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Home , Carrion flower, Flower, Flowering plant, Plant, Sideroxylon grandiflorum

à or storage Flowering à protection [Angiosperms] à asexual dominant plants in world today much more so than in any other group

à90% of all living plant A. Extra Support

235,000 known species prop & buttress roots

roots that help support plant flowering plants were the last of the 4 main groups to appear in the record eg prop roots: corn, , red , banyon 1st appeared ~130 MY ago eg. buttress roots: tropical figs

à quickly spread and diversified vining stems have dominated the landscape for the last 100 Million weak stems - use other plants or objects for support but can grow rapidly

Characteristics of Flowering Plants: à don’t need to expend lots of on strength 1. highly adaptable vegetative organs may grow away from rather than toward it

vegetative Organs of flowering plants generally à more likely to encounter a tree to grow on perform the typical functions as described earlier some are twiners

stems grow spirally for support but in many cases they are often modified to enhance certain properties in the plant: others have other modifications to attach to support

vines are most numerous in tropical à extra support

à gas exchange eg. à food gathering Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 1 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 2

= woody vines with adhesive suckers produced by plants growing in swamps or connect tops of waterlogged provide walkways for have well developed system of internal air adhesive roots that take to interior of system

eg. black mangrove, mangrove, bald vines often produce special adventitious roots from cypress above ground stem with adhesive pads that

stick to bark aquatic tendrils floating leaves of many aquatic plants:

some tendrils are modified leaves rather than stems àhave stomata on upper surface

àsometimes hard to tell the difference) that àlong petioles to allow blade to float grasp and hold onto other structures

àpetioles and submerged parts of plant have tendril may be whole or only part of the leaf internal system of air ducts to take O to 2 underwater roots and stems eg.

C. Food Gathering aerial roots

on à plants that grow on other plants window leaves (=)

eg. ball , , bromeliads, orchids transparent windows on the tips of succulent leaves allow to penetrate into the leaf for improved their roots are for anchoring only, not to absorb water or parasitic roots (=haustoria) B. Gas Exchange all parasitic plants are flowering plants (dicots only, not monocots) pneumatophores some parasitic plants use roots to penetrate aerial “breathing” roots and absorb nutrients

act like siphon to get oxygen to root cells eg. , dodder, broomrapes, pinedrops

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 3 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 4 insectivorous leaves storage

leaves for catching bugs à extra eg white potatoes, elephant ears

some able to close quickly, some hold water, some the “eyes” of a are axillary produce sticky secretions & heads eg. venus trap, pitcher plants, sundews in both the stem is almost nonexistent D. Food & Water Storage à very short internodes succulent stems bulbs are surrounded by fleshy nonphotosynthetic,

storage leaves used to store water

usually partly underground eg. cacti, euphorbs

covered by -like scales (=modified leaves) succulent leaves frequenty form smaller “daughter bulbs” some leaves (rather than stem) are adapted for storing water eg. lilies, , , , etc

thick, fleshy leaves head has whorled leaves surrounding very short stem

eg. jade plant, vera some outer leaves are green and photosynthetic

tuberous roots & Storage no paper-like scales

often biennials in 1st yr before “bolting” portions of some roots are enlarged for food storage

eg. sweet potatoes,

rhizomes are underground stems tuberous stems in some plants they are enlarged to store food

some rhizomes produce greatly thickened ends eg. irises

= fleshy underground stems enlarged for food

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 5 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 6

E. Protection horizontal above ground stems that grow along surface of ground

spines have long internodes

stems or leaves modified for protection against buds develop along stolon giving rise to new plants eg , bermuda grass, airplane plants some spines arising from the axils of leaves are modified stems = thorns rhizomes eg. large thorns of locust and mesquite trees horizontal underground stems most spines are modified leaves resemble roots but have nodes, buds etc, spines can be formed from whole leaf each piece can become a separate new plant eg. cacti eg irises, , , many grasses, etc or just portion of leaf; 2. complex symbioses with fungi, and eg. , young live leaves animals enhance survival and efficiency

prickles eg. fungi à mycorrhizae

some stems produce surface prickles but they are not eg. bacteria à root nodules an integral part of the stem eg. in they are outgrowths of the or ground just beneath epidermis [more later]

à they break off easily 3. much more efficient transport tissues

eg structure of both and are more efficient than in F. 4. no asexual reproductive organs or produced runners (=stolons) 5. sexual reproductive is the

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 7 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 8 most (not all) have both male and mostly parts

à with male and female parts = most flowering plants are

some are dioecious with separate male or female a typical flower has 4 main parts: flowers a. b. great diversity in flower structure c. (male) = filament + anther àgreatly enhances reproductive success d. pistils (female) = + style +

