Biodiversity Mapping Survey/Study in Kaziranga National Park (KNP)

Vegetation and Flora

Final Report

Prepared by Dr. Swapna Prabhu Systematic Botanist

1. Introduction

The Asian Development Bank (ADB) funded Assam Integrated Flood and Riverbank Erosion Risk Management Investment Program (AIFRERMIP) aims to improve the reliability of flood and riverbank erosion risk management system in flood prone areas in the Brahmaputra River Basin in Assam. This program focuses on three selected subprojects, namely Palasbari/Gumi, Dibrugad and Kaziranga (adjacent to Kaziranga National Park), while strengthening policy, institutional and knowledge bases. The Flood and River Erosion Management Agency of Assam (FREMAA) is the executing agency which is a multi-disciplinary special purpose vehicle anchored to the Water Resources Department (WRD) of the State Government of Assam.

The riverbank improvement works planned for the Kaziranga subproject will tentatively consist of porcupine screens, sluice gates and almost 20 km of raising and strengthening of existing dykes. The EIA studies carried out earlier state that no negative impact of the project is expected in terms of increase in the sedimentation level during the construction phase. With implementation of the mitigative measures, the overall impact of the project is likely to be positive on the biological environment except in terms of loss of trees which will be mitigated with the help of proposed plantation programmes. Based on the suggestion from Forestry and Environment Department (FED) additional morphological and hydrological analyses were conducted w.r.t. KNP subproject to ascertain the positive impacts of proposed physical works of the project.

While the proposed structural measures at Kaziranga subproject area were designed avoiding alteration of hydraulic and hydrological conditions in the KNP, having full understanding of the present conditions of vegetation, flora and fauna of the KNP is essential. Although the Kaziranga subproject under the AIFRERMIP is generally found acceptable by the forest department, it is prudent to conduct this study to create a benchmark to monitor effect, if any, of intervention in the surrounding area under the present programme. This study can be replicable and be of value in respect of similar other interventions in the area.

With this background the study/ survey was undertaken by Bombay Natural History Society to address the following objectives:

2

2. OBJECTIVES

1. Establish baseline data and survey protocols for future biodiversity monitoring.

2. Establish sound, repeatable field methods appropriate for local conditions.

3. Establish rigorous methods for collection and management of data and specimens, including the production of high quality photographic documentation with use of cameras.

4. Identify the vegetation types at community level.

5. Benchmark floral diversity and its distribution.

6. Provide natural history information on the documented species.

7. Documentation of management practices and identification of management zones.

8. Prepare information, databank, on the diversity of the KNP which can be made available for the purpose of education and outreach.

9. Share detailed data and information of KNP and develop stronger coordination among the Forest Department and FREMAA (Flood and River Erosion Management Agency of Assam).

3

3. METHODS

The entire study area was extensively as well as intensively traversed during the pilot field visit in order to map the important physical features of the KNP such as the forest anti-poaching camps, roads, water bodies, forest patches, grasslands etc. (Fig. 1). During subsequent visits (undertaken during the period March 2015 to December 2015) we conducted vehicular transect surveys for detailed data collection. Employing systematic plot sampling methods was not feasible in the study area due to various reasons including inaccessibility to many of the remote areas, and risk from elephants, rhinos and buffalos in particular areas. Since Forest Anti- poaching Camps are located evenly throughout the KNP and approximately 1 km far from each other and are very well connected by the vehicular roads these paths were used as transects to collect detailed data on vegetation and flora (Fig.1).

Vegetation and flora

Major plant communities were identified, mapped using GPS (Garmin 72) and the dominant associations were noted for each community identified. Efforts were made to record all the species encountered along the transects and describe their habit, and their phenological status at that time in the field. The species recorded thus were catagorised into trees, shrubs, herbs, scandents including herbaceous and woody climbers and epiphytes. The species were identified using local florae and other available literature.

The final checklist also includes species mentioned in the available literature, from the same or similar habitats, and are very likely to be present in KNP. The recorded species were allotted conservation status based on previous studies and available literature.

Developing vegetation maps

We used freely available images from the Landsat 8 satellite imagery (30m resolution) for land cover classification of Kaziranga National park (KNP). Multisession images, winter (LC81360412014306LGN00, 2014-11-02) and summer (LC81360412015085LGN00, 2015-03- 26), were used to increase the accuracy of classification of vegetation types based on their phenology. Pansharpening of the images was conducted before classification in order to increase spatial resolution of the image (15m). Supervised vegetation classification was carried out using data collected from the ground truthing points (n=110). KNP was classified into eight land cover categories such as dry grassland, wet alluvial grassland, alluvial semi-evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, sand, sand with vegetation, wetland and water body. All this spatial analysis was carried out in ArcGIS10.1 and QGIS 2.8.3.

4

Map 1 the administrative boundaries, locations of forest anti-poaching checkposts and network of vehicular roads which were used as transects for the detailed surveys.

5

4. BACKGROUND OF VEGETATION STUDY OF THE KNP

Floristic studies in N. E. India has earlier been carried out mainly by Hooker (1872- 1897), Griffith (1848), Kanjilal (1934-1940), Bor (1940), Deb (1981-83) Fischer (1921), etc. Numerous research papers, Ph.D thesis, books, floras, manuals etc. have come out from this region. Kanjilal and his co-workers (1934-40) explored the then Assam and published ‘Flora of Assam’ in four volumes (Vol. I-IV). These volumes mainly dealt with trees and shrubs with few herbs and occassionally mentioned some of the established cultivar species. It was Bor (1940) who published the fifth volume of ‘Flora of Assam’ to deal with Poaceae. B. Baruah (1978) studied ‘Systematics of Orchids in the Brahmaputra valley’. Hajra and Jain (1996) studied the two main National Parks of Assam i.e., Kaziranga and Manas. Contribution of Borthakur (1981) on Ethnobotanical Studies of Karbi-Anglong (Mikir Hill District) about the information of indigenous way of utilization of plants by those of Karbi people added to the floristic knowledge of the region. Barua et al. (1988) surveyed the primitive angiosperms of North-East India and enlisted as many as 133 different primitive angiosperms.

Rao and Verma (1972) had taken the initiative of publishing ‘Materials towards the Monocot Flora of Assam’ and brought out a publication in the Bulletin of BSI. But a number of families of Monocotyledones are still left out. The work on taxonomic and floristic research of present Assam has been initiated and activated by Chowdhury. In addition to literature cited above, a good number of research papers on floristic study in different parts of Assam have been published in journals and periodicals from time to time. Borthakur (1976) being the pioneer in the field of ethnobotanical studies in Assam has studied the medicinal uses of plants among tribes of Mikir Hills (Karbi Anglong) while Baruah and Sarmah (1984) studied the medicinal uses of plants by Bodos. Jain and Borthakur (1980) published the ethnobotany of the Mikirs of India.

Diversity in cane and bamboo resources is the speciality of diversity of Assam. Goswami et al. (2003) published a paper on ‘Need of developing Canetum in protected areas of N. E. India for conservation of Cane resources’. ‘Diversity and Distribution of Bamboos of Assam’ has been published by Barooah and Borthakur (2003) where they described 3 new species of bamboos from Assam. Borthakur et al. (2001) also worked out and published ‘The ferns of Assam’. The latest publication on the floristic composition of Assam is ‘Assam’s Flora’ (Present Status of Vascular Plants), a book published by the Assam Science Technology and Environment Council, 2005 compiled and edited by S. Chowdhury. The book 13 enumerates 4273 species of vascular plants of Assam in its present circumscription. These include 40 sp. of fern allies, 315 sp. of ferns, 23 sp. of gymnosperms and among angiosperms 2823 sp. of dicotyledones and 1072 sp. of monocotyledons.

Though some of these studies cover Kaziranga National Park partially, exclusive work in this area is lacking. Heavy floods, land dynamics and constantly changing landforms, high risk from 6

wildlife are some of the important factors which make most of the areas within park inaccessible which have impacted largely on the explorations of this area. This document used first hand field data as well as secondary information compiled from all these references to give an overall idea about vegetation and the floristics of KNP.

7

5. Vegetation

The state consists of two valleys - the Brahmaputra and the Barak, separated by range of comparatively low hills. Prevalence of hot and humid weather in this region coupled with heterogenic physiography has given rise to a number of plant communities imparting Assam a distinct identity phytogeographically. Assam plains or Brahmaputra Valley are floodplains, one of the most dynamic ecosystems formed by massive flooding form the Brahmaputra River. It is an alluvial plain about 750 km long and 80 km wide. The river Brahmaputra forms mosaics of some of the world’s largest sandy and grassy islands, intersected by intricate network of rivulets. Brahmaputra strongly influences the vegetation in the Assam plains, mainly dominated by alluvial grasslands, alluvial lowland semi-evergreen forest and mixed deciduous forest (Sharma et al. 2012). In the “Revised Survey of Forest Types in India”, Champion and Seth categorized as many as fifty one different forest types/ sub types for this region. But, the community diversity of this region is so high that it becomes often difficult to clearly identify and define existing plant formations separately.

Kaziranga is situated in the Brahmaputra valley and mostly comprises of vast stretches of marshlands, tall grasses, dense forests patches and numerous small water bodies crisscrossed by four main rivers — Brahmaputra, Diphlu, Mora Diphlu and Mora Dhansiri. It forms a part of the Indomalaya ecozone and North-east Brahmaputra Valley Province (Rodgers & Panwar 1992) and mainly comprises Brahmaputra Valley semi-evergreen forests of the Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests biome and a frequently flooded variant of the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands of the Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrub lands biomes.

The vegetation of KNP has been broadly classified into following types by previous workers:

1) Eastern Wet alluvial grasslands

2) Assam Alluvial plains Semi-evergreen forests

3) Tropical moist mixed deciduous forests

4) Eastern Dillenia Swamp forests

This study tries to accommodate all the communities recorded in the region within these types.

8

A. Eastern Wet alluvial grasslands

The grasslands, visibly classified as tall and short grass patches, and Savannahs are grass dominated biomes in KNP and form the major part of its vegetation. These grasslands are inundated every year during the rains and remain under water for considerable period. The previous records mention that more than 61% of the KNP area was occupied by tall grass while short grass cover occupied only 3% (Katri & Barua 2011).

Tall grass

Tall grass cover at Northern Range

The dominant grass species of this type are Arundo donax, Imperata cylindrical, Phragmites karka, Saccharum spp. and Thysanolaena latifolia. These grass species grow gregariously at the onset of monsoon and form pure and dense stands up to 6 m tall.

In upland drier areas, the grasslands comprise comparatively hardy and smaller species of grass which grow upto 2-3 m. The representative species are Apluda mutica, Arundinella bengalensis, Imperata cylindrica, Ischaemum aristatum, Microstegium ciliatum, Panicum spp., Paspalum spp., Themeda villosa, Vetiveria zizanoides etc. Apart from the angiospermic plants certain species of ferns and fem-allies can also be seen in these grasslands. Cyclosorus aridus, Dicranopteris linearis, Diplazium esculentum and Pteris spp. are the common representative members of ferns while the fem-allies such as Equisetum ramosissimum, Lygodium flexuosum were also seen in these grasslands. 9

The lowland areas have taller grass communities growing up to 6 m mainly composed of Arundo donax, Imperata cylindrical, Phragmitis karka, Saccharum spp., Themeda arundinacea etc. These species form different communities depending on various factors; however, Imperata cylindrica and Saccharum spontaneum are dominant species with all the communities seen. Khatri & Barua (2011) have mentioned that frequent fires eliminate Phragmitis karka, while extreme grazing results into pure stands of Imperata cylindrical and Vetivera zizanoides. Other commonly found grass species are Arundinella bengalensis, Dicanthium annulatum, Leersia hexandra, Miscanthus fuscus, Saccharum ravennae, S. spontaneum, Setaria palmifolia and species of Digitaria, Eragrostis, Fimbristylis and Panicum.

