id, 397 Harlow, Harry F., 285–286, 285p; R10 approach, 18; structuralism, 18 identical twins, 88 Harris, Judith, 86c histrionic personality disorders, 526 Identifying Main Ideas and Details, S1 Haselton, Martie, 385 Hitler, Adolf, 574 Identifying Cause and Effect, S2 hashish, 148 holistic approach, 26 Identifying Problems and Solutions, S3 Hawthorne study, 32–33, 52 Holmes, Thomas, 474 identity achievement, 317, 317c headaches, 482–484 homeless population, psychological disorders identity crisis, 316 Head Start, 263 and, 551c identity diffusion, 317, 317c health: biological factors, 483; cancer, homeostasis, 366 identity foreclosure, 317, 317c 485–486; French paradox, 470–471; Hoogland, Frans, 143 identity formation, 316–319, 317c headaches, 482–484; heart disease, Horace, 380 identity moratorium, 316–317, 317c 484–485; psychological factors, 483; hormones: aggression, 602; aging process identity status, 316–317 stress and, 49 and, 344; biological perspective, 23; identity vs. role diffusion, 403c health psychology, 10c, 14, 483 brain lateralization and gender typing, imaginative play, 283 hearing, 106–110; absolute threshold, 97c; 454p, 455; defi ned, 81; function and immigration, opinions on, 572c brain and, 77; cochlear implant, 109, production of, 81–83; gender typing, 455; immune system: overview of, 481; stress and, 110, 110i; deafness, 94–95, 108–109; menopause, 341 477, 481 ear, 107–108, 108i; infants, 282; sensory horoscope, 2 implicit attitude tests, 430 adaptation, 98; sound, 107; synesthesia, hospice, 353 implicit memory, 189 106 Hudson, Liam, 217 implicit norms, 595 heart, 73 Huichol, view of consciousness, 143 imprinting, 284, 286 heart disease, 484–485; behavioral changes, Hull, Clark, 366 impulse control, 251; adolescents brain 485; ethnic differences, 43; gender human factors psychology, 10c, 13 development and, 310 differences, 43; risk factors, 484 human growth hormone, 344 In a Different Voice (Gilligan), 452 Heaven’s Gate, 600 humanistic approach to personality: Inca, view of consciousness, 143 Heian Japan, 582p evaluation of, 411; Maslow’s hierarchy incubation effect, 227–228 hemi-inattention, 72 of needs, 410; Rogers’s self-esteem and individualism, 412; aggression and, 604, 606 Henry Horner Homes, 177 positive regard, 411 individual therapy, 537 Henson, H. Keith, 600 humanistic perspective, 24, 25c individuation, 401 herbal remedies, 484c humanistic theory of motivation, 366–367 inductive reasoning, 230–231 heredity, 84–89; adoptee studies, 88; aging, humanistic therapy: active listening, 542; industrial psychology, 10c, 13 344; altruism, 605; antisocial personality evaluation of, 542; goal of, 542; person- industry vs. inferiority stage, 402c disorders, 527; anxiety disorders, 509; centered therapy, 542 infantile amnesia, 205–206, 206c cancer, 485; defi ned, 84; depression, humor, sense of, 390–391; stress and, infants. See also children/childhood: 513; development and, 275–276; gender 478–479 attachment, 285–287; autism, 286–287, typing, 454–455, 457c; genes and humors, 393, 431 287c; child care, 290–291, 290c; cognitive chromosomes, 85, 85i; genetic disorders, hunger, 368–372; drive, 365, 369–370; drive- development, 294–299; defi ned, 279; 85; Genographic Project, 89; health, reduction theory, 366; hypothalamus, emotions, 380; infantile amnesia, 483; heart disease, 484; intelligence, 369–370; intelligence and, 261; junk food 205–206, 206c; language development, 262; kinship studies, 87–88; language and, 368; mouth in, 369; psychological 237–239, 238c; motor development, infl uences, 370; stomach in, 369

R98 INDEX learned helplessness

280–281, 280c; parenting styles, intimacy vs. isolation stage, 403c 287–288; perceptual development, intoxication, 145, 147c 281–282, 281c, 282p; physical growth, intrinsic rewards, 376 279; preference for attractive faces, 581; introspection, 17; structuralism and, 18 prenatal and postnatal development lab, introversion, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) laboratory-observation method, 47c, 48 300–301; refl exes, 279–280, 279p; self- based on, 420 Labs. See also Quick Lab: building human esteem, 291–292; social development, introverts, 394 brain, 90–91; children, thinking 284–293; tabula rasa, 276 Islamic law, gender roles, 463 and language, 242–243; diagnosing inferiority complex, 401 Izard, Carroll, 380 psychological disorders, 528–529; information processing, 23–24 identifying motivations and emotions, informed consent, 56 386–387; memory improvement, initiative vs. guilt stage, 402c 208–209; personality theories, 416–417; inner ear, 108, 108i prenatal and postnatal development, 300–301; profi le of a genius, 266–267; I insanity plea, 496–497 NDEX insecure attachment, 286 public perceptions of psychology, 28–29; insight, 21, 227–228, 540 James, William, xxii, 18–19, 18p, 365–366; on sensory thresholds and perceptual insomnia, 136 consciousness, 128, 129; on happiness, organization, 122–123 instincts, 365 380; James-Lange theory, 383, 384 laissez-faire leaders, 593 instinct theory of motivation, 365–366 James-Lange theory, 383, 384 Landmark Studies in Psychology, R2–R21 integrity vs. despair stage, 403c Japan: business samurai, 487; cooperation Lane, Christopher, 392 intelligence, 246–269; vs. achievement, and aggression, 604, 607; Heian, 582p; Lange, Karl G., 383, 384 249; aging, 264; artifi cial intelligence, hikikomori, 503; personal space, 579 language, 234–241; animals and, 212–213; 248; autism, 257; average, 258, 258c; Jews/Judaism: victimized by Hitler, 574; basic elements of, 236–237; bilingualism, boosting brainpower lab, 263; creativity, orthodox Jewish funeral traditions, 355; 239–240; Broca’s area, 76; cerebral cortex 260; crystallized, 264; defi ned, 249; Wallenberg’s act of altruism during and, 76; children, thinking and language differences in, 257–260; emotional, 251, WWII, 588 lab, 242–243; communication styles 265; environmental infl uences, 262–263; Jones, Harold, 162 and gender differences, 451; critical Exceptional Creator, 246–247; fl uid, 264; Jones, Jim, 600 period, 276; defi ned, 235; disappearing, Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, Jones, Mary Cover, 162 241; dynamic semantics lab, 236; 250; gender differences, 448–449; genetic Joyce, James, 128 environmental infl uences, 235; gender infl uences, 262; giftedness, 259–260; Jung, Andrea, 446, 446p differences in skill acquisition, 448; hunger and, 261; measuring, 252–256; Jung, Carl, 394; analytic psychology, 400; hereditary infl uences, 235; morphemes, mental retardation, 258–259; profi le of archetypes, 400c, 401; automatic 236; Phaistos Disc, 234, 234p; phonemes, a genius lab, 266–267; Spearman’s two- thought, 219; collective unconscious, 401; 236; predator languages, 241; semantics, factor theory, 249; Sternberg’s triarchic Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) 237; spoken in U.S., 239c; stages of model, 250–251, 250c; theories of, based on, 420; sense of self, 401 development, 237–239, 238c; syntax, 236; 249–251; Thurstone’s theory of primary junk food, 368 Wernicke’s area, 76 mental abilities, 250 juvenile delinquency, 324–325 language acquisition device (LAD), 235 intelligence quotient (IQ): determining, Last Lecture, 351 253–254; scores, 258c latah, 503 intelligence tests, 252–256; controversies Latane, Bibb, 606 and problems of, 255–256; cultural late adulthood, 343–350; Alzheimer’s bias, 256; Flynn Effect, 252; reliability, disease, 345–346; cognitive changes, 254; Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, 345–346; death and dying, 351–355; 253–254, 253c; validity, 254–255, 424; , 212, 212p developmental tasks of, 348c; ego Wechsler scales, 254, 255c karoshi, 487 integrity, 347; grandparenthood, Interactive features, 10, 36, 74, 108, 147, 174, Kasparov, Gary, 248 346–347; living arrangements, 347; 203, 238, 253, 280, 317, 334, 370, 400, Keller, Helen, 94–95, 94p, 109 physical changes, 344; relationships, 435, 460–461, 474, 499, 536, 572, 603 Ketelaar, Timothy, 385 350; research and, 43; retirement, 346; interest inventories, 428–429 Kindlon, Dan, 452 senile dementia, 345; short-term goals, interference, 198 kinesthesis, 114 350; social changes, 346–347; successful Internet Activities, 30, 60, 92, 124, 152, kinship studies, 87–88; adoptee studies, 88; aging, 347–349; theories on aging, 184, 210, 244, 268, 302, 328, 358, 388, intelligence, 262; twin studies, 84, 87–88 344–345 418, 442, 466, 494, 530, 556, 586, 610; Kobasa, Suzanne, 478 latency stage, 400 evaluating information on, S14 Koffka, Kurt, 21 latent content, 540 interpersonal attraction, 580–583 Kohlberg, Lawrence, 297–299 latent learning, 173 interpersonal skills, 9 Köhler, Wolfgang, 21, 227 lateral hypothalamus (LH), 369–370 Interpretation of Dreams, The (Freud), 131 Korea: cooperation and aggression, 604, 607; lateralization, 454p, 455 Interpreting Cartoons, S11 hwa-byung, 503 Lavoisiér, Antoine, 18 Interpreting Charts, S7 Koresh, David, 600 Lawrence, Ruth, 259c Interpreting Line and Bar Graphs, S5 Kraepelin, Emil, 521c Law School Admission Test, 427 interpreting Pie Graphs, S6 Kristof, Nicholas D., 430 leadership, in groups, 592–593 Interpreting Thematic Maps, S8 Kübler-Ross, Elisabeth, 352 Lear, Jonathan, 396 interval schedules, 168–169, 169c Kuder Career Search, 428 learned helplessness, 512 intimacy, 583

