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Pennsylvania Folklife Magazine Pennsylvania Folklife Society Collection

Fall 1982 Pennsylvania Folklife Vol. 32, No. 1 K. Edward Lay

Ned D. Heindel

Natalie I. Foster

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Recommended Citation Lay, K. Edward; Heindel, Ned D.; and Foster, Natalie I., "Pennsylvania Folklife Vol. 32, No. 1" (1982). Pennsylvania Folklife Magazine. 98. https://digitalcommons.ursinus.edu/pafolklifemag/98

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- Autumn 1982

M ill' ) ~onttil1utot~

o D. HEINO L, Ph.D., i Profes or of hemistry at Lehigh Univer ity, Bethlehem, PA and Professor of uclear Medicine at Hahnemann Medical o ll ege, Philadelphia, PA. In addition to pro­ fe ional intere t in the development of tumor-detecting radioactive pharmaceuti a i , he ha avocational inLere t in the history of medicine and chemi try.

TALI I. FO T R, D.A., Ph.D., i In tructor of Chemistry at Lehigh Univer ity, Bethlehem, PA and Re earch cienti t in the Univer ity' enter for Health cience. Her intere t bridge com­ plex ion chemi try of biologically important y tem , radio-iodination technique, and patent medicine manufacturer in early America. Dr. Fo ter i ecretary Trea urer of the Hi tory Division of the American hemical ociety.

K. EDWARD LAY, B. Arch., M. Arch., i Profe or of Architecture and A ociate Dean for dmini trative and tudent Affair at the Univer ity of Virginia in harlotte vi ll e. A member of numerou profe ional and civic organization, Profe or Lay al 0 publi he ex­ ten ively and doe private con ulting on architectural pre ervation a well. The article that appear here wa re earched with aid from The American Philo ophical ociety, The German Academic Exchange Service, and a e quicentennial As ociate hip from the University of Virginia. It i e entially an overview of the field ba ed primarily on secondary ource material. As uch, it offer bibliography of such source material through it footnote and could form the ba i for more definitive cholarly tudie . tbltOriul ([Om lllltt cC : I homil I (J,jllilghl:r, J r RIChard P Rlehll:f I \ an S ':.nydl:r iHoll1l91119 tOitllr: ane) k. ( ,auglt.:r EOitorial Aouisor6: la\; I . Barne l-. I k inrich k. cll lonrOl: II I ablan [· a rll . Robacke r AUTUM 1982 VOL. 32, O. 1 J o hn B. I ra nI! Ka rl cherc r Ibe rt I . (,a m o n nlJC ommcr r\. rthur D. Graefr P a ul R . Wieand I lo we ll J . llcancy Don Yoder CONTENTS Art iEbitor: Richard 1-. Kurr 2 European Antecedent of e enteenth and Ei hteenth ~ubs(ri~tillna : entury Germanic and cot -Iri h Architecture in anc K . Gauglcr America }flolk }/lrstiullIIHrrctor: K. D RD L Y Mark R. Eaby, Jr. 1Ilolk 1flratiuull\1ubli( iRrlutions : 44 Medicine, Music and " Money" Munyon Peg Zecher D D. HE I D EL and T LI I. FO T R J1Iolk 1fIrstiuul t;tubir.6 lIirrctor: Pror. Thomas E. Gallaghcr, J r. Wu . JJ!olklifr "oeidU l1rf.6iornt: Ebbes Neie Or. Ri cha rd P. Ri chter (Inside back cover)

CO TRIBUTORS (Insidefront cover)

P YLVA lA FOLKLlFE, COVER: 1I1L1mn 19 2, 01. 32, o. I, published One of many German and cots-Irish contributions to fOllr limes a year by Pennsylvania Folklife ocicty, Inc., P.O. Box 92, ollegeville, American material culture, the log cabin became the mo t Pa. 19426. $2.50 for single copie , Autumn, popular building on the American frontier. Winter & pring. $2.00 for Summer. carly ub cription $8.00; Back issues (v . 2 1-30), $3 .00 each; others P.O.R. Layou! and Special Pho!ography: WILLIAM K. MU RO M SAD PHOTOGRAPHS: The ditor will be glad to consider M and photographs ent with a view to publi a ti on. Whcn un uitable, and if accompanied by rcturn postage, care will be taken for their ret urn, although no re pon ibility for their safety is a sumed. . . Editorial correspondence: ancy K. Gaugler P .O. Box 92, College ille, Penn ylvania 19426 Sub cription, busines correspondence: P .O. Box 92, Collegeville, Pennsylvania 19426 Folk Fe tival correspondence: College Blvd. and Vine, Kut ztown, Pennsyl ania 19530 Folk Fe tival public relations: Peg Zecher, 26 E. Knowlton Rd ., Media, Pennsylvania 19063 Copyright 1982 Entered as second class matler at Collegeville. Pa. ISS 0031 -4498 European Antecedents of Seventeenth and Eighteenth Century Germanic and Scots-Irish Architecture in America. by K. EDWARD LAY

The first record of cots- Iri sh settlement in America Of the four major cultural area in the eventeenth wa in New astle ounty, Delaware.9 By 1710, they and eighteenth century, Virginia (1607), New ngland had located in we tern he ter ounty, Pennsylvania, lo (1620), and the Deep outh ( 167 1) were all ~r. imarily of and, in 17 15,500 ettled in orth arolina." About the Engli h ethnic origin. In 168 1, however, Wllham Penn, arne time, a group arrived on the frontier in Donegal through hi " Holy xperiment" in Penn ylvania, per­ Town hip on the Lanca ter ounty plain, creating a mitted great number of Germanic and cot -lri h center there for the expan ion of the Scots- Irish group to immigrate to the Port of Phil ade lp~i a . in America. 12 Thi plain had been a ettlement area for In compari on with nglish immigration to Amenca, many re ligiou groups: Scotti h and Welsh Anglicans, relatively little has been written about thi Germanic German Dunkards, French Huguenots, and Men­ and Scot -lri h influx, yet these two ethnic group con­ nonite .13 I n other area ea t of the u quehanna Ri ver, tributed more to American material culture than any the cot -Irish ettled in Germanic areas. 14 Prior to other non-Anglican group. Hopefull y, the following 17 19, they located in Dauphin County, where the Pax­ discus ion will lead to a better under tanding of the e ton Pre byterian hurch wa formed. 15 At this time, two culture and their impact on the American cene. too, group settled in Berk ounty, P enn ylva nia, 16 The o-called " cotch I ri h" Pre byterian were and founded Londonderry in New Hamp hire.17 Saxon cot rather than Celtic Irish who had been In 17 18, land we t of the u quehanna wa obtained placed by Jame I for colonization on confiscated land from the Indian, and in 1727 the We tern Penn- of Irish rebel in UI ter in 1610.1 Origi nally of ngli h ylvania Emigrant ociety wa formed to aid immigra­ origin,2 they lived for generation in the hire south of tion to that area. 18 It wa not until after the Rev­ Firth of Forth in the cottish Lowland ; the vast olution however, that many cots-Irish migrated majority came from the upper tier of tho e hires bet­ there, 19 mo tly locating in Allegheny, Fayette, Greene, ween Gla gow and Edinburgh. 3 Wa hington, and We tmoreland counties. 20 By 1730, After 1625, these "Ulster Scots" or " cot -Iri h" they had cro ed the u quehanna Ri ver into Adam followers of John Knox were persecuted by Chari I and York countie and into the Kittochtinney ValleY, 21 and the native Iri h, who tried to force them to con­ now known a the umberland Valley. 22 So much ten- form and pay taxes to support the Church of England4 ion had developed between the cot -Iri h and other (the Anglican or Episcopal Church, now called the ethnic group in Donegal Town hip in Lancaster Church of Ireland). Actually the term "Scotch-Iri h" ounty that the tate government in 1743 decided not to was not commonly used in America until the mid­ ell them any more land ea t of the u quehanna River. nineteenth century, when it was used to di tingui sh bet­ In tead, they made them an enticing offer of land in the ween the older Irish immigrants and tho e arriving after umberland Valley, where orne had ettled earlier and the Great Potato Famine (1845-1847). 5 where they could erve a a buffer between the coloni t Because of this persecution and for other reasons, and Indian . 23 the Scots- Irish emigrated to America beginning about The lime tone Cumberland Valley flow into the 1700; the greatest numbers arrived between 1771 and Shenandoah Valley of Virginia and it became a natural 1773 .6 Another reason for emigration was the economic migration route. Augu ta County in Virginia was conditions brought on by the Act of Parliament of 1699 formed in 1738 because of the cots-Irish growth in the which prohibited the exportation of wool from Ulster, valley. About thi time, they also formed a settlement thus discriminating against Irish goods in preference for further south at Williamsburg, outh Carolina. 24 In English ones. 7 Furthermore, the long-term Irish lease 1768, land wa opened we t of the Allegheny moun­ had expired on the land on which they had been paying tain and large number of Scot -Iri h ettled there. B high rents and exorbitant taxes, making the plentiful Between 1792 and 1820, they ettled mo t of north­ lands in America with low taxes look favorable. 8 western Pennsylvania. 26

2 In their selliement'i, the ot - Iri h (\\ho werc u ed to p pulati n 1 onc-hall milll 11. \ r und 16 7 ~. a rugged land cape) eho e the hillicr land near pring war between r ranle and Iiolland brou!!ht morc de tru'­ for their hou e , becau~e they "cre u~uall) Ic~ fore\ted lion t the Plal/, ituated between the e tw oUlltric. and thm more ea\il) cleared. Thi~ appealed to a \t one time, twcnt}- i litie and \illa!!c Wlfl burlllllg. culture more adapted to mercantile bu Ine~~ than the horr r urpa ed tho e 01 thc Thirt~ ) car' \\ ar to agriculture. lore polillcall) a ti\(: than the erman It to k _ year (unlll I ~9) t rc tore thc land t the Immlgrant~, their aggre\~i\e and \ lolent manner did not arne tate f agri ultural pr pent} nd t repla'l the endear them to the peaceful Quakers. The) flrml) number of hue and people. belle ed that the Id Te~tament called for the de­ t different lime dunng thl peri d I' turmoil, \trucllon r the heathen; In thl ea e, the mencan the Pfall \\a ruled b) utheran, Ref rmed, and ath­ I ndJan. fhls belief, coupled \\ Ilh their \ Igorou and in­ ohc ,thu encouraging the ermalll cet a wcll a the dependent nature, caused them to ellie on Indian land utheran and Reformed t emigrate to \ men 'a, ' with ut purcha e, fighting to ellie dl pute . The were ne effe t of thi per e Ull n f the Pr te tant \\ a n instigat rs of the hl skey Rebellion after the Re 01- in rea ed intere t in pieti m, a re\ 1\ al of per nal re\- ution " but Lhey were al 0 patriotic, c urageou , and in­ eren e for od within the utheran hur h; and my - telligenl. " tici m, the do trine that od or ruth rna) be kn \\ n The erman, n the other hand, ere financially through piritual in ighl. Johann Kelplu (16 - I 0 ) frugal, doggedl indu triou , dependable, pun tual, went to Penn h ania to await the oming of hn t; the hardworking, par imoniou , ju t, 10\ in making dec­ Dunkard ere formed, and a mini ter from Heidelberg iion , and had a di like for fighting. To in till the e founded a religiou order that ought the de tru tion of prin iples in their children, rule of conduct \ ere e - the \ orld a a relea e from mi er. he out orne \\ a tabli hed. 10 They tended to Ii e together a an ethnic that the earlie t group to emigrate to meri a \ ere group and to marry within that group. The nineteenth uch pecial ect , often \ ith their 0\ n religiou leader century hi torian, ydney eorge i her, felt that thi accompan ing them. 16 ethni i o lation, in combination with their con er ati e The fir t erman elliement in merica, in fact, nature (a witne ed by their public chool oppo ition wa made at ermanto\ n, Penn I ania in 16 3 b a and retention of native language and cu tom) had been large group of Mennonite led b Franci Daniel Pa - re pon ible for checking the ad a ncement of the entire toriu ( 1651 - 1720) .1 1 There wa little more tate of Penn I ania. 11 The ngli h coloni t - e en migration until the arri al of the \ i ennonite Benjamin rank lin - di lik ed the German " Palatine in 17 10, 1 but between 17 10 and 1727 larger number boor , the mo t tupid of their race." 11 came to Penn yl ania. 19 In 1727, the flow of immigrant Virtually all American German were farmer ; they increa ed harply and continued until the Re olution e ceeded all other ethnic group in that occupation. when all immigration cea ed:o Often they were wi e enough to purcha e land which Up to 1719, the German ect ettled primarily in had already been culti ated, but upon which the owner Lanca ter and Montgomery countie , and along the could not ur ive. They, in turn, made it into a pro­ Lehigh, P erkiomen, and chuylkill alley, while the fitable farm. On unculti ated land, they cut down each German Church people ettled mo tly in Berks, Lanc­ tree and u ed it wood for fire or building. This prac­ a ter, Lebanon, Lehigh, orthampton, and York coun­ tice, rather than the Engli h and cot -Iri h method of tie . Also large area of Bucks, arbon, Dauphin, and girdling tree , made the field ready for cultivation in nyder countie were ettled by Germanic people, and it econd year. They often built their barn before German ettlement penetrated northward into Centre, their hou e , kept their cattle indoor in the winter, and Monroe, orthumberland, and Union counties and fenced their pa ture . They were the fir t to tore and westward into Adam, Franklin, Juniata, Mifflin, and recycle manure, rotate crop, and irrigate. Perry, 41 The German had thirty generation of farming Outside Penn yl ania, original ettlement and migrat­ knowledge to bring to America. Many had come from ion by Germans to everal other colonie occurred. In the German Pfalz or Palatinate, '; hich during the Mid­ the eighteenth century, German ettlements were estab­ dle Age (c. 400-15(0) had been among the mo t infl­ Ii hed in Georgia, Loui iana, Maine, Maryland, ew uential of the German tate and wa known a the Jer ey, ew York, orth Carolina, South Carolina, garden of Germany. In the eventeenth century, how­ Virginia and ova Scotia,, 2 In ew Jer ey, the first ever, the Pfalz wa ra aged - a wa much of the re t of German arrived in 1707 and oon created a region bet­ Europe - by a erie of war la ting nearly one hundred ween the Raritan and Pas aic Rivers that became pre­ year . 11 dominately German and spread through the counties of

