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l

IDGH PERFORMANCE TEAM COACHING: A POSITIVE DEVIANT EXPLORATION

MORNE MARITZ Department ofIndustrial Psychology and People Management University ofJohannesburg [email protected]

ABSTRACT Orientation. The orientation is a positive deviant exploration ofhigh performance team coaching. Research purpose. The main research objective was to construct and find support for a model of positive deviance for high performance team coaching. The specific research objectives were to . . identify a positive deviant team coach, and to map this person's behaviour in relation to the positive deviance model that was constructed for the purpose ofthis study. Motivation for the study. The motivation was to contribute towards coaching beyond a one-on­ one intervention to coaching a collective. Research design, approach and method. The approach was qualitative with a case study design. The unit of enquiry was the highly successful Jake White, coach of the 2004-2007 Springbok rugby team that won the World Cup in 2007. For the purpose ofdata collection a key note address on coaching by White was recorded. Furthermore White and three more participants were interviewed. Secondary sources consulted were autobiographies and a biography. The data were analysed by means ofa thematic analysis and reported in a narrative format, Main findings. The findings confirmed the qualities, facilitators and outcomes suggested by the positive deviance model. However, in the case offacilitators, three more than the seven suggested by the model were identified. Practical/managerial implications. This model may serve as a framework for the practice ofhigh performance team coaching. Contribution/value-add. The construct ofpositive deviance was introduced to the practice of high performance team coaching.

Key words: business team coaching; Positive Organisational Scholarship (POS); qualities; facilitators; outcomes 2

INTRODUCTION Key focus ofthe study According to McNutt and Wright (1995) the dilemma that has troubled many employers for years is how to make groups and teams more effective. One tool that has emerged as a powerful intervention for the development of individual and team performance is business coaching (Reich, Ulman, van der Loos & Leifer, 2009; Maritz, Poggenpoel & Myburgh, 2009). Coaching may be defined as a professional, collaborative and outcomes driven method of learning that seeks to develop individuals and teams, and raises self-awareness, so that specific goals may be achieved (COMENSA, 2007).

Although business coaching can be traced to as early as the 1940s, its broader application has only gained momentum in the late 1990s and has expanded ever since (Maritz et al., 2009). Current research findings reveal that coaching is considered one ofthe most powerful strategic and tactical approaches for organisational effectiveness (du Toit, 2007). This is because ofcoaching's ability to enhance areas of proficiency that are already high, and to establish skills that were previously absent or weak. Furthermore, coaching provides new directions in customer satisfaction, productivity and ~verall organisational effectiveness and provides the gateway to the intellectual and emotional support and development of managers, thus avoiding managerial derailment and preparing individuals to meet the increasingly complex requirements of today's business environment (cf. Maritz et al., 2009).

The domain of sport has long since been a source of inspiration for the organisational context. Moreover, since business coaching has some of its roots in sport coaching, one way to understand team coaching is from a team sports perspective. The first part ofthis article covers an overview of the literature pertaining to some elements of both business and sports team coaching. However, since not much research has been undertaken on team coaching as opposed to individual coaching (Clutterbuck, 2007) and even less so with regard to optimal team coaching, the aim of this research is to study the case of an individual that performed optimally as a sports team coach. Knowledge gained from this case may provide guidelines applicable for business team coaching.

A domain that has gained exponential momentum since the turn of the century is positive psychology, with its aim ofchanging psychology's preoccupation with repairing the worst things in life to building the best qualities in life (Seligman, 2002). Applying the principles of positive psychology, Cameron, Dutton and Quinn (2003) established a new field of study in the 3

organisational sciences, namely Positive Organisational Scholarship (POS) with its emphasis on positive deviance. For the purpose of this study a theoretical model consisting of qualities, facilitators and outcomes, informed by POS was developed in order to serve as a framework for high performance team coaching. The case ofJake White, coach ofthe 2004-2007 Springbok rugby team that won the World Cup in 2007 was interpreted in order to find support for this positive deviance model of high performance team coaching, that may even be applied in the business environment.

Background to the study Definition ofcoaching The typical dictionary definitions for the verb 'coach' are 'to teach', 'instruct', 'to tutor', and 'train' (Soanes & Stevenson, 2006). These definitions are rather vague, for those activities can be executed in various ways, some of which bear no relationship to coaching and express nothing about its practice (cf. Whitmore, 2002; Wilson, 2007). Besides 'tutor' and 'train', the word 'coach' - according to Clutterbuck (2007) - shares some common origins with the word 'coax'. It also shares some qualities with the metaphor of a 'railway coach' originating from the word 'coche', which meant 'a wagon or carriage'. The metaphor is that the 'coach' is the vehicle that transports people from a starting designation to a desired end location and 'coaching' recalls multitasking skills associated with controlling a horse-drawn stagecoach. This concept of coaching, together with original interpretations, has been adopted by the sports environment freely to identify the person that is responsible to guide, teach and train individual athletes or teams to realise their potential and achieve a high level of performance. The idea of coaching was subsequently adopted for the organisational context.

The classic definition widely accepted by most coaches is Gallwey's, as cited by Whitmore (2002, p. 8): 'Coaching is unlocking a person's potential to maximise their own performance. It is helping them to learn rather than teaching them.' Clutterbuck (2007, p. 5) adds that, 'Coaches act as external stimulators to unlock the potential people hold within them utilising a various set of methods and approaches.' Wilson (2007) indicates that coaching is as much about the way things are done as about what is done which implies both method and action. A comprehensive coaching definition may be formulated as follows:

Coaching is a process that is defined by a relatively formal relationship. It combines an appropriate set of methodologies utilising effective questioning and listening skills, offers support, 4 encouragement and regular feedback to facilitate dialogue. Dialogue enables the coachees to gain personal insight and to develop new perspectives, which assists coachees to achieve greater clarity about their own thoughts, emotions and actions, and about the people and situations around them. By gaining a higher level of self and situational awareness they are able to find the solutions that are most compatible and appropriate to use and then act upon those decisions, unlocking inherent potential leading to maximising personal effectiveness. Actions or performance is measured against specific preset goals and outcomes, but may include to some degree a level of experimentation allowing for adult learning principles through experience. At its core, however, coaching is about change. It aims to facilitate learning and develop individuals to realise an individual's or a team's potential through experience and unlocking their potential (Bianco-Mathis, Roman & Nabors, 2008; Clutterbuck, 2007; Jarvis, Lane & Fillery-Travis, 2006; Ting & Scisco, 2006; Whitmore, 2002; Wilson, 2007).

Although the notion of a team was incorporated towards the end of this definition, coaching is predominantly practised in a one-on-one manner". This concern is to be addressed in this study.

Origins of coaching It is hard to define the origins of coaching by a date or an event. Moreover, coaching has its conception in a variety of disciplines dating back to as early as the 1940s (Results Coaching Systems, 1998; Maritz et al., 2009; Cilliers, 2005). Humanistic psychology, dating from the early 1960s, gave impetus to its conceptualisation and application (Whitmore in Wilson, 2007). However, it is only since 1990 that coaching gained recognition both academically and professionally.· Most notably, since the late 1980s much about coaching that we know about today has its roots primarily in individual athletics and team sports (Homan & Miller, 2008), which utilise coaches to help sports persons improve and strive to reach their full potential.

It should therefore come as no surprise that the first real publication about coaching in a work performance context was in 1975 by Tim Gallwey, captain ofthe Harvard tennis team. He realised that the most challenging opponent is the one 'inside' the player, rather than the person on the other side ofthe net. He applied these principles to work and life contexts, culminating in his best selling book The Inner Game of Tennis (Wilson, 2007). Shortly thereafter, former international race car driver Sir John Whitmore coined the term 'performance coaching' (Wilson, 2007; Whitmore, 2002)

t An exception is system psychodynamic coaching where the focus is on the collective.

• In many cases in the literature coaching is often referred to as being a profession. which is not accurate because this practice is not regulated by legislation. 5

and published Coachingfor Performance, which not only marked a turning point in the approach of coaching by introducing the commonly used GROW model, (Goals, Reality, Options and Will) and catapulting coaching into business across the US and Europe. It is therefore evident that coaches with a sport background had a major impact on coaching in a work and business environment. (Clutterbuck, 2007; Law, Ireland & Hussain, 2007; Whitmore in Dembkowski, Eldridge & Hunter, 2006).

What is evident from the above is that the type ofsport, and the coaching thereofthat has an impact on business coaching is predominantly an individual execution. The research in question explores the value ofsport team coaching for business team coaching.

