Sport Specialization: A Coach’s Role in Being Honest with Parents

By Craig Stewart and Josh Shroyer T

• • Specialization in sport evolved from the privatization of The Privatization of Sport: A Social sport and changes in parenting, and there is limited scien- tific research supporting its effectiveness (Coakley, 2010). Conflagration •• Children who specialize too early fail to develop a strong Sport specialization by youth has been linked to a combi- base of fundamental motor skills conducive to later devel- nation of social and economical factors, one of which is the Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 opment and have the potential to retard participation in a privatization of youth sport. According to Coakley (2009), to- healthy active lifestyle (Branta, 2010). day’s society has experienced a drastic increase in both single- •• It is the quality of instruction through good coaching, not parent families and families where both parents either elect or the quantity that is most important in youth sport (Bry- are forced to work outside of the home. These changes have linsky, 2010). motivated many parents to redefine the concept of a “good par- •• Although there are limited biomechanical benefits of ent.” In response to a reduction in quality time with their kids, SSYS, the hazards of overuse and reduced recovery time some parents have overcompensated by giving their children provided by some coaches are apparent (Mattson & more structured activities outside of the home. With the com- Richards, 2010). bination of the antiquated attitude of “an idle mind (and body) •• The physiological effects of SSYS have rarely been ex- is the devil’s workshop,” the increased fear of unsupervised play amined. However, overtraining and the effects of fatigue, (Rosin, 2014), the amplified visibility of professional athletes, proper hydration and thermoregulation in young athletes and a reduction in funds for many public school and nonprofit are evident (Kalieth & Milesky, 2010). programs, the stage has been set for dramatic changes in youth •• Sport psychologists have noted some benefits of SSYS for sport. One of those changes is the privatization of sport. specific skill development; however, physical and mental In the past 50 years, youth sport has exchanged the play- burnout, loss of motivation and emotional stress are po- grounds, parks and public schools for the world of private tential negative results (Gould, 2010). clubs and agencies. Although there is no exact way to deter-

10 Strategies mine numbers of participants (Kelley & Carchia, 2013), it is ideas and beliefs emphasizing that the quality of the sport ex- apparent that more youth ages 5 to 18 years old are playing perience can be measured in terms of improved skills, especially sports in the private sector compared with the public schools. in relation to the skills of others, rather than imparting values” Coakley (2010) described this as the “institutionalization” of (p. 129). youth sport. These institutions typically foster athletic elitism, The benefits of sport diversification (Table 2), or play- early identification and selection of skilled performers, and an ing multiple sports, have been replaced by SSYS, and with emphasis on specialization. Typically, parents are in charge of this change, the concepts of “the best money could buy” and the private clubs, which are rarely governed by the philosophies “more is better” developed. Adults have committed to the per- or rules of public agencies or schools. The club leaders depend formance ethic in private clubs and have found they could in- on participants’ fees for operational expenses, and as costs in- troduce policies, guidelines and practices that reflected their crease, some parents find an elitist role in their children’s sport. personal biases. Rules such as academic gates, recruitment or That elitism has perpetuated early selection and specialization. residential guidelines, restricted length of seasons, or restricted Coakley (2009) labeled it the “performance ethic” or “a set of number of games per season are now optional. The determina-

Table 1. Specialization in Youth Sports Potential Benefits Definite Risks •• Better coaching and skill instruction •• Costs •• Increased stress and pressure •• Increased skill acquisition •• Time demands •• Social isolation •• Improved time management •• Increased injury risk •• Lost childhood •• Structured use of time •• Burnout and motivation loss •• Premature identity foreclosure •• Enjoyment of sport and talent development Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016