6. protected within a a. sepals

produce resistant as in lowermost but better protection inside fruit leaflike covers and protects flower

cones produced ‘naked seeds’ all sepals together = calyx

angiosperms surround seed with fruit b. petals also offers much greater variety of dispersal whorl just above (inside) sepals Flower Structure great variation in size, shape and color in flowering plants, occurs in flowers sometimes fused to form tube

all petals together = corolla are temporary structures c. stamens are extremely variable in size and shape just inside petals eg. flower is up to 3 ft across

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 9 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 10

consist of filament and anthers b. or male and female flowers on the same plant à monoecious (hermaphrodite)

anther = sac like structure that produces eg. sedges, , , and a few of these can apparently switch their c. pistil à transsexuals; males produce female flowers and producing male flowers female reproductive organs a flower with all four different parts = complete flower

sometimes there are many pistils lacking one or more = incomplete flower

each pistil consists of: some of these variations are due to the way flowers are pollinated stigma àon which pollen pollen grains must travel from anther of one flower to style àneck like structure stigma of another

ovary àsac like, contains one or more self à pollen travels to stigma of same flower

only a few flowers are self pollinating

cross pollination à pollen travels to stigma of different plant each contains an egg the flower evolved to facilitate fertilization of the many variations in flower structure egg

in some species the flowers are unisexual in most conifers, pollen is carried by to female cone a relatively random process à separate male and female flowers a large part of the success of flowering plants is due to esp in wind pollinated plants, esp trees and the variety of pollenation a. sometimes on different plants à dioecious à provides much better mixing of eg. , poplars

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 11 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 12 large amounts of pollen produced

eg. oak, , grasses; including some of our most flowering plants have coevolved with many kinds of important – , corn and animals through most of their history 2. the color, smell and of most flowers is to petals colorful and large attract the appropriate pollenator often with nectaries this close relationship between plants and pollinators has resulted in much less pollen produced

can be attracted by showy flowers, smell &/or nectar à mutual for mutual benefits a. & pollinated plant: petals, scent, nectaries pollenate more flowers than any other group : special body parts and behaviors 20,000 different species of are important pollinators We like to think of animals as the most ‘evolved’ lifeforms for many plants à but plants lack brains, muscles, speech yet they don’t need them - they borrow animals to do their bidding bees have very good vision In some instances the relationships have become very bees pollenate mainly spring flowers specialized such that only a single species of animal can pollinate a particular species of plant. flowers generally shallow (short mouthparts)

1. wind pollinated honeybees are attracted to nectar

they also gather pollen often grow in dense

flowers often delicately sweet and fragrant many small inconspicuous flowers

flowers are generally brightly colored petals reduced

predominately blue or violet markings pistils and stamens exposed

rarely pure red (pure red appears black to them) numerous stamens and conspicuous

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 13 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 14

flowers often have lines or distinctive with no true roots or leaves markings that as “ guides” now known to be in pointsettia à lead bees to nectar parasitic on vines in () some of these markings are only seen in UV light produces a huge speckled flower on little stem à invisible to us, not bees with no leaves

b. pollinated largest known flower:

flowers generally large and open flower bud size of basketball

usually white or dull in color flower up to 1 m across; weighs up to 10 kg

( cant see as well as bees) smells like rotting meat

flowers tend to have a strong yeasty, spicy or fruity , fruit is eaten by three shrews and other sometimes unpleasant to us d. butterflies secrete no nectar but may supply food as pollen or in special storage cells in petals sweet fragrance and provide nectar

most eat parts of the flower fused petals force insect to crawl into flower for nectar

eg. , nectaries are usually at bases of deep spur that only butterflies and can reach with their c. carrion mouthparts

tend to be dull red or brown or white some butterflies can detect red flowers

often have foul resembling rotting meat eg. daisy family: butterfly bush= Buddelias, goldenrods, blazing star eg. skunk eg. monarchs à pollenate milkweeds eg. = Rafflesia e. pollinated a parasitic of SE Asia white or yellow large tubular flowers early botanists thought it might be a Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 15 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 16 heavy fragrance in some plants slight electric fields that form around flowers may open at , closed in daylight lure pollinators, such as bees, much as color and fragrance do eg. , night blooming , night blooming 3. pollinated

f. ants mainly in tropics

dense clusters of small flowers near ground large bell or disk shaped flower with long stems to put flowers away from rest of plant sticky pollen dull color; open at night with nectar strong musky smell (fermentation products) eg. some composites produce large quantities of pollen and nectar h. eg. , organpipe cactus, some century plants wasps have very good vision 4. other mammals flower preferences similar to bees

especially in tropics but wasps pollenate mainly in summer

some flowers are pollenated by wasps are much less “hairy” so not very good pollenators lemurs

flowers are generally brightly colored marsupials

giraffeà predominately blue or violet markings

flowers generally shallow (short mouthparts) 5. geckos

flowers often delicately sweet and fragrant with nectar certain flowers produce colored that are preferred by or fruit juices geckoes