Context of coaching Coaching may be facilitated internally to the organisation by managers, team leaders or professionals who perform as coaches (Frisch, 2001; Inge & Kleiner, 1997; Clutterbuck 2007; Starr, 2004; Whitherspoon & White, 1996). Alternatively coaching service may be provided by external specialists or consultants brought in for their unique approach, set of skills or expert opinion (Wasylyshyn, 2003; Fillery-Travis & Lane, 2006; Whitherspoon & White, 1996). The clients of coaches may be either individuals or teams. On an individual level the coaching is done on a predominantly one-on-one basis, whereas on a team level coaching is performed with a collective entity. Clutterbuck (2007) emphasises that the dynamics of individual and team coaching arc completely different. These contextual relationships are represented in Figure 1.

Internal Manag~rs as coaches

Individual +------.. Teams Coaching one-on-one Coaching a collectlve

External Specialist consultants

Figure 1: Contextual relationship of coaching 6

The focus of this study will be on team coaching, since this practice of coaching is underexplored (cf. Clutterbuck, 2007).

One of the reasons why coaching is mostly practised on the individual level is because of its association with mentoring and psychological practices, such as counselling, learning and clinical interventions, such as therapy. These practices traditionally focus on an individual rather than a collective. Even in group therapy the focus is on the individual within the group, rather than the collective. Furthermore, the boundaries between these approaches are not clear and need to be clarified. These relationships are graphically displayed in Figure 2. How much overlap exists between these three fields is still unclear and undefined (Law, Ireland & Hussain, 2007) .

.Figure 2: The relationship between mentoring, coaching and psychology Source: Adapted from Law, Ireland & Hussain (2007, pp. 3-4)

The most common misconception arises between mentoring and coaching. Mentoring is similar to coaching but focuses more upon the person and specific development for specific roles (Merlevede & Bridoux, 2004). The key difference is that mentoring is a personal-development centred approach focusing on interventions over a long period of time with a broad spectrum of roles (Clutterbuck, 2007). Coaching is much more performance driven and is in its nature relatively short-term based and linked to a project or performance issues (Clutterbuck, 2007; Law, Ireland & Hussain, 2007). Wilson (2007) explains that a mentor has experience in a specific field and imparts exclusive understanding, acting as an advisor, counsellor, guide, tutor or teacher. In contrast, the coach's role is not to give advice but to give support to coachees in revealing their own knowledge and skills and to facilitate coachees in becoming independent (Wilson, 2007). 7

Without the necessary training in counselling or psychotherapy the coach should stay clear thereof and rather refer clients when appropriate. Coaching deals with non-clinical populations that have a defined normal functionality who may be dissatisfied with an area of their life or performance as opposed to therapy which deals with obvious or underlying psychological issues (Clutterbuck, 2007; Law, Ireland & Hussain, 2007; Grant, 2001). Figure illustrates that the key focus area of the clinical population is defined by the presence of lower functionality and higher psychopathology by the patient as opposed to the coaching domain, which is defined by a higher degree of functionality and the lack ofor absence ofpsychopathological, or in the words of Wissing and van Eeden (1997) the presence of psychofortology. There is, however, a grey area where both parties can operate harmoniously as illustrated in the Figure 3.

ainal.---..,:...... -­ popuilltion - ...--~---.eo.ching lMIPaimoli

HighpsydIoplIthology/ lDw psydIoplIthologyf lowfunctionality highfundionlllity, high psydIofortology

Figure 3: The difference between the coaching and clinical population Source: Adapted from Jarvis (2004, p. 37)

The commonality between all these approaches is that they aim to achieve change and unlock the potential within the coachee/mentee/patient/team that will ultimately lead to higher performance. The relationship is birthed with an understanding that mentors, coaches or counsellors will help them discover and maximise their strengths and rid them ofpotential elements or underlying causes - clinical and non-clinical - that may hinder their performance. This generally leads to the benefit and advantage ofthe individual and his/her sociological context such as an organisation, family and community (Clutterbuck, 2007; Law, Ireland & Hussain, 2007). The focus of the study in question. however, is to explore and understand the type ofteam coach that is able to function within the area ofhigh functionality and fortology.

Critiques against coaching Coaching is not without critique. The first common critique faced by the coaching community is the negative perception that it is merely a buzzword or fad (Kets de Vries, Korotov & Florent-Treacy. 8

2007; Edwards, 2003) that mushroomed into a highly popular intervention employed by organisations and consultants with very little real value (Wasylyshyn, 2003; Bluckert, 2004). Secondly, coaching is not a regulated profession, rather, it '... is still something ofa Wild West with no restrictions, other than common sense, on the who and the how ...' (Kets de Vries et al., 2007, p. xxiv).

The third critique, which is related to the focus ofthis study, is that traditionally coaching has been mainly focused on one-on-one type of interventions. This concern was raised by Clutterbuck (2007), who noted that although a great deal has been written about coaching individuals, there has been relatively little investigation of coaching teams at work. Furthermore, team coaching is often confused with individual coaching, training, team facilitation, and team-building. (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2004; Redshaw, 2000). Coaching several individuals within a team, 'or all the team members individually, is not the same as coaching the team as a collective (Clutterbuck, 2007). Clutterbuck (2007) remarked that team coaching is consistently cited by senior human resource and organisational development professionals as one of the most serious weaknesses in the capability set of managers at all levels. Even in organisations that have made considerable steps towards becoming coaching cultures, the focus of attention for that coaching is the individual, rather than the team (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2004).

This oversight needs to be addressed. The argument is simple: Few people in organisations work alone, the essence of organising is to harness the collective efficiency of people working together and that implies people working in teams (Clutterbuck, 2007). In this regard Clutterbuck (2007) cites Senge: 'Knowledge generation ... primarily occurs in working teams. Individual learning is a by-product of what goes on in really innovative teams. But individual learning is not the goal. In fact, ifit becomes the goal, you are in trouble.'

Functions of business team coaching The skill to work successfully in teams is essential for organisation effectiveness. Organisations use teams because they are the best way to arrange complex work. Teams link individuals within the larger organisations and provide a mechanism for making focused decisions about overarching strategies (Clutterbuck, 2007).

There is a significant difference between a work group and a team (Staniforth & West, 1995; Harvard Business Essentials, 2004). Teams consist of a small number of people who share goals 9 and depend on each other to reach them. A healthy team has a shared purpose with clear and realistic objectives (Staniforth & West, 1995; Hinkson, 2001). Such teams also form part ofa larger social structure that meets people's needs for socialisation and they establish an environment where people can share effort, reward and risk (Clutterbuck, 2007). Teams provide a sense of common identity. Team members communicate with one another in a more structured way than people belonging to a larger group. Team members can also expect to experience some degree of'personal discomfort' because of the demand for mutual cooperation, and the expectancy to put the needs of the team or other members above their own. In this regard members fill specific roles within the team and shape their behaviour to meet the needs of the team (Clutterbuck 2007; Hinkson, 2001). Organisations could classify teams firstly by how they are managed, secondly by what type of task they perform, and thirdly by the degree to which the members depend on one another (Clutterbuck, 2007).

Regrettably, teams don't always live up to their expectations. The mounting and discouraging evidence is that most of the teams in the contemporary workplace do not exploit their combined potential close to the degree that they could: 'Failures ofstructure and procedure, lack ofpurpose or commitment, internal conflict and poor leadership drain the team's potential to work at its optimal level' (Clutterbuck, 2007, p. 3).

Like individuals, teams can benefit from focused team coaching, aimed at improving their functioning and performance. It helps teams review performance, improve results. communication and also build rapport. In this sense team coaching is a significant part of the remedy for team performance shortfalls. Coaching therefore can also provide a vehicle for inspiring individuals and their teams to challenge their current constraints and to explore new possibilities (Chinsky. 20(7). Team coaching may harness the intelligence and curiosity necessary to help teams reflect collectively on their common actions, how to integrate individual skill sets, how to collaborate for innovation and how to stimulate dialogue necessary for addressing performance issues effectively (Clutterbuck & Megginson, 2004). Coaching a team could facilitate conditions so that individuals within the team can improve and perform to the best of their abilities individually and collectively and in return create an environment for productive development (Smith, 2009; Staniforth & \Vest. 1995; Phillips, 1995; Rider, 2002).