During the thiry year' war (1618-48) - a civil war Bergen, Essex, Hunterdon, Morris, and Somerset. 41 in the Germanic tate bet\ een Catholic and Pro­ Labadists from the Rhineland under the leadership of te tant - only 50,000 person in the Pfalz urvived out Peter Sluyter established a settlement on the Bohemia

3 River in Maryland in 1684. 44 Matthia van Bebber, a many proper: the middle Rhineland, Bohemia (now Dutch Mennoni te from Germantown, settled near the wes tern Czechoslovakia), a nd Moravia (now central Elk River in Bohemi a Manor on Maryla nd ' Ea tern Czechoslovakia).64 The largest number came from the Shore.4s In 1727, German from Pennsylvania founded southwestern part o f Germany, known as the Pfalz or New Mechlenburg, now Sheperd town, West Virginia. Palatinate, whi ch then included a part of present-day The following year, German began settling in the Balt­ Bavari a as well. 6S Nex t, in order of the largest imore area and in the we tern countie of Maryland. number of immigrants, were Swabians from Wuer­ In 1745, they founded Frederi ck and Hager town.'6 ttemberg, then Baden, and then Switzerland,66 74 per­ In Virginia, although the earl y 1714 ettlement had cent of which is German-s peaking. 67 Other areas of taken place at Germanna:7 ea t of the Blue Ridge Mou­ origin during the great migrations of 1749 to 1754, ntain , the German migration down the hena ndoah include Zweibrucken in Saarland; Hessen; Westphalia ; Valley came a little later. German ettlers, under Jo eph the Wes terwald; the Schwarzwald or Black Forest; Hite from Penn ylvania (via arli Ie and Getty burg) Saxony, now part of East Germany; Alsace, now in entered the Valley in 1732, ettling primaril y in the France; Salzburg, now in Austria; and Silesia, now in countie o f Frederick, Page, Rockingham , and hen­ outhwes tern Poland. 68 andoah: 8 and in the 'town of tra burg, Winche ter, The culture that came to America, to quote Alan Wood tock, and Sheperdstown, now in We t Virginia.'9 Gowans, " represented not the modern Europe that was In fact, Frederick County wa formed in 1738 largel y emerging in the seventeenth century, but an older, med­ becau e of the great population increa e brought about ieval world that lived on in the strata of society which by thi influx of German ettlement. so had largel y settled the new colonies. " 69 The Georgian In 1710, German under Baron de Graffenreid settled period of renewed interest in the Renaissance was capt­ at New Bern in orth Carolina.sl The central and west­ uring Europe, but the less cosmopolitan, rural immi­ ern part of that state, primarily along the Yadkin and grant to America related better with the medieval styles Catawba Ri vers,51 were ettled after 1750 by pioneer that were more vi sually familiar to them on the contin­ from Berks and other Penn ylvania countie . S3 ent. In the late 1720 , Governor Johnson of South Caro­ Unique example of first generation Germanic and lina established German communities in Orangeburg Scots-Irish architecture occurred prior to 1750 in . and Lexington countie . again as a guard again t the America, primarily in the southeastern counties of Indians but also to quell slave upri ings along his front­ Penn ylvania. Today little or nothing remains of the ier. 54 The towns of Ebenezer, Orangeburg, and Saxe­ cave hut or other early Germanic vernacular building Gotha became predominantely German. 55 Families type ; i.e., combination dwelling-barns, jachwerk from Saxony and Brun wick in Germany settled in Wal­ buildings, continental houses, bank hou es over vaulted doboro, Maine, in 1736, about the arne time the Mora­ pring cellar , or the medieval churches and religious vians arrived in Savannah, Georgia. 56 teep-roofed, hed-dormered community buildings. Pennsylvania Germans migrated to Ohio after the More remain of the Scots-Irish ingle-cell, log or stone French and Indian Wars (1754-1763). s7 In 1801, Mora­ hou e , the somewhat later large Germanic bank barns, vians established a settlement at Salem in Tuscarauas and the Georgianized churche of both ethnic group . County in Ohio. S8 Early nineteenth century German But in Europe, there exi ts a long tradition of similar settlements occurred in Bethlehem, Berlin, Cincinnati, example of all these building type , and even greater Dresden, Frankfort, Freeburg, Nazareth, Pot dam, and similarities can be found in the detail themselves: Salem, and in the Sciotto River Valley, especially pent roofs and eave, double attics, vaulted cellars, Ross County. In Kentucky, Harrodsburg, Flemingsburg dry ink outlets, ceiling con truction, and in the decora­ and Frankfort were settled. 59 tion and furnishing . After the Revolution, 12,000 Hessian mercenarie As has been mentioned, the Scot -Irish originally remained in America and moved into German settle­ came from the lowland of Scotland, but no building ments. 60 From the Revolution until 1830, German im­ pre-dating the eighteenth century survive in Scotland migration practically ceased. That year witnessed Ger­ and few extant one exist prior to 1750. Virtually man immigration to the MississipP! River ValleY,61 nothing is even known about medieval (500-1450) while Pennsylvania Germans migrated to the Northwest peasant house there. 70 After leaving Scotland, they Territory and to the Province of Ontario in Canada.62 remained approximately One hundred years in Ulster Since it has been said that Germanic architecture of before 'migrating to America, but Irish buildings, too, the earliest period of immigration was identical to that are difficult to trace, because few can be dated even to of the district from which the settlers came,63 it might the nineteenth century. 71 be of interest to list these areas of emigration. Al­ The Cave Hut though many came from Germanic Switzerland, the One of the earliest housing type in Scotland, the great majority, as .might be expected, were from Ger- Hebridean Black House consisted of interconnected

4 Figure J Figure 2 building with rounded external corner and hipped "occa ionally one is till to be found in remote part of roof ." It clo e t analogy i the Beehive H ut, uch a at the tate," but the e " olitary hut " could ha e been Ring of Kerry in southern Ireland. 0 uch similar omething more than mere cave huts. 76 examples are known to have exi ted in the cultures in It has been shown that even the well-educated America, but fr om earl y writings, unque tionably many German, Pa torius, lived, as did many Quakers, in a of the earli est member of the ect li ved in America half cave and half hut along a bank of the Delaware in cave hou es or hut that were exca ations into the River, probably near what became the C hestnut Street bank of river (fig. I), uch as was noted along the wharf. Later he built a more substantial stone house in Delaware.71 Thi cave hut tradition can be found in Germantown. 77 A early as 1700, the mystic Kelpius Europe a een in the day laborer's cabin (fig. 2) al 0 resided in such a dwelling (fig. 3) near German­ from On twedde, Holland. The excavation was then en­ town,78 as did John Seelig, Bony, and Conrad Mat­ clo ed on the exterior with a wooden tructure, the thias. 79 Whittier refers to Kelpius and his cave hut in his entire space encompassing only about twelve by fifteen poem "Pennsylvania Pilgrim. "80 The eccentric Quaker, feet in plan and utilizing greased paper for light. 7' Benjamin Lay, dwelled in one (fig. 4) at Branchtown

The roof were of limbs covered with bark or sod, near Philadelphia in the early eighteenth century, a 1 and chimneys probably were built with river stone and Conrad Beissel apparently lived in one along Cocal­ u ing gra s and clay for mortar. ico Creek in Lancaster County in 1720. 82 Unfortunately, Further evidence indicating their existence is the fact all extant illustrations show only the earthern cave and that, in 1685, the provincial council ordered all cave not its wooden structure which had long since deter­ dwellers around Philadelphia to appear before them. 75 iorated. And, according to Fisher (writing as late as 1896)

Figure 3 re 4

5 Figure 5 Figure 6 Certainly this primitive building ty pe was not restrict­ Although buildings with walls of clay and turf ed to the Germanic groups, fo r the E ngli h Pilgrims existed until the mid-eighteenth century in the Scottish in Massachusetts used cave huts as their first shelters; Highlands, none ex ist today. 86 In the Scottish Lowlands reconstructions (fig. 5) of them can be seen in the Pio­ even wattle and daub used in tenant houses.. did not neer Village at Salem .83 Bu t few such buildings prevail as long as it did in the Highlands. The wood were constructed in America, and those that were, were cruck frame (couples) was the standard construction built for expediency until a more permanent dwelling method in the Lowlands, but by the seventeenth could be erected, or were built by mystics for reli ­ century, much of that area's forests were depleted gious seclusion. for use as charcoal in the manufacture of iron, and Combination Dwelling-Barns 90 percent of its wood had to be imported from Nor­ Early American buildings combined the house and way. By the mid-eighteenth century, virtually all forests barn under one roof in the manner of early Scottish had vanished. 87 and Irish byre-houses or long houses, a practice still Through the eighteenth century in Scotland, it was used today in the dairy areas of Holland, Germany, and the custom that both people and cows entered these Switzerland. I. In fact, in seventeenth century Lowland buildings through a common door; later there were two Scotland, the combination dwelling-barn (fig. 6) was the separate ones. Smoke from floor fires escaped through predominant building typology.l$ It resembled those a roof opening placed off-center with the fire in order found in Ireland, such as the one (fig. 7) at Ring of that it not be extinguished by rain. Eventually Kerry in County Kerry. A box bed or dresser was often a hanging chimney was provided to conduct smoke used to separate the byre or cow barn portion from the through the opening. Built-in fireplaces with stone living area. chimneys were not employed prior to the late eighteenth

F;gure7 Figure 8

6 Figure 9 century.' The roof ridge wa rounded to offer the lea t barn ere the predominant building type in tho e wind re i tance. tone e terior wall were laid on a lope areas 0 er the courtyard prototype.96 In America, al ­ to direct water away from the building, and the interior though they were not a grand and elaborate, there wa often pIa tered. 9 evidence of their exi tence. By the late nineteenth century in Ireland, separate building were u ed for animal and people. The old These great mountain houses built on teep lope by long hou e were partitioned for only dwelling u e and peasants had many similaritie : steep roofs, long bal­ became a wing along with out-buildings around a conies, carved gable , arched chimneys, ca ement win­ courtyard.90 Thi courtyard and plan found no counter­ dow . The lower level was u ed for stables for caLLIe, part in merica. ven the German courtyard plan (fig. and hor es entered usually along the long side. Wagon 8) with a cobble tone yard endo ed by dwelling, barn, entrances were along the side or end, often with a table, and a wall often with an arched gate and door­ bridge or ramp. There were no chimneys; the smoke way, wa not imitated in merica, po ibly becau e ro e into the loft and left the building through a ven­ there wa more pace to pread out building there. 91 tilator or simply through the thatching. The Swiss and But the America linear plan with barn and hou e ep­ Black Fore t combination dwelling-barns are more sim­ arate, but positioned along the .same axis, might derive ilar to each other than to the upper Bavarian ones. They from the combination dwelling-barn found not only in have higher, hipped roof lines, whereas the upper Bav­ cotland and Ireland but aloin England, Wales, HoI­ arian roof is more like its American counterpart. 97 land, witzerland and Germany.92 In fact, the great Levering in his HISTORY OF BETHLEHEM sug­ Dutch (fig. 9),9JBlack Fore t (fig. 10), Upper Bavarian gests that the reason Count von Zinzendorf named the (fig. 11),94 and wi (fig. 12)9' combination dwelling- Moravian community, "Bethlehem," on Christmas in