eg. fig wasps exclusively pollenate almost 1000 6. species of tropical fig trees have poor sense of smell, but excellent vision eg. some species of orchids resemble certain wasp females that attract only one species of wasps Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 17 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 18

hummingbirds eyes are sensitive to red which insects generally eg. in some grasses pollen is released into the water forming don’t see small floating rafts which float to the flower of another plant frequently bright red or yellow flowers Role of Pollinators in Modern World little if any odor without pollinators many plants cannot be fertilized to fused petals with nectary deeply hidden produce seeds

produce copious quantities of nectar 90% of worlds flowering plants are animal pollinated

long floral tubes prevent most insects from reaching the nectar àincluding 80% of world’s 1330 cultivated species eg. fuschias, , morning glories, , cardinal flowers, trumpet creepers, columbines, à 1/3rd of US agricultural crops are insect pollinated

7. Ballistic Pollenation [grains, eg wheat, corn, rice are wind pollenated] A few plants have anthers with filaments that are spring loaded and are able to launch pollen up into the air or onto nearby 120,000 – 200,000 animal species are pollinators insects for dispersal à including >1000 sp of and mammals eg. a bunchberry dogwood has tiny flowers opens in less than half a millisecond flinging pollen upwards honeybee pollination services are 60-100x’s more valuable than the honey they produce à the fastest plant motion of any kind on record in US ~1/2 of honeybee colonies have been lost in 8. water pollenation last 50 years à 25% in last 5 yrs alone

threats: eg. in species of the male flower develops underwater habitat loss & fragmentation

loss of nesting and sites when mature it breaks off and floats to the surface intense exposure to and

introduction of exotic species the flower of the female plant floats on the surface and is attached by a long stalk to the rest of the plant

the male flower floats over and onto the female flower to pollenate it

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 19 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 20 Fertilization: complete with embryonic root, stem and leaves

2. food the processes above just get the pollen to the stigma

of another plants pistil the nutrients are used by the germinating seed until true leaves can begin photosynthesis if the pollen is of the correct species it will begin to grow a down through the style to 3. seed coat the ovary which contains the eggs tough, for protection the pollent tube is attracted by specific chemicals to “find” the egg in the ovary à most seeds will survive 5-10 yrs

a single pollen grain can fertilize one egg. some with very tough outer coats have

sprouted after 100’s or 1000’s years in flowers with many eggs, need many pollen

grains eg. 365 yr old “beggars tick” seeds from the Atocha

($130 M in , and emeralds-Mel Fisher) each pollen grain contains a that were brought up from the ship and placed in “swims” down the fluid filled pollen tube and freshwater to clean and preserve them. A couple fertilizes an egg germinated and one grew into an adult plant

eg. seeds of water lotus have survived more than 1000 the from pollenation to fertilization varies from years hours to years eg. a ( dactylifera) seed was discovered during excavation of King Herod’s The Seed: palace and sprouted after 2000 years seed = plant with stored nutrients in a eg. seeds from the Arctic flower Lupines arcticus protective shell sprouted after 10,000 years in frozen silt

seed size varies from: mature seed consists of: eg. dustlike à orchids 1. plant embryo eg. 60lbs à double Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 21 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 22

Seed Dispersal Mechanisms: The Fruit 1. wind seeds are not naked as in most gymnosperms one of most important As the ovule develops into a seed; the ovary portion of the pistil increases greatly in size and becomes a. small, light seeds a fruit eg. orchids à seeds resemble dust

à fruit = a ripened ovary containing seeds b. hairlike appendages

eg. pod = fruit; peas = seeds eg. dandelions, milkweeds

, and all develop from ovaries th th c. winged seeds only 1/8 to 1/4 inch in diameter eg. , bigonia causes great drain on food supply d. whole plant dispersal

à vegetative growth often ceases when are eg. (=Russian ) developing e. automobiles pinching off some flower buds results in larger fruits that are left small seeds and fruits hitch hiking on vehicles or swept along in the traffic wind vortices contribute The tissues of fruit and seed enhance survival and significantly to dispersal along highways may aid in dispersal this method is particularly effective for invasive plant species à can provide food for germinating seed 2. edible fruits à protects seed from attracts birds or mammals

à distributes new plants to areas away from may eat whole fruit or spit out pits parent plant if swallowed seeds resistant to digestive juices Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 23 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 24

squirrels and birds bury fruits and seeds

nuts stored underground are forgotten each species has an optimal temperature at which the 3. passively carried by animals largest number of seeds germinate

àmost ~ 25-30º C (77-86º F) hooks or spines to catch in or on skin

eg. some seeds, eg , require long exposure in mud on feet of birds, etc. to cold before seeds will germinate

burs, beggars ticks, devils claw, etc. water: seeds generally need plenty of water 4. water dispersal to germinate

aquatic plants rainfall washes out the abscissic acid to

rainfall allow seed to germinate

some contain airsacs to float eg. many desert plants often contain high levels of abscissic acid which ensures they will not eg. , , willow, sea bean, waterlily, germinate until they are exposed to significant mangrove rainfall