INDEX R99 learning

learning, 156–185; behaviorist view of, 25; maladaptivity, 500 191–192, 193c; surgery for epilepsy and, behavior modifi cation, 175–176; classical Malaysia: amok, 503; latah, 503 186–187; visual and acoustic codes, conditioning, 156–163; cognitive factors mania, 511 190–191, 191i; witnesses and, 195 in, 172–177; computer-assisted, 171; manic depression, 511; drug therapy, memory trace, 197 defi ning, 25; distributed learning, 180p, 550–551 men. See also gender differences; gender 181; Gestalt psychology and, 21; latent, manifest content, 540 roles: causes of obesity, 371; emotional 173; learning from virtual rat, 163; manipulation, 374–375 development of boys, 452; fi nancial massed learning, 180p, 181; modeling, Marcia, James, 316 impact of divorce, 336, 336c; gender 173–174; observational, 172, 173–175; marijuana, 147c, 148; adolescents, 323; stereotypes, 447; gender typing, 453–458; operant conditioning, 164–171; PQ4R effects of, 148 history of marriage and, 334; interaction method of, 178–181; programmed marriage: choosing spouses, 335; divorce, with teenagers, 312; menopause, 342 learning, 171; social-learning theory, 336–337, 336c; history of, 334–335, menarche, 309 407–408 334p–335p; identity and, 334; mate menopause, 82, 341–342, 342c learning approach to personality, 405–408; selection and gender differences, 451; menstrual cycle, 82 behaviorism, 407; evaluation of, 408; spouses looking like each other, 332 menstruation, 309 social-learning theory, 407–408 Martin, Rod, 390–391 mental age, 253

NDEX learning goals, 376 Maslow, Abraham: hierarchy of needs, mental illness. See psychological disorders I learning perspective: aggression, 603–604; 366–367, 367i; self-actualization, 366, mental retardation, 258–259; behavior antisocial personality disorders, 527; 389, 410 therapy, 548; causes of, 259; defi ned, 258; anxiety disorders, 508–509; attitude massed learning, 180p, 181 mild, 258; moderate, 258–259; profound, development and, 563; depression, 512; matching hypothesis, 582 259; severe, 259 dissociative disorders, 517; overview of, mate selection, gender differences, 451 mental set, 225–226 25, 25c mathematical ability, gender differences, mescaline, 147c, 149 left hemisphere of brain, 75, 76–77; gender 448–449 Mesmer, Franz, 139, 140 typing, 454p, 455 maturation, 275, 309 message, persuasive, 568–569 lens, 102, 102i Maya civilization, 582p metacognition, 216i, 217–218 libido, 399 Mayer, John, 251 methamphetamines, 147–148 lie detector tests, 15 McBride, Sean, 600 Mevlevi, view of consciousness, 143 life changes, 474, 474c McCrae, Robert, 394 Mexico, Day of the Dead, 355 light, 102 McDougall, William, 365–366 midbrain, 73, 74i limbic system, 74–75 McGraw, Phil, 543 middle adulthood, 338–342; age of mastery, line graphs, S5 Mead, Margaret, 382, 461–462 340; baby boomers, 340c; boomerang lithium, 550–551 mean, 54, S19 generation, 341c; developmental tasks Little Albert experiment, 156–157 means-end analysis, 224 of, 339c; empty-nest syndrome, 341; living will, 353 median, 54, S19 generativity, 339; menopause, 341–342; lobotomy, 549, 552 media violence, 174–175, 174c middlescence, 340; midlife crisis, 338, Locke, John, 18, 276 Medical College Admission Test, 427 340; sandwich generation, 330–331, 341; Loftus, Elizabeth, 195, 199, 200 meditation, 140, 490 transition, 339–340 longitudinal method, 46, 46c medulla, 73, 74i Middle Ages, 17 longitudinal study, 275 melancholic type, 393c, 394 middle ear, 108, 108i long-term memory, 199–200; capacity of, 200; , 344 middlescence, 340 reconstructive aspects of, 199; schemas, memory: amnesia, 204–206, 206c; midlife crisis, 338, 340 200 associations, 207; brain and, 76; capacity midlife transition, 339–340 Lorenz, Konrad, 286 of, 200; chunking, 198; cognitive migraine art, 482, 482p loudness, 107, 107c perspective, 23–24; context-dependent migraine headache, 482, 483 love, 583 memory, 192–193; decay, 204, 206c; mild retardation, 258 LSD, 147c, 148 defi ned, 189; dementia, 345; echoic, 197; Milgram, Stanley, xxiii; 597–598; 608–609; lung cancer, cigarette smoking, 146 eidetic, 197; elaborative rehearsal, 191, R13 206; encoding, 190–191, 193c; episodic, Miller, George, 198 189; explicit, 189; fl ashbulb memories, Miller, Neal E., 126–127 189; forgetting, 202–206; hypnosis, 142; Milner, Peter, 78 iconic, 197; implicit, 189; improving, Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 206–207; interference, 198; kinds of, 189; (MMPI), 431, 432, 433c late adulthood, 345; long-term, 199–200; mirror neurons, 293 magazines, observation learning of attitudes, maintenance rehearsal, 191; memory M’Naghten, Daniel, 496 563 improvement lab, 208–209; mnemonic M’Naghten Rule, 496 Magnani, Franco, 201 devices, 207; organizational systems for, mnemonic devices, 207 magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), 79; 191–192; primacy and recency effects, mode, 54, S19 adolescents brains, 310; as lie detector, 197; recall, 203; recognition, 202; as modeling: defi ned, 457; gender typing, 457; 15; uses of, 8, 15 reconstructive, 199; relearning, 204; learning to dance, 175; media violence, magnetism, 139, 140 repression, 204; retrieval, 192–194, 193c; 174–175, 174c; rational-emotive behavior main ideas and details, S1 schemas, 200; semantic, 189; semantic therapy (REBT), 545; treatment for maintenance rehearsal, 191 codes, 190–191, 191i; sensory, 197; phobias, 546–547 major depression, 510, 510c short-term, 197–198; stages of, 196–200; moderate retardation, 258–259 majority-wins scheme, 591 state-dependent memory, 194; storage, Mohawk language, 241