Figure 11 Figure 12

7 Figure 13 Figure 14

1741 wa that the fir t Moravian tructure (fig. 13) there Chester County court records as being lived in by a wa uch a combination dwelling-barn. Other than thi Jame Gibbon, and a fifth is listed in the 1799 tax ass­ reference, the only extant vi ual evidence i the harle essment of that same county in Honey Brook Township Le ueur sketch (fig. 14) of one in the Blue Ridge Moun­ and lived in by Abraham Curtz. 101 tain, di covered by Don Yoder, former editor of No Germanic combination dwelling-barns are known PE N YLVA IA FOLKLlFE,98 and the Miller Hou e to exi t today, but surely there were many in use in the (fig. 15) which wa located ju t outh of Harri onburg first generation in America, since they were so in Virginia' Shenandoah Valley. Thi la t example pro­ common at that time on the continent. Besides, the bably had it table below and a dwelling above off of a Germans who emigrated to Wisconsin directly from broad balcony re embling tho e (fig. 16) in Bavaria.99 Germany in the nineteenth century built such structures There are, however, reference in eighteenth century for them elves there, ,02 making plausible the fact that tax lists in America to such buiilding . Three are Ii ted their earlier Prote tant relative in Pennsylvania would in the 1798 Direct Tax Li t for Penn ylvania: one i have done the arne. Probably some do exist in Penn­ that of Henry Lepard in Frankford Town hip, umber­ sylvania, but now form the nucleus of newer buildings land County; one was owned by John Shue in War­ and are thu ob cured within the e dwelling or barn wick Township, Lancaster County; 100 and another tructure , altered beyond recognition. It even raise the that of Joseph Downing in East Cain and We t White­ que tion of whether the approximately eight hundred land Township with a "dwelling hou e and barn "cabin barns," referred to in the 1798 Direct Tax connected." Another is mentioned in the Augu t, 1705, List and located mostly west of the Blue Ridge, were

Figure 16

8 not combination dwelling-barn . 10) More re earch need to be done on the earlier e en­ tcenth century tax Ii ts and other county court record. The purpo e would be to identify more uch buildings in order to pinpoint them on pre ent-day topographic map and to conduct vi ual or archeological ur ey of phy ical evidence of thei r existence. Fachwerk Hou e Pnor to the fir t German and Scots-Iri h coming to Figure 19 America, architectural acculturation had already taken place in urope. ot only can this be een in the wide di po ition of the combination dwelling-barn in

urope, 10_ but aloin the extent of fachwerk or half­ timber building throughout Europe. In York (fig. 17), Tewke bury, tratford-Upon-Avon (fig. 18), Ledbury, Che ter (fig. 19), and el ewhere in England (fig. 20), medieval fachwerk building abound that are virtually identical with those in Germany (fig. 21 _23) .'°5 It was the primary mode of con truction in England before the Great Fire in London in 1666.

Figure 20

AU. ...Al' m.• ~ ~ '. t ~~ .....••••• ~. I .': ~, •• .:.il.'~ : ... -' __ I~III ••'. I •• I. • • ,j":~ ~ ____ ~ •••••••0.'. ,J-\' ... '1 111 .ill. , •• I ,~ ,':"""f ~, ••••••~ r •• .,..... ,.•...... I...... _, ., .-_.-, ...... ,.:.,;~~_~~4::~ ~-,. --

Figure 21 Figure 23 9 Figure 24 Figure 25

In America, the timber structural sy tern for such buildings was ecured by pegged morti e and tenon joints with the space between infilled with brick nog­ ging or wattle and daub, which consisted of inter-woven twigs covered with a mixture of dung, mud, straw, or hair. .06 Hewn oak wa used for the largest timber, with spruce or pine for smaller ones. Pegs were of oak, hick­ ory, maple or ash. •07 There were a number of such buildings in New Eng­ land in the late seventeenth century, and in Lanc­ aster and York in Pennsylvania, fachwerk was commonplace. '08 In fact, it was still strongly evident in Lancaster (fig. 24) in the late nineteenth century, al­ though some were erected by Engli h workmen. The Powell House (fig. 25) in Lancaster(09 no longer exi t , but in York, the 1745 Golden Plough Tavern (fig. 26) is a recently uncovered and restored example . •• 0 Early drawings also recall fachwerk houses (fig. 27) in York" ', and other examples no longer extant include Figure 26 this Landis Valley one (fig. 28), and the 1742 Moravian

Figure 27 Figure 28

10 rig/J~ 30

chool (fig. 29) in the ley alley of Berk ount, ngland, which had a pent roof to protect it LUCCO infill. '" kno n In There are 1760 jachwerJ,. hou e in alem, orth ar­ northern and e tern Ireland. The ingle- ell, ollier' olina, as well a later ermanic example in hio") and hou e (fig. 0) con tituted up to one third of all rural Wi con in. " · In addition, it ha been ugge ted that Iri h building prior to the reat Famine (I 46-4 ). '17 many jachwerk building exi ted in Penn yl ania in COllier differed from a yeoman in that he wa a the early generation and are extant, but undi co ered, pea ant who worked for a farmer and wa per­ today.'" milled to u e one of hi cOllage, wherea a yeoman farmed hi 0 n land and ranked a a commoner or Small House freeholder. Most of the e COllier' hou es were one tory ingle-cell yeomen hou e with gable and chimneys with leeping loft " and often with a bed outshot near exi ted in ngland prior to 1640 and resemble cot­ the fire (fig. 31). There i little e idence of cruck Iri h American one Moreover, orne yeomen and framing other than in nglish selller 'house in the hu bandmen house of about 1636 in rural ngland eventeenth century in Ireland. ". The Duncan ollier' had central chimney " 6 like tho e of the Penn ylvania Hou e (fig. 32) of about 1750 i an exception. It German . contains a cruck frame, out hot bed, and earthen floor .

Figure 32

11 -, r- J • . . . .. L -.. • • I • .. • 4- -- ..... ~ ~ --+- --'- • - ~...... EE ER

Figure 33 Figure 34

A Scottish single-cell example is that of Bel Pol (fig. 33). A two-room, Scots-Irish house also existed in America but had more Irish origins (fig. 34) than Scot­ tish, although many Scottish crofters' cottages resem­ bled them. 120 This small house usually contained inter­ nal gable end chimneys and opposite front and rear doors, obviously a survival from combination dwelling­ barn times when they were used for moving the cow, and for a draft when threshing. 121 Another example is that of the typical weaver's house that was common from about 1670, although this example (fig. 35) dates only to the mid-nineteenth century. Many had the typ­ ical window in the interior fireplace screen wall between the exterior door and the hearth to permit the housewife to sit by the fire, yet have visual control of the entrance. The Scots-Irish in America preferred this long, low, si ngle pile building at first but later built two-story houses (fig. 36) 122 recalling those common in the Scot­ tish Lowlands 123 and in Ireland (fig. 37) in the eight-

Figure 36 Figure 37

12 Figure J eenth century. ther Iri h e ample in lude: Li ma­ clo key Hou e (fig. 3 ) of 17 17 which ha a rna i e tepped chimney in the attic v hich i recei ed on the huge fireplace beam below and ha a corner chimney from the nineteenth century; orradreenan e t Farm hou e (fig. 39) of about 1750 which ha a hipped roof, fireplace reen window, and half-loft for lOrage; and o hkibhill Farm (fig. 40) of about 1 50 which ha an out ide tair to a granary loft 0 er the b reo Granary loft hou e (fig. 41 -42) often contain a helter under the tair for a dog or goo e a rodent protection for the grain in the loft abo e. Peculiaritie of tyle al 0 exi t between mall Ger­ manic hou e in merica and in the Pfalz a noted in 1936, in the AM RI JOU R L OF A RCHAE­ OLOGY. '2 4 The earlier buidling were log or tone (depending upon the con truction material available) with brick con truction being employed much later. ' B Figu re 40 vidence that tone hou e probably come omewhat

Figure 41 Figure 42 13 Figure 44

later than log ones is the suggestion that the first stone house in the limestone Cumberland Valley was not built until after 1772. 126 But by 1840, of York County' 2,500 hou es, almost six hundred were stone along with about one hundred brick ones. 127 Almost every farm had a stone limekiln built into a bank for making laked lime for mortar for such buildings. In addition, many stone building walls were water­

proofed with a lime pia ter or stucco, 128 and date stones or inscriptions were often placed high on gable end walls. 129 The tile-roofed Conrad Wei er Hou e (fig. 43) of 1729 in Berk County, the stone house east of the em­ inary at Bethlehem, and the c. 1730 Fisher House in the Oley Valley in Berks County '30 are all examples of these mall stone house. The French Huguenot John DeTurck House (fig. 44) of 1767, aloin the Oley Val­ ley , i a small tone bank house with a chimney on one gable end and an entrance on the other. '3' A imilar house (fig. 45) is that of William Joseph of the late eighteenth century in Mossy Creek, northwe tern Aug­ usta County, Virginia. 1l2 The fir t tone Kauffman House (fig. 46) in the Oley Valley wa a two- tory, central chimney one. In 1766, a larger tone hou e wa built nearby which had a double attic and vaulted cellar. '3 3 The stone General Horatio Gates Hou e (fig. 47) of about 1751 in York includes another Germanic feature, the stoep, consisting of benche on either ide

of the entrance doorway. 134

14 T. ItiLI' ,I Figure 47 Figure 4 toga wagon, which a the principle mean of tran - Log Building portation for \ heat in Penn I ania prior to the rail­ In 1803, Thaddeu M . Harri differentIated bet een a road and for tran porting immigrant to the we t; the " Log cabin" (fig. 48) - basically a rounded log, temporary " Kentucky" ri fle, which helped ettle the frontier; and dwelling - and a " log hou e" (fig. 49) of hewn log .11' the broad axe for felling tree for log buildings. 140 Ithough the Finn and wede probably built the fir t The quare-hewn logs for building came from tree on log building in America, the Germanic group were the ettler' land itself; the most popular choices were familiar with log con truction a nd promoted it wide­ white pine and white oak.14 1 The resultant one and a pread u e in the early period, e pecially in Penn- half and two tory buildings were usually limited to ylvania. ll6 Dove-tailed log con truction known in twenty-four or thirty feet, because over that length they America wa popular in log building in outhern Ger­ became too unwieldly in weight, and the taper varied many a well a in witzerland and northwe tern Czech­ too greatly. Actually, the buildings rarely were greater

oslovakia. Il7 Further, the Engli h and cot -lri h were than eighteen by twenty-four feet in plan; 142 the more not familiar with log con truction, allhough ir d­ usual were sixteen feet square. IH Logs were laid hori­ mund Plowden, in 1648, noted that the Engli h colo­ zontally, notched at the corners, and with chinking bet­ ni l at ew Albion, ew Jer ey, commonly construct­ ween of wood wedge , stones, or supplemental logs and ed "a log hou e of young tree, thirty foot square then pia tered with clay or lime mortar. I U notched in at corner." 1)8 evertheles, the pioneering The units usually consisted of a single room with an cot -Iri h adopted the Germanic con truction and external chimney in one gable end as in English houses, made it the dominant frontier building methodology but has been noted in some Swiss examples' H and was in more primitive area throughout the colonie by the common in Scottish houses in Ulster. 146 Early examples, time of the Revolution. ll9 like the Germanic and Swiss combination dwelling­ In addition to the log building, the Germans made barns, had no chimneys but relied upon .a fire on the everal other unique contribution to American history: earthen floor with smoke escaping through a hole in the the bank barn, which will be di cus ed later; the cones- roof (fig. 50) .14' Many external gable-end chimneys Figure 51

were built of tone, but above the fireplace opening, brick wa often u ed. Al 0 at thi point, the brick portion maintained a pace between it and the gable end for fire protection and to eliminate fla hing pro­ blem at the roof peak (fig. 51). Bake hou e in Germany (fig. 52) resembled tho e in America (fig. 53) but there wa no built-in bake oven in Iri h culture, where bread wa baked on a griddle in the fireplace. lOBA hallow fireplace depth was often u ed to

deflect heat better into the room. 14 9 A a re ult of thi de ign, mo t fireplaces moked badly until after the Revolution, when Count Rumford developed hi tove that had a throat mailer than the flue, thu creating a better draft. 150 The hou e interior often had mud and lime pia ter over oak laths which was then whitewa hed l51 to create a lighter interior for better vi ibility. Becau e gla was expensive and buildings were often taxed depending Figure 54 upon the number of panes, early hou e had no win­ dows. Natural light came from the open door. Win­ dows, when used, were mall with oiled paper or animal skins used in place of glass. IH Later, four- to ix-pane sash became commonplace. 153 A battened Dutch door on wooden hinges prohibited the entenng of dog, pigs, and chicken while the open top half admitted light and air, 110 as seen (fig. 54) throughout Germany in the same period. 155 Sometimes door were nothing more than slabs of wood, 156 but usually they were djagonally battened, as they were in Germany (fig. 55). 157 The loft area under the roof served as a sleeping area for children 158 with a vertical ladder access, l59 or more often, especially in extant examples, had an endo ed corner stair along the wall opposite the fireplace with a doset under it. 160 Usually the log loft floor joi ts were framed several logs below the top plate, allowing greater head room there; evidenced in German construction but not in Ireland or Scotland. Germanic floors in America were split logs (punch­ eons) or sawn boards. 161 Earthen floors, common in Figure 55