A few non-grass climber species such as Clematis cadmia, Merremia umbellate, Oxystelma secamone, Vigna vexillata; shrubs such as Desmodium spp., Flemingia spp., Leea spp. etc. and herbaceous species such as Alpinia nigra, Helminthostachys zeylanica, Uraria picta are found in tall grasses.

Short grass

Short grass cover at Northern Range

Short grass patches are restricted along the edges of water bodies and other wetland areas. These communities comprise grass as well as forbs species and are more diverse than the tall grass ones. Cynodon dactylon, Cenchrus ciliaris, Chrisopogon aciculatus, Digitaria ciliaris, D. setigera, Hemarthria protensa, Paspalum conjugatum, Cyperus spp. etc. are the common species in short grass communities. 10

The forb species such as Achyranthus aspera, Alternanthera spp., Commelina spp., Eclipta prostrata, Lippia spp., Ludwigia spp., Phyllanthus spp., Polygonum spp. contribute to the diversity of this grassland type.

Savannah

Savanah as seen at Northern Range

The short grass patches invariably have trees scattered throughout their extent. However, some areas are with higher tree densities and form savannahs. Usually species such as Barringtonia acutangula, Bischofia javanica, Bombax ceiba, Careya arborea, Dillenia indica, Duabanga grandifora, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Trewia nudiflora etc. are seen.

In the Northern Range at many places there are pure but rare stands of Zizyphus mauritiana forming savannah (Image 3).

11

B. Assam Alluvial plains Semi-evergreen forests

Semi –evergreen forest cover at Burapahar

This type of forest is characterised by dense and impenetrable vegetation comprising of tall trees and multi storied nature with shrubs, lianas, climbers, herbs and epiphytes. At the fringe and open spaces bamboos and canes occupy the space.

The canopy or the top storey consists of species such as Artocarpus spp., Albizia procera, Bombax ceiba, Dipterocarpus retusus, Dimocarpus longan, Duabanga grandiflora Haldina cordifolia, Hopea parviflora, Shorea assamica, Sterculia spp., Stereospermum chelonoides, Terminalia spp., Tetrameles nudiflora etc. Some species such as Albizia procera, Bombax ceiba, Terminalia myriocarpa, Tetrameles nudiflora are the important emergent species which grow above the canopy. Some of the upper canopy species show deciduous nature that remain leafless during part of the dry period.

The middle storey is richer with tree species than upper storey and usually represented by species like Aglaia chittagonga, Alstonia scholaris, Bischofia javanica, Bauhinia veriegata, Callicarpa arborea, Carallia brachiata, Careya arborea, Castanopsis indica, Dillenia spp., Dysoxylum gotadhora, Ficus spp., Garuga pinnata, Hymenodictyon orixense, Lagerstroemia spp., Litsea spp., Mitragyna parvifolia, Mesua ferrea, Meyna laxiflora, Micromelum integerrimum, Polyalthia sp., Schima wallichii, Sterculia spp., Trewia nudiflora, Toona ciliata etc. In moist or

12

disturbed areas these forests are often interspersed by culms of bamboo species such as Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, Bambusa nutans, B. pallida, B. tulda and Pseudostachyum polymorphum.

The lower storey is characterised by small trees and shrubs such as Actinodaphne spp., Antidesma spp., Ardisia spp., Bauhinia racemosa, Casearia esculenta, Cinnamomum bejolgota, Clerodendrum spp., Dendrocnide sinnuata, Flacourtia indica, Glochidion spp., Glycosmis pentaphylla, Leea spp., Mallotus spp., Morinda angustifolia, Murraya koenigii, Pavetta indica, Saurauia spp. etc.

Ground cover is mainly composed of herbs such as Achyranthes aspera, Alternanthera sessilis, Commelina spp., Diplazium esculentum, Floscopa scandence, Gesneriaceae members, Lindernia spp., Murdannia spp., Phlogacanthus spp., Onychium japonicum, Ophiorrhiza mungos , Pauzolzia spp., Polygonum spp., Psychotria spp., Pteris spp., Rungia pectinata, Rouvolfia serpentina, Sida spp., Tectaria polymorpha, Urena lobata and Zingiberaceae members. Forest edges show presence of weeds such as Ageratum conyzoides, Cleome houtteana, Lantana camara, Mimosa pudica, Parthenium hysterophorus and Senna occidentalis.

The trees in this type of forest are ladened with innumerable climbers, lianas and epiphytes. Bauhinia vahlii, Bauhinia scandens, Bridelia stipularis, Calamus flagellum, Calamus floribundus, Caesalpinia crista, Derris scandens, Gnetum montanum, Hodgsonia macrocarpa are some of the common liana species found in these forests. Some wet and disturbed places have cane breaks with pure stands of Calamus spp. interspersed with Actinostemma tenerum, Hedyotis lineata, Thunbergia spp. etc.

These forests support a luxuriant growth of epiphytic species which heavily cover the tree trunks and branches. The main epiphytes are orchids, ferns, fern - allies and members of the family Zingiberaceae, Gesneriaceae and Asclepiadaceae. The common angiospermic epiphytes are species of Bulbophyllum, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Hoya, etc. and some of the important epiphytic ferns in these forests are Asplenium nidus, Drynaria quercifolia, Microsorum punctatum, Pyrrosia nummularifolia, Vittaria elongate.

13

C. Tropical moist mixed deciduous forests

Moist deciduous forest cover at Agoratoli

The Moist Deciduous forests occur as isolated patches in grasslands or along alluvial semi- evergreen forest of mixed deciduous in KNP. Moist Deciduous Forests can further be described as Sal Forests and Mixed Deciduous Forests. These forest have major proportion of deciduous trees. They are characterized by dominance of Albizia procera, Bombyx ceiba, Dillenia indica, Dillenia pentagyna, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lagerstomia parviflora, Shorea robusta and Ziziphus mauritiana. Large stretches of these forests are found in the northern range of KNP. Shorea robusta is the dominant species in Sal tracts with prominent associates like Albizia lucida, A. odoratissima, Careya arborea, Catuaregam spinosa, Grewia elastic, G. nervosa, Kydia calycina, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Schima wallichii, Sterculia villosa, Terminalia bellerica etc. with local variations with combinations of Bombax ceiba, Emblica officinalis, Ficus racemosa, F. rumphii, Haldina cordifolia, Holarrhena antidysenterica, Macaranga denticulata, Mitragyna rotundifolia, Oroxylum indicum, Semicarpus anacardium.

Compared to semi-evergreen forests, the stratification is not distinct in deciduous forests. However, in some areas the middle storey is formed by Casearia glomerata, Wrightia arborea, Morinda angustifolia, Aporosa octandra, Antidesma acidum, etc.

As ground cover, the floor in Sal forests is usually covered with tall grasses like Imperata cylindrica and Themeda arundinacea. These grasses are usually associated with terrestrial ferns like Lygodium flexuosum and species of Diplazium, Athyrium and Cyclosorus. 14

In areas of deciduous forests without Sal, the ground cover is usually formed by species like Desmodium laxiflorum, Lepidagathes incurva, Ageratum conyzoides, Sporobolus indicus, species of Clerodendrum etc. together with a number of terrestrial ferns and fem-allies like Tectaria polymotpha and species of Diplazium, Cyclosorus, Adiantum, Dryopteris, Pteris, Athyrium, Lycopodium etc.

Compared to semi-evergreen forests, the epiphytic growth here is very less and likewise the species of climbing habit are also few. Some of the epiphytic ferns in this type of forest are Asplenium nidus, Dtynaria quercifoli, Pyrrosia nummularia etc. Of the climbers, the important ones are Ampelocissus barbata, Mukia maderaspatana, Milletia patchycarpa, Menispermaceae members and species of Dioscorea, Smilex, Vitis etc.

15

D. Eastern Swamp forests

Trewia nudiflora patch at Kohora

Swamp areas are generally beels or low lying areas inundated for a few months during floods, abandoned river channels etc. The tree species that can survive water logged conditions for a long period are found here. Bombax ceiba, Crataeva unilocularis, Duabanga grandiflora, Lagerstroemia speciosa, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Terminalia myriocarpa, Trewia nudiflora etc. and also grasses like Arundo donax, Hygrorhiza aristata, Panicum Spp., Phragmities karka , etc represent such species. One or the other of the above species sometimes even form pure colonies. In places, where soil is sandy and saturated with water Equisetum spp., Marsilea minuta form extensive cover.

Important ground cover species include Ageratum conyzoides, Alocasia fornicata, Alpinia nigra, Amaranthus spp., Bacopa monieri, Blumea species., Crotolaria spp., Typhonium trilobatum etc.

Shrubby thickets

Some times within the swampy areas some special formations are seen. The thickets of Litsea salicifolia – Fluffia virosa - Glochidion multiloculare are very commonly seen throughout the swampy areas of the KNP. The stand usually reaches height of 3-4 m and had thick, impenetrable nature.

16

Tamarix thickets

Tamarix patches are seen common on sandy substratum along the river banks. In the northern range these thickets have occupied large extents. Ground orchid Nervillia sp. Was found growng gregariously in these thickets.

Litsea salicifolia- Fluggia virosa – Glochidion multiloculare thickets at Kohora

Tamarix cover at Northern Range 17

E. Wetlands

Wetland (Beel) at Agoratoli

Wetlands are the transition areas between dry terrestrial land and permanent water bodies. These are waterlogged habitats surrounded with wet alluvial grasslands and are commonly known as beel in this region. They have great variation in size, most of them are connected and form a complicated network with rivers in KNP. Water bodies and wetlands together form key habitat of KNP, most of wildlife, especially large herbivores strongly depends on them for their survival.

18

The aquatic flora recorded here can be categorised as follows (based on Hazarika & Borthakur 2014): a. Plants tolerant for longer period of submergence though not permanently

Acorus calamus, Brachiaria eruciformis, Murdannia nudiflora, Oryza rufipogon, Saccharum narenga b. Rooted plants with leaves and other parts floating on the water surface

Ipomoea aquatica, Ludwigia sedioides, Nelumbo nucifera, Nymphaea pubescens, Nymphaea nouchali, Nymphoides cristata, Ottelia alismoides, Potamogeton octandrus c. Rooted plants with leaves and other parts emerging above water surface

Hymenachne amplexicaulis, Ludwigia adscendens, Monochoria hastate, Oenanthe javanica, Rotala rotundifolia, Sagittaria sagittifolia, Utricularia aurea, Utricularia flexuosa d. Rooted and submerged plants

Ceratophyllum demersum, Ceratopteris thalictroides, Hydrilla verticillata, Hygrophila polysperma, Najas indica, Vallisneria spiralis e. Free floating

Azolla pinnata, Eichhornia crassipes, Pistia stratiotes, Hygroryza aristata, Lemna perpusilla, Marselia quadrifolia, Salvinia natans, Trapa natans, Trapa incisa f. Marsh loving plants

Perennial plants that tolerate standing water and flooded areas represented by Acmela uliginosa, Alocasia fornicata, Alpinia malaccansis, A. nigra, Alternanthera spp., Arundo donax, Bacopa monieri, Centela asiatica, Chrysopogon zizanoides, Cleome spp., Coldenia procumbens, Coix lacrima-jobi, Elatostema lineolatum, Equisetum ramosissimum, Gonostegia pentandra, Ipomoea carnea, Lassia spinosa, Ludwigia octovalvis, Ludwigia prostrata, Ludwigia hyssopifolia, Melilotus officinalis subsp. alba , Pauzolzia hirta, Persicaria spp., Polygonum spp., Typha elephantina, Typhonium trilobata etc.

19

River bed

Brahmaputra River Bed, Northern Range

The river bed with sandy substratum and which gets inundated for long periods forms habitat for a few specialised species. These beds look barren as the vegetation is very sparse. However, certain species, e.g. Amaranthus viridis, Carex speciosa, Centella asiatica, Chenopodium album, Coldenia procumbens, Cynodon dactylon, Cyperus spp., Dentella repens, Dysphania ambrosioides, Euphorbia hirta, Euphorbia hypericifolia, Fimbristylis spp., Glinus lotoides, Glinus oppositifolia, Scoparia dulcis.