R100 INDEX

py10se_bm_index.indd R100 5/8/09 12:30:43 PM Paranzino,

Moniz, António Egas, 552 naturalistic-observation method, 47–48, 47c observational learning, 172, 173–175; attitude monocular cues, 118–119, 119i nature-nurture issue, 86–87, 86c development and, 563; effects of media mood disorders, 510–513; biological and Navajo, ghost sickness, 503 violence, 174–175; modeling, 173–174; psychological factors, 513; bipolar needs: biological, 365; defi ned, 365; esteem, TV violence and aggression, 604 disorder, 510, 511; major depression, 410; hierarchy of, 366–367, 367i, 410; observation methods: analyzing, 48–49; 510, 510c; postpartum depression, 511; physiological, 410; psychological, 365; case-study method, 45–46, 46c; cross- psychological view of, 511–513 security, 410; self-actualization, 410; sectional method, 46–47, 47c; laboratory- mood management, 251 social, 410 observation method, 47c, 48; longitudinal moral development, 297–299 negative correlation, 49 method, 46, 46c; naturalistic-observation moral principle, 398 negative reinforcement: characteristics of, method, 47–48, 47c; testing method, 45, Morgan, Christiana, 434 166; compared to punishment, 167 46c Moro refl ex, 280 neglect, child, 288–290 obsessions, 507 morphemes, 236 nervous system, 66–71; central nervous obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), 504, 507, I morphine, 145, 147c system, 67, 69–70, 69i; fi ght-or-fl ight 507c, 526 NDEX motivation, 364–378; achievement response, 66, 71; neurons, 67, 67–68; occipital lobe, 75–76, 102 motivation, 375–376; affi liation, 378; neurotransmitters, 68–69; peripheral O’Connor, Sandra Day, 461p balance theory, 376–377; biological needs, nervous system, 67, 70–71 Olds, James, 78 365, 368–372; cognitive consistency, 376; neuroimaging, 8 olfactory nerve, 112 cognitive-dissonance theory, 377–378; neurons, 67, 67–68; antisocial personality open-ended format, 433 drive-reduction theory, 366; drives, 365; disorders, 527; cell body, 67, 67i; operant conditioning, 164–171, 547–548, humanistic theory, 366–367; hunger, communication process, 68; components 547c; applications of, 170–171; chaining, 368–372; identifying motivations and of, 67–68, 67i; defi ned, 67; function of, 170–171; continuous and partial emotions lab, 386–387; instinct theory, 67; mirror, 293; motor, 68; in retina, 102; reinforcement, 168, 169c; defi ned, 165; 365–366; psychological needs, 365, sensory, 68 extinction, 170; interval schedules, 373–378; of rock climbers, 364; sensory neuroplasty, 67 168–169, 169c; key concepts of, deprivation, 374; sociocultural theory, neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, 69; 165–166, 166c; positive and negative 367; stimulus motives, 374–375; theories depression, 513; dopamine, 69; function reinforcers, 166; primary and secondary of, 365–367, 374–378, 377c of, 68–69; noradrenaline, 69; serotonin, reinforcers, 166; programmed learning, motive, 365 69 171; punishment, 167–168, 167c; ratio motor development, 280–281, 280c Newton, Isaac, 18 schedules, 169–170, 169c; rewards, motor neurons, 68 nicotine: addiction to, 145, 146; research on, 167; schedules of reinforcement, mouth, role in hunger, 369 144; as stimulant, 146 168–170, 169c; shaping, 170; Skinner’s movement: perception of, 117–118; Nielsen ratings, 38 experiment, 165; Twiggy the water- stroboscopic, 118 nightmares, 136 skiing squirrel, 164, 164p Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus, 259p, 283 night terrors, 136–137 opponent-process theory, 382 Mozart effect, 283 nirvana, 143 optical illusion, 104 MRI. See magnetic resonance imaging non conscious level, 130i, 131 optimism, stress and, 477 (MRI) nondirected thinking, 217 oral stage, 399 Mülle-Lyer illusion, 121, 121i nondirective therapy, 542 Ordinary Men (Browning), 594 multifactorial model of schizophrenia, 523 non-rapid-eye movement (NREM) sleep, 134 organizational psychology, 10c, 13 multiple approach-avoidance confl ict, 475c, nonverbal communication, 578–579; cultural organizational psychologist, 468 476 considerations, 579; eye contact, ovaries, 309; production of hormones, 82–83 multiple-choice questions, 437, 438c 578–579; physical contact, 578 overextension, 238 Multiple intelligence theory, 250; R19 noradrenaline, 69, 82; depression, 513 overgeneralization, 545 multiple personality disorder, 516 norms, 424–425, 424i; gender roles as, 447; overlapping, monocular cue, 118 Mundugumor, 461–462 social norms and conformity, 595 overregularization, 239 Murray, Henry, 434 nurturance, 449 oxytocin, 81 mushrooms, 147c, 149 myelin, 68 Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), 420–421

obedience, 597–599; foot-in-the-door effect, Paffenbarger, Ralph, 490 599; Milgram’s studies of, 597–598; pain: gate theory, 113; hypnosis and reasons for, 598–599, 598c preventing, 142; phantom limb, 113; Nabokov, Vladimir, 106 obesity: causes of, 371; defi ned, 371; heart sensitivity to, 113c; skin sense, 113; as narcissistic personality disorders, 524, 526 disease, 485; heredity, 371; hypnosis to skin sense, 113 narcolepsy, 137 quit overeating, 142; implicit attitude Palmer, J. C., 200 narcotics: addiction, 145; as depressant, 145, tests, 430; incidence of, 370c, 371; panic attack, 506–507; drug therapy, 550 147c; uses of, 145 keeping weight off, 372; losing weight, panic disorder, 506–507 National Association for the Advancement of 371–372; sleep apnea and, 137, 138; parallax, 119 Colored People (NAACP), 560 supertasters, 111; in U.S., 370c paranoid personality disorders, 525 National Geographic Genographic Project, 89 objective tests, 431–432 paranoid schizophrenia, 521 National Sleep Foundation, 138 object permanence, 295 Paranzino, Michael, 459