5. mechanical dispersal eg. soaking seeds in water makes them germinate quicker =explosive oxygen gas: seeds usually need adequate seeds are forcibly ejected from fruit oxygen to germinate

many cast seeds several feet away from parent plant requires a great deal of energy to convert stored food to ATP by aerobic eg. violets respiration

Seed Germination àtherefore needs oxygen for germination numerous factors affect whether and when a seed seeds in saturated or buried too deeply usually will not germinate germinates; for example:

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 25 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 26

some plants, eg rice, can begin growth without oxygen à flooded soil

light: some plants, especially those with tiny seeds require light for germination

eg. seeds will germinate only if very close to surface of soil

otherwise it may not have enough food reserves to grow to surface to begin photosynthesis

physical abrasion

eg. (, peas) have extremely hard thick seed coats that prevent water and oxygen from entering

sometimes require a trip through the digestive tract of an animal before they will germinate

eg. most “ trees” ( grandiflorum) on the island of Mauritius are >300 years old.

Seeds produced by the tree rarely germinate.

One explanation is that the hard seeds had to pass through the gut of the now extinct dodo before they would germinate.

Once the bird went extinct (~300 yrs ago) there were no animals left that would adequately “prepare” the seeds for germination

So today, very few seed germinate at all

eg. some plants germinate more successfully if rubbed with sandpaper or scratched with a knife before planting Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 27 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 28 eg. quaking aspen ( Pando sp.). one grove may Asexual Reproduction contain 47,000 trees, cover 43 ha and weighs in Flowering Plants 6,000,000 kg) like conifers, flowering plants have given up the plants also have great powers of regeneration production of spores as a major means of asexual à if a , bud, limb or root breaks off it reproduction will sometimes take root and germinate into a new plant energy is put into a much more effective form of sexual reproduction artificially, plants are cloned by and rooting some plants reproduce regularly asexually by Grafting freshly cut surfaces of 2 stems are bound together budding or fragmentation firmly so that two cambial layers are in contact

eg. jumping cholla callus forms of undifferentiated cells

eg. maternity plant differentiation in callus cells forms uniting the two stems but most flowering plants can reproduce asexually in due to some of the modifications of most successful grafts are between members of same species (ie varieties) vegetative structures mentioned previously navel (seedless) oranges are propagated only by à adventitious roots grafting à tuberous roots à runners (=stolons) Stem Cuttings à rhizomes of some plants (eg , willow, roses) placed in à suckers moist soil produce adventitious roots à bulbs

many flowering plants grow in large interconnected colonies in this way

eg. some creosote bush , , aspen

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 29 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 30

Economic Value of Flowering Plants virtually all crop plants are flowering plants

1. perhaps our greatest direct dependence eg. monocots: grains, corn, millet, , etc is as food crops eg. dicots: , lettuce, beans, tomatoes, potatoes

nearly 70% of all the food we eat are flowering most crops come from a single family: The plants grasses (Gramineae)

including the 3 main food plants: plants were some of the first to be wheat à 54% of world (3.1 Bil) genetically modified successfully by rice à 34% (2 Bil) selection over 1000’s of years corn à 12% (0.7 Bil)

today genetic modification continues at the cellular some agricultural plants have developed such a level and is even more fruitful and has much high degree if interdependence with more immediate results that they no longer can survive in the wild

however today’s version is much more controversial, and for some, a cause for concern; for others eg. mays just a modern version of ancient practices evolved from teosinte - an American grass research is now showing that the food we eat has been directly altering the behavior of our genes all unless removed and individually husked; corn can no along longer reproduce on its own

cabbage, rise, , possibly all plants we eat eg. root crops contain micro RNA’s that get absorbed and many are biennial: beets, , rutabagas, circulate in our bodies , horse , carrots, , yams, eg. can alter genes that control cholesterol levels eg. leaf crops

cabbage, , lettuce, , chard, & eg. cosmetic researchers found that a pill (petioles only) containing a mix of food extracts can

cause our genes to boost collagen levels to reduce wrinkles 2. caffeine beverages: teas, , cocoa