Volume 28 • September/October 11 The Commercialization of Private Sport Table 2. Values of Sport Diversification Coinciding with Coakley, Malina (2010) stated that many •• Early diversification does not hinder elite sport parents have replaced free play with structured activities like participation. organized sport. To prevent the “idle mind” of youth and the •• Early diversification is linked to a longer sport career exaggerated dangers of “free play” in the park (Rosin, 2014), (lifelong involvement). parents’ actions have supported the growth of private opportu- •• Early diversification allows for participation in a nities across all sports. As pick-up games in the neighborhood wide range of contexts that favorably affect youth have been replaced by traveling teams and the cost of sport development. participation has increased significantly, some parents have •• More time spent in deliberate play — that is, play equated those costs with the future achievement and profes- done for its own sake that is fun and imaginative, sionalism of their children (Hyman, 2009; Malina, 2010). Pa- where adult involvement is not required, and that rental logic has become: the more money and time invested, is very flexible (modified rules) — provides a solid the better skilled their child will be, thus resulting in future foundation for intrinsic motivation via activities that benefits. Likewise, the more a child specializes in one sport, are perceived as enjoyable. the better they will be. •• Increased opportunities for deliberate play build a Within these cultural changes, commercial entrepreneurs solid foundation of fundamental motor and cognitive have found a pot of gold at the end of the youth sport rainbow. skills that can be applied to future primary sports of It has been, in fact, the birth of an industry. Private sport fa- interest. cilities, sponsored events, specialized agents and scouting firms •• Around age 13, children should be given the have evolved to ease the way to future athletic rewards. The opportunity to choose to either specialize or continue young athlete has become a commodity with investors (par- in a variety of sports at any level (recreational, ents and business people) looking to share in future earnings developmental, competitive). (Malina, 2010). The growth of youth sport has spawned a mul- •• Not until late adolescence (around 16 years of age) tibillion dollar business in the private sector (Hyman, 2013). have youth developed the physical, cognitive, social, According to CNBC News, in 2012, youth sport accounted emotional and motor skills necessary to invest their for $7 billion in travel alone. The Minnesota Amateur Sports efforts in highly specialized training in a single sport. Commission (n.d.) estimated that since 1997, with an initial state investment of approximately $27 million, the commis- Source: Côté, Baker, & Abernethy (2007); Côté, Lidor, & sion’s sport complex in Blaine generates more than $37 million Hackfort (2009). annually. Minnesota is not an exception. Cities across the na- tion host thousands of youth sport events annually, with many having use agreements requiring teams and families to book only with selected vendors. Although it is pointless to argue against the financial op- tion of success in private sports clubs too often becomes one of portunities in youth sport, it becomes an issue when the fiscal extrinsic measures. Fun, the primary intrinsic motivation for motives subvert traditional sport goals for the corporate good. most children’s start in sports, has been redefined as “getting One of the foundations of SSYS is the financial benefit of sport better and winning.” Simultaneously, participation has become club administrators and coaches. When corporate profits are more expensive. With rising costs, some parents see sport as an combined with private club survival, the potential for conflict Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 increasing investment in their children’s future. College schol- of interests is apparent. arships and/or professional careers have become primary goals. The more personal resources are invested at an earlier age in traveling teams, private lessons, expensive equipment and in- ternational tournaments, the higher the probability of future The Private Sport Pyramid: A Natural returns on the investment. Conflicts of Interest Concurrently, some parents have developed increased social- Regardless of location or size, the typical private youth sport ization and identification with other parents traveling to the organization relies on a pyramidal membership. The base or next event, summer camp or academy. Those with like mind sets entry level is broadly populated by beginners, often as young have reinforced their peers with similar beliefs and behaviors as five years old. Families are motivated by low organizational related to SSYS. When combined with the expanded media activities that maximize participation and fun. Practices are exposure of sport celebrities, some parents have found a unique short and infrequent, coaches are parent volunteers with little social circle in which to belong. Following their children’s teams or no training, and scores or standings are rarely kept. Every- across the country has become a family event, a financial com- one plays and gets a brownie (or more likely a Gatorade) at mitment and, too often, a social obsession. It is understandable, halftime. This continues until around age eight when adults therefore, that as the numbers grow, private youth sport attracts initiate more competitive environments. Practices are regularly economical opportunists. scheduled and the results of games are publicly documented.