All coaching starts with a need for change (Clutterbuck, 2007). With global demands on resources. intellectual capability and on teams to work under huge pressure, coaching can be a resolve to 10 facilitate the required change and the learning process needed (Maritz et al., 2009; Cilliers, 2005; Phillips & Mitsch, 2002; Edwards, 2003). Barry (1994) notes that coaching may accelerate learning and dramatically increase the personal effectiveness ofteam members. Furthermore, coaching could assist with transformational change aspects and has the capability to develop an 'organisational culture ofcreative genius'. Team coaching provides a method of transforming the way in which an organisation trains their employees and manages performance on an individual and team level as the focus is about the full development ofthe team by providing team members with assistance that ranges from problem solving to moral support (Meyer & Fourie, 2004; Smith, 2009; Reich, Ulman, van der Loos & Leifer, 2009). Business team coaching programs can help teams achieve greater clarity ofvision or purpose, and an increase in self-awareness (Chinsky, 2007; du Toit, 2007; Smith 2009). Coaching may help with unlocking team members' potentials, maximise performance (Edwards, 2003; Starr, 2004), and help motivate and instil confidence in team members who may then respond resourcefully to demanding situations (Maritz et al., 2009; Starr, 2004).

To summarise, the focus of coaching has not extensively been explored beyond the scope of one­ on-one interventions, and most of the approaches and methodologies utilised by coaches have the individual with one-on-one interventions, rather than the collective team, in mind. This dilemma may be addressed by returning to the sports domain, which has the most experience of team coaching. The professional sports industry, such as American Football, Rugby, Cricket, and Soccer, have long since recognised the need for excellent team coaches to drive good teams to being excellent ones.

Sport team coaching as an analogy for business team coaching In sports teams, the role of the coach is that of an architect and facilitator of a social environment 'within which mission-pertinent learning is accomplished by members who constantly challenge the achievement limits of the team' (Dovey & Singhota, 2005, p. 18). The management of learning in sports organisations has therefore much to offer business managers. Within sports teams, forms of collaboration are encouraged with the intention of converting human learning and creativity into ways-of-knowing that serve the collective mission (Dovey & Singhota, 2005).

Clutterbuck (2007), nevertheless, argues that the sports context is not analogous to the work context and therefore coaching in the sports context should differ from that in the work environment. For example, teams in sport have the underlying purpose of winning, yet success for many teams in the workplace depends far more on collaboration, and the ethics of business is also considerably more 11 complex than that of sport (Clutterbuck, 2007). However, McNutt and Wright (1995) state that the parallels between the two environments are numerous, and one can borrow and adapt many of the methods and approaches in the sports environment to the business world. This may add an increased performance dimension and create an effective workplace. Despite the more complex nature ofmodern organisations, the basic principle is the same and that is a team ofindividuals who work together to achieve a common goal. It is not uncommon to transfer learning from sports teams to the organisational or corporate environment. Thomas (2007) reported on de Rond, an expert on teamwork at Cambridge University's Judges Business School, for example, who used what he had learned from the university's eight-man rowing team to design an executive education programme on team performance. These lessons also form the basis ofhis consulting work on optimal team co­ operation. Furthermore, the sports environment is also an industry in itself, mirroring that of the corporate business environment. Sports coaches are confronted with increasing demands similar to that of the corporate environment, including diversity and quota compliances, pleasing sponsors/stakeholders/public, the demand to perform according to set targets to name a few.

Inge and Kleiner (1997) argue that attributes derived from successful sports team coaching can be used to develop frameworks for the successful coaching business teams. From a review of sporting literature, scholarly literature or otherwise, some attributes ofsuccessful sports team coaches are: • Have a vision for the team (Smith, 2009; Haworth, 2009) • Get the players in the best possible condition (lnge & Kleiner, 1997) • Teach players to execute the fundamentals quickly (lnge & Kleiner, 1997) • Exercise players as a team (lnge & Kleiner, 1997) • Build significant relationships with team members (Goldberg, 2009; Smith, 2009) • Treat players with respect (Goldberg, 2009; Smith, 2009) • Build self-esteem (Goldberg, 2009), motivate the team and be inspirational (Jeffrey, 2009) • Be patient with team members (Pavlovic, 2007) • Be fair - treat everyone on the team equally (Pavlovic, 2007) • Be committed to the team (Pavlovic, 2007) • Be willing to learn or seek out new information (Pavlovic, 2007) • Keep everyone involved (Pavlovic, 2007) • Lead by example (Pavlovic, 2007). • Be a role model (Haworth, 2009) • Have a practice plan (Pavlovic, 2007) • Know the sport and gain a good understanding ofthe game (Smith, 2009; Haworth, 2009) 12

• Know your team (Smith, 2009; Haworth, 2009) • Open communication (Haworth, 2009), including honesty • Be a good listener (Jeffrey, 2009) • Play to their strengths (Smith, 2009) - in other words know your team, know your sport and develop the necessary skill to pursue opportunities through strengths • Be sensibly direct (Jeffrey, 2009) • Have integrity (Jeffrey, 2009)

However important this list of attributes, what is needed is a more structured, contextualised framework of the optimal functioning team coach, something that the study in question intends to address.

Positive deviance theory The emerging field of positive psychology (Seligman & Csikszentmihalyi, 2000) informed a new field of study in the organisational sciences, referred to by Cameron Dutton and Quinn (2003) as Positive Organisational Scholarship (PaS). pas aims to understand what represents the best of the human condition within the organisational context. A foundational construct in pas is positive deviance (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004). Whereas traditionally deviance refers to dysfunctional behaviour, pas broadens the study of deviance with the inclusion of positive deviant behaviour. breaking the norm with 'extraordinarily positive performance' (Cameron 2008, p. 2). This implies that positive deviant behaviour would be those actions, activities, principles, characteristics and values that deviate significantly from that which are considered to be the norm in a given situation or by a particular reference group. Positive deviant behaviour is therefore unconventional in its nature and occurs not as expected (Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003), in other words, against all odds. Speitzer and Sonenshein (2003, p. 209) also note that 'deviant behaviour is intentional or done with a purpose in mind' and it 'does not happen by chance or mistake.' Furthermore, positive deviant behaviour has to vary significantly from the norm in order to be noticed and seize attention that exemplifies praiseworthy even honourable or virtuous behaviour (Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003: Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004).

The normal distribution curve (Figure 4) illustrates a state of normal performance in the middle. a condition ofpositive deviant performance on the right side and a state of negative deviance on the left side (Cameron, 2008; Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003). According to Cameron (2008) and Speitzer and Sonenshein (2003), negative and positive deviance refer to aberrations from normal 13

functioning that is exceedingly virtuous or beneficial on the positive end and harmful or exceedingly problematic on the negative end ofthe scale.

Negative deviance Normal behaviour Positive devia nee

Figure 4: Deviant behaviour

In a later article, Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2004) emphasise that positive deviant behaviour should not be reduced to the common approach to deviance, namely the statistical perspective, but should include what they refer to as the normative approach to deviance, where deviance is defined as a departure from the norm in a positive way.

Cameron (2008) cited Bagozzi who does recognise that there is a role for both positive and negative conditions in producing a positive deviant outcome, and that 'conducive and challenging conditions may very often lead to positive deviance' (Cameron, 2008, p. 6).

Positive deviance as a result of its inherent virtuousness has two key attributes, namely amplifying qualities, which cultivate increasing positive consequences, as well as buffering qualities, which guard the individual/team/unit! or organisation against negative consequences (Cameron et al.. 2003). The amplifying attribute of positive deviance is associated with three qualities (Cameron et al., 2003). The first is 'positive emotion', which is responsible for the replication of virtuous behaviour and positive well-being. Secondly, 'social capital' is responsible to foster high-quality team spirit and relationships, and thirdly 'pro-social behaviour', which leads to outcomes or actions that benefit others (Cameron et al., 2003). Buffering qualities on the other hand are associated with the following three qualities: The first is 'enhancing resilience', which refers to the ability to absorb trauma or deal with adversity, the second is 'solidarity', which fosters unity and cohesion and a sense ofbelonging, and finally a 'sense ofefficacy', which gives birth to a sense of purpose and self worth (Cameron et al., 2003). Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2003) offer five psychological conditions that facilitate the likelyhood of positive deviant behaviour namely: 'meaning', which implies to risk 14 doing what matters most even against opo ition; , elf-determination', which can be de cribed a having an internal locus of control; thirdly the de ire to be 'other-focu ed', whic h implie that positive deviants are compelled to erve others. Fourthly. the author Ii t 'per onal-efficac y', which refe rs to the ability in coordinating perform ance on a specific ta k or action in a confident manner; and finally, 'courage', which i defined by the willingne s to con front ri k to do wha t i right. Two additional facilitators are noted by preitzer and onen hein (2003). These are 'transformational leadership', the ability to inspire follower and to embrace the good of other. and 'context of crisis', such as threat that may force peopl e to think and act 'out ide of the box'. becau e current practices are not effective. preitzer and onen hein (2003) offer some po ible outcomes of positive devaince such as 'subjective well -being'. 'long-term effectivene '. 'high quality relationships','the evolution of the individu al/team/unit or orga nisation'. and 'common busine norms'. The e are illu trated in Figure 5 below.