Range wise Land cover classification

Land cover classification of Kaziranga National park (KNP) was carried out using two seasons’ imageries and phenological expressions of the vegetation. KNP was thus classified into eight land cover categories such as wet alluvial grassland, alluvial semi-evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, dry grassland, sand, sand with vegetation, wetland and water body. The contribution of each land cover type in the entire landscape of KNP is presented in Table 1.

The landscape is largely composed of Sand and water bodies which occupy 43% of the total area. Among the vegetation types Alluvial Grasslands occupy maximum area (19 %) followed by wetlands (13 %).

20

Table 1 Land cover classification of KNP Sl. No. Land cover Area (Ha) % 1 Wet Alluvial Grassland 20252.95 19.27 2 Dry Grassland 5648.42 5.37 3 Alluvial Semi-evergreen Forest 7063.45 6.72 4 Mixed Deciduous Forest 6915.62 6.58 5 Sand with Vegetation 6065.87 5.77 6 Sand 25049.27 23.83 7 Wetland 13712.54 13.05 8 Water Body 20405.45 19.41 105113.57 100.00

Land cover classification was calculated for all the five administrative units (ranges) of KNP and are presented through Table 2 and Maps 2-6.

Northern side of Kohora showed largest extents of Wet Alluvial Grasslands, while it was seen least in Burapahar ranges.

Dry grasslands were present in discrete and comparatively very small patches throughout KNP. However, the larges proportion of Dry Grasslands was found in Bagori. Semi- evergreen forests were present in larger proportions in Kohora followed by Bagori, while Deciduous Forests were also seen covering maximum area in Kohora and Northern Range.

Area covered by Water bodies and Wetlands was maximum in the Northern Range.

21

Map 2 Kaziranga National Park showing main land cover types 22

Table 2 Range-wise Land cover classification for KNP

Northern Range Agoratoli Kohora Bagori Burapahar Sl. Land cover Area Area Area Area Area No. % % % % % (Ha) (Ha) (Ha) (Ha) (Ha) 1 Wet Alluvial Grassland 3376.67 6.18 2271.58 22.92 11033.42 50.78 2506.23 21.67 966.67 17.38 2 Dry Grassland 2817.65 5.16 492.10 4.97 621.47 2.86 1066.86 9.23 456.50 8.21 Alluvial Semi-evergreen 3 163.35 0.30 1601.91 16.17 2292.17 10.55 1833.82 15.86 388.64 6.99 Forest 4 Mixed Deciduous Forest 1268.24 2.32 986.20 9.95 2527.97 11.63 1083.69 9.37 642.92 11.56 5 Sand with Vegetation 4710.22 8.62 223.04 2.25 251.10 1.16 189.95 1.64 662.60 11.91 6 Sand 22606.94 41.37 584.62 5.90 639.54 2.94 612.95 5.30 586.19 10.54 7 Water Body 17234.73 31.54 2601.07 26.25 3819.58 17.58 3487.50 30.16 1237.64 22.25 8 Wetland 2468.48 4.52 1148.47 11.59 542.07 2.49 783.23 6.77 620.91 11.16 Total 54646.27 100.00 9908.98 100.00 21727.31 100.00 11564.21 100.00 5562.07 100.00

23

Map 3 Broad land cover classification, Northern Range 24

Map 4 Broad land cover classification, Agoratoli Range

25

Map 5 Broad land cover classification, Kohora Range 26

Map 6 Broad land cover classification, Bagori Range 27

Map 7 Broad land cover classification, Burapahar Rang

28

6. Flora

High heterogeneity of the landscape, hot and humid climate, and resulting habitat diversity has enriched the flora of this region. The biomes described in previous section have distinct vegetation types and floral components which hardly overlap.

Altogether 727 species of vascular plants belonging to 451 genera and 139 families have been recorded in KNP during this study. This account includes 23 Pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies), one Gymnosperm and 703 Angiosperms.

Lifeform diversity

Among the recorded species, 249 species were trees which comprise 34% of the total number of species, while 107 species were shrubs (15 %), 77 scandents and climbers (15 %), 230 species of herbs (32 %), 37 species of aquatic herbs (5 %), and 27 species of epiphytes (4 %) (Chart 1)..

Semievergreen forest type harboured high lifeform diversity owing to its multi-storied structure and abundance of lianas, herbaceous climbers, herbs and epiphytes.

Habitwise classification of recorded species

Tree Shrub Scandent Herb Aquatic herbs Epiphytes

5% 4% 34%

32%

15% 10%

Chart 1 Classification of recorded species into various Habits (life forms)

Taxonomic account

Out od 139 families recorded one represented Gymnosperm (Gnetaceae: Gnetum Montana), 18 families represented Pteridophytes, and 120 families were Angiospermic. Owing to the large extent of grasslands in KNP, family Poaceae with 91 species formed the largest group of vascular plants. It was followed by Euphorbiaceae (33 species), Rubiaceae (28 species), Moraceae (27 species), Fabaceae (25 species), Verbenaceae and Asteraceae and Caesalpiniaceae 29

(20 species each). The Chart 2 shows species richness per family recorded in the study area. The initial steep slope depicts high dominance of the family Poaceae. Also the long tail of the graph depicts rarity i.e. large number of families having one or two species each. There were 60 families with one species and 10 families with 2 species.

Ficus was the richest genus with 21 species, followed by Sterculia and Syzygium with 8 species each, Persicaria and Terminalia with 7 species each, Grewian and Panicum with 6 species each, and Litsea and Ludwigia with 5 species each.

100 90 80 70

60

50 40 30 20

No. of species of No. 10

0

Families

Rutaceae

Fagaceae

Vitaceae Vitaceae

Azollacae

Lauraceae

Gnetaceae

Rubiaceae

Ebenaceae

Typhaceae

Clusiaceae

Arecaceae Arecaceae

Solanaceae Solanaceae

Cleomaceae

Annonaceae

Loganiaceae

Myrsinaceae

Ephedraceae

Verbenaceae

Polygalaceae

Orchidaceae Orchidaceae

Salviniaceae Salviniaceae

Sterculiaceae

Alismataceae

Burseraceae Burseraceae

Oleandraceae

Dracaenaceae

Magnoliaceae

Rhamnaceae Rhamnaceae

Nympheaceae

Moringaceae Moringaceae

Combretaceae

Lecythidaceae

Asperagaceae Asperagaceae

Tetramelaceae

Anacardiaceae Malpighiaceae

Zingiberaceae Zingiberaceae

Molluginaceae

Pontederiaceae Sonneratiaceae

Bombacaceae Bombacaceae

Calophyllaceae

Chenopodiaceae

Elaeocarpaceae Elaeocarpaceae

Scrophulariaceae Ceratophyllaceae

Families

Chart 2 Species diversity per Family recorded in KNP

Threatened taxa

From all available account from KNP a few species fall under the threatened categories recognized by the IUCN. Gymnocladus assamicus is Critically Endangered species, while Hopea parviflora is a Endangered species; both being the semi-evergreen forest species. There are nine species categorised as Vulnerable namely, Aglaia chittagonga, Dalbergia latifolia, Dipterocarpus retusus, Elaeocarpus prunifolius, Gleditsia assamica, Magnolia nilagirica, Ochreinoauclea missionis, Pterocarpus marsupium and Saraca asoca and three species as Near Threatened, viz. Aglaia edulis, Dimocarpus longan, and Sonchus arvensis.

Two endemic species recorded were Dendrobium assamicum and Glochidion assamicum. According to the local publications on threatened taxa, Cibotium barometz was categorised as Endangered; Oroxylum indicum, Piper peepuloides, Psychotria silhetensis, and Rauvolfia serpentina as Vulnerable species.

30

7. Threats

Most of the protected areas in Brahmaputra valley represent fragmented forests. Upcoming developmental projects such as hydroelectric power, mining, urbanisation, defence, road constructions and other infrastructural projects are major threats to these forests as they may cause further fragmentation and major loss of their biodiversity.

Natural calamities like earthquake, seasonal floods and resulting soil erosion also lead to the shrinkage of the forest cover are direct threats to the vegetation and floral diversity in the Park.

There is large scale unabated encroachment in the reserved forests even in the protected areas by the new settlers, people displaced by floods and ethnic clashes in the state particularly the Brahmaputra valley, immigrants and excessive dependence of the people in the rural areas on the forests leading to deforestation. According to a report of forest department, 3,555 sq. km. of the forest land is under encroachment (Anonymous, 2012). KNP is too surrounded by villages and settlements. Besides protected boundaries Park may be facing problems such as trespassing, collection of firewood/ NTFP from forest periphery, illegal fishing in the water bodies, encroachment etc. from the neighbouring villages.

Maintenance of seral stage of grassland is the important aspect of the habitat management in Kaziranga national park thereby preventing invasion of tree species. Thus annual burning of grassland is practiced to discourage the growth of tree sapling. The park has numerous high risk species, especially dwelling as ground cover and many of them with sparse populations. Thus, identifying, monitoring and protecting these populations while executing burning practices is important.

Siltation of water bodies due to flood inside the park is a perennial problem leading to the shrinkage of water bodies. However, to address this issue desiltation drives are carried out inside the park annually to maintain the water bodies which are integral part of the national park.

Weed infestation is a comparatively recent and serious problem in the Park. Invasive species cause loss of biodiversity including species extinction. Species such as Ageratum conyziodes, Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Mikania micrantha, Mimosa invisa, Parthenium hysterophorus are very common in the park which compete with native herbaceous flora for all the resources. Proliferation of of Mimosa invisa and Mikania micrantha from the park is the most concerning and their irradiation is a tedious task apart from regular drives. Similarly, Eichhornia crassipes is the notorious aquatic weed which is clogging the water bodies of the park, causing major ecological degradation.

31

8. Recommendations a. Long term examination of spatial and temporal dynamics of the landforms and related ecosystems of KNP is essential with respect to developing management practices for conservation of biodiversity of the park. Building databases on floristic diversity in terms of species, habitats, ecosystems with reference to status, pressures and also in regard to changing climate can be used as effective tool in resource management. b. Identifying, monitoring and protecting populations of threatened plant species can be incorporated in the Habitat management strategies for Kaziranga. The present status in terms of exact location with GPS co-ordinates, population density, regeneration capacity are required to be work out to formulate the conservation strategy of these threatened plant taxa. c. Identification of keystone species for different eco-zones with perspective of developing strategies for eco-restoration, research on the sensitivity of the endemic taxa to probable change can be undertaken. d. Similarly, problems of invasive species, intensity of diseases of wild flora due to changing climatic conditions are some issues which need to be addressed. e. Plantation and ecorestoration programmes may be initiated with appropriate selection of species in relation to ecoregion/ agro-climatic zones for reclamation of degraded forest lands and riparian sites. In riparian areas plantation of bamboo and various species of grasses can be undertaken to check the erosion. f. Capacity building of the forest staff for monitoring vegetation dynamics within KNP will be helpful to further manage the park by developing habitat specific conservation strategies.