16 Figure 57

Figure 56

ngland, cotland, and Ireland, occur in only a few ith bark, rye traw, or wooden hingle. 166 e tant log hou e , '62 but then noor in merican e - hen oak hake \ ere u ed, uch a on the aal, at ample were ometime added over the year . phrata, they were 0 erlapped both horizontally and In time in merica, hed addition were added to erticall a they were along the Rhine and in ingle-cell hou e in the form of porche along the Ba aria. '67 entrance facade for cooling the air and the rear or gable The 0 erhanging Germanic pent roof and ea e (fig. end kitchen . The horizontal log generally did not extend 5 ) wa adopted by the nglish and cot -Irish; it wa a beyond the roof line in the gable. At thi point heathing motif u ed along Philadelphia streets. A in Postel­ wa u ed, the German preferring vertical board. 163 waite' Ta ern of 1729 near Lanca ter, or the hou e If dormer were u ed, they u ually had hed roof (fig. near Lanai' LOre (fig. 59), the pent roof wa fir t u ed 56) ided with weatherboard laid parallel to the roof between the fir t and econd torie of log hou es to lope. '64 Early uch dormer are found throughout protect the chinking from rain; 16 in urban area, it Germany (fig. 57).'6S Roof were often of limb that- could provide protection for idewalk troller. 169

Figure 58 Figure 59

17 The house door hood (fig. 60) and the hooded double -door barn entrance were once commonplace in Ger­ Figure 61 manic areas in America. 170 Although the door hood is rare in Germany, the pent roof wa found throughout few brick houses among many log ones. 178 But that (fig. 61) to protect the spaces betweenjachwerk or log same year, the Duke de La Rochefoucault Liancourt walls.171 Both were known in England, where the pent stated that " scarcely any but log houses" existed in roof became very popular in restored London after the Pennsylvania from Lancaster west." 179 1666 fire. l72 Where pent roofs occur on Engli h houses The Scots-Irish usually did not build large stone in America, however, they are most likely derived from houses like the Germans did. Their houses were small local Germanic customs. 17 ) and usually log ones, 180 better adapted to their constant Although a nail machine was invented in 1796, before moving with the expanding frontier. They preferred that time nails were at a premium which promoted the the single-cell or the hall-parlour plan, but unlike the practice of burning abandoned buildings in order to English version, it had enclosed stairs, single board par­ recover these precious items. It was recorded that while titions, expo ed joints, and a stone chimney. Sometimes Benjamin Chambers was visiting elsewhere, hi s house at they employed German builders. 181 The Scots-Irish Falling Springs in Franklin County was burned" for the log and later frame small house persisted on the fron­ sake of the nails." 174 tier even after the single pile stone house (fig. 62) and By 1752, Reading, on the upper Schuylkill River, con­ Germanic bank house became acculturated during the tained 130 log dwellings, 17 S and, just prior to the Revol­ Georgian period in J\merica. 182 ution, a traveler noted that all the houses of Abbotts­ town in Adams County, Pennsylvania, were built of logs, and in Hagerstown, Maryland, the majority of its two hundred houses were of hewn logs. A few years later, it was observed that virtually all the houses in Womelsdorf, Berks County, were of hewn logs as were all those in Myerstown, Lebanon County. 176 The Clarke -Hite Survey noted in 1786 that of the 140 houses in Shenandoah and Warren Counties, Virginia, one was frame, one stone, and the remainder were log. 177 In 1795, Theophile Cazenove recorded that the houses of Kutztown, in Berks County, were log, the better ones having their mortar chinking pointed to res­ emble bricks. He noted that Hummelstown had about fifty small log houses; Easton had limestone houses; Reading had about fifty brick houses out of its approx­ imately 450 ones; Womelsdorf had about fifty houses of which some were stone and brick; and Lancaster had a Figure 62

18 Figure 63 The Continental Hou e According to Hugh Morri on, in 16 4, Penn adopted great room), and kammer (chamber or bed­ the wedish three-room house plan and ugge ted that room).' The Bertolet-Herbein log hou e (fig. 6 ) new immigrants "build then, a hou e thirty feet long of 1738 in Berk ount, Penn I ania, • i an and eighteen broad, with a partition near the middle, example, a i the Key er Hou e in Page ount, and another to divide one end of the hou e into two along with other in Ro kingham and ranklin mall rooms. III The similar Germanic three-room plan ounty, all in irginia. '90 Thi plan \ a the model in Penn ylvania with slightly off-center chimney re em­ for Germanic house in merica and per i ted in ble not only thi plan, but al 0 the peasant house tho e ethnic areas of Penn I ania and \ e tern along the Rhine Valley and in Switzerland. " ' The huge ew Jersey until about 1770. '9' central chimney was an earmark of the Germanic 2. Kreuzhaus hou e. III Further, it can be demonstrated that a propor­ The cro hou e 1 al 0 centered tional y tern using the Golden Mean wa u ed to layout around an off-center chimney but contain a uch hou e .'16 fourth room used a a kitchen pantry. The Han Additional refinement in the type of Germanic Con­ or Chri tian Herr Hou e (fig. 64) of 1719 in tinental house plan wa made by John D . Milner: '11 Lanca ter County, Penn yl ania, '92 and the 175 I. Flur Kuchenhaus Fort Egypt (fig. 65) in Page ounty, irginia, '9J This hall-kitchen house is cen­ are example . tered around a rna sive chimney and contain The Han Herr Hou e form re emble a 1739 three room : kuche (kitchen), slube (parlour or hou e (fig. 66) at Tur turz, near Trier, in the

Figure 66

Figure 65

19 re 6 7

Figure 68 69 Rhineland, '9 4 one (fig. 67) in Memmingen, and medieval newel post extending from floor to ceil­ another (fig. 68) in Nordlingen, both in Bavaria ing at the turn of the stair. 197 Further comparisons and both with double attics. '95 The Herr House can be made between the Mueller House and the tone exterior wall were once plastered and white­ Wirtshaus Zumstern in Rheinzabern in the wa hed. Its small casement windows have wooden Pfalz. '98 shutters attached to wood frame a well as to The Han Herr House's ten-foot wide rectan­ stone frames on the gable end . Ca ement win­ gular chimney reduces to a square in the attic. dows were used long after the introduction of It log ceiling joists were grooved along the· sides double hung ones around 1700, but the only ex­ and fitted with narrow boards to permit straw to tant original casement window in Penn ylvania be woven through them; then clay was applied had single sash above a pair of casements. It wa over the straw to complete the "bisquit" ceil­ used as a model for this restoration. Similar ones ing (fig. 71). '99 This process was also employed can be found in Germany. '96 A steep-pitched roof in Germany (fig. 72). Other Germanic features with double attic is served by log steps (fig. 69). found in the Herr House, as well as in other Penn­ Similar primitive thick stair treads attached to side sylvania buildings, include a dry sink, warming stringers with no risers can be seen in the 1745 Fort oven in the stu he, L-shaped bench and religious Zeller house (which will be discussed later) and the corner cupboard (fig. 73), Bible box (fig. 74), Jerg Mueller House of 1752 at Milbach, in Leb­ schrank (wardrobe) (fig. 75), dower chest (fig. 76), anon County. The Mueller interior (fig. 70) is now attic trusses (fig. 77), vaulted cellar (fig. 78), and in the Philadelphia Museum of Art and exhibits a date stone over the batten doorway (fig. 79). 200

-I

Figure 70 Figure 71

20 Figure 73

Figure 72 Figure 74

Fig ure 75 Figure 76

Figure 78 Figure 79

21 Figure 81 All of the e feature can be een in Germany (fig. 80-83). 20 1 It i difficult to determine the Herr Hou e' original roofing. Roofing tile (fig. 84) wa once as , , / common on Penn ylvania German building as / '" it is to thi day in Germany. Certainly tile were " '" u ed in Berk and Montgomery countie a it i / today on roof of entire German citie, uch a Heidelberg, Rothenburg, and Dinkel buhl. 202 A lug on the back of the tile hooked over wood lath creating continuou horizontal and vertical joint, and each tile had a molded groove to carry the rain water away from the vertical joint. 20) Also u ed were wood hingle that overlapped both horizontally and vertically a they did on the M il­ ler House near Harrisonburg, Virginia. Thi con­ struction method wa still being u ed in 1938 in Germany.20 4 And thatching with rye traw wa used in earlier times.

Figure 82

.' .... .

22 Figure 85

3. Durchgangigen Halls This center passage hou e has a narrow entry passage that separates the chamber from the kit­ chen. Fireplace opening occur in the pa age to feed Germanic five-plate, cast iron stoves (fig. 85) projecting into the rooms beyond. This re ults in the chimneys va ulting over the passage at the second floor level to form a single central stack on the roof. [n 1744, Benjamin Franklin of Phila­ delphia invented the Franklin Stove, but the Penn­ sylvania Germans already were using the cast iron stoves brought with them, and continued to use them throughout the eighteenth century. In \758, Baron Stiegel, of glasswork fame, established the first iron foundry to make such stoves in America at Manheim, in Lancaster County. After 1830, The Germanic Continental house built of logs or cast iron stoves became readily available to the stone was common in Pennsylvania and can be seen public, and canals made their transportation along the migration path through the Shenandoah cheaper, resulting in the enclosing of fireplace Valley and into North Carolina. 201 Other such central openings to substitute these stoves for cooking chimney houses include: the approximately 1710 Spro­ and heating. Central furnace heating did not egell House in Germantown; the Hannes Immel House become popular until after 1875. 20S Five-plate of 1757 in Lebanon County;209 the Kauffman House in stoves and other cast iron ones (fig. 86) can be the Oley Valley; 2lO the Dietz House in York County;211 seen throughout Germany. 206 the eighteenth century log Snively House near Keedys­ American examples of the center passage house ville, and the stone Rockland House of 1773 at Hagers­ are Schifferstadt (fig. 87) of about 1736 in Fred­ town, both in Maryland;212 and the Johannes Harden­ erick, Maryland, the 1742 Moravian School in the bergh House and the Dumond House (fig. 88), both Oley Valley of Berks County, and the 1768 built about mid-eighteenth century and both in Ulster Widow's House in Bethlehem.207 County, New York.2Il

23 Figure 89

Bank Houses over Springs to cool the applejack whiskey. 216 Many of the early mall stone hou e were built into a In some cases, these cellar spring houses included a bank or hillside over a spring, which served as a cold summer kitchen 2 17 as in the Christopher Lei (Ley) cellar and water supply. The spring wa enclosed in a House (fig. 90) of 1732, and the Michael Spangler tone vaulted cellar (wehrspeicher) (fig. 89) containing House of 1729, both in Myerstown, Lebanon County. 218 slits for air and light, cau ing many to conclude that The upper floor of the Lei House is a later addition. they served as shelters or "forts" against Indian at­ The French Huguenot Bertolet Stone House also cOh­ tack. 21 4 These vertical openings, similar to those found tains a combination kitchen and spring house with in barn loft area, were undoubtedly narrow to prevent outside entrance only. Another interesting feature of rain and larger birds and other animal from entering. this house is the tile paving in the kitchen, which re­ The interior of the slit usually was splayed to allow sembles ones at Bethlehem and Ephrata. 219 more light into the space as the sun moved about the Another Huguenot, Heinrich Zeller, built "Fort" sky, rather than to pivot a rifle in order to get a Zeller (fig. 91) in 1745 near Womelsdorf in Lebanon better bead on an Indian. Beside, most of these vaulted County; it too is entered only from the exterior. Its cellars only had outside entrances as they did in small, stone-framed casement windows, stone-framed houses in Germany. 2Il Further, Pennsylvania houses Dutch doorway with date and inscription stone nearby of this type have been compared with the weinbauren (fig. 92), central chimney and double attic are some of houses used for producing pot-still whiskey in the Can­ its many medieval Germanic features. It once had a ton Schwyz of Switzerland, where the water was used vertically-clapboarded roof similar to one on the Mora-

Figure 91 Figure 92

24 Fig ure 93

Fig ure 94

ian \ atcr work at Bethlehem. It to ne dry ink outlet (fig. 93) in the e terior all i imila r to one a t chiffer tadt (fig. 94), and i al 0 found in erman (fig. 95 .)220 Othcr e ample of bank hou e 0 er prings include: thc 1730 Boone Hou e in Berk ounty; the Hager Hou e (fig. 96) in Hager town and the Lud\ ick Kam­ eron Hou e (fig. 97) of 1774, in a hington OUnLy, both in Maryland; and the log Fort Rhode of 1764 in Page ounty, Virginia, which doe cOnLain an interior tair to the main floor. Other aulted cellar hou e , but without pring, are: the Herr Hou e of 1719 in Lanca ter ounty; chiffer tadt of c. 1736 in Frederick, Maryland; and Fort Egypt of 1758, the White Hou e of 1760, Fort tover (fig. 98) of about 1790, and other in

Page ounty in the henandoah alley. 221 Of intere t in the henandoah Valley Germanic hou e are joi t either re ting entirely on top of ummer beam (fig. 99) or partially et into them (fig. 100), 121 a oppo ed