Positive deviance

Oualities Am plifying qualities: posi ive erne ion, social capital, pro-social behaviour Buffering qualities: enhancing resilience, solidari . sense of e icacv

------

Facilitators Psychological conditions: meaning . self-deterrnina ion. other-focused . personat-e icacv , courage Contextual conditions: rans orma ional leadership, con ex so crises

------

Outcomes subjec i well-being. 10 g- er e ec I eness , igh quali relations Ips. e evolu ion 0 he I dlvidual/ ea /u I 0 organisa Ion. co mon b sin norms

Figure ~ : model of po itive deviance: Qualit ie , faci litat or and ou tcome ource: Compiled from ameron (2003); and preitzer & onen hein (2003)

Thi model of po itive de lance may erve a a functional framework to interpret high performance team coaching. 15

Research purpose Figure 3 in this study suggests that the key focus area of coaching should be that of performance related to high functionality and fortology. The kind of coach that will be able to facilitate such optimal performance may be described as a positive deviant one. The aim of this study is therefore to explore to what extent the positive deviant model, presented in Figure 5 of this study, may serve as a valid framework for high performance team coaching. In order to validate positive deviance as high performance team coaching the following specific research objectives were, firstly, to find an appropriate case of someone considered to be a positive deviant team coach, in other words a high performance team coach that functioned in an optimal manner and excelled in an extraordinary way. Secondly, to map such behaviour in relation to the positive deviance model that was proposed in Figure 5.

RESEARCH DESIGN

Research approach and paradigm The approach was qualitative in nature (cf. Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). More specifically. an ideographic approach (the study of an individual) was followed. A qualitative approach \\as preferred because of the novel and exploratory nature of the study. The research paradigm involved an interpretive perspective which according to Terre Blanche, Kelly and Durrhcim. involves taking people's subjective experiences seriously as the essence ofwhat is real tor them (ontology), making sense of people's experiences hy interacting with them and listening carefully to what they tell us (epistemology), and making lise of qualitative research techniques to collect and analyse information (methodology). (2006,pp.27J-274)

Research strategy, setting and unit of inquiry' A case study design was used, as the intention was to learn from a single case in order to find support for the positive deviance model. A case is functioning-specific, within boundaries. it is patterned, coherent, sequential and context specific (cf. Stake, 2000). As indicated before. the field ofbusiness coaching has some of its roots in sports coaching, therefore a case of professional sports team coaching was considered. The sports industry nowadays seems to mirror the corporate business environment. The purposive case in question is Jake White, recognised as one of the most successful coaches in South African rugby. During his career, White built up a reputation of heing an astute rugby analyst and coach on high school, provincial and national level (cf. Ray & White. 2007). Some ofhis highest achievements were coaching the under-21 national team to victory in the 16 under-21 World Cup (later known as the World Championships) in 2002, the national team to win the Tri Nations title in 2004, and also the World Cup in 2007. During his career, White was awarded Coach of the Year twice by the International Rugby Board. This case study may be referred to as an instrumental case study (Silverman, 2010), because White was examined mainly to provide insight into high performance team coaching and to explore to what extent positive deviance may be a valid framework for high performance team coaching.

Research method Research participants, entree and establishing researcher roles The individuals that participated in this study were Jake White, Prof. Tim Noakes (a sport scientist and advisor to the South African Rugby Union). Dr Sheryll Calder (the vision coach of the 2004­ 2007 Springbok squad), and Dr Henning Gericke (the Springbok team psychologist). A national coaching conference was attended where Jake White was the keynote speaker. Prior to this conference a brief interview with White was scheduled with the help of the conference organisers. After his address White was briefed with regards to the nature of the study and a follow-up interview was requested. Soon thereafter contact was made with his personal assistant who arranged for a meeting that took place in his offices in Sandton, Johannesburg. The other participants were contacted and briefed about the nature of the study via e-mail. Thereafter they were contacted telephonically to arrange interviews. Subsequently interviews were conducted in Cape Town and Pretoria respectiveIy.

Data collection, recording and analysis Data were collected by attending a keynote presentation by White at a coaching conference. which was followed-up with in-depth, semi-structured interviews with him and the other three participants. The keynote speech and the interviews lasted between one and one and a half hours each. This minimised the chances of contamination of data (too much irrelevant information) and interviewer and interviewee fatigue. The interview questions were open-ended to allow participants to give as much information as possible (cf. Smaling. 1992). The number ofquestions was kept to a minimum. Clarification was used to resolve uncertainties. Care was taken not to break the flov, of the conversation but nevertheless to assist when appropriate. Where necessary, statements were rephrased and summarised to clarify the participant's opinion. In some instances direct or leading questions were asked to refocus answers to the topic at hand when participants moved beyond the scope of the study. The speech and all interviews were recorded. transcribed and safely stored. Other sources that were treated as data were the autobiography by Jake White. an autobiography of John Smith, the captain of the Springboks since 2004. and a biography of Percy Montgomery -- the 17 most capped Springbok of all time. The collected data were analysed by means of a thematic analysis, a process of encoding qualitative information (Boyatzis, 1998), and interpreted to determine the degree offit to the positive deviance model referred to earlier in this study.

Ethical considerations and quality assurance At the appropriate time, permission to record the interview was obtained from each participant. Participants were promised that the records would be stored safely and treated confidentially. Although participants were identified in this article, all analysed data were reported anonymously (cf. Silverman, 2010). All participants were treated with respect and dignity. In order to establish scientific rigour, trustworthiness was ensured by adhering to credible findings, applicability, consistency, and neutrality (cf. Visagie, 2009).

FINDINGS For the purpose of this study, White's story as a high performance team coach was interpreted with the positive deviance framework in mind. The themes identified will be presented in a descriptive narrative format (Stake, 2000) in order for readers interested in high performance team coaching to vicariously experience this phenomenon through the case of White. In order to understand White's coaching behaviour within the framework of positive deviance. one has to start by considering those amplifying qualities, which may foster escalating positive consequences (Cameron, 2(03) and buffering qualities, which in turn may provide protection against negative consequences (Cameron. 2003). What will be shown is how White's virtues and strengths impacted on him as well the Springbok rugby team. However. this does not mean that the successes of the team should be attributed solely to the core qualities. facilities and outcomes embedded in White's positive deviance, since there may be other mediating factors inherent to individual team members. the team dynamics and other external factors. etc.

Amplifiers 1. Positive emotions Virtuous behaviours create positive emotions such as optimism. joy. pride. zest and enthusiasm. which in turn may reproduce virtuousness and an elevation in well-being (Cameron. 2003). \\'!1en White took over the coaching position. the Springbok rugby team was extremely demoralised and at 'their lowest ebb' (Ray & White, 2007. p. 102). Suffering a series of losses. such as a disastrous 2003 World Cup tournament. which was preceded by a race row and the demeaning 'Karnp StaaIdraad' where players were forced to participate in humiliating actions. The image and the 18 esteem of the squad were not held in high regard both locally and internationally (Ray & White, 2007). No wonder the players 'were disillusioned and out of love with the concept of playing for their country' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 102). White admitted that restoring the negative attitude and emotions in the team 'was going to be difficult to overcome' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 102). His first action, besides choosing his captain and his team players, was to 'restore the Bok pride', fostering those emotions that lead to excellent and virtuous behaviour both on and off the field and in doing so eliciting positive emotions. To accomplish this task he employed the services of a company specialising in team building techniques to address current issues both inside and outside that affect the morale, virtue, and well-being of the team. It became apparent that 'most of their unhappiness, anger, disillusionment and insecurity stemmed from previous association with the Boks' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 105). By establishing a platform where the team members could openly voice their frustrations, the team was able to form a collective and not act as 'each man for himself (Ray & White, 2007, p. 105). 'Over the years players had become jaded about being Springboks' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 105). Jake's goal was therefore to 'get the players to understand the history and importance of being a Bok' (Ray & White. 2007. p. 107). To add to the positive momentum that was happening offthe field, White made the players play in the traditional Bok jersey, for example. This was in many ways a symbolic way to celebrate the return of pride. honour. and virtue that was once associated with being a Springbok. White at one point states that once the pride and honour were reintroduced 'there was a different mood in the camp. The negativity was gone' (Ray & White. 2007, p. 105) and they 'were an increasingly happy group ofplayers' (Ray & White. 2007. p. 110).