32

References

Baishya, A.K. (1999) Assam. In Floristic diversity and conservation strategies in India, Vol . II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. 615-662. Barbhuiya H.A., Dutta B.K., Das A.K. and Baishya, A.K. (2014) The family Rubiaceae in southern Assam with special reference to endemic and rediscovered plant taxa. Journal of Threatened Taxa 6(4): 5649–5659. Barooah C. and Borthakur S.K. (2003) Diversity and distribution of bamboos in Assam. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun pp. ix + 223. Barua I., Chaudhury S. and Neogi, B. (1988) Primitive land plants (Angiosperms) & their distribution patterns in Assam. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 12(1): 81-92. Baruah P. and Sharma, G.C. (1984) Studies on medicinal uses of the plants by the Bodo tribals of Assam II. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 5: 599. Baruah B.N. (1978) Studies on the systematic of orchids in the Brahmaputra Valley, Assam. Ph.D. Thesis, Guwahati University, Assam (Unpublished). Baruah I., Choudhury S. and Neogi, B. (1988) Primitive land plants and their distribution pattern in Assam. Journal of Economic and Taxonomic Botany. 12(1):81-92. Baruah M.K., Chakraborty G. and Chaudhury, M.D. (2010) Status of floristic study in Barak Valley in Assam, India: need for future research. Pleione 4(1):17-32. Benniamin A. (2011) Medicinal Ferns of Northeastern India with special reference to Arunachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge. 10(3):516-522. Bhattacharya M.K., Chaudhury, M.D. and Mazumdar, B. (2002) Pteridophytic flora of Karimganj District of Assam. In: Proccedings of UGC Sem., Karimganj College, Karimganj, Assam. pp. 217-224. Bora H. R., Gogoi, G. and Kumar, R. (2012) A systematic census of rattan (cane) in Kaziranga National Park, Assam with emphasis on conservation. Journal of Economic &. Taxonomic Botany. 36:3. Bora P. J. and Kumar, Y. (2003) Floristic Diversity of Assam: Study of Pabitora Wildlife Sanctuary. Daya Publishing House, India ix+488p. Borthakur S.K., (1976) Less known medicinal plants anong the tribes of Karbi Anglong (Mikir Hills) Assam. Bulletin of Botanical Survey of India. 18(1-4): 166-171. Borthakur S.K., (1981) Certain plants in the folklore and folk life of the Karbis (Mikirs) of Assam. In: Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany. Jain, SK (Ed.). Borthakur S.K., Deka P. and Nath, K.K. (2001) Illustrated manual of ferns of Assam. Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh, Dehradun.

33

Champion H.G. and Seth, S.K. (1968) A Revised Survey of the Forest Types of India. Government of India Publication, New Delhi, 404pp. Chaudhary A. B. and Sarkar D. D. (2003) Megadiversity Conservation: Flora, Fauna and Medicinal Plants of India’s Hotspots. Daya Publishing House. New Delhi, India. Chowdhery, S. (2005) Assam’s Flora. Assam Science Technology and Environment Council, Guwahati, Assam, India. Dikshit K.R. and Dikshit, J.K. (2013) North-East India: Land, People and Economy. Springer Netherlands. Deb, D.B. (1981-1983) The Flora of Tripura State. Vol 1-3. Today and Tomorrow’s Printers and Publishers, New Delhi, xviii+509pp. Dutta G. and Devi, A. (2013) Inventory of Floristic Diversity in Protected Area of Tropical Forests of Assam, Northeast India. In: Biju Kumar A., Rajendran P.G. and C.K. Peethambaran (Eds): Perspectives on Biodiversity of India Volume I, Centre for Innovation in Science and Social Action (CISSA) pp. 305-313 Gogoi K., Das R. and Yonzone, R. (2015) Orchids of Assam, North East India – An annotated checklist. International Journal of Pharmacy & Life Sciences. 6(1): 4123-4156. Goswami M., Thomas S. and Haridasan, K. (2003) Need Of Developing Canetum In Protected Areas Of North East India For Conservation Of Cane (Rattan) Resources. In: Baruah P.P. Biodiversity of eastern Himalayan protected areas, DK Agencies Pvt. Ltd. pp. 279-284. Hazarika S. and Borthakur, S. K. (2014) Hydrophytic flora of Assam: II. Diversity of aquatic and wetland vascular plants of Nagaon District of Assam, India. Pleione 8(1): 96 - 108. Hooker, J. D. (1872-1897) The Flora of British India Vol. 1 - 7. Jain S. K. and Borthakur, S. K. (1980) Ethnobotany of Mikirs of India. Economic Botany 34: 264-272. Hajra P.K. and Jain, S.K. (1996) Botany of Kaziranga and Manas. Surya International Publications, Dehra Dun, 301p. Kanjilal U. N. Flora of Assam. Vol. I-IV. Omsons Publications, New Delhi. Pp 1-480. Kanjilal U. N. Flora of Assam. Vol. V Gramineae. Omsons Publications, New Delhi. Pp 1-480. Khatri P.K. and Barua, K. N. (2011) Structural composition and productivity assessment of the grassland community of Kaziranga National Park, Assam. Indian Forester (Mar 2011): 290-295. Kutum A., Sarmah R. and Hazarika, D. (2011) An ethnobotanical study of Mishing tribe living in fringe villages of Kaziranga National Park of Assam, India Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences. 4:45-61. 34

Kutum A., Sarmah R. and Hazarika, D. (2011) An Ethnobotanical Study of Mishing Tribe living in fringe villages of Kaziranga National Park of Assam, India. Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences 1 (4): 45-61. LC81360412014306LGN00 courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey. The USGS home page is http://www.usgs.gov. LC81360412015085LGN00 courtesy of the U.S. Geological Survey. Majumdar K. and Datta, B. K. (2015) Cachar tropical semi-evergreen forest type of Northeast India: status of species diversity, distribution and population structure. Proceedings of the International Academy of Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 5(4): 104-127 Mani M. S. (Ed.) (1974) Ecology and Biogeography in India. Dr. W. Junk b.v. Publications, The Hague. Nath S.K. (2015) Floristic diversity of Nagaon district of Assam, India. International Journal of Science Technology & Management 4(1): 549-553. Rao, A.S. and Verma, D.M., (1972) Materials towards a monocot flora of Assam: 2.(Zingiberaceae & Marantaceae). Bulletins of Botanical Survey of India, 14(1-4), pp.114- 143. Rodgers, W.A. and Panwar, H.S., (1992) Planning a wildlife protected area network for India: an exercise in applied biogeography. Tropical Ecosystems: Ecology and Management. Wiley Eastern Ltd. New Delhi, pp.93-107. Sharma, N., Madhusudan, M. D., Sarkar, P., Bawri, M. and Sinha, A. (2012). Trends in extinction and persistence of diurnal primates in the fragmented lowland rainforests of the Upper Brahmaputra Valley, north-eastern India. Oryx 46(2): 308–311. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015-4. . Downloaded on 07 May 2016.

35

36

Annexure I: List of Flora

37

List of tree species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Acacia pinnata (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae NA 2 Acacia catechu (L.f.) Willd. Mimosaceae NA 3 Actinodaphne hookeri Meisn. Lauraceae NA 4 Actinodaphne obovata (Nees) Blume Lauraceae NA 5 Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa Rutaceae NA 6 Aglaia chittagonga Miq. Meliaceae VU 7 Aglaia edulis (Roxb.) Wall. Meliaceae NT 8 Aglaia spectabilis (Miq.) S.S.Jain & S.Bennet Meliaceae LC 9 Aidia densiflora (Wall.) Masam. Rubiaceae NA 10 Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle Semaraubaceae NA 11 Alangium chinense (Lour.) Harms Cornaceae NA 12 Albizia chinensis (Osbeck) Merr. Mimosaceae NA 13 Albizia procera (Roxb.) Benth. Mimosaceae NA 14 Albizia saman (Jacq.) Merr. Mimosaceae NA 15 Allophylus cobbe (L.) Raeusch Sapindaceae NA 16 Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. Apocyanacea LC 17 Annona squamosa L. Annonaceae NA 18 Antidesma acidum Retz Euphorbiaceae NA 19 Antidesma bunius (L.) Spreng. Euphorbiaceae NA 20 Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn Euphorbiaceae NA 21 Antidesma montanum Blume Euphorbiaceae NA 22 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R.Parker Meliaceae LC Aporusa octandra (Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don) 23 Euphorbiaceae NA Vickery 24 Aralia bipinnata Blanco Araliaceae NA 25 Archidendron clypearia (Jack) I.C.Nielsen Mimosaceae NA 26 Ardisia polycephala Wall. ex A.DC. Myrsinaceae NA 27 Artocarpus chama Buch.-Ham. Moraceae NA 28 Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam. Moraceae NA 29 Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham. Moraceae NA 30 Azadirachta indica A. Juss Meliaceae NA 38

31 Baccaurea ramiflora Lour. Euphorbiaceae NA 32 Bambusa nutans Wall. ex Munro Poaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 33 Bambusa pallida Munro Poaceae NA 34 Bambusa tulda Roxb. Poaceae NA 35 Bauhinia malabarica Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae NA 36 Bauhinia purpurea L. (white variety) Caesalpiniaceae LC 37 Bauhinia veriegata L. Caesalpiniaceae NA 38 Beilschmiedia assamica Meisn. Lauraceae NA 39 Bischofia javanica Blume Euphorbiaceae NA 40 Bombax ceiba L. Bombacaceae NA 41 Borassus flabellifer L. Arecaceae NA 42 Bridelia retusa (L.) A.Juss. Euphorbiaceae NA 43 Bursera serrata Wall. ex Colebr. Burseraceae NA 44 Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Fabaceae NA 45 Callicarpa arborea Roxb Verbenaceae NA 46 Callicarpa vestita Wall. Verbenaceae NA 47 Canthium glabrum Blume Rubiaceae NA 48 Canthium gracillipes Kurz Rubiaceae NA 49 Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr. Rhizophoraceae NA 50 Careya arborea Roxb. Lecythidaceae NA 51 Casearia esculenta Roxb. Salicaceae NA 52 Casearia glomerata Roxb. Salicaceae NA 53 Cassia fistula L. Caesalpiniaceae NA 54 Castanopsis tribuloides (Sm.) A.DC. Fagaceae NA 55 Ceriscoides campanulata (Roxb.) Tirveng. Rubiaceae NA Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. balansae (C. 56 Meliaceae LC DC.) Mabb. 57 Chrysophyllum lanceolatum (Bl.) D.C Sapotaceae NA 58 Chukrasia tabularis A. Juss. Meliaceae LC Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) Nees& 59 Lauraceae NA Eberm. 60 Cordia dichotoma G. Frost. Boraginaceae NA

39

61 Cordia myxa L. Boraginaceae NA 62 Crateva unilocularis Buch.-Ham. Capparidaceae NA 63 Cryptocarya amygdalina Nees Lauraceae NA 64 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb. Fabaceae VU 65 Dalbergia pinnata (Lour.) Prain Fabaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 66 Dalbergia sissoo DC. Fabaceae NA 67 Dalbergia assamica Benth. Fabaceae LC 68 Debregeasia longifolia (Burm.f.) Wedd Urticaceae NA Dendrocalamus hamiltonii Nees & Arn. ex 69 Poaceae NA Munro 70 Dillenia indica L. Dilleniaceae NA 71 Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. Dilleniaceae NA 72 Dillenia scabrella (D.Don) Roxb. ex Wall. Dilleniaceae NA 73 Dimocarpus longan Lour. Sapindaceae NT 74 Diospyros kaki L.f. Ebenaceae NA 75 Diospyros lancaefolia Roxb. Ebenaceae NA 76 Diospyros malabarica (Desr.) Kostel. Ebenaceae NA 77 Diospyros variegata Kurz Ebenaceae NA 78 Dipterocarpus retusus Blume Dipterocarpaceae VU 79 Dipterocarpus turbinatus C.F.Gaertn Dipterocarpaceae NA 80 Drypetes assamica (Hook.f.) Pax & K.Hoffm. Euphorbiaceae NA Drypetes eglandulosa (Roxb.) Pax & 81 Euphorbiaceae NA K.Hoffm.