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 31 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 32 caffeine – a plant alkaloid “produced” in SE Asia when a palm civet (a catlike ) eats ripe coffee beans off the common additive in coffee, teas, soft drinks, the ripest reddest beans are the most preferred for stimulate CNS, speeds heartbeat, increases blood pressure, coffee and the preferred beans of this animal stimulates breathing constricts blood vessels the animal eats and digests the outer covering of the bean used to alleviate fatigue and drowsiness the rest of the bean is “flavor enhanced” as it passes through the civets digestive tract and is excreted whole improves athletic performance is sold for up to $75 for a quarter pound of coffee

like many drugs caffeine is addictive and can b. teas cause withdrawal symptoms according to the Chinese, tea was discovered a. coffee by the Emperor Shen Nung in 2737 BC when a tea leaf fell into a pot of water made from the seeds of arabica, being boiled for drinking. native to mountains of Ethiopia today, tea is the world’s most popular used for 1000’s of years beverage, next to water at first beans were eaten whole tea is made from dried leaves of later were crushed and mixed with fat and sinensis, a small tree or native to eaten , Tibet, and burma

roasting the seeds and producing a drink each plant is pruned to ensure shrubby growth similar to our coffee didn’t begin until 13th century in Yemen the best tea is made from the terminal bud and top two leaves of each branch today coffee trees are cultivated in tropical harvested tea is: dried worlds most expensive coffee: Kopi Luwak coffee rolled to break up cells fermented Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 33 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 34

fired to stop the fermentation process and further reduce moisture content leaves processing: àturn dark black =black tea begins with roasting to develop the rich color and full flavor green teas are not fermented and dried as much the seeds are then cracked open and à leaves remain green crushed to produce a dark brown oily paste or oolong tea are partially fermented and dried to light greenish brown color this paste can be solidified into squares of baking chocolate the aroma & flavor of tea is created mainly by the and in the leaves or the cocoa butter can be removed from the paste with heat and pressure green tea seems to have cancer preventative leaving behind cocoa powder properties cocoa butter has many uses: stimulating effects of some teas due to mainly to produce chocolate caffeine used to produce confectionery c. chocolate: chocolate or white chocolate

used for beverages and . also used in suntan lotions, soaps and cosmetics Extracted from the seed of the cacao tree ( cacao) which is native to 3. cooking oils tropical Central and South America. eg. corn, canola, , , , etc (not same as plant the source of ) 4. and seasonings the small tree grows as plant in tropical forests, requires wet warm ancient peoples were probably first attracted to

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 35 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 36 spices by their scents one of the oldest and most valuable spices known

use has been documented from ancient by Egyptians, ancient Egyptians used and spices Greeks, Romans and Chinese extensively in , cooking , embalming and as and incense was one of the main spices sought in the early explorations

comes from the bark of an tree during the time of the ancient Greeks, the zeylanicum native to India and Sri Lanka, other trade was flourishing between the varieties are from SE Asia Mediterranean region and the Far East grows best under wet, tropical conditions

eg. cinnamon, , , ginger outer layer of bark is scraped away and inner bark curls into

“quills”(=cinnamon sticks) many were lost then rediscovered by Marco Polo in 1200’s sticks can be ground into powder

in addition to its use as a food spice it has been used in eg. black pepper , perfumes and other scents

one of the earliest spices known eg.

the most widely used spice today cloves are the unopened flower buds of

caryophyllata, an evergreen tree black pepper is obtained from the dried of

nigrum, a climbing vine native to India and the East valued in ancient China where used to sweeten the breath Indies of court officials

the berries are picked green just before they ripen buds must be picked with care since once opened they are

useless as a spice they are allowed to dry for a few days causing them to

blacken and shrivel after picking, buds are dried and marketed as whole cloves

or ground and used in desserts, beverages, meats, begin to lose their flavor after grinding pickling, sauces and gravies à fresh ground are preferred

in Indonesia, cloves are mixed with for cigars and whole=peppercorns, or ground cigarettes

eg. Cinnamon has also been used in medicines, disinfectants,

mouthwashes, toothpaste, soaps and perfumes Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 37 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 38

eg stigmas are dried and roasted

obtained from the nutmeg tree, fragrans, native to retail US (1998): $240.00/oz the Spice Islands eg. Chili Peppers the pit of the fruit of this tree is cured until the seed is freed from the pit a new world spice, cultivated for >9000 yrs

the nutmeg seed is sold whole or ground these peppers are fruit of the pepper plant, sp., which includes 5 cultivated species and 100’s of nutmeg has received some notoriety as a potential varieties includes mild sweet bell peppers & many varieties of hot however need very large quantities peppers such as cayenne, tabasco,

such quantities would cause nausea, vomiting, a member of the family dizziness and headaches the biting taste is due to several alkaloids, esp capsaicin eg. mainly found in seeds and placental area world’s most expensive spice bell pepper has almost no capsaicin; in others, even obtained from the stigmas of the flower of the autumn handling can irritate the skin , , in the family has also been used in pepper spray plant is native to eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor and by physicians in creams that are applied to relieve pain was much desired by many ancient civilizations of arthritis, shingles and cluster headaches

today most (70%) Saffron comes from Spain eg.