12 Strategies ships? Does year-round participation actually achieve greater The members of American rewards later in a child’s sport career? And finally, what physical and psychological harm may result from SSYS? Medical Society of Sports Medicine encouraged Probability of Scholarships According to Malina (2010), many parents have unrealis- sport diversity in young tic expectations in the pursuit of athletic scholarships for their athletes while highlighting children. When considering the probability of a son or daugh- ter receiving an athletic scholarship to any university or col- the negative effects of lege, the facts are clear. Depending on the sport and the gender of the athlete, the odds of getting an athletic scholarship are sport specialization and well below 10%. In fact, very few high school athletes continue to play in college, and even fewer receive any athletic financial overscheduling of games aid. According to the National Collegiate Athletic Association and training. (NCAA, 2014), only about 2% of high school seniors receive athletic financial assistance, and that assistance is often lim- ited and constrained. Many parents spend more in a year on competitive youth sports than scholarship athletes receive in a similar period (Hyman, 2013). However, the pursuit of schol- The competitive atmosphere intensifies, as does the pressure to arships resonates with many parents, who often pressure their commit to the sport for extended periods of time. Seasons get children to spend more time on sports than academics. The ath- progressively longer, and perhaps a final jamboree or low-key letes and their parents fail to accept that even in the pursuit of tournament is initiated. Paid coaches from the upper levels of scholarships, academic performance is as important as athletic the pyramid now offer off-season camps, and traveling teams achievements. are introduced. However, assuming that coaches will not be able to change By age 12, competitive events and traveling teams are com- the unrealistic expectations of some parents, they need to edu- mon in most clubs. The increase in competition requires tryouts cate parents on the realities of athletic scholarships (Table 3). and, too often, elimination (cuts) of lesser-skilled players. Of The more ethical sport scouting agencies list three consider- course, those who are cut are encouraged to continue in the ations for high school athletes and their parents. First, they have club to hone their skills and try again next year. At the more competitive levels, some coaches have formal training and are paid a salary. The older teams’ numbers have been reduced by tryouts but have increased costs in the form of expensive uni- Table 3. The Reality of Sport Scholarships forms, coaches’ salaries, access to better training facilities, and travel. With fewer numbers yet increased costs, the sources of Most athletic scholarships are: conflict of interest keep increasing. •• only partial in nature. That is, they only cover some of Along with cuts, other factors are contributing to a decrease the costs, yet those athletes have the same time and in the number of older players. Approximately 50% of all kids

Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 energy commitment as the athlete on full scholarship. drop out of sports by age 14 (Woods, 2011). Players who are •• one-year renewable awards based on the prior season’s cut rarely return, and other interests, injuries or poor coaching performance and the ongoing academic record of the behaviors eliminate others (Stewart, 2013; Stewart & Taylor, athlete. 2000). The decrease in players and increase in costs create a fis- •• on average, about $11,000 per year at National cal dilemma for club administrators. To counter these trends, Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I the only logical budgetary solution is to maintain and expand institutions and much less at smaller schools the pyramidal structure of the club. Club officers must maintain •• highly related to grades in high school. the number of younger children while increasing parents’ costs •• dependent on continued academic progress toward via longer seasons and more games. Six-week programs that a real degree. The NCAA now requires athletic started at a modest fee become three months at double the cost, departments to annually track, document and report then two seasons a year, and finally year-round participation or athletes’ academic progress toward a valid academic specialization. degree. These administrative and financial realities exist, and al- •• requiring coaches to restrict the athletes’ academic though it is not the role of the coaches to change them, it is major and/or their ability to change majors once they their role to communicate all aspects of sport specialization to enroll. parents. It is also the coaches’ duty to address the following questions: What are the realities of college athletic scholar-