82 Duabanga grandiflora (DC.) Walp. Sonneratiaceae NA 83 Dysoxylum gotadhora (Buch.-Ham.) Mabb. Meliaceae NA 84 Echinocarpus assamicus Benth. Elaeocarpaceae NA 85 Echinocarpus tomentosus Benth. Elaeocarpaceae NA 86 Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume Elaeocarpaceae NA 87 Elaeocarpus obtusus Blume Elaeocarpaceae NA 88 Elaeocarpus prunifolius Wall. ex Müll.Berol. Elaeocarpaceae VU 89 Elaeocarpus tectorius (Lour.) Poir. Elaeocarpaceae NA 90 Erythrina stricta Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae NA

40

91 Eurya japonica Thunb. Pentaphylacaceae NA 92 Ficus auriculata Lour. Moraceae NA 93 Ficus benghalensis L. Moraceae NA 94 Ficus benjamina L. Moraceae NA 95 Ficus curtipes Corner Moraceae NA 96 Ficus elastica Roxb. ex Hornem. Moraceae NA 97 Ficus geniculata Kurz. Moraceae NA 98 Ficus heterophylla L.f. Moraceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 99 Ficus hirta Vahl. Moraceae NA 100 Ficus hispida L. Moraceae NA 101 Ficus nervosa Heyne ex Roth. Moraceae NA 102 Ficus obscura Blume Moraceae NA 103 Ficus racemosa L. Moraceae NA 104 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae NA 105 Ficus rumphii Blume Moraceae NA 106 Ficus semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Moraceae NA 107 Ficus sycomorus L. Moraceae NA 108 Ficus virens Aiton Moraceae NA 109 Ficus drupacea Thunb. Moraceae NA 110 Ficus religiosa L. Moraceae NA 111 Ficus subincisa Buch.-Ham. ex Sm. Moraceae NA Ficus tinctoria subsp. gibbosa (Blume) 112 Moraceae NA Corner 113 Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R.Br. Sterculiaceae NA 114 Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch Annonaceae NA 115 Garcinia cowa Roxb. ex Choisy Clusiaceae NA 116 Garcinia lanceifolia Roxb. Clusiaceae NA 117 Garcinia morella (Gaertn.) Desr. Clusiaceae NA 118 Garcinia pedunculata Roxb. ex Buch.-Ham. Clusiaceae NA Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex 119 Clusiaceae NA T.Anderson 120 Garuga pinnata Roxb. Burseraceae NA

41

121 Gleditsia assamica Bor Caesalpiniaceae VU 122 Gmelina arborea Roxb. Verbenaceae NA 123 Grewia elastica Royle Tiliaceae NA 124 Grewia hirsuta Vahl. Tiliaceae NA 125 Grewia sapida Roxb Tiliaceae NA 126 Grewia sclerophylla Roxb. Tiliaceae NA 127 Grewia tiliifolia Vahl Malvaceae NA 128 Gymnocladus assamicus P. C. Kanjilal Caesalpiniaceae CE 129 Haldina cordifolia (Roxb.) Ridsdale Rubiaceae NA 130 Holigarna arnottiana Hook.f. Sabiaceae LC 131 Hopea parviflora Bedd. Dipterocarpaceae EN Sl. No. Species name Family Status 132 Horsfieldia kingii (Hook. f) Warb. Myristicaceae NA 133 Hovenia dulcis Thunb. Rhamnaceae NA 134 Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabb. Rubiaceae NA 135 Ixora finlaysoniana Wall. ex G. Don Rubiaceae NA 136 Kleinhovia hospita L. Malvaceae NA 137 Knema cinerea var. glauca (Blume) Y.H. Li Myrsinaceae NA 138 Kydia calycina Roxb. Malvaceae NA 139 Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb. Lythraceae NA 140 Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. Lythraceae NA 141 Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merr. Anacardiaceae NA 142 Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh. Sapindaceae NA 143 Lepisanthes tetraphylla Radlk. sapindaceae NA 144 Lithocarpus pachyphyllus (Kurz) Rehder Fagaceae NA 145 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B.Rob. Lauraceae NA 146 Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers. Lauraceae NA 147 Litsea nitida (Roxb.) Hook. f. Lauraceae NA 148 Litsea cubeba (Lour.) Pers Lauraceae NA 149 Lophopetalum wightianum Arn. Celastraceae LC 150 Macaranga denticulata (Blume) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae NA 151 Macaranga peltata (Roxb.) Mull.Arg. Euphorbiaceae NA

42

Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia (Roxb.) 152 Sapotaceae NA A.Chev. 153 Maesa indica (Roxb.) A. DC. Myrsinaceae NA 154 Magnolia champaca (L.) Baill. Ex Pierre Magnoliaceae LC 155 Magnolia nilagirica (Zenker) Figlar Magnoliaceae VU 156 Magnolia pterocarpa Roxb. Magnoliaceae DD Magnolia hodgsonii (Hook.f. & Thomson) 157 Magnoliaceae LC H.Keng 158 Mallotus paniculatus (Lam.) Müll.Arg. Euphorbiaceae NA 159 Mallotus philippensis (Lam.) Mull. Arg Euphorbiaceae NA 160 Mangifera indica L. Anacardiaceae DD 161 Mangifera sylvatica Roxb. Anacardiaceae LC 162 Medinilla erythrophylla Lindl. Melastomaceae NA 163 Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae NA 164 Meliosma pinnata (Roxb.) Maxim. Sabiaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 165 Meliosma simplicifoila (Roxb.) Walp. Sabiaceae NA 166 Memecylon umbellatum Burm. f Memecylaceae NA

167 Mesua ferrea L. Calophyllaceae NA 168 Meyna spinosa Roxb. ex Link Rubiaceae NA 169 Microcos paniculata L. Tiliaceae NA 170 Mimusops elengi Roxb. Sapotaceae NA 171 Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Rubiaceae NA 172 Mitragyna rotundifolia (Roxb.) Kuntze Rubiaceae NA 173 Moringa oleifera Lamk. Moringaceae NA 174 Morus australis Poir. Moraceae NA 175 Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser Rubiaceae NA Ochreinauclea missionis (Wall. ex G. Don) 176 Rubiaceae VU Ridsdale 177 Oroxylum indicum (L.) Kurz. Bignoniaceae NA 178 Parkia timoriana (DC) Merr. Caesalpiniaceae NA 179 Persea macrantha (Nees) Kosterm. Lauraceae NA 180 Phyllanthus emblica L. Euphorbiaceae NA 181 Polyalthia cerasoides (Roxb.) Bedd. Annonaceae NA

43

182 Polyalthia sp. Annonaceae

183 Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre Caesalpiniaceae LC 184 Premna latifolia Roxb. Verbenaceae NA 185 Prunus jenkinsii Hook f. & Th. Rosaceae NA 186 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb. Papilionaceae VU 187 Pterospermum acerifolium (L.) Willd. Sterculiaceae NA 188 Quercus semiserrata Roxb. Fagaceae NA 189 Rhus chinensis Miller Anacardiaceae NA 190 Rhus griffithii Hook. f. Anacardiaceae NA 191 Salix alba L. Salicaceae LC 192 Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn. sapindaceae NA 193 Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. Caesalpiniaceae V 194 Sarcochlamys pulcherrima Goud Urticaceae NA 195 Saurauia armata Kurz. Saurauiaceae NA 196 Saurauia panduana Wall. Saurauiaceae NA 197 Saurauia roxburghii Wall. Saurauiaceae NA 198 Schima wallichii Choisy Theaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 199 Semecarpus anacardium L. Anacardiaceae NA 200 Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Caesalpiniaceae NA 201 Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir. Papilionaceae NA 202 Shorea assamica Dyer Dipterocarpaceae NA 203 Shorea robusta Gaertn. Dipterocarpaceae LC 204 Spondias axillaris Roxb. Anacardiaceae NA 205 Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz Anacardiaceae NA 206 Sterculia alata Roxb. Sterculiaceae NA 207 Sterculia coccinea Roxb. Sterculiaceae NA 208 Sterculia foetida L. Sterculiaceae NA 209 Sterculia guttata Roxb. Sterculiaceae NA 210 Sterculia roxburghii Wall. Sterculiaceae NA 211 Sterculia urens Roxb. Sterculiaceae NA 212 Sterculia versicolor Wall. Sterculiaceae NA

44

213 Sterculia villosa Roxb. Sterculiaceae NA 214 Stereospermum chelonoides (L.f.) DC. Bignoniaceae NA 215 Stereospermum tetragonum DC. Bignoniaceae NA 216 Streblus asper Lour. Moraceae NA 217 Strychnos nux-vomica L. Loganiaceae NA 218 Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Myrtaceae NA 219 Syzygium formosum (Wall.) Masam Myrtaceae NA 220 Syzygium fruticosum DC. Myrtaceae NA 221 Syzygium jambos (L.)Alston Myrtaceae NA 222 Syzygium kurzii (Duthie) Balak. Myrtaceae NA 223 Syzygium malaccansis L. Myrtaceae NA 224 Syzygium operculatam (Roxb.) Niedenzu Myrtaceae NA 225 Syzygium tetragonum (Wight) Wall. ex Walp. Myrtaceae NA 226 Tamarindus indica L. Caesalpiniaceae NA 227 Tectona grandis L. Verbenaceae NA Terminalia arjuna (Roxb. ex DC.) Wight & 228 Combretaceae NA Arn. 229 Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb Combretaceae NA 230 Terminalia chebula Retz. Combretaceae NA 231 Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Fleming Combretaceae NA 232 Terminalia crenulata Roth Combretaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 233 Terminalia elliptica Willd. Combretaceae NA Terminalia myriocarpa Van Heurck & Müll. 234 Combretaceae NA Arg. 235 Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br. Tetramelaceae LC 236 Thespesia populnea (L.) Soland Malvaceae NA 237 Toona ciliata M.Roem. Meliaceae LC 238 Trachelospermum lucidum (D.Don) K.Schum. Apocynaceae NA 239 Trema orientalis (L.) Cannabaceae NA 240 Trevesia palmata (Roxb. ex Lindl.) Vis. Araliaceae NA 241 Trevia nudiflora L. Euphorbiaceae NA 242 Vitex altissima L.f. Verbenaceae NA

45

243 Vitex leucoxylon L.f. Verbenaceae NA 244 Walsura robusta Roxb. Meliaceae NA 245 Wrightia tinctoria R.Br. Apocynaceae LC 246 Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb. Apocynaceae NA 247 Xantolis assamica (C.B.Clarke) P.Royen Sapotaceae NA 248 Zanthoxylum rhetsa (Roxb) DC. Rutaceae NA 249 Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk. Rhamnaceae NA

46

List of shrub species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. Malvaceae NA 2 Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. Mimosaceae NA 3 Ardisia paniculata Roxb. Myrsinaceae NA 4 Ardisia solanacea (Poir.) Roxb. Myrsinaceae NA 5 Artemisia carvifolia Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. Asteracae NA 6 Artemisia nilagirica (C.B.Clarke) Pamp. Asteracae NA 7 Benkara fasciculata (Roxb.) Ridsdale Rubiaceae NA 8 Boehmeria clidemioides Miq. Urticaceae NA 9 Bothriochloa bladhii (Retz.) S.T.Blake Poaceae NA 10 Calamus erectus Roxb. Arecaceae NA 11 Cannabis sativa L. Cannabaceae NA 12 Casearia vareca Roxb. Salicaceae NA 13 Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. Rubiaceae NA 14 Chamaecrista mimosoides (L.) Greene Caesalpiniaceae NA 15 Chloranthus elatior Link Chloranthaceae LC Endanger 16 Cibotium barometz (L.) J.Sm. Cibotiaceae ed, NA 17 Cinnamomum bejolghota (Buch.-Ham.) Sweet Lauraceae NA 18 Cleome houtteana Schltdl. Cleomaceae NA 19 Clerodendrum laevifolium Blume Verbenaceae NA 20 Clerodendrum glandulosum Lindl. Verbenaceae NA 21 Clerodendrum indicum (L.) Kuntze Verbenaceae NA 22 Clerodendrum infortunatum L. Verbenaceae NA 23 Clerodendrum trichotomum Thunb. Verbenaceae NA 24 Coffea benghalensis B.Heyne ex Schult. Rubiaceae NA 25 Croton tiglium L. Euphorbiaceae NA 26 Cyathula prostrata (L.) Blume Amaranthaceae NA 27 Deeringia amaranthoides (Lam.) Merr. Amaranthaceae NA 28 Dendrocnide sinuata (Blume) Chew Urticaceae NA 29 Dendrolobium triangulare (Retz.) Schindl. Fabaceae NA 30 Desmodium laxiflorum DC. Fabaceae NA 47