2. Social capital Social capital, the existence of positive interpersonal relationships among individuals. facilitates virtues such as care giving. empathy and trust that in tum tend to build high quality relationships among team members (cf. Cameron. 2003). White invested social capital by means of facilitating open communication by allowing players for the first time to voice their bottled up feelings and express themselves verbally without being punished. and also by making him and any member of his management team as approachable as possible; by inspiring and motivating the players he was able to move them to higher levels of commitment which benefitted the overall team performance: by strengthening relationships by getting players from different backgrounds and cultures to transcend their differences and perform in unison (Ray & White. 2007). A common theme related to social capital, expressed by White (2008a) is loyalty. From the start. White wanted to build a foundation of trust and mutual respect between the players and more specifically towards him and 19 the decisions he made as coach. White stated 'I'm loyal to the players because they are loyal to me' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 234). White understood that: you got to be loyal to people. I always say that you got to back people when they are doing badly ... in other words it is easy to motivate them when they are on top ofeverything. but the hard part is to motivate them when they feel as though they are nothing ... that you are not loyal when you are winning but you are loyal when you are losing. you don't judge loyalty when you're winning. you judge it when you're going down (White,2008b) and because so often it happened in the past that key players get dropped and then two. three weeks later you give them a lecture about emotional responsibility, about the C0ll11t!}' and you can't understand why they are not putting their bodies on the line. (White.2008a) White didn't just chop and change team players for the sake of having the best team for now; he rather focused on the bigger picture by building a more experienced team able to function better together. As a result, by expressing his loyalty he was able to foster social capital in the form or better relationships, commitment, trust. participation, and sharing of knowledge of team players that in tum led to optimal performance on the field. 'Because there is a much bigger picture. you are loyal to the players because you want to have the most experienced team' (White. 200Xa). An example of how social capital in the form of positive interpersonal relationships among the players and the coach manifested was when Jake had to give two relatively new players a chance. At the time Marius Joubert and De Wet Barry were the most capped centre pair who had won the lri­ Nations tournament. White stated that both ofthem knew I gave them eve!}' opportunity, hacked them. and stood with them. but eventually / felt that / had to give Juan de Villiers and Jacques Fourie a chance. and then I said to them / have to back those t1l'0 now like / hacked you guys and they both understood and excepted that. (White. 2()()Xh)

3. Pro-social behaviour Pro-social behaviour occurs, according to Cameron (2003). when individuals behave in ways that benefit other people. It seems that White wanted to engage in pro-social behaviour with each individual team member, which in tum motivated the member to reciprocate such behaviour. According to Participant 3 (2009), White ensured that each team player felt valued. invested in. and 20 treated equally. In tum, this resulted in the commitment by each team player to invest in his relationship with the rest ofthe team members, the coach, managers and consultants. White wanted to foster an exchange relationship, in which players engage in pro-social behaviour and attempt to reciprocate to those they benefited from. White had the best interests of team players at heart: 'Not just to treat players as rugby players but to educate the whole person' and rugbyjust happens to be a tool or vehicle ofdevelopment ... these people are very fortunate, because they are fortunate enough to be presented with an opportunity to learn things that most ofus learn only when we are 50 or 60. And they're going to be better people, ifthey're properly managed (Participant 2, 2009) In order to make sure that he would be able to behave in a pro-social manner that would benefit his team players White had a particular way of selecting them, he didn't just look at talent but also considered what Participant 2 called 'character': it is important to select by character and they try to build a family - something White managed to execute very well because most coaches don't select for character because they want to tell the okes what to do. (2009)

Buffers 1. Resilience Resilience enhances the teams' ability to 'absorb threat or trauma and to bounce back from adversity' (Cameron, 2004, p. 62). Right from the beginning, White reassured his team. in a personal letter to each individual, that he had 'faith in their abilities and that he would protect them from the media and any negativity that might come their way' (p. 108). However, White realised that this was easier said than done: ... one ofthe things that he learnt was that there will always be people out there, whether it is in business or sport, that will always try and get you. they will use eve!)! tactic to I1T and get you moving the way they want you to move. (White. 2008h) This is even more true for coaching coaching in a country as unique as South Africa with its socio­ political challenges: '... the expectations are the same as any other leading nation but the parameters in which we are competing are completely different' (White, 2008b). Moreover ... in order to utilise opportunities and overcome issues, resilience is required to help them

cope through times, because you're never going to be a successful coach of {I high 21

performing team ifyou don't turn the negatives into positives ifyou don't turn adversity into advantage. (Participant 3, 2009) The 2006 season proved to test White's character and emotional stability greatly, because as a team they underperformed and the public and media called for his resignation. Despite these setbacks, White managed to overcome these threats, and lead them to victory only a year later, and awarded Coach of the Year by the International Rugby Board (lRB) (Ray & White, 2007). White and the team's resilience was demonstrated by the fact that they were able to turn an underperforming team into a unified and victorious one injust four years.

2. Solidarity This refers to unity or agreement of feeling or action among individuals with a common interest and fosters mutual support within a group (Cameron, 2003). This seems to have been a strength of White. He had the ability 'of getting the team dynamics right' (Participant 1, 2009). White stated that the single most important concept that he emphasised throughout his coaching career was 'relationship', because 'sport and business is mainly built on relationships' (White, 2008b). According to one participant 'coaches around the world will always be excellent in one area, but the ultimate ability is how to deal with people and to understand how you manage people and White got that right' (Participant 2, 2009). A simple example of how White went about to get the team to function better as a unit and to get them to know, trust and feel positively toward one another is demonstrated by the following: ... so I wanted to create an environment. for example. where the players knew each other's wives', girlfriends', and kids' names because how else can you expect another player to rim offa serum and tackle guys and dive headfirst where the opposition is running at you and you don't even know him. (White, 200Rb) Openness and communication was a key success factor in helping individuals deal with issues and experience a sense of belonging. White mentioned that he made sure that 'they were more approachable than any management team before him because in my team the players could go to Clint, Allister, Henning, Gert, or Sheryl or anyone on staff (White, 2008b). Fostering a team spirit was a key theme during the four years White coached the Boks and as one participant put it. 'the players all started to talk the same language, the unity among the players were incredible' (Participant 3, 2009). Another example of how the team started to show signs of solidarity was when they, as a collective, protested against the South African Rugby Union (SARU) for those 22 players not yet having contracts. This was a significant shift from where each individual player was just worrying about himself to focus on seeking the best for the team as a whole (Smith & Greenaway, 2010).

3. Sense of purpose (Shared vision and goals) One cannot elicit positive responses without a shared vision and a sense ofpurpose. This serves as a 'fixed point' during an ever-changing environment. (Cameron, 2003, p. 63). The overall vision or goal to win the World Cup might be an obvious choice, but before that goal can be reached there have to be other visions and goals in place that pave the way to the overarching vision for the team. First on White's agenda was to restore pride and honour and cultivate a winning culture. White mentioned that for him it was 'important to have a vision for the team and the ability to share that . . vision in such a way that it is both inspiring and motivating' (White, 2008a). Moreover: we had our ups and downs and a lot oftough times but we knew where we were going and that was the important thing, then the laws ofattraction will start to work. because for high performing teams it is all about that focus, definiteness of purpose, really buy into the vision. (Participant 3. 20(9) For this purpose, White recruited the psychologist Henning Gericke who helped them to break down the vision to win the World Cup into smaller realistic goals. Each player received a diary for daily planning and every page had the slogan 'see it, believe it, achieve it' with a picture of the World Cup trophy linking the daily task with that of the main vision (Participant 3. 2009). This assisted the team to gain a clearer 'understanding of the bigger vision that needs to be attained and then go about putting in place a set of specific goals along the way. and not focus on the end goal only' (Participant 2, 2009). White understood that you have to 'control their mindset so that they believe that they can win' (Participant 2, 2009). This was a paradigm shift from where they were when White assumed his position as head coach. Once that paradigm shift had been set into motion the vision became more realistic and attainable and one starts to work with individuals that play to win instead ofplaying not to lose (Ray & White, 2007), fostering positive emotions that cultivate a custom of,practising winning habits' (Participant 3. 2009). Finally, having vision is also about an understanding ofwhere the team is in the journey towards the end goal andfrom that perspective Jake had very good vision and that made it e{I.~Y to work with. (Participant 3. 20(9) 23

Facilitators Besides the amplifiers and buffers identified by Cameron (2003), there are key facilitators, the conditions contributing to positive deviance (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2003). While each condition is not absolutely required for a positive devaint behaviour to occur, each contribute to an individual's willingness and ability to engage in positive deviant behaviour (Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004). These are discussed next within the context of positive deviant coaching with White in mind.