Figure 97

Figure 100

Fig/lre 99 Figure 98

25 Figure 101

to the English method of dovetailing joi ts into the side America by the Dutch and Germans. In the eighteenth of the summer beam. Thi ystem can be seen in and nineteenth century, it was commonly used through­ Germany (fig. 101). out New York, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, 230 where it was adopted by the English. 23 1 Barracks con- isted of four upright posts with holes for pegging to Other Farm Buildings support a movable roof. Its hay floors were often raised In addjtion to the log hou e, possibly the most sig­ six to twelve feet from the ground with sides to serve illficant contribution of the Pennsylvania Germans to as a cattle shelter. 232 In 1749, Peter Kalm observed bar­ eighteenth century American vernacular architecture racks around Philadelphia, while the earliest known was the "Swiss" bank barn. 22J Typically, it was built painting of Bethlehem in 1753 shows one.233 Although into a bank or hillside with the lower level containing the Berks County records are missing, the 1798 Direct the stables and barnyard, while the upper level, often Tax List for Pennsylvania identified approximately reached by means of a wagon ramp or bridge, contained 16,000 barns of which 43 percent were solely of log con­ the threshing floor with side hay mows and projecting struction, comprising the majority construction type. forebay (vorbau). 224 But before discussing these large Further, 11 percent were stone barns, which were barns, a review of the farm buildings preceding them located primarily in the eastern part, with half in mont­ is necessary. gomery County alone. Although today, most extant Farmstead site planning varies from the grouping of barn are frame, in 1798, only 700 were of that con­ dwelling, barn, and other outbuildings around an open struction material, mostly in Delaware County. Sixty­ square, such as found in southern New Jersey, to a lin­ nine barns were listed a being more than 100 feet in ear grouping with all gables aligned. 22S Usually the length; the majority located in Lancaster County. Two stable and barnyard were oriented toward the sunny were listed as greater than 150 feet. 234 In the earlier southern or eastern quarter, but some have been sited 1786 Clarke-Hite Survey of 113 Shenandoah Valley facing any compass direction, with more concern for barn , 92 percent were log, 52 percent were thatched hillside, road, or house 10cation. 226 In Glass' study of with traw, and 35 percent had clapboard roofing. 235 530 barns, the majority faced between east and west straw, and finally wood shingles. In 1789, Jedidiah with 159 facing southeast and 161 south. 221 Morse, stated that barn were "commonly thatched In a letter dated 1684, Pastorius mentioned that with rye straw," and in Lancaster County it use per­ Swedes, Dutch, and Scots-Irish had no barns but allow­ sisted until the mid-nineteenth century. Straw thatching ed cattle to roam and stacked grain in the field, whereas was used on barns even after its use was di continued the Germanic groups in America maintained barns to on house roofs. Because of its insulation value, they house their cattle and store their hay. 228 Even forty were warm in winter and cool in ummer, but fire was years later, Christopher Sauer noted that cattle were a problem. 236 Rye or wheat straw roofing wa u ed in out-of-doors the year round, because there were few seventeenth century lowland Scotland, 237 but the barns in Pennsylvania.229 In fact, the stacking of hay thatched hip roof was even more common in Ireland and grain in the field continued until the nineteenth where the ridge was rounded by securing the cruck century. frames with a collar brace at the top.238 The paintings The barrack, .a shed for sheltering cattle and grain and drawings of Pieter Brueghel, the Elder (1525-1569), was used in the middle ages throughout Holland (fig. Hieronymus Bosch (1450-1516), and Albrecht Durer 102), Germany, France, and Italy and was introduced in (1471-1528) show many thatched roofs in Holland and 26 Figure 103 Fi lire 10-1 o ther erma nic part of urope. 21 ./ re ulted fr m the amalgamation f ne fr m b th the he vast graL ing la nd a nd m ild lima t of ngland ontinent a nd Britain. Fu rt her, in n ting the t nc had made enclo ed ba rn unnece a ry there. The wi nter ba e and wood frame top of the great o mbinati n of Penn yl vania, ho we er, were mo re e ere, more like dwe ll ing-barn of continenta l uro pe, he ugge ted tha t tho e in GermanY, 24 0 gi ing ri e to the build ing o f their ba lconi e might have e\ 01 ed into the meri a n large bank barn tarting abo ut mid-eighteenth century. fo rebay. H9 n the o ther ha nd , in 190, .F. ladfelt er Prior to that time, in addition to the barrack , gra in had indicated tha t the "ho i tein barn" deri ed from wa tored in hou e attic, a it \ a in the reer northern German .250 Hou e of 1720 in ew Paltz, Iter ounty, e\ But it i e ceedingl curio u that the e large Penn­ York. 241 In 1753, Lewi E an noted that barn \ ere I ania bank barn o f the Germani gro up \ ere hi t­ " large as pallace " while the people "Ii e in log hutt ," oricall y kno\ n a " \ i "or " \ i er" barn , indicat­ and in 1789, Thoma Anburey mentioned that people ing their builder emigrated from \ izerland. "I In "pay more attention to the con truction of their barns 1913, the early Germanic barn cholar, arion D. than to their dwelling hou e . " 242 Learned of the faculty at the ni er it of Penn- The predece or of the American bank barn i aid yl ania, made such compari on \ ith the \ I com­ to be the single-level, double crib log barn,2' ) although bination dwelling-barn. He felt that the merican it i more likely that thi small barn ha more in com­ forebay deri ed from the \ I projecting roof and mon with the tone barns o n level ground in Buck balcony; the ramp to the thre hing floor ur i ed from and C he ter countie and with those around Phil­ tho e to the S\ i loft; the entilator, the memor of adelphia, which have medieval Engli sh precedent. 244 the i s chimney; and the lit gable ent, imi lar to It has often been said, too, that the bank barn had no tho e in Switzerland. 2ll exact similarities either in Britain or on the European In 1938, ertenbaker, too, compared the Penn- continent,24l but Brun kill's Engli h Lake Di trict ylvania bank barn with Ba arian and wi model. 2l) tudies have led Gla ie to conclude that the a ntecedent Two year later, Dornbusch noted the use of earthen of the American bank barn came from that area (fig. ramp and bridge in medie a l times in Britain, France, 103-04). 24 6 Similar British Isles bank building examples Germany, and S\ itzerland in military, as \ ell as dom­ also can be found in Wale, 247 Ireland (fig. 105), estic building. H e compared the stone masonry barns Scotland, Devon hire, and the north Yorkshire moors. <;>n Ie el terrain \ ith medie al English one and con­ Brunskill identified at least four hundred exam ple in trasted those with continental Germanic type imilar to the Lake District a lone with over two time more un­ the American bank barn. H e ob erved that the wall identified there. They date from about 1730 on and and tru framing systems of the bank barns were comp­ sometimes have projecting wings on each side of the arable to that used in Europe through the e enteenth wagon entrance door or ramp a many con­ century. H e further compared the masonary vent tinental example do (fig. 106). 248 aperture in the barns to the loop holes in stone walls Elsewhere Gla sie concluded that this barn type in Europe that were used for defense. 25' Figure 105 Figure 106 Figure 108 Bank buildings have been noted from the late thir­ teenth cent\lry and have been found, in addition to those countries already mentioned, in the Scandinavian countries, Spain, and Macedonia. 2S8 But, most impor­ tantly, banked buildings of all types have been found in the Pfalz and Black Forest and in Switzerland; 259 in particular, bank barns (fig. 107-08) and bridge barns (fig. 109-10). Figure 107 In America, variously called Sweitzer, Swisser, Men­ nonite, Pennsylvania Dutch, forbay, overshot, ramped, Recently, orne re earchers have noted the lack of and hex barns, the large Swiss bank barns (fig. 111-12) Penn ylvania bank barn antecedent in the Pfalz. Rob­ of Pennsylvania were built by Mennonite and Amish ert F. En minger of the faculty at Kutztown State Col­ farmers of Swiss origin in Lancaster County. These in­ lege, in tead found it prototype in central and ea tern fluential settlers' barns were thereafter built by various Switzerland from Canton Bern to Canton Grau­ Germanic group 260 and were adopted by the English bunden. w And Terry G. Jordan of the faculty at North and Scot -Iri h. 261 Texas State Univer ity revealed from field research in The 1798 Direct Tax List showed that the size of 1978 that the bank barn with forebay eemed to be con­ barn varied little between different ethnic groups, in­ fined to the eastern Alpine area of Switzerland and sev­ dicating that the larger Swiss bank barns of the Penn­ eral districts in the Austrian province of Salzburg, the ylvania German had clearly been adopted by other most prevalent being in the Pratigau and Vorderrheintal ethnic groups. 262 The e larger barns had replaced the in Canton Graubunden in Switzerland, and in the Zill­ mailer Engli h one and the combination dwelling­ ertal Valley of Austria. 256 Henry Glassie had earlier barns.263 By the mid-nineteenth century, the Swiss bank noted one near ew Johann, Switzerland. 2S7 Both En - barn was found generally throughout outhea tern minger and Jordan promote the earlier concept that the Penn ylvania, e pecially in the counties of Berk , Lan­ Swiss bank barn did not evolve in America, but has a ca ter, Lebanon, Lehigh, and orthampton, and in a precedent in continental Europe. More field re earch portion of western ew Jersey, central Maryland, and of this kind is sorely needed. the Shenandoah Valley. 26 4 They were even found west of Pennsylvania, uch a in Cas County, In­ diana. 26s But barns of tho e group migrating further south became mailer because of the reduction of grain crop , and becau e of the warmer climate, which meant that hogs and cattle were left un heltered, while mule and hor e were kept only in shed. Thu the barn be­ came simply a corn crib and the threshing floor wa not mailer barn .266

Figure /12

Figure 110

Figure 111

28 Figure 114 Bank barn were fir t built of log, then tone, and la tly of wood frame co ered \ ith ertical iding with a pattern, date, and initial (fig. 113). 269 Ithough pat- base of tone or ometime brick. 267 uall the long terned brick \ a ommon in Tudor ngland (14 ide of the lower Ie el wa placed parallel to the on­ 160 ) and i found in meri a primaril in outhea tern tour of a hill with outhern e po ure 0 that Ii e to k Penn I ania it e i t in outhern Jer e in Bur­ ( allie, hor e, heep, wine) were heltered from the lington, amden, umberland, and alem ountie a winter wind in a barnyard. Thi i where they were at­ well (fig. 114). 270 But, at thi period, frame barn greatl ered a nd could exerci e and where dung wa piled to be outnumbered barn of other material. B I 45, of u ed a crop fertilizer. York ounty' 2,500 barn , only 350 were tone \ ith Of the 530 barn in Gla ' tudy, 94 percent \ ere bu t eigh teen brick one . 271 bank-type, of which all but twenty-fi e had forebay to By the middle of the nineteenth century, too, painted helter the table entrie and wagon and farm imple­ barn ign (fig. 115) later referred to a " hex ment belo\ . Thi five- to ten-foot helter wa either ign ," began to appear, particularly in Berk , Buck, rece ed into the barn or took the form of a wooden Lehigh, and Montgomery countie . The e decorations cantilevered projection, which permitted the outward are si milar to those found in upper Ba aria, lower ax­ winging door below to be unencumbered with now or ony, and Berne, witzerland; they also occur on Amer­ traw accumulation. The e large barn varied from ican dower che ts, sch ran ks, pottery, book Jraktur forty to 150 feet in length by fi fty to ixty feet in width painting, co erlet, to e , cupboard, clock dials, and and up to forty-five feet to the roof ridge. other Germanic item. 272 Other decorations in the form Ventilator for light and air in the hay loft con i ted of ad erti ements (fig. 116) became the vernacular barn of tapered lit, brick pattern , rectangular wooden lou­ ornament of the twentieth century. ver , and later, pire and cupolas. Other variation Other farm building include: spring houses for keep­ were initiated in the nineteenth century: a granary wa ing milk, butter, and cheese; summer kitchens; smoke­ contained on the upper level, a cellar placed under the hou e ; icehou e ; dry houses; bake ovens; ground cel­ ramp, and a wagon hed with corn crib attached. 268 lar ; pri ie ; woodsheds; wagonsheds; corn cribs; pig­ Brick-end barn were introduced in the nineteenth pen; chicken houses; pump houses; wash houses; but­ century laid in ix-cour e American bond or in Flemi h cher house; tool heds; milk houses; malt houses for

bond and containing glazed brick header in elaborate brewing beer; and still houses for distilling whiskey. 27} Figure 115 Figure 116 Figure 117

Figure 118 Small outbuildings satisfying a number of the above ac­ tivitie and containing a projecting entrance roof were found throughout America (fig. 117), 27 4 as well as in Europe (fig. 118). m American rail fences (fig. 119-20), too, can be found in Germany (fig. 121-22). 276 The Community Buildings A previou ly noted, Germantown near Philadelphia wa the first German settlement in Pennsylvania. Its hou e were usually of stone with pent roofs and eaves. Some were two storie high while others were a story and a half with gable ends to the street. 277 The Ger­ man hou e, Wyck (fig. 123), of about 1690, there, was the forerunner of what became known as the colonial Penn ylvania farmhouse. The peak of this stone and brick rural architecture emerged between 1740 and 1840. 27 8 But even more ethnically-di tinct than Germantown were the religiou communi tie founded by the Mora­ vian and other ects. Johann Conrad Bei el founded hi e enty-Day German Bapti t mona tic cloisters at Ephrata. 279 u ing medieval architectural model. Thi tyle, manife ted by it teep roof and double row of Figure 123 Figure 121