31 Dracaena angustifolia (Medik.) Roxb. Dracaenaceae NA 32 Eranthemum pulchellum Andrews Acanthaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 33 Flemingia lineata (L.) Aiton Fabaceae NA 34 Flemingia strobilifera (L.) Aiton Fabaceae NA 35 Flemingia macrophylla (Willd.) Merr. Fabaceae NA 36 Fluggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle Euphorbiaceae NA 37 Glochidion khasicum (Müll.Arg.) Hook.f. Euphorbiaceae NA 38 Glochidion lanceolarium (Roxb.) Voigt Euphorbiaceae NA 39 Glochidion multiloculare (Rottler ex Willd.) Voigt Euphorbiaceae NA 40 Glochidion oblatum Hook.f. Euphorbiaceae NA 41 Glycosmis pentaphylla (Retz.) DC. Rutaceae NA 42 Grewia sarrulata DC. Tiliaceae NA 43 Heliotropium indicum L. Boraginaceae NA 44 Heliotropium ovalifolium Forssk. Boraginaceae LC 45 Heliotropium strigosum Willd. Boraginaceae NA 46 Holarrhena pubescens Wall. ex G.Don Apocynaceae LC 47 Hygrophila phlomoides Nees Acanthaceae NA 48 Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. Lamiaceae NA 49 Ipomoea carnea Jacq. Convolvulaceae NA 50 Jatropha curcas L. Euphorbiaceae NA 51 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae NA 52 Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. Acanthaceae NA 53 Justicia adhatoda L. Acanthaceae NA 54 Lantana camara L. Verbenaceae NA 55 Lantana indica Roxb. Verbenaceae NA 56 Leea asiatica (L.) Ridsdale Leeaceae NA 57 Leea guineensis G. Don Leeaceae NA 58 Leea indica (Burm. f.) Merr. Leeaceae NA 59 Leea compactiflora Kurz Leeaceae NA 60 Lepidagathis incurva Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Acanthaceae NA 61 Leucas lavandulifolia Sm. Lamiaceae NA

48

62 Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & P.Wilson Verbenaceae NA 63 Litsea salicifolia (J. Roxb. ex Nees) Hook. f. Lauraceae NA 64 Melastoma malabathricum L. Melastomaceae NA 65 Meyna laxiflora Robyns Rubiaceae NA Micromelum integerrimum (Buch.-Ham. ex DC.) Wight 66 Rutaceae NA & Arn. ex M. Roem. Sl. No. Species name Family Status 67 Mimosa pudica L. Mimosaceae LC 68 Morinda angustifolia Roxb. Rubiaceae NA 69 Murraya Koenigii (L.) Spreng. Rutaceae NA 70 Nostolachma khasiana (Korth.) Deb & Lahiri Rubiaceae NA 71 Osbeckia nepalensis Hook. Melastomaceae NA 72 Osbeckia stellata Buch.-Ham. ex Ker Gawl. Melastomaceae NA 73 Pavetta indica L. Rubiaceae NA 74 Phlogacanthus pubinervius T. Anderson Acanthaceae NA 75 Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees Acanthaceae NA 76 Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Euphorbiaceae NA 77 Physalis minima L. Solanaceae NA 78 Pogostemon auricularius (L.) Hassk. Lamiaceae NA 79 Pseudostachyum polymorphum Munro Poaceae NA 80 Psychotria monticola Kurz Rubiaceae NA 81 Psychotria subintegra (Wight & Arn.) Hook.f. Rubiaceae NA 82 Psychotria silhetensis Hook.f. Rubiaceae NA 83 Rauvolfia serpentina (L.) Benth. ex Kurz Apocynaceae NA 84 Rhynchotechum ellipticum (Wall. ex D. Dietr.) A. DC. Gesneriaceae NA 85 Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae NA 86 Rosa clinophylla Redout & Thory Rosaceae NA 87 Rotheca serrata (L.) Steane & Mabb. Verbenaceae NA 88 Salacca secunda Griff. Arecaceae NA 89 Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr. Euphorbiaceae NA 90 Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae NA 91 Senna occidentalis (L.) Link Caesalpiniaceae NA 92 Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby Caesalpiniaceae NA

49

93 Sida acuta Burm.f. Malvaceae NA 94 Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borss.Waalk. Malvaceae NA 95 Sida rhombifolia L. Malvaceae NA 96 Solanum americanum Mill. Solanaceae NA 97 Solanum torvum Sw. Solanaceae NA 98 Solanum viarum Dunal Solanaceae NA Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R.Br. ex Roem. & 99 Apocynaceae NA Schult. 100 Tamarix dioica Roxb. ex Roth. Tamaricaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 101 Tetracera sarmentosa (L.) Vahl Dilleniaceae NA 102 Triumffelta rhomboidea Jacq. Tiliaceae NA 103 UID 2 Gesneriaceae 104 Urena lobata L. Malvaceae NA 105 Vitex negundo L. Verbenaceae NA 106 Wallichia oblongifolia Griff. Arecaceae NA 107 Xanthium strumarium L. Asteracae NA

50

List of scandent species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC. Mimosaceae NA 2 Actinostemma tenerum Grif. Cucurbitaceae NA 3 Ampelocissus barbata (Wall.) Planch. Vitaceae NA 4 Aristolochia saccata Wall. Aristolochiaceae NA Artabotrys caudatus Wall. ex Hook.f. & 5 Anonaceae NA Thomson 6 Bauhinia vahlii Wight & Arn. Caesalpiniaceae NA 7 Bauhinia scandens L. Caesalpiniaceae NA 8 Bridelia stipularis (L.) Blume Euphorbiaceae NA 9 Caesalpinia crista L. Caesalpiniaceae NA 10 Caesalpinia tortuosa Roxb. Caesalpiniaceae DD 11 Cajanus scarabaeoides (L.) Thouars Fabaceae LC 12 Calamus flagellum Griff. ex Mart. Arecaceae NA 13 Calamus floribundus Griff. Arecaceae NA 14 Calamus tenuis Roxb. Arecaceae LC 15 Calamus viminalis Willd. Arecaceae NA 16 Calamus latifolius Roxb. Arecaceae NA 17 Capparis acutifolia Sweet Capparidaceae NA 18 Cardiospermum helicacabum L. sapindaceae NA 19 Ceratosanthes palmata (L.) Urb. Cucurbitaceae LC 20 Cissampelos pareira L. Menispermaceae NA 21 Cissus adnata Roxb. Vitaceae NA 22 Cissus assamica (M.A.Lawson) Craib Vitaceae NA 23 Cissus repanda (Wight & Arn.) Vahl Vitaceae NA 24 Clematis cadmia Buch.-Ham. ex Wall. Ranunculaceae NA 25 Croton caudatus Geiseler Euphorbiaceae NA 26 Daemonorops jenkinsiana (Griff.) Mart. Arecaceae NA 27 Derris cuneifolia Benth. Fabaceae LC 28 Dioscorea alata L. Dioscoriaceae NA 29 Dioscorea bulbifera L. Dioscoriaceae NA 30 Dioscorea glabra Roxb. Dioscoriaceae NA 51

31 Dioscorea pentaphylla L. Dioscoriaceae NA 32 Dregea volubilis (L.f.) Benth. ex Hook.f. ASCLEPIDIACEAE NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 33 Elaeagnus conferta Roxb. Elaeagnaceae NA 34 Finlaysonia khasiana (Kurz) Venter Asclepiadaceae NA 35 Gnetum montanum Markgr. Gnetaceae LC 36 Gouania tiliifolia Lam. Rhamnaceae NA 37 Hedyotis scandens Roxb. Rubiaceae NA 38 Hibiscus fragrans Roxb. Malvaceae NA 39 Hiptge benghalensis (L.) Kurz Malpighiaceae NA 40 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (Blume) Cogn. Cucurbitaceae NA 41 Jasminum elongatum (P.J.Bergius) Willd. Oleaceae NA 42 Lygodium flexuosum L. Lygodiaceae NA 43 Maclura cochinchinensis (Lour.) Corner Moraceae NA 44 Merremia umbellata (L.) Hallier f. Convolvulaceae NA 45 Mikania micrantha Kunth Asteracae NA 46 Milletia pachycarpa Benth. Fabaceae NA 47 Mimosa invisa Colla Mimosaceae NA 48 Momordica cochinchinensis (Lour.) Spreng. Cucurbitaceae NA 49 Mukia maderaspatana (L.) Roemer Cucurbitaceae NA 50 Oxystelma secamone (L.) ASCLEPIDIACEAE NA 51 Paederia foetida L. Rubiaceae NA 52 Piper peepuloides Wall. Piperaceae NA 53 Piper trioicum Roxb. Piperaceae NA 54 Piper longum L. Piperaceae NA 55 Premna bengalensis C.B.Clarke Verbenaceae NA Pueraria phaseoloides var. subspicata (Benth 56 Fabaceae NA .) Maesen 57 Ranunculus cantoniensis DC. Ranunculaceae NA 58 Reissantia arborea (Roxb.) Hara Meliaceae NA 59 Rhynchosia viscosa (Roth) DC. Fabaceae NA 60 Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston Connaraceae NA 61 Rubus ellipticus Sm. Rosaceae NA

52

62 Rubus moluccanust L. Rosaceae NA 63 Smilax roxburghiana Wall. ex A.DC. Smilacaceae NA 64 Solena heterophylla Lour. Cucurbitaceae NA 65 Spatholobus parviflorus (DC.) Kuntze Fabaceae LC 66 Stenochlaena palustris (Burm. f.) Bodd. Blechnaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 67 Stephania hernandiifolia (Willd.) Walp. Menispermaceae NA 68 Tetrastigma bracteolatum (Wall.) Planch. Vitaceae NA 69 Tetrastigma dubium (Lawson) Planch. Vitaceae NA Thunbergia grandiflora (Roxb. ex Rottl.) 70 Thumbergiaceae NA Roxb. 71 Thunbergia coccinea Wall. Thumbergiaceae NA 72 Thunberqia fragrans Roxb. Thumbergiaceae NA 73 Uncaria sessilifructus Roxb. Rubiaceae NA 74 Vallaris solanacea (Roth) Kuntze Vallariaceae NA 75 Vigna vexillata (L.) A.Rich. Fabaceae NA 76 Vitis heyneana Roem. & Schult. Vitaceae NA 77 Zizyphus rugosa Lamk. Rhamnaceae NA

53

List of herb species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae NA Achyrospermum wallichianum (Benth.) Benth. ex 2 Lamiaceae NA Hook.f. 3 Acmella uliginosa (Sw.) Cass. Asteracae LC 4 Acroceras zizanioides (Kunth) Dandy Poaceae LC 5 Adenostemma lavenia (L.) Kuntze Asteracae NA 6 Ageratum conyzoides (L.) L. Asteracae NA 7 Alocasia fornicata (Roxb.) Schott Araceae LC 8 Alpinia malaccensis (Burm.f.) Roscoe Zingiberaceae NA 9 Alpinia nigra (Gaertn.) Burtt Zingiberaceae NA 10 Alternanthera pungens Kunth. Amaranthaceae NA 11 Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. Amaranthaceae LC 12 Amaranthus spinosus L. Amaranthaceae NA 13 Amaranthus viridis L. Amaranthaceae NA 14 Amomum aromaticum Roxb. Zingiberaceae NA 15 Amorphophallus bulbifer (Roxb.) Blume Araceae NA 16 Apluda mutica L. Poaceae NA 17 Aristida adscensionis L. Poaceae NA 18 Arundinella bengalensis (Spreng.) Druce Poaceae NA 19 Arundinella nepalensis Trin. Poaceae NA 20 Arundo donax L. Poaceae LC 21 Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson Acanthaceae NA 22 Baliospermum calycinum Müll. Arg. Euphorbiaceae NA 23 Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Asteracae NA 24 Blumea paniculata (Willd.) M.R.Almeida Asteracae NA 25 Boesenbergia longiflora (Wall.) Kuntze Zingiberaceae NA 26 Brachiaria distachya (L.) Stapf Poaceae NA 27 Brachiaria eruciformis (Sm.) Griseb. Poaceae LC 28 Brachiaria reptans (L.) C.A.Gardner & C.E.Hubb. Poaceae LC 29 Brachiaria subquadripara (Trin.) Hitchc. Poaceae LC 30 Burmannia candelabrum Gagnep. Burmanniaceae NA 54