INDEX R101 parasympathetic nervous system

parasympathetic nervous system, 71 525c population: in research, 39; target, 39 parenting: adolescents a, 312; divorce, 337; , 10c, 12 positive correlation, 48–49 grandparenthood, 346–347; imaginative personality tests, 45; California Psychological positive psychology, 415 play, 283; intelligence and, 262–263; Inventory (CPI), 431, 432–433; positive regard, 411 nature-nurture issue, 86–87, 86c; Minnesota Multiphasic Personality positive reinforcers, 166 perfectionism, 472; positive regard, 411; Inventory (MMPI), 431, 432, 433c; positive visualization, 6 self-esteem and, 291; styles of, 287–288, Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), positron emissional tomography (PET), 79 288c; unconditional positive regard, 291 420–421; objective tests, 431–432; postconventional moral reasoning, 298–299, parenting styles, 287–288 projective tests, 433–435; Rorschach 298c parietal lobe, 75, 76 inkblot test, 433–434, 434i; Thematic posthypnotic suggestion, 142 Parkinson’s disease, dopamine and, 69 Apperception Test (TAT), 433, 434–435, postpartum depression, 511 partial reinforcement, 168, 169c 435i post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 502; Iraq Pascal, Blaise, 249 person-centered therapy, 542 war veterans, 514; symptoms of, 508; Pathways to Rewards program, 177 perspective, 118–119, 119i virtual therapy, 532–533 patriarchy, 334 persuasion, 567–570; defi ned, 568; elements Power, Thomas, 385 Pausch, Randy, 351 of, 568–569, 568c; emotional appeals, PQ4R, 178–181

NDEX Pavlov, Ivan, 159–160, 159p, R3 569, 569p; glittering generalities, 569; preconscious level, 130, 130i I Peel, Robert, 496 methods of, 568; repetition, 568; role of preconventional moral reasoning, 298, 298c peer pressure, 314, 326–327 messenger, 569; sales resistance, 570; predator languages, 241 Penfi eld, Wilder, 199 situation and audience, 570; two-sided prefrontal lobotomy, 552 People’s Temple, 600 argument, 568–569 pregnancy, teenage, 320, 324, 324c Pepperberg, Irene, 212–213, 213p Petersen, Anne C., 495 prejudice, 571–575; causes of, 573–574; perception, 115–121; acrophobia, 115; Peterson, Lloyd, 198 defi ned, 572; discrimination, 573; closure, 116, 116i; common fate, 117; Peterson, Margaret, 198 overcoming, 574; scapegoat, 574; Seeds constancies of, 120; continuity, 117, 117i; PET (positron emission topography) scan, 8, 23 of Peace, 575; stereotypes and, 572–573; defi ned, 97; depth, 118–119; fi gure- Petrie, Helen, 404 victimization, 574; women fi refi ghters, ground perception, 116, 116i; Gestalt peyote, 143, 147c, 149 571, 571p principles of, 116–117; of movement, Phaistos Disc, 234, 234p Prejudice and Your Child (Clark), 27 117–118; proximity, 116, 117i; rules phallic stage, 400 premenstrual syndrome (PMS), 82 of perceptual organization, 116–117; phantom limb pain, 113 prenatal period, embryo growth, 279 sensory thresholds and perceptual phlegmatic type, 393c, 394 preoperational stage, 295c, 296 organization, 122–123; similarity, 117, phobias: modeling, 546–547; social, 506; preschool programs, intelligence and, 263 117i; social perception, 576–579; visual specifi c, 505–506, 506c; systematic pressure, skin sense, 112 illusions, 121, 121i desensitization, 546 primacy effect, 197, 577 perceptual development, 281–282, 281c, 282p phonemes, 236 Primary mental abilities theory, 250 perfectionism, 472 photoreceptors, 102 primary reinforcers, 166 performance goals, 375–376 phrenology, 422 primary sex characteristics, 308 peripheral nervous system, 67, 70–71; physical development: adolescents, 306–309; primary sources, analyzing, S9 autonomic nervous system, 71; function infants and children, 279; late adulthood, principle, 7 of, 70; somatic nervous system, 70–71 344; motor development, 280–281, 280c; Principles of Psychology, The (James), 18, 128 peripheral route, as method of persuasion, 568, perceptual development, 281–282, 281c, problem solving, 21, 220–228; algorithms, 568c 282p; refl exes, 279–280, 279p 221; analogies, 224–225; approaches to, Peri Psyches (Aristotle), 17 physiological needs, 410 221–222; creativity, 227–228; difference permissive parenting, 288, 288c Piaget, Jean, xxii, identity formation, 316; reduction, 223; fl exibility, 227; functional Perry, David, 457 stages of development, 276–277, 295– fi xedness, 226; heuristics, 221–222; personal contracts, 176 297; theory of cognitive development, insight and incubation, 227–228; means- personality, 390–417; brain injuries 294–297, 295c, 296c; R8 end analysis, 224; mental set, 225–226; and changes, 64–65; defi ned, 393; Picasso, Pablo, 246, 247p, 345 obstacles to, 225–226; recombination, dissociative identity disorder, 516; pie graphs, S6 227; sample problems, 222i–223i, 225i, humanistic approach, 410–412; learning pineal gland, 34 226i; systematic search, 221; trial and approach, 405–408; passwords and, Pinker, Steven, 86c error, 222; working backwards, 224 404; personality theories lab, 416–417; pinna, 107, 108i problems and solutions, S3 psychoanalytic approach, 396–404; Pinsky, Drew, 543 prodigy, 259–260, 259p sense of humor, 390–391; shyness, 392; pitch, 107 profound retardation, 259 sociocultural approach, 412–414; stress, pituitary gland, 81, 81i progesterone: function and production of, 476; trait approach, 392–395 placebo effect, 53 82–83; menopause, 341 personality disorders, 524–527; antisocial, Plato, 17, 249 programmed learning, 171 526; avoidant, 526; biological views play: evolutionary psychology, 385; programmed theories of aging, 344 of, 527; borderline, 526; defi ned, 525; imaginative, 283 progressive relaxation, 490 dependent, 526; explaining, 526–527; pleasure principle, 397 Project Implicit, 430 histrionic, 526; narcissistic, 524, 526; Pogue, William, 373 projection, 399, 488c obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), polarization, 592 projective tests, 433–435 504, 507, 507c, 526; paranoid, 525; polygraph test, 15 prolactin, 81 psychological view of, 526–527; schizoid, pons, 73 PROP, 111 525; schizotypal, 525; types of, 525–526, Ponzo illusion, 121, 121i prostaglandins, 113