purple flowers appear in autumn, short blooming period also a new world spice (2 wks) the only spice obtained from an orchid, , a flowers must be picked in full bloom before perennial vine native to tropical of Central à often the critical time for the harvest is just a few America and hrs today also cultivated in Madagascar and islands of Indian once picked, flowers are carefully stripped of their stigmas; must be done before the flower wilts Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 39 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 40 produces elongated pods that are processed into the vanilla eg. root spices: beans , sarsaparillo, licorice, flowers are hand pollinated eg. stem spices: pods are picked while green and are cured for several months by heating and fermenting, then dried cinnamon uncured beans lack the characteristic vanilla flavor which is due to vanillin, a chemical synthesized during the eg. leaf spices: curing process

bay leaves, sage, thyme, , , taqrragon, today, vanillin can be synthesized chemically from clove oil, , , , cilantro, parsley from plp or tar to produce imitation vanilla extract 5. : the lumber from flowering plants (eg. extracts of tonka beans, odorata, are sometimes oaks, , hickories, maple, etc) are referred passed off as vanilla extract. A dangerous substitute to as since these beans contain , a blood thinner

that could cause internal hemorrhaging wood is generally much denser than of conifers

eg. licorice plant ( glabra) eg. lumber from ironwoods doesn’t float, its denser than water

ancient Chines and Greeks used licorice as a cold remedy, a. oaks digestive aid, wound healer and treatment

wood is heavy and strong, about twice as dense as white >400 biologically active chemicals have been found in plant , resilient, durable, impermeable to liquids

flavor comes from anethole, an also found in eg. makes good barrels, flooring, cabinets, furniture and

eg. 1 100-gun wooden sailing ship (mid-late 1700’s) took also contains glycyrrhizin which may interfere with 80 acres of oak to build and cause imbalances in body chemistry

and high blood pressure and heart problems in b. susceptible people

harder than oak, shock resistant, beauty of grain, good eg. sasparilla à roots of greenbriar, machining properties,

eg. choice for fine furniture and interior eg. sassafras à bark of sassafras tree paneling

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 41 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 42

c. ash the market for ornamental flowers and cut plants resilient, straight grained, stiffness, strength, good bending abilities, remains smooth as it wears totals over $70 Billion/yr in sales eg. used for baseball , tennis racquets, oars, skis, long tool handles is also a huge area of research to develop new

d. maple varieties

smooth, hard, strong 7. commercial products: eg. Romans used for spears and lances eg. bowling pins and bowling alleys, dance floors, toys eg. spools, bobbins, cue sticks, croquet balls wood alcohol: esp from oaks and hickories /rubber, adhesives e. maple syrup

light and soft sugar eg. clothespins, toothpicks, thread spools tanning materials from oak

f. 8.

eg. wood paneling, hockey sticks, church pews dyes g.

eg. furniture, shipbuilding not used as much today

h. yew eg. indigo à stems and leaves of Indian eg. saffron à stigmas of crocus eg. English longbows were made from this eg. black dyes à logwood from tropical Americas

i. eg. madder à roots of

hardwood; hardness, strength, toughness, resiliency 9. Perfumes & Incense eg. in horse and buggy days was widely used for wheel spokes and rims the art of perfumery has been practiced for at eg. handles of impact tools like axes and hammers, skis least 4000 years

6. & ornamentals

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 43 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 44 based on the plant chemicals used to attract and animals for chemicals that might have pollenators clinical applications

The Pseudoscience of Neutriceuticals two of the longest used scents, frankincense and myrr come from the of two species of nutraceutical industry is multibillion dollar industry

flowering trees makes sometimes fantastic claims that have never been verified by scientific evaluation

10. pharmaceutical extracts Americans spend $14 B/yr on health related that have not been scientifically validated

are secondary plant products, especially alkaloids there is no law that regulates the claims that can be made on these products

100’s of plant extracts (alkaloids) are known to only a few have been tested recently have pharmaceutical applications eg. Houston health food stores & herbal remedies à all those contacted said they had herbs that eg. atropine; active ingredient in belladonna from roots would treat or cure HIV/AIDS and leaves of nightshade nightshade à belladonna à atropine 11. Psychoactive Plants & Illegal Drugs eg. eg. extracted from bark of tree for treatment of malaria a. Caffeine eg. jimsonweed à scopolamine à hallucinogenic native Americans used for puberty rights and rituals : eg. aloe used to treat burns and rashes 75-150 mg/cup of coffee eg. digitalisàleaves of foxglove 30-60 mg/cup of tea eg. à alkaloid of 30-70 mg/12oz soft drink eg. strychnine à from seed of asian tree, Nux vomica 30-70 mg/OTC pain releivers eg. ipecac 100-200mg used as OTC eg. eucalyptus oil 80mg mg/4oz bar of chocolate eg. castor oil à from seeds of castor bean eg. à distilled from wood of Asiatic tree low to moderate doses increased alertness and many additional plants and herbs are thought to better ability to concentrate have medicinal properties but many/most have not yet been scientifically evaluated higher doses cause nervousness and agitation

drug companies regularly screen unusual plants Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 45 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 46