31 Carex speciosa Kunth Cyperaceae NA 32 Cenchrus ciliaris L. Poaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 33 Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. Apiaceae NA 34 Centrotheca leppacea (L.) Desv. Poaceae LC 35 Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae NA 36 Chloris sp. Poaceae NA 37 Chromolaena odoratum (L.) R.M.King & H.Rob. Asteracae NA 38 Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retz.) Trin. Poaceae NA 39 Chrysopogon lancearius (Hook.f.) Haines Poaceae NA 40 Coix lacryma-jobi L. Poaceae NA 41 Coldenia procumbens L. Boraginaceae NA 42 Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott Arecaceae LC 43 Commelina diffusa Burm.f. Commelinaceae LC 44 Commelina paludosa Blume Commelinaceae NA 45 Commelina sikkimensis C.B.Clarke Commelinaceae NA 46 Costus specious (Koen ex Retz.) Smith Zingiberaceae NA AMARYLLIDAC 47 Crinum amoenum Ker Gawl. ex Roxb. NA EAE 48 Crotalaria albida Roth Fabaceae LC 49 Crotalaria micans Link Fabaceae LC 50 Crotalaria pallida Aiton Fabaceae NA 51 Crotalaria sessiliflora L. Fabaceae NA 52 Cuphea viscosissima Jacq. Lythraceae NA 53 Curculigo orchioides Gaertn. Hypoxidaceae NA 54 Curcuma aromatica Salisb. Zingiberaceae NA 55 Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe Zingiberaceae NA 56 Cyclosorus aridus (D. Don) Tagawa Thelypteridaceae NA 57 Cymbopogon exsertus (Hack.) A.Camus Poaceae NA 58 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae NA 59 Cyperus compressus L. Cyperaceae LC 60 Cyperus digitatus Roxb. Cyperaceae LC 61 Cyperus distans L.f. Cyperaceae LC

55

62 Cyperus imbricatus Retz. Cyperaceae LC 63 Cyperus iria L. Cyperaceae LC 64 Cyperus silletensis Nees Cyperaceae NA 65 Cyrtococcum oxyphyllum (Steud.) Stapf Poaceae NA 66 Cyrtococcum patens (L.) A.Camus Poaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 67 Dentella repens (L.) J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Rubiaceae LC 68 Dichanthium annulatum (Forssk.) Stapf Poaceae NA 69 Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze Asteracae NA 70 Dicranopteris linearis (Burm. f.) Underw. Glicheniaceae NA 71 Digitaria ciliaris (Retz.) Koeler Poaceae NA 72 Digitaria longiflora (Retz.) Pers. Poaceae NA 73 Digitaria setigera Roth Poaceae NA 74 Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. Athyriaceae LC 75 Dryopteris sparsa (D. Don) Kuntze Dryopteridaceae NA 76 Duchesnea indica (Jacks.) Focke Rosaceae NA 77 Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants Chenopodiaceae LC 78 Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae NA 79 Echinochloa stagnina (Retz.) P.Beauv. Poaceae LC 80 Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. Asteracae DD 81 Elatostema lineolatum Wight Urticaceae NA 82 Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae LC 83 Equisetum ramosissimum Desf. Ephedraceae LC 84 Eragrostis japonica (Thunb.) Trin. Poaceae LC 85 Eragrostis amabilis (L.) Wight & Arn. Poaceae NA 86 Eragrostis riparia (Willd.) Nees Poaceae NA 87 Eragrostis unioloides (Retz.) Nees ex Steud. Poaceae LC 88 Eragrostis viscosa (Retz.) Trin. Poaceae NA 89 Eriochloa procera (Retz.) C.E.Hubb. Poaceae LC 90 Eryngium foetidum L. Apiaceae NA 91 Ethulia conyzoides L.f. Asteracae LC 92 Eulophia mannii (Rchb.f.) Hook.f. Orchidaceae NA

56

93 Euphorbia hirta L. Euphorbiaceae NA 94 Euphorbia thymifolia L. Euphorbiaceae NA 95 Euphorbia hypericifolia L. Euphorbiaceae NA 96 Fimbristylis aestivalis Vahl Cyperaceae NA 97 Fimbristylis dichotoma (L.) Vahl Cyperaceae LC 98 Fimbristylis littoralis Gaudich. Cyperaceae LC 99 Floscopa scandens Lour. Commelinaceae LC 100 Glinus lotoides L. Molluginaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 101 Glinus oppositifolius (L.) Aug.DC. Molluginaceae NA 102 Gomphostemma parviflorum Wall. ex Benth. Lamiaceae NA 103 Gonostegia pentandra (Roxb.) Miq. Urticaceae NA 104 Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir. Asteracae LC 105 Hedyotis lineata Roxb. Rubiaceae NA 106 Helminthostachys zeylanica (L.) Hook. Ophioglossaceae NA 107 Hemarthria protensa Steud. Poaceae NA Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv. ex Roem. & 108 Poaceae NA Schult. 109 Hymenachne assamica (Hook.f.) Hitchc. Poaceae NA 110 Hypericum elodeoides Choisy Hypericaceae NA 111 Ichnanthus pallens var. major (Nees) Stieber Poaceae NA 112 Impatiens glandulifera Royle Balsaminaceae NA 113 Imperata cylinderica (L.) Raeusch. Poaceae NA 114 Isachne globosa (Thunb.) Kuntze Poaceae LC 115 Ischaemum aristatum L. Poaceae NA 116 Ischaemum timorense Kunth Poaceae NA 117 Kyllinga brevifolia Rottb. Cyperaceae LC 118 Laphangium luteoalbum (L.) Tzvelev Asteracae NA 119 Lasia spinosa (L.) Thwaites Araceae LC 120 Leersia hexandra Sw. Poaceae NA 121 Leucas aspera (Willd.) Link Lamiaceae NA 122 Leucas zeylanica (L.) W.T.Aiton Lamiaceae NA 123 Lindernia anagallis (Burm.f.) Pennell Linderniaceae LC

57

124 Lindernia ruellioides (Colsm.) Pennell Linderniaceae LC 125 Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae NA Melilotus officinalis subsp. alba (Medik.) H.Ohashi & 126 Fabaceae NA Tateishi 127 Microstegium ciliatum (Trin.) A.Camus Poaceae NA 128 Miscanthus fuscus (Roxb.) Benth Poaceae NA 129 Murdannia loriformis (Hassk.) R.S.Rao & Kammathy Commelinaceae NA 130 Murdannia nudiflora (L.) Brenan Commelinaceae NA 131 Neodistemon indicum (Wedd.) Babu & Henry Urticaceae NA 132 Nervilia sp. Orchidaceae NA 133 Odontosoria chinensis (L.) J. Sm. Lindsaeaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 134 Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC. Apiaceae LC 135 Onychium japonicum (Thunb.) Kunze Pteridaceae NA 136 Ophiopogon intermedius D. Don Asperagaceae NA 137 Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Rubiaceae NA 138 Ophiuros megaphyllus Stapf ex Haines Poaceae NA 139 Oplismenus burmanni (Retz.) P.Beauv. Poaceae NA 140 Oplismenus compositus (L.) P.Beauv. Poaceae NA 141 Oryza rufipogon Griff. Poaceae LC 142 Ottochloa nodosa (Kunth) Dandy Poaceae NA 143 Oxalis corniculata L Oxallidaceae NA 144 Oxalis latifolia Kunth Oxallidaceae NA 145 Panicum humidorum Buch.-Ham. ex Hook.f. Poaceae NA 146 Panicum humile Steud. Poaceae NA 147 Panicum incisum Munro ex C.B.Clarke Poaceae NA 148 Panicum miliaceum L. Poaceae NA 149 Panicum montanum Roxb. Poaceae NA 150 Panicum paludosum Roxb Poaceae NA 151 Parthenium hysterophorus L. Asteracae NA 152 Paspalidium flavidum (Retz.) A.Camus Poaceae LC 153 Paspalidium punctatum (Burm.) A.Camus Poaceae LC 154 Paspalum conjugatum Berg Poaceae LC

58

155 Paspalum distichum L. Poaceae NA 156 Paspalum longifoliun Roxb. Poaceae NA 157 Paspalum orbiculare Forst. Poaceae NA 158 Persicaria barbata (L.) H.Hara Polygonaceae LC 159 Persicaria chinensis (L.) H. Gross Polygonaceae NA 160 Persicaria glabra (Willd.) M.Gómez Polygonaceae LC 161 Persicaria hydropiper (L.) Delarbre Polygonaceae LC 162 Persicaria orientalis (L.) Spach Polygonaceae NA 163 Persicaria pulchra (Blume) Soják Polygonaceae NA 164 Persicaria strigosa (R.Br.) Nakai Polygonaceae LC 165 Peucedanum grande C.B.Clarke Apiaceae NA 166 Phragmites karka (Retz.) Trin. ex Steud. Poaceae LC 167 Phyla nodiflora (L.) Greene Verbenaceae LC Sl. No. Species name Family Status 168 Phyllanthus neruri L. Euphorbiaceae NA 169 Picria fel-terrae Lour. Linderniaceae NA 170 Pimpinella sp. Apiaceae NA 171 Plectranthus sp. Lamiaceae NA 172 Pollia subumbellata C.B.Clarke Commelinaceae NA 173 Polygala chinensis L. Polygalaceae NA 174 Polygonum perfoliatum L. Polygonaceae NA 175 Polygonum plebeium R.Br. Polygonaceae LC 176 Polygonum posumbu Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Polygonaceae NA 177 Polygonum pubescens Blume Polygonaceae LC 178 Polygonum viscosum Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don Polygonaceae NA 179 Polytoca digitata (L.f.) Druce Poaceae NA 180 Portulaca oleracea L. Pontederiaceae NA 181 Pouzolzia bennettiana Wight Urticaceae NA 182 Pouzolzia zeylanica (L.) Benn. Urticaceae NA 183 Pouzolzia hirta Blume ex Hassk. Urticaceae NA Pseudechinolaena polystachya (Humb., Bonpl. & 184 Poaceae NA Kunth) Stapf 185 Pseudosorghum fasciculare (Roxb.) A.Camus Poaceae NA

59

186 Pteris sp. Pteridaceae NA 187 Pycreus pumilus (L.) Nees Cyperaceae LC 188 Rhynchospora colorata (L.) H.Pfeiff. Cyperaceae NA 189 Rorippa indica (L.) Hiern Brassicaceae NA 190 Rumex dentatus L. Polygonaceae NA 191 Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees Acanthaceae NA 192 Saccharum arundinaceum Retz. Poaceae NA 193 Saccharum procerum Roxb. Poaceae NA 194 Saccharum ravennae (L.) L. Poaceae LC 195 Saccharum spontaneum L. Poaceae LC 196 Sacciolepis indica (L.) Chase Poaceae NA 197 Schoenoplectiella mucronata (L.) J.Jung & H.K.ChoiL. Cyperaceae NA 198 Schumannianthus dichotomus (Roxb.) Gagnep. Marantaceae NA 199 Scleria terrestris (L.) Fassett Cyperaceae LC 200 Scoparia dulcis L. Scrophulariaceae NA 201 Setaria palmifolia (J.Koenig) Stapf Poaceae NA Sl. No. Species name Family Status 202 Setaria pumila (Poir.) Roem. & Schult. Poaceae NA 203 Sonchus arvensis L. Asteracae NT 204 Sphaeranthus indicus L. Asteracae NA 205 Sporobolus diander Stapf Poaceae NA 206 Sporobolus fertilis (Steud.) Clayton Poaceae NA 207 Sporobolus indicus (L.) R.Br. Poaceae NA Stachyphrynium placentarium (Lour.) Clausager & 208 Marantaceae NA Borchs. 209 Stachys oblongifolia Wall. ex Benth. Lamiaceae NA 210 Stachytarpheta indica (L.) Vahl Verbenaceae NA 211 Stellaria media L. Caryophyllaceae NA 212 Tectaria polymorpha (Wall. ex Hook.) Copel. Tectariaceae NA 213 Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) A.Camus Poaceae NA 214 Themeda caudata (Nees ex Hook. & Arn.) A.Camus Poaceae NA 215 Themeda villosa (Lam.) A.Camus Poaceae NA 216 Thespis divaricata DC. Asteracae NA