30 5hed attic dormer , 210 till pre ailed 0 er the newer Ren­ ai ', ance in man erman to n : Bamberg, annheim,

urnberg, Rothenburg (fig. 124) .2 I The ba cili a-lII...e Brother' Hou e (fig. 125) in phrata,2 2 whi h ha been raLed, trongly re embled tho e in Romane que er­ many (fig. 126). 281 But the aal, or Hou e of Pra er, of 1740, the olde t e tam religiou building in merica, and the adjoining aron (fig. 127). of 1743 , for the i terhood (2 4) ha e been re tared. The aal omain a/achwerk wall frame of ix-in h morti ed and tenoned oak frame with tone and clay infil!. It attic noor once contained clay which er ed a in ulation and po - ibly a fireproofing below the once-thatched roof. The Figure 126 door were con tructed of ertical board with tapered and chamfered batten, common in Penn yl ania. In the aron, a kitchen dry ink ha it tone cupper (fig. 128) extend through the exterior wall to er e a a drain, a at chiffer tadt and Fort Zeller.2 $ Other med­ ieval Germanic feature include exteri or protruding oven, ca ement window, double attic, and door hood (fig. 129). 286 The Moravian communi tie of azareth and Lititz in Penn ylvania, contain everal Georgian-innuenced Germanic building, whereas the Moravian town of Bethlehem, PA and Win ton- alem, C are more med­ ieval in character. azareth Hall (fig. 130) of 1755 con­ tain the Georgian feature of gambrel roof, rounded dormer, roof balcony, and cupola, while the White- Figure 128 Figure 129 Figure 132 fie ld House (fig. 131) of 1744, also in Nazareth, has a gambrel roof and belt course. 28 1 On the other hand, Figure 131 the 1739 Gray House (fig. 132) there, the oldest Mora­ vian building in Pennsylvania, is a central chimney log building with a steep roof and shed dormer, 288 and the Winston-Salem community has both medieval Brothers' (fig. 133) and Sisters' Houses.289 In Bethlehem, as men­ tioned previously , the first house was the log combin­

ation dwelling-barn of 1741. 290 Its Gemeinhaus or Community House, of 1742, was also of log construc­ tion but with stucco over oak laths. Its roof was bell­ ca t (kick, easing) at the eaves, and it contained central chimneys and diagonal, molded board doors. Since 1868, it has been sheathed with weatherboards. 291 Med­ ieval buildings in Bethlehem resemble community ones in Herrnhut in Saxony (now East Germany) southeast of Berlin. 292 Figure 133 Also distinctive of Germanic architecture is the clip­ ped gable jerkin head, (truncated), probably a carry over of the thatched roof, and the gambrel roof, 293 often bellcast with overlapping eave between the slopes (fig. 134). 29 4 Swedish origins have also been suggest­ ed. 295 In addition to azareth Hall and Whitefield Hall, gambrel roofs are found on the Bell House of 1761 in Bethlehem, Jerg Mueller' (fig. 135) of 1752 in Leb­ anon County, and the Moravian School at Lititz. Both azareth Hall and the Lititz example have the addition­ al feature of clipped gables. 296 Religious Buildings The earlie t churches generally were log building , but tho e early ones of the Germans, Scot -Iri h, and Figure 134 Quakers that do urvive are of stone and resemble hou es (fig. 136), 291 whereas mo t new non-Sect churches of the eighteenth century were in the Georgian mode. The original Christ Lutheran church of 1744 in

32 York \ a log a i the e tant 1742 ennonite hur h (fig. 137) in Landi ille, Lanca ter ount. 29 he latter ha do etail jointing and a pent roof, \ hi h ontra t \ ith the tone Mennonite hurch (fig. 13 ) built in 1770, in ermanto\ n. 299 (Mennonite hurcne re embled

Quaker meeting hou e ). )00 Built the arne ear. the olde t Dunkard chur h, the ir t hurch of the Bre­ thren, i alo located in Germantown.)OI In 1760, the log hri t Lutheran hurch a replaced with a brick Georgian paradigm (fig. 139) . Other Germanic religiou building had uch unique feature a the Mora ian Bell House belfry' platform or gallery where trombor'le

player could ound ne in all directions. )02 The hapel (fig. 140) attached to the north, with it tone buttre es, date from 1751. )0) The mo t ob iou Iy Germanic church extant i Aug­ u tu Lutheran church (fig. 141) of 1743 at Trappe in Montgomery County, PA. )0' It recall small country chapel (fig. 142) throughout Germanic Continental Europe.)Oj It interior Germanic features are exempli­ fied by its columns (fig. 143) and flat, cut-out panels for balcony railing. uch flat board for railings can also be een in the Mueller Hou e stair rail from Milbach, in Penn ylvania, a well as throughout Germany (fig. 144) and Switzerland. )06 Figure 144

_~~r-.

Figure 142

Figure 143 Figure 145

Augu tu Church's exteri or semi-octagonal end and gambrel roof recall the Sleepy Hollow Dutch Reformed Church (fig. 145) of the late seventeenth century in Tarrytown, ew York. 307 But the first Dutch Reformed Church in America was located at Fort Amsterdam in New York in what is now Manhattan, while one of the oldest extant ones is in Fishkill, Dutchess County, ew York. Early German Reformed examples are: the Trin­ ity Chapel in Frederick, Maryland, the tower of which date from 1763; the Zion Reformed Church of 1774 in Figure 148 Hager town; 308 and Peace Reformed-Lutheran Church of 1798 in Cumberland County. Reformed churches often resembled Presbyterian ones. 309 The olde t extant Lutheran church in America is the Lutheran Church of St. Peter the Apostle of 1730 in Red Hook, in Dutchess County. J10 The frame Hebron Lutheran Church (fig. 146) of 1747 in Madison County, Virginia, i the oldest one in the South, and it has a unique truss system in its attic that was once exposed and Germanic columns (fig. 147). 311 The first Lutheran congregation in America was founded in 1700, as New Hanover Lutheran Church in Montgomery County, Pennsylvania, and is presently located in its 1767 build­ ing there. Another old Lutheran church is St. Peters, aloof 1767, in Middletown, Dauphin County, Penn­

sylvania, JI2 while the 1761, handsome Trinity Lutheran Church (fig. 148) in Lancaster exhibit the brick Geor­ gian manner. Many Lutheran churche resembled An­ glican one .313 All of the extant Scots-Iri h Pre byterian churche have been influenced by the Renai ance revival of the Figure 149 Georgian Period in America. The olde t (1698) wa es­ tablished by the Dutch as Norriton Presbyterian Meet­

ing Hou e in Montgomery County, JI4 but the olde t (1706) one of Scot -Irish descent i Rehoboh or

Makemie's Church (fig. 149) in Maryland, JIl with the Presbyterian one (fig. 150) of 1707 in New Ca tIe form­

ing the mother church for others. J16 Other early Scot - Irish churches are: Donegal Pre byterian in Lanca ter

County, J17 and Paxton Church in Dauphin County, both built about 1740; Neshaminy Church of 1743 in Figure 150 Bucks County near the log college that became Prince-

34 Figure 151 ton nl crslly; ugusta hurch of 1747 in \ugusta "set all theIr hope, Into building a truly ne\\ \ e­ 'ounty, irginia; ' and Timber RId ge hurch of 17 6 let} ." san e\ample, e\en In the Irontier area r the in Rockbridge ounty there. ,. not her carl, IImestonc henandoah \ aile ' \\ here pI neers w uld n rmall} onc is on the square in arlisle, umbcrland ount, cling to tradlll n longer, the ermal1lc culture \\ ., com­ the 1757 First Presb terian hurch (fIg. 151), \\ hlle the pletcl, acculturated by the ngllsh b} I 1769 ewtown I resbyterian hurch (fIg. 152) In Bu ck It IS belle ed that the I-hou e preceded the e rgl n ounty is of brown tone. wo other eigthteenth en­ hou e in menca and v.a built thr ugh ut thc nglJ sh lUrn e ample are il er pring Pre b terian hurch colonIe north of outh ar IlI1a 111 the earl eIghteenth of 1783 in umberla nd ount, and Lower arsh entur . Both are s mmetri ai, two- lOr , fi e-ba ,and reek Pre byterian of the 1790 in dam ounty. central pa age, but the I-hou e i a ingle rather than The Georgian Period ( 1700-1780) double pile building. he ernacular I-hou e ~ a oon The Georgian Period wa na med for the reign (1714- adopted on the frontier b mo t ethnic group, uch a I 20) of the fir t three King eorge of ngland and the Ot -Iri h, reating an ea tran ition to the eor­ wa derived from the work of ndrea Palladio (150 - gian hou e b making it t\ 0 room deep. 1580) during the Ita lian Renai an e ( 1300 through It ha been noted that the ermanic re pon e to the 1500 ). It pread throughout the ontinent and \ a fur­ eorgian wa to adopt their traditional a mmetrical ther di eminated through trade between the Rhine and flurkuchenhau plan to a mmetrical model that a Thame River, re ulting in the Renai an e of the late but four bay \ ide. The t\ 0 center bay became door eventeenth and earl y eighteenth centurie in ermany into the hall and parlour to create a ymmetrical having imilaritie to the eorgian Period in ngland . llo There it wa popularized by uch architect a hri t­ opher Wren ( 1632- 1723) and Jame ibb (16 2- 1754). It earmark were it ymmetry, odd number of bay, and gable-end chimney . J2\ The Engli h Georgian wa promoted in merica through ngli h pattern handbook like illiam al­ mon' P LL DIO LO DI I ; it re ulted in ef­ fecti ely tripping all merican architecture of it ethni and regional peculiaritie and giving it an ngli h appearance. 122 Then, in 1806, the fir t pattern book \ a printed in merica: her Benja min' TH R- I A BUILDER OMP 10 .l2l In addition to the influence of the e handbook, an­ Figure 153 other rea on for the adoption of the Georgian by the appearance without a center pa sage. )l1 This four-bay German and cot -Iri h in America wa the proximity German Georgian model (fig. 153) with two front doors of the ngli h and the \ ork of the arpenter' Com­ per i ted throughout the nineteenth century.JlI But pany in Philadelphia . W Alan Gowan, too, ha ur­ urely there wa a more pragmatic reason for the two mi ed that the Germanic and cot -Iri h culture uc­ door than mere fa hion. And some Germanic houses cumbed to the Engli h culture, becau e they did not of the eighteenth century in Berks and Lebanon Cou­ have "the arne close tie to ... their homeland that in­ nties were more sophisticated with quions of red sand- fluenced ... Virginian or. .. Puritan ," and that they tone on the corners of grey limestone walls, resembling "had mostly bitter memories of their homeland" and the Renaissance ones of the same period in Germany. 129