Volume 28 • September/October 13 to find a program that has scholarships to offer. Most coaches who “specialized” reaped any benefits from the experience, a have very limited scholarships annually because of NCAA fact hardly illuminated by those who advocate SSYS. limitations and current rosters. Because of this, many coaches Lindsey Vonn, international and Olympic skier, like Phelps, split scholarships and create partial awards. Second, within any began her athletic career early. But while she enjoyed success, given year, coaches have specific needs for their teams. If a high her career caused significant family upheaval. At age 11, she school senior is a specialty player (e.g., a catcher, a goalie, a and her mother permanently moved to Colorado to train at left wing) yet the team has three players in that specialty re- Ski Club Vail. Her two brothers and two sisters remained in turning, there is no need to even apply. Finally, athletes have to Minnesota with their father. Vonn said she “missed all the be dedicated to selling themselves to the coach by being very traditional things of childhood like sleepovers, school dances, talented and committed to being a full-time student-athlete. and making friends in a conventional way.” Halfway through In summary, thousands of senior high school athletes gradu- her second season, the whole family moved to Vail. “Now all ate annually, but only a few hundred collegiate athletic scholar- my brothers and sisters had left their friends for me. That was ships are available. Most of those are only partially funded and stressful on them. I felt so guilty,” Vonn said. Her skiing career cover far less than the actual costs of an education that could ended in 2014 due to repeated injuries (Battaglia, 2014). be extremely restricted by sport participation. So, if very good In contrast, the following are examples of other prominent athletic skills are required to even be considered for a scholar- professional athletes whose biographies exhibit sport diversifi- ship, won’t specialization improve that possibility? Well, maybe, cation (Table 3): but at what risk? •• Peyton Manning noted that basketball, and foot- ball were always part of his household, and he attributes The Fallacy of Improved Performance his early athletic development to the shared family enjoy- , former big league pitcher, immortalized by the ment of these sports. He believes his passion for football, elbow operation that bears his name, turns away all inquiries in particular, stems from the fundamental lessons his fa- to work one-on-one with young children in the off-season. ‘I ther taught him. could give thirty lessons a week at $100 a lesson during the •• Michael Jordan became interested in sports early. How- winter – just to eight to twelve year olds. I refuse to do it . ever, it was baseball, not basketball, that was his first love. . . Those kids do not need to be playing baseball year round. His father loved baseball, but Michael started to play bas- What they (parents) do not understand, and will never un- ketball to follow in the footsteps of his older brother. As derstand, is it makes no difference whether you start at eight a sophomore, he tried out for the varsity basketball team or eighteen. I can take a kid who has never pitched in his life but was not selected due to limited skills and size. until he is seventeen. By the time he is nineteen he will throw • as well as or better than the kid who has been pitching since he • Mia Hamm, former player on the U.S. women’s national was eight . . . and with less wear and tear on his arm. (Hyman, soccer team, played many sports as a youngster in Ala- Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 2009, pp. 21–22) bama. Her father was in the military, which provided the opportunity to play a variety of sports in many countries. As mentioned earlier, Michael Phelps specialized early and She was not introduced to soccer until the family lived reaped many rewards in swimming. Rarely acknowledged, how- in Italy. ever, is that Michael was not the first or perhaps the best Phelps •• Abby Wambach, current U.S. women’s national soccer swimmer. He has two sisters, and both were excellent competi- team leading scorer, starred in basketball and soccer in tive swimmers. Hilary, the eldest, excelled at the butterfly but high school and did not specialize in soccer until her gradually lost all interest in participating in the sport. Whitney, freshman year at University of Florida. the middle sibling, seemed certain to make the U.S. Olympic team as a 15-year-old in 1996, only to finish sixth in the trials. With the exception of Lindsey Vonn and Michael Phelps, all She had competed with serious injuries, and her career ended these athletes had diversity in their early athletic careers. And in so much disappointment and pain that she no longer swims, although Vonn and Phelps did specialize, every parent should not even for pleasure. So in this case, only one of three children recognize the effects on the athletes and their families. To put