R102 INDEX

py10se_bm_index.indd R102 5/8/09 12:31:02 PM representativeness heuristic prototypes, 215–216 10c, 12; explaining behavior, 5; forensic, Proust, Marcel, 188 10c, 14; health, 10c, 14; human factors, proximity, 116, 117i 10c, 13; industrial/organizational, 10c, Psamtik I, 16 13; personality, 10c, 12; predicting and psilocybin, 149 controlling behavior, 6; rehabilitation, Rabinowitz, Alan, 100 psychiatric nurse, 536 10c, 14; school, 10c, 11; social, 10c, 12; race: body image, 413, 413c; implicit psychiatric social worker, 536 sport, 5 attitude tests, 430; marriage and, 335; of psychiatrists, 10, 536 psychology: defi ned, 5; goals of, 5–6; U.S. population, 41 psychoanalysis, 19–20, 397, 539–541; brief, graduate programs in, 10c; history of, Rahe, Richard, 474 541; dream analysis, 539, 540–541; 16–21; major fi elds in, 10–14; public Rakowski, William, 349 evaluation of, 541; free association, 540; perception of, 28–29; as science, 6–7 random sample, 40 Freud and, 540; insight, 540; resistance, Psychology in Today’s World: animal senses, range, 54, S20 540; transference, 540–541 100; criminal’s mind, 15; passwords rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep, 134 rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT), 545 I psychoanalytic approach to personality, and personality, 404; Pathways to NDEX 396–404; academic interest in, 396; Rewards program, 177; public therapy, rationalization, 398 Adler’s theory, 401; Erikson’s theory, 543; raising a better child, 283; Seeds of ratio schedules, 169–170, 169c 402, 402c–403c; evaluation of, 402–403; Peace, 575 Rayner, Rosalie, 156–157 Freud’s contribution, 397–400; Horney’s psychotherapy, 532–555; behavior therapy, reaction formation, 399c theory, 401–402; Jung’s contributions, 546–548; cognitive therapy, 544–546; Reagan, Ronald, 496 400–401, 400c defi ned, 535; goals of, 535; humanistic reality principle, 397 psychoanalytic perspective: aggression, therapy, 542; individual vs. group reasoning: deductive, 230; defi ned, 230; 602–603; antisocial personality disorders, therapy, 537–538; methods of, 535, inductive, 230–231 526; anxiety disorders, 508; depression, 536c; methods of therapy simulation, recall, memory, 203 511–512; dissociative disorders, 517; 554–555; nondirective therapy, 542; recency effect, 197, 577 gender typing, 456, 457c; health, 483; psychoanalysis, 539–541; public therapy, reciprocity, 582 overview of, 24, 25c; schizophrenia, 522; 543; selecting right professional, recognition, memory, 202 somatoform disorders, 518 536–537; types of therapists, 536, 537c; recombination, 227 psychodynamic thinking, 20 virtual therapy, 532–533 refl exes, 279–280, 279p; Babinski, 279p, 280; psychogenic amnesia, 516 puberty, 308–309 Moro, 280; rooting, 280; spinal, 70 psychogenic fugue, 516 public therapy, 543 refl exology, 484c psycholinguistics, 235 punishment: compared to negative regression, 398 psychological constructs, 5 reinforcement, 167; defi ned, 167; rehabilitation counselor, 154 psychological disorders, 496–529; anxiety problems with, 167–168, 168c; rehabilitation psychology, 10c, 14 disorders, 504–509; characteristics of, reinforcement and punishment reinforcement: continuous reinforcement, 499–500; classifying, 501–502, 501c; experiment, 182–183 168, 169c; defi ned, 165; gender culture-bound syndromes, 500, 503; pupil, 102, 102i typing, 456–457; interval schedules, defi ned, 499; diagnosing lab, 528–529; 168–169, 169c; negative, 166; partial dissociative disorders, 515–517; reinforcement, 168, 169c; positive, emotional discomfort, 500; homeless 166; primary reinforcers, 166; ratio population and, 551c; identifying, schedules, 169–170, 169c; reinforcement 499–500; incidence of, 499, 499c; insanity and punishment experiment, 182–183; plea, 496–497; maladaptivity, 500; secondary reinforcers, 166; Skinner’s mood disorders, 510–513; personality questionnaires, 39; in magazines, and bias, view on, 21 disorders, 524–527; schizophrenia, 42 relationships: adolescents, 312–314; balance 519–523; socially unacceptable behavior, Quick Lab. See also Labs: achievement theory and, 376–377; friendship, 500; somatoform disorders, 517–518; motivation, 375; adolescents on 582–583; late adulthood, 350; love, 583; typicality of, 500 television, 313; afterimage, 104; boosting young adulthood, 334–335 psychological hardiness, 478 brainpower, 263; calming stressful relaxation: biofeedback, 140, 489; coping psychological needs, 373–378; achievement thoughts, 489; changing behavior, 6; with stress, 489–490; depressants and, motivation, 375–376; defi ned, 365; choosing a job, 428; conformity, 596; 145; meditation, 140, 489; migraine stimulus motives, 374–375 dynamic semantics, 236; external forces headaches, 484; progressive, 490 psychological tests, 420–441; achievement infl uence on behavior, 406; fear of relearning, memory, 204 tests, 427–428; aptitude tests, 427–428; public speaking, 505; free association, reliability: defi ned, 254, 424; intelligence computers and, 425; features of, 423–425; 541; gender division in the home, 455; tests, 254; of psychological tests, 424 historical perspective, 423; implicit identifying parenting styles, 289; light- Remembrance of Things Past, The (Proust), 188 attitude tests, 430; norms, 424–425, 424i; dark adaptation, 98; memory test, 199; REM-rebound, 134 personality tests, 420–421; reliability modeling to teach dance, 175; nonverbal REM sleep, 8; characteristics of, 134; dreams, and validity, 424; standardized tests, communication, 578; reaction time, 134–135; importance of, 134; narcolepsy, 424; uses of, 423; vocational interest 70; remembering dreams, 135; survey 137; nightmares, 136, 137; as stage of inventories, 428–429 method, 40; views of elderly, 347 sleep, 133c, 134; R7 psychologists: biological, 12; clinical, 10, 10c; quinceañera, 319 Renaud, Serge, 470 community, 10c, 13; counseling, 10c, 11; repetition, for persuasion, 568 cross-cultural, 10c, 14; developmental, replication, of research, 36–37 10c, 11–12; educational, 10c, 11; representativeness heuristic, 232–233 environmental, 10c, 12–13; experimental,