1. Meaning Personal meaning is reflected in the degree or extent to which individuals are prepared to take action or stand up for a cause; it 'involves deep caring that what people are doing matter to them in important ways' (Cameron, 2003, p. 211). White had a difficult upbringing, spending a lot of time away from his divorced parents in boarding schools. White feels that rugby saved him in many ways from an unhappy childhood and young adulthood. as he poured his heart and soul into it first as a player and later as a coach. He was all too happy to join Jeppe High School as a pupil where rugby 'was like a religion' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 11) and 'I hadn't arrived at Jeppe dreaming of colours and honours. I arrived wanting to play rugby.' White never received awards for rugby during his school career but he counts it as a blessing because it 'made me hungrier to achieve after school' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 14). This illustrates Whites' intrinsic motivating nature. and that even later when he coached his reward was the game itself and not so much the recognition and prestige. White was determined to be successful in rugby but had the self-understanding to know it would not be as a player. He focused all his attention on becoming a coach, making long-distance drives to the Golden Lions Rugby Union's coaching courses and attending other coaching courses all at his own expense. Before the World Cup White would coach for free at various coaching clinics, universities and schools to seek challenges, to extend and exercise his capacity as a coach. develop his skill and try out new concepts.

Through coaching at these clinics, White started to build a reputation for his ingenuity. which eventually led to various full-time rugby coaching positions and finally to the Springboks - first as a tactical analyst. then as head coach for the U21s and thereafter as head coach ofthe Springboks. A final example to illustrate how much rugby meant for White was when he was working as a car salesman. He continued to be involved in rugby 'most nights after work - it was what kept me motivated. Selling cars just didn't move me.' (Ray & White. 2007, p. 33). When he finally quit a job for a third time '... it was a daunting prospect, but it was about rugby. And that's what mattered 24 most' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 35). Having such a strong sense of meaning made White more proactive in his approach to coaching and his desire to make a difference in rugby through his action, because that was what made him tick. Springbok rugby Captain John Smith summarised it as: 'He [White] had put his entire life into this' (Smith & Greenaway, 2009, p. 150). This sense of personal meaning discovered by White through his engagement in rugby was authentic and as such was instilled in the rugby team members (cf. Ray & White, 2007; cf. Smith & Greenaway, 2009)

2. Other-focus Being other focused is 'consistent with servant leadership' implying that an individual will grow as a result ofserving others (Cameron, 2003). With regards to being other focused, Eddy Jones, Wallaby coach of the 2003 Rugby World Cup and later consultant to the 2007 Springbok squad, made the following comment: I realised the extent of his [White's} generosity and how much personal time he was prepared to invest in a range ofpeople ... he goes out ofhis way to make himselfavailable to his staffand to people in general. What also impressed me was his sincerity and how he ensured that his players were looked after. Nothing was too much trouble ifit benefited the team '" those characteristics had a great bearing on how the team gelled, and 1 don't ()1I~1' mean the players. I'm also referring to the coaching and management staff (Ray & White. 2007. p. x) A core attribute of White was his ability to develop each player and empower them to be able to think for themselves, instead 'of coaching players to do what we (the coaches) want them to do' (Participant 1, 2009), meaning '... developing people to become even better is what high performance teams and high performance coaching for that matter. is all about' - something that distinguished White from other coaches (Participant 3, 2009). This implies that as a coach'... you must allow other people to make mistakes and not be scared of failure' (Participant 3. 2009). and to be comfortable with 'the truth is if you're up you have to come down at some stage' (Participant 3. 2009). Ifexecuted successfully, being other focused will empower the members ofthe team to such a point that the coach is not needed: In the beginning it was Jake and his captain, but it wasn't good enough to win the World

Cup. At the moment anyone ofa number ofplayers can fulfil that role which just slums 10 what extent Jake has developed the team and its capacity for leadership.

(Participant 3. 2009) Percy Montgomery, the most capped Springbok of all time, is of the opinion that although White made some mistakes he allowed his senior players to have a voice and that. according to him. is OIlC 25

of his best traits as a coach. Moreover, White 'was the first one confident enough to empower the senior players and to manage players specific to each one's needs' (Keohane, 2008, p. 182), while at the same time facilitating cooperative helping behaviour amongst the team members - putting the needs ofthe group ahead ofthe individual: When I first got into the Bok squad in 1997, it was each man for himselfand each province for himself. You just had to walk into our team room during beakfast, lunch or dinner to know that. But I definitely witnessed a change between 2004 and 2007, although the first time l felt I was genuinly in a national team room all the time was in 2007. (Keohane,2008,p.183) By being other focused White seemed to 'appreciate the value and the voice of the senior players, and that made me more comfortable and more secure that I could speak or make a contribution' (Keohane, 2008, p. 255). White's being other focused was not limited to his team; he was, for example, sometimes willing to assist other coaches because of his love for the game of rugby. White was always 'very active in assisting all the coaches on tournaments ...' as he felt it was his duty to help out as much as he could where he could (Ray & White, 2007, p. 39).

3. Self-determination According to Spreitzer and Sonenshein (in Cameron, 2003), when people have a sense of self.. determination they have an internal locus ofcontrol and their reason for taking action is internalised rather than coerced by extrenal forces. Jones explains that as a coach in South Africa you're playing with slim margins, so if there is any interference in team selection or any

other aspect it can be velY destabilising. Jake had those "normal" preasures as (//1 international coach, and then another layer other coaches I know don't have to endure ... if makes it incredibly toughfor a good coach. AndJake coped amazingly well.

(Jones in Ray & White, 2007. p. xi) The 2006-year in particular was an important learning period for White and the team. They were under tremendous pressure to perform and had to show some tenacity and internal locus of control to bounce back and win the World Cup the following year. White realised that the players watched to see how he would handle difficult situations and that his feelings, emotions, and insecurities rubbed off on them, and furthermore 'they're also susceptible to the mood of the country via the media reports' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 166). From time to time White faced strong opposition during 2004 to 2007 from various sources such as SARD, the media, the public and initially even team members, which could have severely limited positive deviant behaviour. White, however. was able to transcend these challenges because ofhis strong sense of internal locus ofcontrol expressed 26 as a determined World Cup winning mindset, which facilitated an environment which made it possible for the team players to experience a greater sense of self control and the ability to take initiative (cf. Cameron, 2003). White had a clear vision and methodology on how and what he wanted to accomplish, some of it may not have been successful, but he wanted to be responsible for his own decisions and not for someone else's: '... if I'm going to take the heat, then I want to do it the way I want to do it, because too many times you get fired for listening to all the other people' (White, 2008b).

4. Personal efficacy Personal efficacy refers to an individual's ability to perform on a specific task. When individuals feel effective they believe that their chances ofsuccess are greatly increased leading to higher goals to be set and dedication to reach those goals. These beliefs in turn affect motivation levels and how long individuals will persevere in the face of obstacles (Cameron, 2003). White had an impressive track record starting with him turning Jeppe High School. an average rugby-playing school, into a formidable rugby contestant, ranking 12th in the country. In White's first year at Jeppe, 'the First XV lost more than half of their games ... by 1994 we were without question the best English­ medium rugby school in Johannesburg' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 21). When he was given the job as head coach of the U21 Springboks, White led them to victory, something the junior Boks have never been able to accomplish. White's personal efficacy culminated in transforming the Springhok team from a broken down, demoralised team into a winning confident one (cf. Ray & White, 2(07). From early in his coaching career, White was able to embrace losing as an opportunity to learn as losing helped me to see where we needed to improve. and also improved my motivational skills ... it also made me realise that in order to be successful, you needed someone helping you with the job. (Ray & White, 2007. p. 23) White had to make some unpopular decisions but always did what he thought was best for the team at the time (cf. Ray & White, 2007). As a coach, White 'was extremely confident' (Ray & White. 2007, p. 43). Confidence is an important factor to consider for personal efficacy as it increases commitment, cultivates interest, and defies the norms of conventional practice (Cameron. 2003). White never doubted his abilities, especially his ability to select players: '... his greatest gift is understanding people and knowing how to pick the right individuals so that the sum ends up being greater than the parts' (Smit & Greenaway, 2009, p. 87). White embodies the fact that the stronger you are in your position as a coach the better your execution will be. White expressed his confidence on the very first day when he adressed his team that was still discouraged because or 27 their unhappy past, envisioning that they would have extraordinary results, not to focus on their current state, but rather what they could become by the next World Cup (Smit & Greenaway, 2009). White's efficacy came to fruition four years later when they won the World Cup trophy and they made a clean sweep of the major categories 24 hours later at the IRB awards for the second time since he became coach. White was chosen as Coach of the Year for the second time, and the Springboks won the Team ofthe Year prize (Ray & White, 2007).