14 Strategies these exceptional athletes’ careers in perspective, approximately tendon from elsewhere in the body. Originally, the sur- 34 million young athletes ages six to 18 years old compete an- gery was performed only on older professional athletes, nually in all sports, yet there are fewer than 4,000 professional but now nearly 50% of the surgeries are performed on athletes in the United States (Malina, 2010) in any given year. teenage athletes. Dr. Jobe’s recommendation was to ban Every parent should examine the real costs of SSYS, including curveballs for children younger than 14 years of age and the potential for serious health issues. Additionally, every coach to eliminate year-round participation in one sport. at all levels should understand and communicate the realities of •• Dr. John DiFiori, head team physician for the University sport specialization. of California at Los Angeles athletics and member of the Scientific Advisory Board for the National Youth Sports Health and Safety Institute, has completed years of re- Potential Negative Outcomes of search on the effects of overuse injuries in children and Specialization adolescents. He has advised parents to encourage their children to participate in a diverse selection of physical Injuries activities. Eventually, children will select the sport and In a position statement, the American Medical Society of the degree of involvement that is best for them. That Sports Medicine (AMSSM; DiFiori et al., 2014) stated that practice is far more physically, mentally and emotionally the benefits of youth sport are often negated by an overempha- healthy for the young person than having the parents se- sis on competitive success. This often motivates young athletes lect the sport. and their parents to initiate high-level training at younger ages and leads to overuse injuries and athletic burnout. The mem- Orthopedic overuse injuries are not the only health issues bers of AMSSM encouraged sport diversity in young athletes related to SSYS. An overemphasis on sport perfection and per- while highlighting the negative effects of sport specialization formance has also been linked to excessive weight variations and overscheduling of games and training. in athletes. Eating disorders have historically been linked to In his book Until It Hurts (2009), Mark Hyman presented young girls and women in specific sports such as gymnastics three medical examples exhibiting the potential effects of over- and figure skating (Ryan, 1995), and ultimately, these disorders use on young athletes: led to the reform of Olympic rules in both events. However, eating disorders are now diagnosed regularly in male athletes • • Dr. Joe Chandler, the orthopedic surgeon for the At- (Baum, 2006) where “making weight” is no longer restricted to lanta Braves, has worked with such notable pitchers as men’s wrestling. It is not uncommon for some coaches, even in Tom Glavine and . He became interested in high school, to pressure their athletes to get bigger or to lose comparing pitchers in the Little League World Series weight, depending on the sport. It is well established that un- (LLWS) and (MLB) and found controlled weight variations in youth can result in many nega-

Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 that some young pitchers in the LLWS were throwing tive health issues and behaviors. as many pitches in four to six innings as MLB players did in eight to nine innings. Since those observations, Performance-enhancing drugs the officials of the LLWS have placed restrictions on Ben Johnson, Lyle Alzado, Barry Bonds, Floyd Lan- pitch counts. However, according to Dr. Chandler, those dis, Sammy Sosa, Mark McGwire, Alex Rodriguez, Manny restrictions are not enforced well and do not consider Ramirez, Marion Jones, Jose Canseco and Lance Armstrong pitches thrown in warm-ups or practices. all are exceptional athletes who gave into the pressures of per- •• Dr. Frank Jobe, then orthopedic specialist for the Los formance by allegedly using performance-enhancing drugs Angeles Dodgers, performed the first Tommy John sur- (PEDs). The relationship to SSYS warrants notice. gery in 1974. In this surgery, known as ulnar collateral According to the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- ligament (UCL) reconstruction, the UCL in the medial tion (2014), roughly 3.2% of American high school students elbow of the throwing arm — having become weakened, reported taking steroids without a doctor’s permission at least stretched, frayed or torn by overuse — is replaced with a once in their lives. Considering that the results depended on