INDEX R103 repression

repression, 488c; aggression, 602; defense romantic relationships, during adolescents, 314 selective abstraction, 545 mechanism, 398; memory, 204, 206c Roosevelt, Theodore, 401 selective attention, 129 research: adolescents brain, 310; analyzing rooting, 280 self: creative self, 401; sense of, 401 results, 35–36; animal rights and Rorschach, Hermann, 433, R4 self-actualization, 366, 410 research, 51; animals and, 7, 57; Rorschach inkblot test, 433–434, 434i, R4 self-actualization needs, 410 attitudes and achievement, 566; autistic Rosenboom, David, 126p self-awareness, 24; emotional intelligence mind, 293; automatic thought processes, Roy G. Biv, 102 and, 251 219; basic, 12; bias, 41; blind study, Rozin, Paul, 471 self-challenge, 349 33; on brain, 77–79; central tendency Rubinstein, Arthur, 348 self-concept, 410–411; congruence and, 411; and dispersion, 54; cochlear implant, Rudolph, Wilma, 401 sociocultural factors and, 412–413 110, 110i; confi dentiality, 56; control runner’s high, 71 Selfe, Lorna, 260 group, 33; coping with catastrophe, Rusesabagina, Paul, 588 self-effi cacy expectations, 408, 478 491; correlation, 48–49; cross-sectional self-esteem: acculturation, 413–414; age and, method, 275; cults and conformity, 291–292; defi ned, 291; gender and, 291; 600; deception, 56; diversity in, 27, 43; gender schema, 458; infl uences on, 291; drawing conclusions, 36; emotional positive regard, 411; sales resistance,

NDEX development of boys, 452; emotional 570; sociocultural factors and, 412–413; I intelligence and success, 265; ethical trap of, 292; unconditional positive issues, 55–57; ethics, 157; evolutionary Sacks, Oliver, 482 regard, 291 psychology, 385; experimental method, St. John, Amanda, 564p self-help books, 4 52–54; experimentation, 6; forming sales resistance, 570 self-help groups, 538 and testing hypothesis, 35; formulating Salovey, Peter, 251 self-motivation, emotional intelligence, 251 research questions, 35; generalizing samples: random, 40; in research, 40; self-reports, 423 results, 41; Genographic Project, 89; stratifi ed, 40 self-serving bias, 577 Hawthorne effect, 32–33; heredity, Sandman, Curt, 349 Seligman, Martin, 512 84, 87–88; implicit attitude tests, 430; sandwich generation, 330–331, 341 Selye, Hans, 480 informed consent, 56; kinship studies, sanguine type, 393c, 394 semantic codes, 190–191, 191i 84, 87–88; learning from virtual rat, 163; SAT, 249; scores by gender, 448c semantic memory, 189 longitudinal method, 275; memory and , 260 semantics, 237 witnesses, 195; nicotine, 144; observation scapegoat, 574 Seneca, 462 methods, 45–49, 46c–47c; over scarifi cation, 582p senile dementia, 345 prescription of drugs, 553; population, 39; Schachter, Stanley, 378, 384 sensation: absolute threshold, 97–98, positive psychology, 415; post-traumatic schedule of reinforcement, 168–170, 169c 97c; animal senses, 100; autism and stress disorder and Iraq war veterans, Schein, Elyse, 84, 84p hypersensitivity, 96; body senses, 114; 514; replication, 36–37; samples, 40; schemas, 200 defi ned, 97; difference threshold, 98; single- and double-blind studies, schizoid personality disorders, 525 hearing, 106–110; Helen Keller case 53–54, 53c; steps in scientifi c research, schizophrenia, 519–523; behavior therapy, study, 94–95; kinesthesis, 114; pain, 35–37; survey method, 39; surveys as, 6; 548; biological views of, 522–523; 113; perception, 115–121; pressure, volunteer bias, 42 catatonic schizophrenia, 522; catatonic 112; sensory adaptation, 98; sensory research questions, 35 stupor, 520; defi ned, 519; delusions, thresholds and perceptual organization, resistance, 540 520; disorganized schizophrenia, 122–123; signal-detection theory, 99; skin resistance stage, 480 521–522; dopamine, 69; drug senses, 112–113; smell, 112; synesthesia, response, 159, 160, 160c; conditioned, 160, therapy, 551; explaining, 522–523, 106; taste, 111–112; vestibular sense, 160c; unconditioned, 160, 160c 523c; hallucinations, 520; historical 114; vision, 101–105 rest and digest response, 71 perspective of, 520c–521c; multifactorial sensation seeker, 374 reticular activating system, 73 model, 523; paranoid schizophrenia, 521; senses. See sensation retina, 102, 102i psychological views of, 522; symptoms of, sensorimotor stage, 295, 295c retinal disparity, 119 519–520; thought disorders, 520; types sensorineural deafness, 109 retirement, 346 of, 521–522 sensory adaptation, 98; light-dark retrieval, 192–194, 193c schizotypal personality disorders, 525 adaptation, 98, 103; smell, 112; retrograde amnesia, 204–205, 206c Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT), 423, temperature, 113 rewards, 167, 409; extrinsic, 376; intrinsic, 427–428 sensory deprivation, 374 376 school counselors, 542 sensory memory, 197 Reyna, Valerie, 195 school psychology, 10c, 11 sensory neurons, 68 right hemisphere of brain, 75, 76–77; gender scientifi c approach, 18 separation anxiety, 285 typing, 454p, 455 Seasonal Affective Disorder, 13 serotonin, 69; depression, 513 risky shift, 591 seat belts, 278 severe retardation, 259 rites of passage, 319 secondary reinforcers, 166 sexual development, during adolescence, Rizzo, Albert, 532 secondary sex characteristics, 308 308–309, 308c Robinson, Francis P., 179 secondary sources, analyzing, S10 sexuality, adolescents, 324 Rodriguez, Alex, 5 secondhand smoke, 146 shadows, monocular cue, 118 rods, 102i, 103 secure attachment, 286 shaman, 17p, 143 Rogers, Carl, 291, 410–411, 542 security needs, 410 shape constancy, 120 role-playing, 545 Seeds of Peace, 575 shaping, 170 role theory, hypnosis, 141 segregation, negative effects of, 27 Sharia, 463

R104 INDEX stress

Shawn, Allen, 544 social development, 284–293; adolescents, stagnation, 339 Sheehy, Gail, 338, 340 311–314; attachment, 285–287; child Stahl, Leslie, 138 Shneidman, Edwin, 352 abuse and neglect, 288–290; child standard deviation, 54, S20 short-answer questions, 438 care, 290–291, 290c; contact comfort, standardized test, 424 short-term memory, 197–198; chunking, 198; 285–286, 285p; imprinting, 284, 286; late Stanford-Binet intelligence scale, 253–254, interference, 198; primacy effect, 197; adulthood, 346–347; parenting styles, 253c, 424 recency effect, 197 287–288; self-esteem, 291–292 state-dependent memory, 194 shyness, 392 social facilitation, 590 statistics, using, S18–S21 sibling rivalry, 401 social interaction, 588–609; aggression, Statistically Speaking: causes of death, sickle-cell anemia, 85 602–607; altruism, 588–589; conformity, 232; child care, 290; cultural views on signal-detection theory, 99 594–597; group behavior, 590–593; body image, 413; graduate programs Silver, Roxane, 491 obedience, 597–599 in psychology, 10; growth rates, 307; similarity, 21; Gestalt principles of social learning perspective: advertising, homeless and therapy, 551; IQ scores, I