35 By 1815 , brick production could compete with stone, building varied enough that to treat all "manifest­ making it the more popular material throughout the ations of German influence as a single, coherent ten­ century.330 Another pecularity in Pennsylvania was that dency is quite inexact. "J31 Certainly with the limited Georgian hou e had paneled, white exterior solid shut­ number of extant examples, it is difficult to evince ter on the fir t floor with green louvered shutters consistent repetious elements common to all examples. (blinds) above. 331 It has been uggested that the Amer­ Nevertheless , upon investigation there seems to emerge ican origin of olid hutter i German, since they rarely enough consistent detail to establish a trait that one appeared in England. 3J2 can perceive in extant examples of the same period in Germanic areas of Europe. Conclusion Moreover, much acculturation already had occurred It has often been aid that the Pennsylvania build­ throughout Europe prior to settlement in America. The ing forms of the Germans and Scots- Irish only slightly ex Lent of fachwerk houses and long houses throughout resembled tho e in Europe, becau e condition were dif­ Europe and the use of building elements like the pent ferent in Penn ylvania. The va t amount of available roof in both Germany and England show that material land and the plentiful new material at their dispo al culture as imilation had taken place prior to 1680 in changed their manner of living and way of con truction Europe. Much more scholarly re earch is needed in the emanating in new building prototypes more suitable to form of dated surveys of ethnic vernacular building the American scene. JJJ The lack of combination dwel­ types found in central Europe, northern Ireland, and ling-barn in Germanic America ha been ighted a evi­ the Lowlands of Scotland in the seventeenth century dence that thi great availability of land cau ed settler and early eighteenth century. In order to conduct this to detach and spread out their building. 33 4 But why research in a meaningful way, an investigation and cata­ then did New Englanders cling to uch structure? To loguing of late eventeenth and early eighteenth century allow an all-weather pa age between function because buildings of the Germans and Scots-Irish in America of the cold climate? Certainly Pennsylvania weather can need to be made by referring to tax lists, be as severe a that of Connecticut or Ma achu ett . minute books, and other county records prior to It is difficult to locate building type exactly like tho e 1800, and through archeological investigation. Un­ in America in the areas of Europe from which the doubtedly, this research would reveal many com­ settlers came; i.e., Ulster and the Pfalz. However, im­ bination dwelling-barns andfachwerk buildings, not to ilar types have been found in the fringe area, uch a count the multitude of continental houses, bank hou e , Switzerland and Austria. This rai e the question of and single-cell cots-Irish log houses. Additionally, whether practically all of the small farm building of the genealogical research needs to be done in order to deter­ seventeenth century in UI ter and the Pfalz were not mine the original builder of the e early building completely destroyed by the multitude of deva tating and the village in Europe from which they emigrated. wars that occurred in these areas during this period. A review of buildings there in the same period or before It has been even decidedly more difficult to define the hould reveal building characteristics imilar to tho e arrangement, form, and construction characteri tic of u ed in America. Scots-Irish buildings in America. As has been suggested, And la tly, but perhap mo t importantly, one needs since builders often were Germans and ince they fol­ to make a thorough vi ual earch of prototypes in lowed the Scots-Irish migration, many Scots-Irish build­ UI ter and in the outlying area of Europe: Au tria; ings exhibit Germanic features. Even in the early nine­ the Communist countrie of East Germany (Saxony), teenth century, the German Baptists, in particular, were Poland (Silesia), Czechoslovakia (Moravia and well-known as building construction worker. But the Bohemia), Hungrary, Bulgaria, and Yugo Ivia; and the earliest Scots-Irish settlers contained skilled ma ons. JJS more remote area of Switzerland and the Al ace of Another way of looking at the lack of exact ante­ France a well. cedents is Glass' explanation that "when people with Illustrati on (Figure ) diverse cultural backgrounds migrate to a previously un­ All photographs by the author unle otherwi e noted . inhabited place, ... (the) assimulation of diverse elements into a different way of life does not reproduce any of it I. Cave Huts along the Delaware River, Philadelphia. (John F. Watson, A IIl1al oj Philadelphia alld Pellllsyll'allia ill (he Oldell antecedents faithfully." This reasoning has caused Tillle (1844 ; rpl. Philadelphia: E .. tuart, (900), 1: (7 1) . many scholars, such as Wertenbaker, Sauer, Dornbusch 2. Day Laborer's Cabin from Onstwedde in etherlands Open ir and Heyl, and Glassie, to conclude that although farm­ Museum , Arnheim, Holland. 3. Johannes Kelpius' Cave Hut along Wissahicko n Ri er, Phila­ ers from Europe made contributions to American build­ delphia. (Robert . Bucher, "The Fir t helters of our Pioneer ing, no European replica was built, and thus a purely Ance tors," ourtesy of Piolleer A merica. I, 0.2 (July (969) :8) . American style emerged. JJ6 In writing, in 1936, about 4. Benjamin Lay at hi s ave Hut, Philadelphia. I . (Robert C. the European origin of early Pennsylvania architecture, Bucher, "The First helters of our Pioneer Ance tors," it was noted the Pennsylvania German traditions of Courtesy of Piolleer America, I, 0 . 2 (Jul (969) :9) .

36 5 Rccomlrucliom 01 a\e HUI of (·ngll h PII flnu In Pioneer illa~c. alem. "I . 6 (omblnallon 1)"c1hnp Darn in \ uchlOdrain r 01 \luK'Um, Scolland 7 'omblnalion I)"clhne Darn, RIOI' of Kerr). ounl) Kerr;. c: oun" \ ntnm, an I tc:r Ireland D "'n, .... Irel~nd I~I'_ 8. RhlOeland 'ourl)'ard 'arm omple in Rhineland Opcn ,\Ir I c~m.ln.J~h, an Mu\cum, Kommern, " erman) '" n,.... Ireland. 9 AClcrhocl-. 'omblOalion D"clling Barn Irom lIarrc' dd 10 clhcrland\ Open IT l u\cum, rnhclm. Holland. 1771. from 0 h Ibhlll, unt) \ ntnm. 10 10. I oren/cnhof omblOalion Dwelling Barn. Blac l'or<:\1 Opcn Hol)'\\ooJ, ount) 0 "n, .... Ireland. Ir u\cum, ulach." German) I 02 II . llodererhof ombinalion D"'elhng-Barn from " ochcl ncar Bad 41 GranaT) l olt Hou e. ount) D nellal, Ireland .. I _ . roll In Bavenan Open IT ·"l u~eum. ro\~well." German) .\2 ranar) loft 1I 0u C, ount) Donegal, 1775 . 43 onrad \\ el\cr House, Ber ., '0, P \ I 12 . ombtnallon Dwelling-barns, Berner Oberland pcn IT I\lu - -l-l John Deturc House, Ie) \ ' lie ,Ber., 0 .• PA 176 cum, Brien/. will-erland . 45. \\ IIham Jo eph Hou,c, \10") rcc. ugusta 0, \ t\ 13. ombination Dwelling-Barn. Belhlehem, P . 1741. (From J 46. Ongll1al Kauffman House, ncar PIca antvillc, Ie) \ aile'. arroll Tobias In Henry J . Kauffman. The American Farm­ Ber s 0., Pari) I (Dcan " cnncd), "cntur) Id house ( cw York: Hawthorn Book. 1975). p. 73. ourtes} of Farmhouse, Olc) Valle, Berl-. s ount)'. Pcnnslvania," Pen­ Ilcnrv J . Kauffman). CIl POilUS, 13, O. ( ug. 19 2): 554). 14 . harle csueur sketch of ombinallon Dwelhng-Barn 10 Ihe eneral Horatio ates Hou e, or\-, P . c. I 51. Blue Ridge Mountains. PA. c. I 25. (Don Yoder, "The Penn­ 4 . og aban. (Dra"'lI1g by "Porte ra on," I 'I rglflio IIll1Straled, sylvania Skelchbooks of harle Lc ueur," ourtc y of Penn­ (I 57), courte y of picture ollection of irginia tate Library). sylvania Folklije, 16, 0.2 ( inter 1966-67): 34). 49. Log Hou c ncar Grosg chonan, P . (Thomas Jeffcr on Wer­ 15. Miller ombination Dwell ing-Barn, south of Harri onburg, tcnbal-.er, The FOllndlflg oj American 1\IIlnallon: The Middle Shenandoah alley, VA . (Thomas Jefferson Wcrtenbaker, The Colonies ( opyright (c) 193 b harl cribner' ons; opy­ Founding oj American Civiltzallon: The Middle olollIes right renewed, p. 299). Reprinted with the permis ion of harles ( opyright (c) 1938 by harle cribner's ons; copyright re­ cribner' ons). newed , plate 38). Reprinted with the permi ion of harle 50. Log abin ith smoke hole an roof. 19 . ( ourte y o f e cribner's ons). York Public Librar in Ie \ . Bealer and John O. Ilis. The 16 . o mbination Dwell ing-Barn from Oberhau en, Baveria, Log abll1: Homes oj the orlh American Wilderness (Barre, Germany. 1614 . ( o urtesy of Freundeskreis Freilichlmusellm M : Barre Pub., 197 ), p. 23). udbayem , I ( ov. 1974) : 37). 51. Log Ho u e, Albemarle 0., A . 17. Guildhall, York , Engla nd . 1447-53. 52. Bakeoven, \ . Germany. ( ourtesy of Dr. Rolf Robischon in 18. Anne Hathaway ouage, Stratford-Upon-Avon, England. Arbeilskreis jllr Delilsche Hausjorschllrg: Trier (Munster: Er­ 19 . heSler, England. scheinungsort, 1966), p. 136). 20 . Bayleaf Farmhouse in Weald and Dowland Open Air Museum, 53. Bakeoven, Ephrata loister, Lancaster 0., PA. SinAleton . England. 1450-70. 54. Dutch Doo r from Bodenbach in Rhineland and Open A ir us­ 21. From Binzenbach in Rh ineland Open Air Museum, Kommern, cum, Kommern, W. Germany. W . Germany. 55. Dated Batten Doorway, Germany. 1785. (Josef Schepers , HaIlS 22. From Brenig in Rhineland Open Air Museum, Kommern, W . lind Hoj Wesljalischer Bauern (Munster in Wes falen : ourtesy Germany. of Aschendorffsche erlagsbuchhandlung: 1960), p. 219). 23 . Bernkastel-Kues, Mosel Valley, W. Germany. 56. hed Dormer, York, PA. (Alfred Lawrence Kocher. "Early 24 . Fachwerk Hou es, east side of Middle treet, Lancaster, PA. Architecture of Pennsylvania," Courtesy of ArchiteClural (Alfred Lawrence Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsyl­ Record, 49, o. I (Jan. 1921 ): 43) . vania," Courtesy of Archilectural Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 57 . Shed Dormers, in " iew in the Konigstrasse" by Johann Ulrich 1921) : 35). Krauss. 1701. (F. W .H . Hollstein, German Engravings, Etch­ 25. Powell House, Lancaster, PA. (Alfred Lawrence Kocher, ings, and Woodcuts: 1400-1700 (Amsterdam: Courtesy of van "Early Architecture of Pennsylvania," Courtesy of Architec­ Gendt&Co., 1976), 19 :118). tural Record, 49, o. I (Jan. 1921 ): 33) . 58 . Green Tree Tavern, Germantown, PA. 1748 . 26 . Golden Plough Tavern, York, PA. 1745. 59. Log House with Pent Roof near Landis' Store, PA. (Thomas 27 . Facflwerk House, East Market Street, York, PA. (Thomas Jeff­ Jefferson Wertenbaker, The Founding oj American Civilization: er on Wertenbaker, The FOllnding oj American Civilizalion: The Middle Colonies (Copyright (c) 1938 by Charles Scribner's The Middle Colonies (Copyright (c) 1938 by C harles Scribner's Sons; copyright renewed, p. 299) . Reprinted with the permission ons; copyright renewed, plate 40) . Reprinted with the permis­ of Charles Scribner's Sons). sion of Charles cribner's Sons). 60. Johnson House, Germantown, PA. 1765 . 28 . Sawbuck H ouse, Landis Valley, Lanca ter Co., PA. (Alfred 61. Pent Roof H ouse, euweier, Black Forest, W . Germany. Lawrence Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsyl ania," Cour­ 62 . Stone House near York Springs, Adams Co., PA. tesy of Architectural Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 1921): 34) . 63. Bertolet-Herbein Log House, Berks Co., PA. 1738. 29. Moravian School, Oley Valley. Berks Co., PA. 1742. (Thomas 64 . Hans Herr House, Lancaster Co., PA. 1719. Jeffer on Wertenbaker, The FOllnding oj American Civilization: 65. Fort Egypt, Page Co., VA. 1758. The Middle Colonies (copyright (c) 1938 by harles Scribner's 66. House, Tursturz, W . Germany. 1739. (Courtesy of Dr. Rolf Sons; copyright renewed, plate 39) . Reprinted with the permis­ Robischon in Arbeitskreis jur Deutsche HallSjorschung: Trier sion of Charles Scribner's Sons). (Mun ter: Erscheinungsort, 1966), p. 126). 30. Non-Landowner's House in Bunratty Folk Park , County Clare, 67. House, Memmingen, W. Germany. (Heinrich Gotzger and Hel­ S. Ireland. mut Prechter, Dos BauemhallS in Bayern (Munich: Courtesy of 31. Farmhouse with bed out hot from Cruckaclady, County Geog D. W. Callwey, 1960), p. 131). Tyrone, in UI ter Folk Museum, Holywood, County Down, 68 . House, orlingen, W. Germany. (Heinrich Gotzger and Helmut Ireland. Prechter, Dos BauemflallS in Bayem (Munich: Courtesy of Geog 32. Cottier's House from Duncrun, County Londonderry, in Ulster D. W. Calley, 1960), p . 19) . Folk Museum, Holywood, County Down, N. Ireland. 69. Log Stair, Hans Herr House, Lancaster Co., PA. 1719. 33. Bel Pol House from Auchindrain Folk Museum, Scotland. 70. Jerg Mueller Interior, Milbach, Lebanon Co., PA., now in Phil­ 34. Two-room Ulster House (Courtesy of Alan Gailey, Rural adelphia Museum of Art. 1752. (Courtesy of the Philadelphia Housing in Ulster in the Mid-Nineteenth Cenlllry (Belfast, Museum of Art). Ireland: Her Majesty's Stationery Office, 1974), p. 5). 71. Ceiling Construction, Hans Herr House, Lancaster, PA. 1719.