Volume 28 • September/October 15 Table 4. The Risks of Sport Specialization Table 6. Truths That Coaches Should Share in Youth Sport with All Parents • • Social isolation due to restricted exposure to a variety •• The scarcity of athletic scholarships of peers •• The real characteristics and demands of athletic • • Overdependence on adults in highly regulated sport scholarships activities, thus losing any sense of self-control and •• The fallacy that more practice, play and specialization autonomy is better • • Burnout in that they cannot keep up with the •• The injury rates among year-round athletes of all physical, emotional or cognitive demands of one ages overemphasized activity •• The burnout and dropout rates of young athletes and • • Manipulation by adults in the youth sport their causes environment via •• The financial stake that clubs have in year-round ○○ a blind faith in the system that often has other mo- programs tives than youth welfare ○○ negative social development because of selective preferential treatment and lack of self-control ○○ warped ethical/moral development exemplified by adults who ignore or thwart rules by lying or cheat- self-disclosure and four states did not share their data, the ing to gain an unfair performance advantage numbers are probably even higher. That means that more than ○ ○ excessive and unnecessary dietary modifications 640,000 teenagers reported some form of steroid use in 2012, and/or chemical use to increase performance or about 1 student in every classroom (Roberts, 2013). Since ○ ○ the use of children as commodities or long-term PEDs are not considered “recreational” drugs, increasing sport investments performance is a likely motive for use. •• Increased injury either through overuse or other poor coaching practices resulting in Burnout ○ ○ compromised growth and development Burnout is another serious issue (Hecimovich, 2004) in ○ ○ discontinued lifetime involvement with physical SSYS. The pressure to specialize in any sport exerts a great deal activity of physical and psychological stress on young athletes. If that Source: Malina (2010). stress becomes overwhelming, performance and, eventually, participation will decline (Malina, 2010). When young athletes fail to meet the demands of the important adults in their lives, their athletic identity is compromised. The enjoyment (fun) of participation is lost, often resulting in burnout and withdrawal Table 5. Recommendations for Parents from that sport (National Association for Sport and Physical • Education, 2010). • Listen to your doctors (MD specialists). Burnout in sport can also have lifelong implications. Russell •• Demand mandatory coach training at all levels. • and Limle (2013) found that early specialization in childhood Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 • Demand administrative oversight in private clubs: ○ led to a decrease in sport activity in adulthood. Parents who ○ Specify coaching behavior. define athletic success in irrational or stressful measures can af- ○○ Require commitment to sportsmanship. ○ fect the children’s interests in sport and physical activity later in ○ Demand financial ethics — money generated by an life. Children initiate sport participation because it is fun. The age group stays in that age group. ○ early form of “sport” is unstructured playtime or pick-up games ○ Eliminate practices that contribute to overuse and at the park or gym played for enjoyment. When an activity, burnout: however, becomes a task where the focus is on performance and §§ length of season § winning, fun can be diminished, burnout occurs, and retention § number of games per 24-hour period rates drop. The aforementioned Phelps sisters are examples of §§ length of games and tournaments • this. When swimming stopped being fun due to either psycho- • Remember, there is little to no institutional memory logical stress and/or physical injury, their long, expensive careers (a collective set of facts, concepts, experiences and were over. know-how held by a group of people) in youth sport, especially private clubs. • • Eliminate the “more is better” mentality; more Conclusions training does not equal better performance. In discussing the risks of SSYS, Malina (2010) described young athletes as pawns in a complex matrix. He identified the