perception, 117, 117i; interpersonal 174; effects of media violence, 174–175; 258; languages spoken in U.S., 239; NDEX attraction, 582 modeling, 173–174; prejudice, 574 media violence and children, 174; Simulation: identifying gender stereotypes, social-learning theory, 25; Bandura, 407; multiple-choice tests, 438; opinions on 464–465; methods of therapy, 554–555; gender typing, 456–457, 457c; purposeful immigration, 572; overweight in U.S., peer pressure, 326–327; stages of learning, 407–408; social cognitive 370; psychological disorders, 499; SAT adulthood, 356–357; stress and coping theory, 407 scores by gender, 448; sensitivity to pain, methods, 492–493; writing personality social loafi ng, 591 113; sleep needed, by age, 136c; speed of quiz, 440–441 social needs, 410 forgetting, 203; stress, 473; TV viewing single-blind study, 53–54, 53c social norms: conformity and, 595; defi ned, and violence, 603; U.S. population by size constancy, 120 595; explicit and implicit, 595 race/ethnicity, 41 Skills Handbook, S1–S21 social perception, 576–579; attribution status offenses, 324 Skinner, B. F.: baby box, 44; historical theory, 577; defi ned, 577; facial stereotypes: defi ned, 572; gender, 447; perspective, xxiii, 19p, 21; interest expressions, 576; nonverbal prejudice and, 572–573; stereotype in behavior only, 173; programmed communication, 578–579; primacy effect, threat, 573 learning, 171; reinforcement concept, 577; recency effect, 577 stereotype threat, 256 167; Skinner box, 44, 48, 165; social phobia, 506; avoidant personality Sternberg, Robert, 250–251, 583 socialization, 406; R6 disorders, 526 steroids: anabolic, 80, 82, 83c; function of, 82; Skinner box, 44, 48, 165 social psychology, 10c, 12 stress and, 481; testosterone as, 82 skin senses: pain, 113; pressure, 112; social psychologist, 612 Stevenson, Robert , 132 temperature, 113 Social Readjustment Rating Scale, 474, 474c Stillion, Judith, 353 Sky Is Not the Limit, The (de Grasse Tyson), 560 social science: vs. false science, 2; psychology stimulants: amphetamines, 146–148, 147c; Skylab, 373 as, 6–7 characteristics of, 146; cocaine, 147c, 148; sleep, 132–138; amount needed, 136c; social skill training, 548 nicotine, 144, 146, 147c brain waves and, 133–134, 133c; sociocultural perspective: acculturation and stimulus, 159, 160, 160c; conditioned, 160, dreams, 134–135; importance of, self-esteem, 413–414; aggression, 604; 160c; unconditioned, 160, 160c 134; insomnia, 136; narcolepsy, 137; evaluation of, 414; individualism vs. stimulus motives, 374–375; exploration and nightmares and night terrors, 136–137; collectivism, 412; overview of, 25c, 26; manipulation, 374–375; sensation seeker, REM sleep, 133c, 134; serotonin, 69; sociocultural factors and self, 412–413 374; sensory deprivation, 374 sleep apnea, 137; sleep cycle, 133–134, sociocultural theory of motivation, 367 stirrup, 108, 108i 133c; sleep deprivation in teens, 138; Socrates, 17 Stockholm Syndrome, 600 sleepwalking, 137; stages of, 133–134, Solomon, Richard, 382 stomach, role in hunger, 369 133c; student achievement and sleep somatic nervous system, 70–71 storage, memory, 191–192, 193c deprivation, 150–151 somatization, 517 stranger anxiety, 285 sleep apnea, 137; complications of, 137; somatoform disorders, 517–518; stratifi ed sample, 40 incidence of, 137; obesity and, 137, 138; characteristics of, 517; conversion Stravinsky, Igor, 246 symptoms of, 138 disorder, 518; hypochondriasis, 518 stream of consciousness, 18, 128 sleep cycle, 133–134, 133c Souls of Black Folk, The (DuBois), 560 stress, 470–493; active coping, 488–490; sleep terrors, 136 sound: locating, 108; loudness, 107, 107c; adolescents, 312; adrenal glands and, sleepwalking, 137 pitch, 107 82; calming stressful thoughts lab, 489; smell: absolute threshold, 97c; infants, 282; Spearman, Charles, 249 cancer, 485; confl ict, 475–476; coping receptors, 112; sensory adaptation, 112 specifi c phobias, 505–506, 506c with, 487–491; defensive coping, 488; smoking: addiction to, 146; adolescents, Spiga, Ralph, 495 defi ned, 473; density and crowding, 322–323; cancer, 485; health spinal cord, as part of central nervous system, 50; general adaptation syndrome, 480; consequences of, 146; heart disease, 485; 69–70, 69i headaches, 482–484; health and, 49; hypnosis for quitting, 142; nicotine in spinal refl exes, 70 heart disease, 484–485; humor and, cigarettes, 144, 146; research on nicotine, split-brain operation, 76–77 478–479; immune system and, 477, 481; 144; secondhand smoke, 146 spontaneous recovery, 161 Japanese business men, 487; kinds of, social cognition, 560–583; attitudes, sport psychologists, 5 473; life changes and social readjustment 562–566; interpersonal attraction, sports: altruism and athletes, 605c; male scale, 474, 474c; overeating, 371; 580–583; persuasion, 567–570; prejudice, aggression and, 450, 450p; sports fan perfectionism, 472; personality types, 571–575; social perception, 576–579 riots, 590 476; predictability, 479; psychological social cognitive theory, 407 Sprecher, Susan, 451 hardiness, 478; responses to, 478–479; social decision schemes, 591–592 stages of development, 276–277, 295–297

INDEX R105 stress disorders

sandwich generation, 330; self-effi cacy 254; short-answer and essay questions Turnbull, Colin, 120 expectations, 478; social support, 479; on, 438; standardized, 424; test-retest Tutsis, 588–589 sources of, 473–474, 473c; stress and reliability, 254; tips for taking, 437–439; Twiggy the water-skiing squirrel, 164, 164p coping methods simulation, 492–493 true-false questions on, 438; validity, twin studies, 84, 87–88; on intelligence, 262 stress disorders, 507–508 254–255; vocational interest inventories, Two-factor theory of intelligence, 249 stressor, 473 428–429 two-sided argument, 568–569 strict parenting, 288, 288c texture gradient, 119 two-thirds-majority scheme, 592 stroboscopic movement, 118 Thailand, cooperation and aggression, 607 Type A personality, 476; heart disease, 485; stroke, 72 thalamus, 73–74, 74i; pain reaction, 113 migraine headaches, 483 structuralism, 18 Thematic Apperception Test (TAT), 433, Type B personality, 476 subconscious, 130 434–435, 435i Type D personality, 485c sublimation, 399c theories, 7 substance abuse: adolescents, 322–323; as therapists. See also psychotherapy: selecting coping with stress, 488 right, 536–537; types of, 536, 537c successive approximation, 548 therapy, 535. See also psychotherapy; suicide, 488 biological, 549–553; individual vs. group,