overdose poisoning: tremors, nausea, is addictive yet lacks mind altering effects of vomiting, irregular or rapid heart beat; alcohol, other stimulants and opiates confusion, panic attacks extreme: delirious or seizures increases heart beat, irregular beat, fatalities extremely rare but possible increased blood pressure

can interfere with other drugs that raise blood tobacco is the leading cause of preventable pressure deaths in US (18% of population

smokes2014) b. Nicotine for each 1000 tons of tobacco produced 1000 people will die from tobacco related illnesses extracted from the tobacco plant causes cancer, heart disease, strokes powerful stimulant to heart teens, esp women, more likely to develop

osteoporosis, vertebral fracture and hip taken with cocaine puts far more stress on heart than fracture either alone

stimulates Ach receptors in brain abt 1 Billion people worldwide smoke daily à excites nerve cells à may improve memory worldwide tobacco related illnesses are

estimated to cost $200 B/yr direct and may cause dizziness, weakness or nausea indirect costs

dangerous OD rare but possible c. Marijuana (hash) à would cause tremors and convulsions and resp failure active ingredients: various forms of THC ; 1-8% of marijuana products reaches fetus in pregnant women and can

cause permanent damage to fetus brain has receptors

à stimulates pleasure centers in brain Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 47 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 48 but it was the most important drug in Indian History medicine

by 1930’s Eli Lilly and Parke-Davis were may have been cultivated up to 10,000 years marketing extracts and tinctures ago medical use declined from 30’s as it was native to central Asia replaced by synthetic drugs

staple crop of ancient China: in 1994, US Distr Court of Appeals (under used for food, fiber, oil, paper, medicine heavy pressure from FDA) judged cannabis had no medicinal value in US 1940’s it was patriotic duty of American farmers to grow it for Current medicinal uses:

early 1900’s 1st American conference on a. Glaucoma medicinal uses of marijuana >2M Americans have glaucoma 80,000 Americans go blind due to glaucoma was used to successfully treat: leading cause of preventable blindness in US stomach pain 8x’s more common in nonwhites psychosis successful drug deals with most cases chronic cough if ineffective can undergo risky surgical gonorrhea treatments as an analgesic canasol = sterile opthalmic preparation of antiinflammatory cannabis India, late 1800’s used therapeutically for: à effectively lowers IOP and prevents further damage to optic nerve

cramps spasms convulsions headache asthma piles delerium diuretics b. To treat symptoms of hysteria neuralgia sciatica tetanus chemotherapy for cancer often causes violent bronchitis flatulence impotence tonic uncontrolled nausea and vomiting ague cholera hydrophobia dysentery conventional medicines don’t work for this catarrha dyspepsia sedative disinfectant people who smoked MJ before chemotherapy leprosy brain fever gonorrhea hay fever TB diabetes toothache aphrdesiac reported enormous help not that it was actually effective against all these à stopped vomiting and even made them hungry

c. to treat anorexia associated with weight loss Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 49 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 50

in AIDS patients also untreatable by any other drug Overuse: stimulates appetite reduces intense nausea of disease and the AZT estimates are that abt 9% of marijuana users become therapy addicted

d. other potential treatments in 5000 years no reported cases of fatal overdose à spasticity due to spinal injury >1M in US à as treatment for pain and headaches lethal dose is virtually impossible

in small children à may cause coma in large doses : combined with cocaine may be dangerous to heart

marijuana smokers are at higher risk of people with heart disease and high blood pressure lung damage than tobacco smokers may be at risk à extra load on heart even though they usually smoke less often d. Cocaine damages lungs, chronic bronchitis and probably lung cancer effects similar to amphetamines: alertness,

à 3-4 joints/day ~ 1 pk cigarettes/day pleasure, sense of well-being, lower anxiety and social inhibitions and heighten impairs judgement and coordination energy, self esteem , sexuality and emotions of interpersonal experiences à users ~2x’s more likely to have a car accident acts by increasing actions of GABA in brain continuous use

lower sperm count irregular menstrual cycle most users do not become dependent may decrease fertility may suppress of 30 M americans who have tried it, 80% have not cannabis is linked to a 41% increase risk become regular users, 90% are not addicted to of developing psychotic illnesses such as the drug schizophrenia (lancet, 2007) those who start a in their teens have smoking (free basing) allows the drug to reach significantly lower IQ than non users by the time they reach middle age Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 51 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 52 brain quicker and increases liklihood of creates social problems: depression, abuse paranoia, addiction

symptoms of stimulant abuse: anxiety, nightmares, hostility, rage

impaired and memory acute: esp in high dose, binge users: impaired judgement combined with other sedatives can cause fatal impulsiveness repression of breathing and heart failure hypersexuality extreme psychomotor activation e. Belladonna

abstinence after binging: alkaloid from jimsonweed crash à exhaustion, intense depression, anxiety only major group of used withdrawalà decreased energy and reduced medicinally interest and ability to experience pleasure, drug craving used for 1000’s of years: extinctionà diminshing episodic drug craving used during middle ages to dilate pupils for used as anesthesia and as sedatives in over enhancement of beauty: word means ”beautiful 2500 kinds of medicines woman”