16 Strategies structure of that matrix as being filled with numerous risks (Ta- Hecimovich, M. (2004). Sport specialization in youth: A literature re- ble 4). Unfortunately, in today’s society, it is only the success- view. Journal of the American Chiropractic Association, 41(4), 32–41. ful athlete who receives most of the recognition and rewards. Hyman, M. (2009). Until it hurts: America’s obsession with youth sports The fates of athletes who drop out, burn out or fail to achieve and how it hurts our children. Boston, MA: Beacon. a championship or scholarship are rarely discussed. Yet, sport Hyman, M. (2013). The most expensive game in town: The rising cost of youth sport and the toll on today’s families. Boston, MA: Beacon. in today’s society is highly valued and plays an ever-expanding Kalieth, A., & Milesky, A. (2010). Impact of early sport specialization: role. All adults involved in youth sport bear the responsibility of A physiological perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation sharing the negative results of overemphasis and specialization. & Dance, 81(8), 251–259. In the rare occasions that specialization results in a scholar- Kelley, B., & Carchia, C. (2013, July 16). ‘Hey, data, data, — ship or a professional career, parents of young athletes must swing!’ ESPN. Retrieved from http://espn.go.com/espn/story/_/ know the risks and the costs. This article supports the work of id/9469252/hidden-demographics-youth-sports-espn-magazine Malina (2010) and other noted professionals in that it is the Landers, R. Q., Carson, R. L., & Blankenship, B. T. (2010). The prom- responsibility of sport scientists and coaches to avoid the nega- ises and pitfalls of sport specialization in youth sport. Journal of tive outcomes of SSYS. One method to achieve this is to ensure Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(8), 14–15. that parents are well informed (Tables 5 and 6). Malina, R. M. (2010). Early sport specialization: Roots, effectiveness, risks. Current Sports Medicine Reports, 9, 364–371. Mattson, J., & Richards, J. (2010). Early specialization in youth sport: A biomechanical perspective. Journal of Physical Education, Recre- References ation & Dance, 81(8), 26–39. Battaglia, J. (2014, January 7). Lindsey Vonn’s injury history. NBC Minnesota Amateur Sports Commission. (n.d.). National sports center. OlympicTalk. Retrieved from http://olympictalk.nbcsports.com/ Retrieved from http://www.mnsports.org/national_sports_center. 2014/01/07/lindsey-vonns-injury-history stm Baum, A. (2006). Eating disorders in the male athlete. Sports Medicine, National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (2010). Guide- 36, 1–6. lines for participation in youth sport programs: Specialization versus Branta, C. (2010). Sport specialization: Developmental and learn- multi-sport participation [Position statement]. Reston, VA: Author. ing issues. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(8), National Collegiate Athletic Association. (2014). Student-athlete 19–28. participation: 1981–1982 – 2012–13: NCAA sports sponsorship and Brylinsky, J. (2010). Practice makes perfect and other curricular myths participation rates report. (2014). Retrieved from http://www.ncaa in the sport specialization debate. Journal of Physical Education, Rec- publications.com/productdownloads/PR2014.pdf reation & Dance, 81(8), 22–25. Roberts, J. (2013, August 9). PEDs in schools: How big is the threat to Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). (2014). Youth your kids? [Web log post]. Retrieved from http://www.rasmussen. Risk Behavior Surveillance — United States, 2013. Morbidity and edu/degrees/justice-studies/blog/performance-enhancing-drugs- Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR), 63, 4, 1–168. schools-threat Coakley, J. (2009). Sports in society: Issues and controversies. New York, Rosin, H. (2014, April). The overprotected kid. The Atlantic. Retrieved NY: McGraw-Hill. from http://www.theatlantic.com/features/archive/2014/03/hey- Coakley, J. (2010). The ‘logic’ of specialization: Using children for adult parents-leave-those-kids-alone/358631 purposes. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(8), Russell, W. D., & Limle, A. N. (2013). The relationship between youth 16–25. sport specialization and involvement in sport and physical activity Côté, J., Baker, J., & Abernethy, B. (2007). Practice and play in the de- in young adulthood. Journal of Sport Behavior, 36, 82–98. velopment of sport expertise. In R. Eklund & G. Tenebaum (Eds.), Ryan, J. (1995). Little girls in pretty boxes: The making and breaking of Handbook of sport psychology (3rd ed., pp. 184–202). Hoboken, NJ: elite gymnasts and figure skaters. New York, NY: Doubleday. Wiley. Stewart, C. (2013). The negative behaviors of coaches: ‘Don’t be this Downloaded by [Thomas Lawson] at 08:39 22 February 2016 Côté, J., Lidor, R., & Hackfort, D. (2009). ISSP position stand: To coach!’ The Physical Educator, 70, 1–14. sample or to specialize? Seven postulates about youth sport activi- Stewart, C., & Taylor, J. (2000). Why female athletes quit: Implica- ties that lead to continued participation and elite performance. In- tions for coach education. The Physical Educator, 57, 170–177. ternational Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 9, 7–17. Woods, R. (2011). Social issues in sport (2nd ed.). Champlain, IL: Hu- DiFiori, J., Benjamin, H., Brenner, J., Gregory, A., Jayanthi, N., man Kinetics. S Landry, G., & Luke, A. (2014). Overuse injuries and burnout in youth sports: A position statement from the American Medical So- ciety for Sports Medicine. Clinical Journal of Sports Medicine, 24, Craig Stewart ([email protected]) is a professor in the Department of 3–20. Health & Human Development at Montana State University–Bozeman Gould, D. (2010). Early sport specialization: A psychological perspec- in Bozeman, MT; and Josh Shroyer is an athletic trainer, at Montana State tive. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 81(8), 33–37. University–Bozeman in Bozeman, MT.

Volume 28 • September/October 17