5. Courage Courage provides individuals with 'the backbone' to engage in positive deviant behaviour and to stand up for what they believe in and do what is thought to be the right course ofaction (Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003). It seems plausible that White's love, passion and enthusiasm for rugby provided him with the courage to overcome the many challenges he had to face like a declining relationship with the SARU's executives, being sometimes unpopular with the media, an unforgiving rugby-mad nation, and challenges with his personal relationships (cf. Ray & White, 2007). Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2003, p. 217) remark that 'without a sense of risk there is no need for courage'. One example ofJake displaying courage was to send over a less experienced side to Australia during the 2006 Tri Nations in order to rest his core players, despite a lot ofopposition from the media and the public. South Africa did not win the Tri Nations Tournament that year, but his decision played a vital part as that not one of his core players got injured during the World Cup tournament the following year, which was not the case for most of the other teams (Ray & White, 2007). Another point he was criticised for, that in the end worked in his favour, was his decision to stick with his favourite players: 'Jake has his favourite players and sticks with them whether they're the best or not' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 184). These were the words ofDivan Serfontein, a former Springbok to the Rapport newspaper, calling for White's resignation. However sticking with a core group of players resulted in White being able to send over the most experienced Springbok squad ever to compete in and win the World Cup.

6. Leadership The participants to this study cited leadership as a key factor for White's success as a coach. White himself attributes his leadership to the fact that he was fortunate enough to 'learn from the successes and mistakes ofa variety of good coaches' (White, 2008b). White also realised that as a coach one does not have to possess all ofthe skills oneself, but that one needs to be surrounded by people who complete the required set of skills needed. White clearly demonstrated this ability in synergising a wide variety of experts such as Sheryl Calder a vision expert, Henning Gericke a psychologist. Eddie Jones the former Wallaby rugby coach. Derick Coetzee a sport scientist. Clint Readhead the 28 physiotherapist, Gert Small and Allister Coetzee assistant coaches, and Mark Steele a conditioning coach. White felt that they were required in order to complete the management staff that would be responsible for realising his vision and to whom he could delegate certain roles and responsibilities. White recognised that he needed a captain that was able to inspire his team and be 'an extension of him on the field. But also a man I could confide in, and he could question me - but not in front of the players' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 103). The reason for this was because, according to White 'there was no real leadership going up so he wanted to make sure that there was proper leadership going down' (White, 2008b). White's choice fell upon John Smit. In an address to coaches in South Africa White mentioned that Smit had the ability to lead English-speaking players as well as Afrikaans-speaking players. He was also able to lead players from different ethnic groups, a challenge in its own. Furthermore, he managed to lead 20 year olds as well as players more his senior in terms ofboth age and experience. Smit, according to White, had the ideal background and make-up to lead a diverse South African rugby team. In White's opinion 'the best coach in the world will not be successful ifthere is not a good captain' (White, 2008b). To phrase it in another way: '" ifyou are an average coach andyou have a good captain. you hecome a successful coach because the captain takes whatever you're giving off the field to the field and makes if happen and that's why for us it was important that we had a strong captain ... (White, 2008h) Appointing a captain was key in White's ability to facilitate transfonnationalleadership. This was in particular a challenge as there was a higher transformation agenda driven politically in South Africa at the time. The bottom line is that part ofthe aim for leadership is that team members should he so empowered that responsibility is owned instead of assigned, in which case you have a captain in any player at any given point during the game.

7. Context of crisis According to Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2003) when people are faced with crises and challenges. the necessity to follow rules and procedures becomes mitigated. White faced a crisis when he took over the headcoaching position in 2004. The team's morale was extremely low following the humiliation of 'Kamp Staaldraad' and subsequent coverage of the incident in the media. Furthermore, the team was underperfonning reflected by a series of defeats. What amplified the severity of the situation was a lack of unity and trust amongst the team members (Ray & White. 2007; Smit & Greenaway, 2009; Keohane, 2008). White also had some scinnishes with the South African Rugby Union and its management. On a few occasions White was not sure of his position as head coach, which increased his levels of stress greatly, but also created a sense of uncertainty 29 amongst his staff and team members (Ray & White, 2007). On numerous occasions he was discredited by the media and the public for some of his selection decisions and his coaching style. Despite all these numerous challenges and crises, White managed to transcend these contingencies by overiding them (cf. Bateman & Porath, 2003) by breaking the norms oftraditional South African coaching practice. White protected the team fiercely from the media and the politics playing out 'behind the scenes'. Moreover, White implemented innovative coaching methods by bringing in experts in their respective fields to assist with optimal on-field performance, for example, and obtaining the services of expert behavioural consultants to assist with building their morale and comradeship (Ray & White, 2007). White went beyond the norms of the expected behaviour which was that 'he must do the honorouble thing and pack his bags' (Ray & White, 2007, p. 184) and stuck it out to lead his team to victory by becoming the number one rugby team in the world, claim the asteemed IRB Coach of the Year award, and receiving praise from the public and the media. For White and his team, therefore, the crisis they faced when he took over the head coaching position for the Springboks may be regarded as a positive trigger event (cf. Luthans & Avolio, 2003; Puente, Crous & Venter, 2007).

Besides the identified facilitators by Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2003) mentioned above. some additional facilitators that attribute to White's success were identified. These are innovation. planning, and the recognition ofopportunities.

8. Innovation A common condition present with individuals that perform extraordinarily is their innovative ability. White borrowed innovative ideas from other disciplines. which allowed traditional thinking to be challenged. White therefore was able to stimulate and challenge his team with new ideas and practices. This allowed for the game to be slightly changed to be less predictable and to add some adaptation that improved their chances of success greatly. One of the participants (Participant 3. 2009) referred to this as 'change thinking'. In White's opinion. ... when you are working with some ofthe most high performing individuals in the work] and you want them to be the best in the world. as a coach, you've got to be innovative and you got to think out ofthe box. As a coach you need to understand that because they are The best, you need to give them the best while they are there. (White. 2008h) One participant stated that 30

... you need to inspire people, take people with you to new levels, new levels ofthinking, new levels ofdoing, training a little bit harder, be smarter, thinking out ofthe box, you have got to come up with innovative ideas and you have to stimulate them because that is what makes them become better, andJake is one step ahead with regards to this. (Participant 3, 2009) White was adamant that one cannot be successful without being creative and innovative. Another example was when White went with a selected team over to America to learn from their basketball and football coaches, which was not done before. According to White, by 'entertaining "out of the box thinking" means you actually stay ahead' (White, 2008a).

9. Planning One of the key conditions of deviant behaviour is tha't it is intentional (Cameron, 2003; Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003; Spreitzer & Sonenshein, 2004), in other words planned for. The key for White and his management team and the challenge they faced was to close the door on previous failures, bad publicity, negative stigmas, low morale and make sure there was a plan for four years on how they, as a team, were going to become world champions: you have to be so planned [sic} because you are dealing with top class people all the time andyou're playing on international level where the difference hetween winning and losing is so small. (White.200Ra) White is convinced that at core ofthe team's success in the World Cup final in 2007 was that a great deal ofplanning went into it and their success 'didn't just happen' (White, 2008a). Planning for him is about breaking down everything (goals) into the smallest detail in order for it to be measured. The reason for this is because it directed the journey towards their vision, made it practical and focused; '... everything has been worked out in to the finest detail.' Part of planning for White was to give attention to detail and analysis. White exercised his skills to analyse and give attention to detail since early on and particularly when he first was appointed as a video analyst for Nick Mallet (Ray & White, 2007). White had an awareness to cover absolutely everything. Even the smallest detail such as travel plans and laying out the locker rooms in advance would be taken care of. This allowed the players to focus on either training or the match at hand and their particular role. Secondly, planning limits unforeseen surprises or events and when they do occur, what the counter measures should be. White (2008b) made sure 'the planning that was done was done so with the team in mind and with their input, keeping in mind the vision.' This ensured that the team took accountability for the execution on and off the field. This implies that the whole team collaborates 31 on a game plan and strategy, that they stick to it and afterwards re-assess why it worked or why it didn't work. Planning without technical skills and an understanding of the game is hardly possible. One participant (Participant 3, 2009) stated, '... tactically, Jake is very smart. He understands the game and he's very smart in seeing things, where's it going to go during the video analysis session.' All the participants to this study were unanimous that this was a great strength of White. He 'knew exactly who he needed and when he needed them and that might have been the success, because that is the way he planned it' (Participant 3, 2009). White also acknowledged that he had an excellent retentive memory when it comes to rugby and that he was able to recall plays even years later as ifthey just happened (Ray & White, 2007).