NDEX Sullivan, Anne, 94–95 537–538; nondirective therapy, 542; I superego, 398 public therapy, 543 umami, 112 supertasters, 111 thinking, 214–219. See also intelligence; unconditional positive regard, 291, 542 support groups, for drug abuse, 149 automatic thought processes, 219; unconditioned response, 160, 160c survey method, 39, 40 changing stressful thoughts, 489; unconditioned stimulus, 160, 160c surveys, 6 children, thinking and language lab, unconscious: collective, 401; Freud on, susto, 503 242–243; cognitive development, 19–20, 130, 131, 397; Jung on, 400–401; symbols, 214, 214p, 215 294–299; cognitive therapy and, as level of consciousness, 130–131, 130i sympathetic nervous system, 71; stress and, 545–546; concepts, 215; convergent, United States: cooperation and aggression, 480 216i, 217; creativity, 217, 227–228; 604, 607; gender roles in modern, synapse, 68; schizophrenia and, 522 decision making, 229–233; defi ned, 460–461; happiness rating, 362–363, synesthesia, 106 215; divergent, 216i, 217; elements of, 362c; individualism vs. collectivism, Synthesizing Information from Multiple Sources, 215–216; gender differences, 448–449; 412; obesity, 370c; personal space, 579; S15 kinds of, 216–218; metacognition, 216i, population by race/ethnicity, 41 syntax, 236 217–218; problem solving, 220–228; Using Statistics, S18 systematic desensitization, 162 prototypes, 215–216; reasoning, 230– systematic search, 221 231; symbols, 214, 214p, 215; thought disorders of schizophrenia, 520 thirst: drive, 365; drive-reduction theory, 366 Thompson, Michael, 452 thought disorders, 520 Three Faces of Eve, The, 517p validity: defi ned, 254, 424; intelligence tests, Thurstone, L. L., 250 254–255, 424; of psychological tests, 424 tabula rasa, 276 thyroid gland, 81i, 82 validity scales, 424 target population, 39 thyroxin, 82 Van Cauter, Eve, 138 taste, 111–112; absolute threshold, 97c; Time Line of Psychology, xxii–xxiii variable-interval schedule, 169, 169c basic taste qualities, 112; receptors, 112; token economy, 176, 547; Pathways to variable-ratio schedule, 169–170, 169c supertasters, 111 Rewards program, 177 variables: dependent, 52; independent, 52 taste aversion, 160 Tolman, E. C., 173 vascular dementia, 346 Tchambuli, 461–462 touch, 112–113; absolute threshold, 97c; Veenhoven, Ruut, 362–363 teaching machine, 171 nonverbal communication, 578 ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH), 370 television: effects of media violence, 174–175, trait, personality, 393 vestibular sense, 114 174c; observation learning of attitudes, trait approach to personality, 392–395; victimization, 574 563; TV viewing and violence, 603c, 604 Allport’s theory of, 393; evaluation violence. See also aggression: media temperature, skin senses, 113 of, 395; Eysenck’s theory of, 393–394, violence, 174–175, 174c; TV viewing and temporal lobe, 75, 76 393c; fi ve-factor model, 394–395, 394c; violence, 603c, 604 testes, 308; testosterone, 82 Hippocrates contribution, 393, 431 Virtual Iraq, 532–533 testosterone, 308; aggression, 451, 602; brain tranquilizers: major, 551; minor, 550 virtual rat, 163 lateralization and gender typing, 454p, transference, 540–541 virtual therapy, 532–533 455; function of, 82; middle adulthood, transformed score, 254 vision, 101–105; absolute threshold, 97c; 342 Trapp, Major, 594 afterimage, 104, 104i; blindness, 94–95; test-retest reliability, 254 trial and error, 222 blind spot, 102i, 103; brain and, 76–77; tests: achievement, 427–428; anxiety, triangular model of love, 583 color blindness, 105, 105i; , 436, 439; aptitude, 427–428; implicit Triarchic theory of intelligence, 250–251, 250c 103–104; eye structure and function, attitude tests, 430; intelligence, 252–256; true-false questions, 438 102–103, 102i; infants, 281–282; light, multiple-choice questions on, 437, 438c; trust vs. mistrust stage, 402c 102; light-dark adaptation, 98, 103; objective tests, 431–432; as observation truth-wins scheme, 592 optical illusion, 104; rods and cones, method, 45; personality, 431–435; 102i, 103; sensory adaptation, 98; visual projective tests, 433–435; reliability, acuity, 103

R106 INDEX

py10se_bm_index.indd R106 5/8/09 12:31:20 PM Zimbardo, Philip

visual acuity, 103 visual cliff, 281–282, 282p visual illusions, 121, 121i vocabulary, building, S16–S17 vocational interest inventories, 428–429 yage, 143 volunteer bias, 42 Yates, Andrea, 496 yoga, 143 young adulthood, 332–337; characteristics and goals, 333–334, 333c; divorce, 336–337, 336c; marriage, 332, 334–335; marriage and relationships, 334–335; reassessment period, 333; settling down, Wain, Louis, 519, 519p 334 I

Walden Two (Skinner), 406 NDEX Wallach, John, 575 Wallenberg, Raoul, 588 Wangchuck, Jigme Singye, 363 warm parenting, 287–288, 288c Watson, John B.: behaviorism, 19c, 20, 406; on consciousness, 129; on development, Zajonc, Robert, 590 276; historical perspective, 19p, 20; Zar, 503 instinctive emotions, 380; on learning, 25 Zimbardo, Philip, 600 Wearing, Clive, 205 Webquest, 19, 57, 113, 136, 162, 238, 289, 322, 353, 433, 447, 481, 505, 552, 570, 595 Wechsler, David, 254 Wechsler scales, 254, 255c, 424 weight: cigarette smoking and, 146; heart disease, 485; keeping off, 371–372; losing, 371–372; obesity, 371–372 Wernicke’s area, 76 Wertheimer, , 21 Western Electric Company, 32 whirling dervishes, 143 White, Michael, 576 Williams, John, 447 Williams, Linda, 330 Williams, Serena, 259p Williams, Venus, 259p Wilson, Greg, 163 withdrawal, coping with stress, 488 witnesses, memory and, 195 Wodaabe, 580 Wolpe, Joseph, 546 women. See also gender differences; gender roles: body image, 413, 413c; causes of obesity, 371; in combat, 444–445; empty- nest syndrome, 341; fi nancial impact of divorce, 336, 336c; fi refi ghters, 571, 571p; gender stereotypes, 447; gender typing, 453–458; glass ceiling, 446; interaction with teenagers, 312; menopause, 341–342; middlescence, 340; midlife transition, 339–340; reassessment period, 333; unrealistic weight-loss goals, 371 Woodruff, Bob, 65 Woolf, Virginia, 128 World Database of Happiness, 362–363, 380 Wright, Frank Lloyd, 345 Writing Activities, 31, 61, 93, 125, 153, 185, 211, 245, 269, 303, 329, 359, 389, 419, 443, 467, 495, 531, 557, 587, 611 Wundt, Wilhelm, 18, 18p

INDEX R107

py10se_bm_index.indd R107 5/8/09 12:31:38 PM Credits and Acknowledgments

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