à almost all are used illegally, recreationally works differently than other hallucinogens

also reduces anxiety àblocks 1 group of acetylcholine receptors that slows heartbeat and helps form though made for medical purposes the main memories difference is in potency depresses parasympathetic system overdose: at low doses is effective treatment for asthma lethal à esp if heart problems and some stomach problems

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 53 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 54

has other effects on: long term problems:

body temperatureà can rise to dangerous impotence, reproductive problems levels is addictive affects memory à amnesia à neglect health, risky behavior (eg. f. Opium & Heroin shared needles)

extracted from 12. Commercical uses:

by 1900 >50,000 different brands of opiated a. from bark of cork tree formulas eg. = cork tree

affects the release of many neurotransmitters grows on >30 M acres in Spain and Portugal renewable opiate receptors in brain react to endorphins & à harvesters carefuly strip away outer bark enkephalins, related to: without damaging

pain reduction harvested about every 9 - 10 years well being/euphoria suppressed breathing cork used for: stoppers gaskets drowsiness preservers fishing floats flooring insulation drugs generally stimulate all receptors at once instead of individual activation has flourished in these cork oak forests

use of plastic corks may force cork farmers to turn to can be lethal anytime other crops – may destroy balanced

but especially when injecting b. fiber

especially dangerous when used with alcohol, for clothing, rope, baskets etc barbiturates and Valium-like drugs

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 55 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 56 cottonà #1 fiber: clothing, furniture, rope, paper lightweight body armor

à linen, very fine fibers: clothing, cloth, paper ballistic glass

hemp 13. energy coarse fibers: mostly string and rope abaca wood burning c. paper alternative energy sources most paper is made from wood eg. ethanol fuel from corn & agricultural wastes

but finer come from flowering plants: switchgrass and forest residues are considerably more efficient and less polluting that corn or other crops for alcohol production linen papayrus eg. creosote bush

d. nanocrystalline 14. & Forensic Botany

made of tightly packed, needle-like, microscopic crystals a. extremely cheap to produce counting tree rings transparent & 8 times the tensile strength of steel

produced from processing wood can accurately date back to 50,000 years using wood found in archaeological sites à “natural renewable version of carbon nanotubes at a fraction of the price” b. Plant Remains being haled as the latest “wonder material” archaeologists have made extensive use of flexible electronic displays plant remains in reconstructing the computer components lifestyle of ancient peoples

replace plastic and some metal car parts not all parts of a plant are equally well

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 57 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 58

preserved accused rapist indicated that he had climbed a tree to get into a window of the victims home rather than being invited through the front door àlignified wood and fibers are most as he had claimed resistant to decay since plant materials are not digested well by eg. seeds, wood, pollen and fibers our stomachs, stomach analysis can are the most informative determine foods eaten and time since phytoliths are plant crystals that are meal with great accuracy formed in the of epidermal cells in the stems and eg. in cases of suspected plant poisoning ID can be leaves of some herbaceous plants made from leaves or fruits of intact plants

they are usually composed of eg. analysis of stomach contents: calcium salts or silica and can investigation of a eaten by victim allowed remain intact for 1000’s of investigators to identify the specific restaurant years where the victim had eaten; his companion at the time of the meal was identified and eventually the same principles of plant identification are charged used in modern forensic 15. eg. the 1st use of plant forensics was the famous 1935 Lindberg kidnapping case. some plants tend to accumulate various toxic

Bruno Hauptmann was convicted of kidnapping metals from the soil they live in: and murdering the son of Charles and Anne Lindberg. zinc, lead, chromium, nickel, selenium, copper, etc

a homemade wooden ladder used during the sometimes at levels that are toxic to most other kidnapping and left at the scene was shown to be made of wooden planks from Hauptmann’s attic life forms floor eg. some can absorb up to 4% of their body weight In modern forensics, even herbaceous plant may protect the plant from herbivores parts can be useful: eg. some trees can accumulate zinc to levels that inhibit eg. fragments of tree leaves and bark in the cuff of an insect attacks

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 59 Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 60 we can use this knowledge to remove specific elements from contaminated soils

eg. being used at Chernobyl to help remove radioactive isotopes from soil

16. Diseases of Plants

plants can be parasitized by 100’s of species of bacteria, fungi, , worms, insects

cause billions of dollars in crop damage, ornamentals, tree farms, etc

plant diseases, primarily fungal and bacteria, cost US alone over $4 Billion/yr (2000)

eg. bacteria cause diseases in , potatoes, tomatoes, squash, carrots , , cabbage and cotton

Plants:Plant Diversity-Flowering Plants; Ziser Lecture Notes, 2015.2 61