'We get away with a lot of stuff because we are so talented' (Participant I. 2009). The problem that . . arises out of this is that the attention to detail gets lost and the talent almost over compensates for the lack of proper planning. This leaves a gap in the foundation of the team and is only helpful in the short term. The participants also commented that the best team wouldn't necessarily be the most successful team. Thus planning can't be done with only talent in mind. Rather, it should be done with the team in mind, and how each team member's skill complements that ofother team members. and not on the individual's role and function and how it will serve the collective (cf. Ray & White. 2007).

10. Recognise opportunities White (2008a) refers to the facilitating component of recognising opportunities as 'luck'. In the sports and business world there are constant circumstantial events that could be considered lucky or unlucky, but it is how a positive deviant coach is able to recognise those opportunities and capitalise on them. For example, just because an event is considered to be lucky one must be in a position to recognise it as such and act upon it. White states. 'because of my experience and strengths and the people I surrounded myself with I was able to recognise opportunities and act upon them' (White, 2008a). He argues that some people are presented with the same opportunity'... opportunities happen and they are there for everybody' (White. 2008a) but it is the recognition and interpretation ofthat opportunity that makes the difference. According to a participant this implies that you have to be a risk taker but know when to play it safe and this was something .10k!! did very well, also his ability to recognise opportunities and choose the correct course of action served him well most ofthe time. (Participant 2. 20(9) 32

Coaching is also about creating opportunities, which closely tie in with the development of players. As a coach you have to be able to spot talent and know what the talent could be worth with the necessary support and environment. Smith (2009, p. 87) remarked that White's 'greatest gift is understanding people and knowing how to pick the right individuals so the sum ends up greater than the parts.'

Outcomes Spreitzer and Sonenshein (2003) suggest four possible outcomes of positive deviance and how it could make a difference to the individual, organisational and other stakeholders (in this case White, the Springbok Rugby Team, and the South African public).

1. Subjective well-being (SWB) Diener (2009) and Little, Gooty and Nelson (2007) refer to subjective well-being (SWB) as the way in which people evaluate their overall quality of life, pleasures and pains. These authors provide evidence that high performance ratings produce emotional well-being, a subset SWB. One therefore may argue that White, the team and the public's SWB increased as the team's performance increased over the four years. Furthermore, as the team's performance increased under White's coaching. their levels of hope, optimism, resiliency, and confidence (self-efficacy), defined by Luthans, Youssef and Avolio (2007) as psychological capital, led to increased levels ofSWB.

White's experience of his fulfilling coaching career and how it impacted him as an individual was reflected in his biography In Black and White. Reading through the book. it was evident that White had a passion for the game and helping people develop in their positions. He took up coaching positions, sometimes purely for the experience.

2. High quality relationships The relationships between the positive deviant, in this case White, and the recipients of the deviant behaviour, in this case the Springbok team members, was strengthened as a result of the positive deviant behaviour of White (cf. Speitzer & Sonenshein, 2003). The team members appreciated White's loyalty, courage, sense of responsibility, openness, fresh approach to coaching, and fairness (Keohane, 2008; Smit & Greenaway, 2009). This kind of positive coaching behaviour did not only restore the pride of rugby amongst them but also facilitated a winning mindset. White created a sense ofcomradeship amongst the team members and strengthened relationships among thern when he encouraged them to share in each other's hopes. dreams. and fears and take an interest in their immediate families (Participant 2, 2009; White, 2008a). 33

3. Long-term effectiveness Speitzer and Sonenshein (2003) speculated that positive deviance should have implications for the long-term effectiveness of individuals and organisations. White and the team developed significantly from his appointment as head coach up until the World Cup final. From and inexperienced team with only 175 test caps they managed to obtain 659 test caps four years later. White's success as an extraordinary coach can be attributed to his emphasis on experience as a key contributor for effectiveness. White emphasised the importance of experience in international games and that history proved that the most experienced team had always won the World Cup (White, 2008a). Through successful leadership the members of the Springbok squad were empowered to such a point where any player could take the lead by the end of White's coaching career. Participant 3 mentioned that: In the beginning it was Jake and his captain, but it wasn't good enough to win the World Cup. At the moment anyone ofa number ofplayers can fulfil that role which just shows to what extent Jake has developed the team and its capacityfor leadership. (2009)

4. The evolution of common norms Speitzer and Sonenshein (2003) suggest that positive deviant actions help change common norms and gear them more towards excellence. Positive deviant behaviour therefore should promote and set new standards to aspire towards. From the above, it is apparent that White's actions and coaching set new norms for excellence in team coaching. To what extent these actions may lead to the evolution ofcommon coaching norms in rugby, however, still needs to be proven.

DISCUSSION In order to understand optimal team coaching performance, an endless range of attributes and qualities has been identified in the literature. This list will surely be extended. The problem with this approach is that it is not theory driven, and moreover, is criticised as far back as 1985 by the business guru, Drucker, as implying that the team coach has to be superhuman in order to be effective (cf. Drucker, 1985). The main theoretical objective of this study was therefore to frame optimal team coaching, within the domain of Positive Organisational Scholarship (POS) as being positively deviant. A model of positive deviance was subsequently constructed consisting of the qualities, facilitators and outcomes thereof. The main research objective was to validate the model of positive deviance for high performance team coaching. The specific research objectives were to 34 identify a positive deviant team coach, and to map this person's behaviour in relation to the positive deviance model that was constructed for the purpose ofthis study. It was decided not to search for a case within the business environment for the following reasons: Firstly, business team coaching is fairly new, and secondly tracking a successful business team in the process of being coached was extremely difficult. This may be because such cases are mostly project based in which teams are continuously being formed and disbanded, resulting in a very inconsistent and unpredictable environment. The setting that was therefore chosen for the identification of a positive deviant coach, in spite of some reservations, was that of sports team coaching. In the past the practice of business coaching was informed by the practice of sports coaching and as such was regarded as an appropriate strategy for this research on high performance team coaching.

This study's main contributions are firstly, that it moved beyond the traditional. individual focus of coaching towards that of team coaching. Secondly, a theoretical model for positive deviant behaviour was constructed to interpret high performance team coaching. Thirdly, this model was validated as an appropriate framework for high performance team coaching. Although the unit of inquiry was the highly successful Springbok coach Jake White, this framework may serve as a basis for providing the core qualities, facilitators and outcomes of high performance team coaching, even in the business environment.

The research findings indicate that a high performance team coach should employ amplifying qualities, which may foster positive consequences such as the creation of positive emotions. the investment of social capital, and engaging in pro-social behaviour. Furthermore, this kind of coach should employ certain buffering qualities, which may provide protection against negative consequences, such as resilience, the fostering of solidarity amongst team members. and the creation of a sense of purpose. In addition to the amplifiers and buffers the ten key facilitators. of which seven were suggested by the model and three more identified by the thematic analysis utilised in this study, were the discovery of meaning though engagement, being other-focused through servant leadership, a sense of self determination in the form of internal locus of control. personal efficacy that enhances confidence and chances of success, courage which inspires team members to engage in positive deviant behaviour, leadership that may transform a team into a high performance one, accepting a context of crisis by reframing it as a positive trigger event. the adoption of innovative ideas, detailed planning, and recognition of opportunities. The outcomes of positive deviant coaching may manifest in subjective well-being, high quality relationships. long­ term effectiveness, and the evolution ofcommon norms. 35

In spite of its challenges, it is recommended that a case should nevertheless be identified in the business environment that may enhance the findings of this study. The fact that the unit of inquiry and research setting that was chosen for this study was a high performance coach in the sports domain should not be considered as a limitation, since this domain has a well established practice of team coaching that was recognised as a foundation for business team coaching. However, a limitation ofthis study was the lack ofaccess to team members ofthe 2004-2007 Springbok rugby team, coached by White, that could have added valuable additional information. In spite of numerous efforts to engage with them, appointments had to be cancelled due to their professional commitments. In conclusion, it may be stated that by studying positive deviance it is possible to harmonise the fields of coaching and positive organisational scholarship in order to advance an . . understanding ofhigh performance team coaching. 36

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