60

217 Thysanolaena latifolia (Roxb. ex Hornem.) Honda Poaceae NA 218 Torenia diffusa D.Don. Linderniaceae NA 219 Torenia violacea (Azaola ex Blanco) Pennell Linderniaceae NA 220 Tribulus terrestris L. Zygophyllacae NA 221 Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott Araceae NA 222 UID 1 Gesneriaceae

223 UID 3 Gentianaceae

224 Uraria picta (Jacq.) DC. Fabaceae LC 225 Urochloa panicoides P.Beauv. Poaceae LC 226 Urochloa setigera (Retz.) Stapf Poaceae NA 227 Verbena officianalis L. Verbenaceae NA 228 Vetiveria zizanioides L. Poaceae NA 229 Youngia japonica (L.) DC. Asteracae NA 230 Zingiber rubens Roxb. Zingiberaceae NA

61

List of aquatic herb species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Azolla pinnata R.Br. Azollacae LC 2 Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pennell Scrophulariaceae LC 3 Ceratophyllum demersum L. Ceratophyllaceae LC 4 Ceratopteris thalictroides (L.) Ad. Brongn. Pteridaceae LC 5 Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms Pontederiaceae NA 6 Hydrilla verticillata (L.f.) Royle Hydrocharitaceae LC 7 Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T.Anderson ACANTHACEAE LC Hygroryza aristata (Retz.) Nees ex Wight & 8 Poaceae NA Arn. 9 Hymenachne amplexicaulis (Rudge) Nees Poaceae NA 10 Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. Convolvulaceae LC 11 Lemna perpusilla Torr. Araceae LC 12 Limnophila indica (L.) Scrophulariaceae LC 13 Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara Onagraceae NA 14 Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) P.H.Raven Onagraceae LC 15 Ludwigia prostrata Roxb. Onagraceae NA 16 Ludwigia sedioides (Humb. & Bonpl.) H.Hara Onagraceae NA 17 Ludwigia hyssopifolia (G.Don) Exell Onagraceae LC 18 Marsilea quadrifolia L. Marsilliaceae LC 19 Monochoria hastata (L.) Solms Pontederiaceae LC 20 Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Nympheaceae NA 21 Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. Nympheaceae LC 22 Nymphaea pubescens Willd. Nympheaceae LC 23 Nymphoides cristata (Roxb.) Kuntze Menispermaceae LC 24 Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. Hydrocharitaceae LC 25 Pistia stratiotes L. Araceae LC 26 Potamogeton octandrus Poir. Potamogitaceae LC Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) 27 Lythraceae LC Koehne 28 Saccharum narenga (Nees ex Steud.) Hack. Poaceae NA 29 Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Alismataceae LC

62

30 Salvinia natans (L.) All. Salviniaceae LC 31 Trapa natans L. Lythraceae LC 32 Trapa incisa Siebold & Zucc. Lythraceae LC 33 Typha elephantina Roxb. Typhaceae LC 34 Utricularia aurea Lour. Lentibulariaceae LC 35 Utricularia flexuosa Vahl. Lentibulariaceae NA 36 Vallisneria spiralis L. Hydrocharitaceae LC

63

List of epiphyte species recorded in KNP with their global status (IUCN Redlist)

Sl. No. Species name Family Status 1 Acampe praemorsa (Roxb.) Blatt. & McCann Orchidaceae NA 2 Aerides multiflora Roxb. Orchidaceae NA 3 Asplenium nidus L. Aspleniaceae NA 4 Bulbophyllum affine Lindl. Orchidaceae NA 5 Bulbophyllum apodum Hook. f. Orchidaceae NA Bulbophyllum odoratissimum (J.E. Sm.) 6 Orchidaceae NA Lindl. 7 Coelogyne assamica Linden & Rchb.f. Orchidaceae NA 8 Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Orchidaceae NA 9 Cymbidium aloifolium (L.) Sw. Orchidaceae NA 10 Dendrobium acinaciforme Roxb. Orchidaceae NA 11 Dendrobium lindleyi Steud. Orchidaceae NA 12 Dendrobium aphyllum (Roxb.) C.E.C.Fisch. Orchidaceae LC 13 Dischidia bengalensis Colebr. Asclepiadaceae NA 14 Drynaria quercifolia (L.) J. Sm. Polypodiaceae NA 15 Gastrochilus dasypogon (Sm.) Kuntze Orchidaceae NA 16 Hoya arnotiana Wight Asclepiadaceae NA 17 Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. Orchidaceae NA 18 Macrosolen cochinchinensis (Lour.) Tiegh. Loranthaceae NA 19 Microsorum punctatum (L.) Copel. Polypodiaceae NA 20 Oberonia acaulis Griff. Orchidaceae NA 21 Oleandra wallichii (Hook.) C. Presl Oleandraceae NA 22 Papilionanthe teres (Roxb.) Schltr. Orchidaceae NA 23 Pothos chinensis (Raf.) Merr. Araceae NA 24 Pothos scandens L. Araceae NA 25 Pyrrosia sp. Polypodiaceae NA 26 Rhynchostylis retusa (L.) Orchidaceae NA 27 Vittaria elongata Sw. Pteridaceae NA

* NA: Not Assessed; DD: Data Deficient; LC: Least Concerned; NT: Near Theatened; VU: Vulnerable; EN: Endengered; CE: Critically Endengered. 64

Annexure II: Images of Trees

65

Acacia catechu Actinodaphne obovata

Aegle marmelos Aidia densiflora

66

Alangium chinensis Albizzia procera

Albizzia saman Antidesma acidum

Antidesma ghaesembilla Aralia bipinnata

67

Baringtonia acutangula Bauhinia veriagata white variety

Bischofia javanica Bombax ceiba

68

Bridelia retusa Careya arborea

Castanopsis tribuloides Chisocheton cumingianus subsp. balansae

69

Crateva unilocularis Dalbergia assamica

Dalbergia sissoo Dillenia indica

Duabunga grandiflora Elaeocarpus floribundus

70

Erythrina stricta Ficus religiosa

Ficus tinctoria subsp. gibbosa Ficus drupacea

71

Gmelina arborea Lagerstroemia speciosa

Lannea coromandelica Lithocarpus pachyphyllus

Litsea glutinosa Litsea monopetala

Litsea sp. 1 Litsea sp. 2 72

Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia Magnolia hodgsonii

Mallotus paniculatus Mallotus philippensis

Micromelum integerrimum Moringa oleifera

73

Neolamarckia cadamba Oroxylum indicum

Phyllanthus emblica Pterospermum acerifolium

74

Polyalthia sp. Polyalthia sp. fruits

Quercus semiserrata Salix alba

Saraca asoca Semecarpus anacardium 75

Senna siamea Sterculia villosa

76

Stereospermum tetragonum Syzygium jambos

Tamarix dioica Terminalia arjuna

Terminalia Citrina Terminalia myriocarpa 77

Tetrameles nudiflora Trevia nudiflora

Toona ciliata flowers Toona ciliata fruits

78

Holarrhena pubescens Zizyphus mauritiana

Zizyphus mauritiana Phoenix sylvestris

79

80

Annexure III: Images of Shrubs

81

Actinodaphne hookeri Allophylus cobbe

Ardisia solanacea Cannabis sativa

Casearia vareca Catunaregam spinosa 82

Clerodendrum laevifolium Clerodendrum indicum

Clerodendrum infortunatum Croton caudatus

83

Dendrocnide sinuata Flemingia macrophylla

Glochidion multiloculare Glycosmis pentaphylla

Holarrhena pubescens Lantana camara

84

Leea asiatica Leea indica

Lepidagathis incurva Lippia alba

85

Litsea salicifolia Maesa indica

Melastoma malabathricum Osbeckia stellata

Morinda angustifolia flowers Morinda angustifolia fruits

86

Murraya koenigii Psychotria silhetensis

Pavetta indica flowers Pavetta indica fruits

87

Phlogacanthus pubinervius Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus

Rauwolfia sarpentina Rosa pinnata

Rhynchotechum ellipticum Senna occidentalis

88

Solanum torvum Solanum viarum

Tabernaemontana divaricata Urena lobata

89

Wallichia oblongifolia Oleaceace member

Annexure IV: Images of Herbs

90

Achyrospermum wallichianum Acmella uliginosa

Ageratum conezoides Alpinia malaccensis

Amorphophallus bulbifer Arenaria serpyllifolia 91

Asystasia gangetica Blumea paniculata

Chromolaena odoratum Cleome hassleriana

92

Costus spaciosus Cuphea viscosissima

Curcuma aromatica Curcuma zedoaria

Dentella repens Duchesnea indica

93

Dysphania ambrosioides Elatostema lineolatum

Ethulia conyzoides Euphorbia hypericifolia

Floscopa scandens Gentianaceae member

94

Gesneriaceae member1 Gesneriaceae member 2

Gesneriaceae member 3 Grangea maderaspatana

Heliotropium indicum Heliotropium strigosum 95

Impatiens glandulifera Imperata cylinderica

Kyllinga brevifolia Leucas aspera

96

Melilotus officinalis subsp. alba Murdannia nudiflora

Nervilia sp. Oenanthe javanica

Persicaria chinensis Persicaria hydropiper

97

Persicaria orientalis Persicaria barbata

Panicum sp. Peucedanum grande

98

Phyla nodiflora Phyllanthus neruri

Pimpinella sp. Plectranthus sp.

Polygonum sp. Pouzolzia hirta 99

Rorippa indica Schumannianthus dichotomus

Saccharum spontaneum Saccharum ravennae

100

Stachys oblongifolia Stachytarpheta indica

Sonchus arvensis Typhonium trilobatum

101

Verbena officianalis Zingiber rubens

Dicranopteris linearis Helminthostachys zeylanica

102

Annexure V: Images of Scandents

103

Bauhinia Scandens Bauhinia Scandens leaves

Caesalpinia crista Caesalpinia crista inforescence

Calamus erectus Cardiospermum helicacabum

104

Cissus repanda Clematis cadmia

Clerodendrum trichotomum Elaeagnus conferta

Hibiscus fragrans Merremia umbellata

105

Mikania macrantha Milletia pachycarpa

Mimosa invisa Momordica cochinchinensis

Oxystelma secamone Piper longum

106

Piper longum Premna latifolia

Uncaria sessilifructus flowers Uncaria sessilifructus fruits

Thunbergia grandiflora Thunbergia coccinea

107

Pothos scandens Stenochlaena palustris

108

Annexure VI: Images of Epiphytes

109

Acampe praemorsa Cymbidium aloifolium

Hoya arnotiana Macrosolen cochinchinensis

Papilionanthe teres Papilionanthe teres

110

Dendrobium aphyllum

Asplenium nidus Pyrrosia sp.

111

112

Annexure VII: Images of Aquatic Herbs

113

Eichhornia crassipes Hygroryza aristata

Ludwigia adscendens Ludwigia hyssopifolia

Monochoria hastata Nymphoides cristata

114

Pistia stratiotes Rotala rotundifolia

Azolla pinnata Marsilea quadrifolia

Salvinia natans Trapa natans

115