37 72. ciling on truction, Pfalz, in Open Air Muse um, Sobernheim, 121 -22. Rail ences, Germany. (Oskar Mose r, Das Bauernhaus und Rhineland, W. Germany. seine Landschaftliche und Historische Entwicklung in Karnten 73 . L-shaped Bench and Religious orner Cupboard, Hans Herr (Klagenfurt: ourtesy of Karntner Druckerei, 1974), pp. 152-53) Hou e, Lancaster, PA. 1719 . 123 . Wyck, ermantown, PA. c. 1690. 74 . Bible Box. Boone House, Berks 0 . , PA. 18 . 124 . Altes Hofhaltung, Bamberg, Bavaria, W. Germany. 75 . Schrank, Rockford Museum, Lancaster 0 . , PA . 125 . Brothers' House, Ephrata loi ster, PA . (Alfred Lawrence 76. Dower he t, Rockford Mu eum, Lancaster Co., PA. 1797. Kocher, .. arly Architecture of Pennsylva nia," Courtesy of 77 . RoofTrus , Han HerrHou e, Lancaster Co., PA. 1719. Architectural Record, 49, No. I (Jan . 1921): 40) . 78. Vaulted ellar, chiffer tadt, Frederick, MD. c. 1736. 126. Bascili ca Roof, Church of Apostles, Cologne, W. Germany. 79. Date tone over Ballen Door, Hans Herr Hou e, Lancaster Co. (Banister Fletcher. A History of Architecture on the Comparative PA.1719. Method, 17th edition, revised by R.A . Cordingley. Copyright (c) 80. L- haped Bench and Bible Box , Mesnerhof "Zum Kra mer" 1961 by the Royal Institute of British Architects and the Univer­ from tegertsbrunn near Munich in Bavarian Open Air Mu - sity of London (New York : Charles Scribner's Sons, 1961). Re­ eum. Grossweil. W. Germany. 18 . printed with permission of Charles Scribner's Sons). 81. Schrank, Black Forest, W. Germany. 1814. (Hermann chilli, 127 . Saal and Saron, Ephrata Cloister, PA . 1740-43 . Der Vogtsbauernhof(Lahr, W. Ger.: reproduced with the per­ 128 . Stone Sink Outlet at the Saron, Ephrata Cloi ster, PA. 1743 . mi ion of Moritz Schauenburg, 1975), p. 20). 129. Door Hoods, Ephrata Cloister, PA . 1740-43 . 82. Vaulted Cellar, Double Allic, and Bell ast Roof, Teschen­ 130. azareth Hall, Nazareth, Northampton Co., PA. 1755 . moschel, W. Germany. (Courtesy of Dr. Rolf Robi chon in 131. Whitefield House, Nazareth, orthampton Co. , PA . 1744. Arbeitskreis fur Hausforschung: Pfalz (Munster: Er cheinung­ 132 . Gray House, Nazareth, orthampton Co., PA. 1740. sort, 1974), p. 206) . 133 . ingle Brothers' House, Salem, C. 1769, 1786. (Frances Grif­ 83 . Dated Doorway, W. Germany. 1608 . (Jose f chepers, Han und fin, Old Salem, (Winston-Salem, C: Old Salem, Inc., 1970) , Hof Westfalischer 8auern (Mun ter im We tfalen: ourtesy of p. 51 . Courtesy of Old Salem, In c.). Aschendorffsche Verlagsbuchhandlung: 1960), p. 89). 134. Bellcast Gambrel Roof with Clipped Gable, Beilstein, Mosel 84 . Tile Roof on Bertolet-Herbein Outbuilding, Berks Co., PA. Ri ver Valley, W. Germany. 85 . Five-Plate Cast Iron Stove, chiffer tadt, Frederick, MD. 1756. 135 . Jerg Mueller House, Milbach, Lebanon Co., PA. 1752. 86. Cast Iron tove, Black Fore t, W. Germany. (Hermann Schilli , 136. QuakerMeetingHou e,Exeter,PA. 1737. Der Vogtsbauernhof (Lahr, W. Ger.: reproduced with the per­ 137 . Log Mennonite Church, Landisville, Lancaster Co., PA. 1742. mis ion of Moritz chauenburg, 1975), p. 75). 138 . tone Mennonite Church, Germantown, PA. 1770. 87. Vaulted Center Pas age, chifferstadt, Frederick, MD. c. 1736. 139 . Christ Lutheran Church, York , PA . 1812. 88. Dumond House, Hurley, Ulster Co., Y. c. 1750. 140. Moravian Chapel, Bethlehem, PA. 1751. 89. Vaulted Cellar, Hans Herr Hou e, Lancaster 0 . , PA. 1719. 141. Augustus Lutheran Churchl Trappe, Montgomery Co., PA . 1743 90. Christopher Lei Hou e, Myer town, Lebanon 0., PA. 1732. 142. Chapel from Schutzendorf in the Rhineland Open Air Museum, 91. Fort Zeller near Womelsdorf, Lebanon Co., PA. 1745 . Kommern, W. Germany. 92. Batten Door with Stone Frame and Date tone, Fort Zeller, Leb- 143 . Interior, Augustus Lutheran Church, Trappe, Montgomery Co., anon Co., PA. 1745. PA. 1743. 93 . Stone Dry Sink Outlet, Fort Zeller, Lebanon Co., PA. 1745 . 144 . Vogtsbauernhofin Black Forest Open Air Museum, Gutach, W. 94. Stone Dry Sink Outlet, Schiffer tadt, Frederick, MD. c. 1736. Germany. 1570. 95. Stone Dry Sink Outlet, Pfalz, in Open Air Museum, ober­ 145 . leepy Hollow Dutch Reformed Church, Tarrytown, Y. Late nheim, Rhineland, W. Germany. 17C. %. Hager House, Hager town, MD. 1774. 146-47. Hebron Lutheran Church, Madison Co., VA. 1747 . 97. Ludwick Kameron House, Middleburg, Washington 0 ., MD. 148 . Trinity Lutheran Church, Lancaster, PA. 1761. 1774. 149 . Makemie's Presbyterian Church, MD. 1706. (Harold Wickliffe 98-99. Fort Stover, Page Co., VA . c. 1790. Rose, The Colonial Houses of Worship in America ( ew York : 100. Fort Rhodes, Page Co., VA. 1764. Hastings House, Publishers, copyright (c) 1963), p. 199. Per­ 101. Joists resting on top of summer beam in Rhineland Open Air mi ssion by Hasting House, Publishers). Museum, Kommern, W. Germany. 150. Pre byterian Church, ew Ca tie, DE. 1707. (Harold Wickliffe 102. Barracks from Vierhouten in Netherlands Open Air Museum, Rose, The Colonial Houses of Worship in America ( ew York: Arnheim, Holland Before 1850. Hastings House Publishers, copyright (c) 1963), p. 136. Per­ 103-04. Bank Barn, Lake District, England. mission by Hastings House, Publishers). 105 . Ramped Bank Mill, Dunloe, County Donegal, S. Ireland. 151. First Presbyterian Church, Carlisle, Cumberland Co., PA. 1757 . 106. Projecting Wings at Wagon Entrance near Zug, Switzerland. 152 . Presbyterian Church, ewtown, Bucks Co., PA. 1769. 107 . Stone Bank Barn near Kaulbach, Pfalz, W. Germany. 153. Andrew B. Kauffman Hou e with two front doors, Landis­ 108. Frame Bank Barn with Forebay near Sattel, Switzerland. ville, Lancaster Co., PA. 1830. 109. Bank Barn with Bridge Wagon Entry near Leutkirch, Bavaria, W. Germany. 110. Bank Barn with Bridge Wagon Entry, Aichstetten, Bavaria, W. END OTES Germany. Ill. Stone Swiss Barn, Cumberland Co., PA. 112. Stone Swiss Barn, Cumberland Co., PA. 'Stevenson Whitcomb Fletcher, Pennsylvania Agriculture and 113. Patterned Brick-End Barn, Upper Allen Twp., Cumberland Co., Country Life (1951; rpl. Harrisburg, PA: Pa. Historical and Museum PA. I 84Os . Comm., 1971), 1:5 1 and E tyn Evans, "The cotch-Irish in the 114. John Dickinson House with Glazed Brick Patterns, Date, and New World: An Atlantic Heritage, "Jour. of Royal Soc. of Anti­ Initials, Alloway Twp., Salem Co., NJ. 1754. (Thomas Jeffer­ quaries of Ireland, 95 (1965): 39. son Wertenbaker, The Founding of American Civilization: 'George Dallas Albert, History of County of We tmoreland, Penn­ The Middle Colonies (Copyright (c) 1938 by Charles Scribner'S sylvania (Philadelphia: L.H . Everts & Co., 1882), p. 45; Sydney Geo­ Sons; copyright renewed, plate 20). Reprinted' with the perm­ rge Fisher, The Making of Pennsylvania (1896; rpl. Philadelphia: J. B. ission of Charles Scribner's Sons). Lippincott Co., 1932), p. 162; and H. H . Hain, History of Perry 115. Oakwood Acres Decorated Barn, Lehigh Co., PA. County, Pennsylvania (Harrisburg, PA: Hain-Moore Co., 1922), 116. Barn Advertisement, Franklin Co., PA. p. 149. 117. Typical Outbuilding with Projecting Roof, Highland Co., VA . 'Henry J. Ford, The Scotch-Irish in America (1915; rpt; ew York: 118. Outbuilding with Projecting Roof, Hafenberg, W. Germany. P. Smith, 1941), p. 90. (Oskar Moser, Das Bauernhaus und seine Landschaftliche und 'Fisher, pp. 161-62; and Fletcher, 1:51. Historische Entwicklung in Karnten (K1agenfurt: Courtesy of 'Evans, p. 40. Kamtner Druckerei, 1974), p. 145). 'Fisher. p. 162; and Fletcher, 1:51. 119-20. Rail Fences, Mountain Farm, Blue Ridge Parkway, VA. 'Charles A. Hanna, The Scotch-Irish (New York: G.P. Putnam'

38 Son\, 1902} , 2:15, Hred I "~rcn c . her, "I '"I \ r hll«turc: of Penn ylv;,nIOl," 1rcll/teetural Ri'CrUrl, -1 9, o. ( ~I r 1')11) :! 235, and r lei her, I I 'Albert, p. 4 : and I lelcher J 51 . 'Jamc\ J J emon, f ht· [kst Poor ~/an'~ (olilltn / 1 0.0 ;:rupll/cal Sflld~' oj l urll Sourht'us/t'rI/ Pennn/'ama (S"II,morc:. Joh", J lopkln' Pre . 1972). p. 46 • ary lien Hornberger."" peclal D,\tnbullon 01 ['Ihnl : I ;JU t, p. 12 , UrnIJ111t" In Group, In c/ected ountles of Penn )'hanta, J 0 : " ('co- f,(raphlc Interpretation" (Ph.D. dl ~ .. Penn latc, 19 -I). p. 201 . So I n: Alben, p. 45 \ men ;.In Archil ' H elcher, p 47 and John I lorin," d\ance 01 r ronllcr clllemcni Greene, 6:2-17 In Penn\ylvanta. 16 1850" In Paper., III Geo;:raphl' \ 0 f.I ( ni\er­ rurer, p. 3.

\l1y Park, P : Penn laIC Department of cography, \I a> 1977), p. LlrnOllrt'\ In ~nlfl • I i I p. :!71. 47. " uhn . p. 60. ' I .emon, p. 47. 'rurer, p 'Hetcher, 1.5 2 , \\ are, I 16 " I. Daniel Ru pp. IIlltory of [)uupll/II. umberlulld. I rallk/III. '. IIf11ame III Ct'lUlll, I 90, p. _ I: and f urer, p "I. Bedford, Adum.l. olld Pern' COI/Ilftel (I an aSler, P Gilbert Hills, , "-uhn\, p 60 1846), p. 223 . 'f urer, p 20 " Hornberger, p. 201 . " Rlppley, p. -1 2, and Larry 0 Jcn ~en , -1 Genealogical lIand " Albert, p. 45 . book of German Resear II (Plea,ant rO\ e, arr Jcmcn, " Karl Frederick eiser, Redemptloners alld Indelltllred ervallfS III 197 ), p. 20. olonyand omlllonl\lealtll of Pennsylvania ( ew Haven, CT: TUl - .. urcr. p. 15. lie, Morehouse & Taylor 0 .,1901), p. 15 ; and Florin, p. 47. .. Fletcher, 1:4 " Iber! , p. 47; and -letcher, 1:52. " harles H . Dornbusch, " Penn hania erman Barns, " Penn­ " Ronald . Jack on and ilton Rubincam, Pellll ylvalliu I 50 syfl'aflla Germall FolHore oClety, 21 (1940): \ I. ellsus Index (Bountiful, T : Accelerated Indexing y tem , 1976), " Dornbusch, \ . I :ix . .. i her, pp. -90; and Jo hn D. hlner," crmanic chitecturc " Fi sher, p. 164 . in the ew \ orld," Journal of oClety of Archllectllral HlSt onans. " Fletcher, 1:52. 34, 0. 4 (Dec. 1975): 299. " Fletcher, I :52; Lemon, p. 59; and Hornberger, p. 201 . eries of Germanic immigrant Iisl5 Don ,. ' var! Boutell reene, The Amencon ation: Pro vinclOl Amer- Yoder, trans. Pennsylvaflla Folklije, 22, 1972): ica, 1690- 1740 ( ew York: Harper& Bro .,1905),6:236,247. 46-4 ; 22, o . 2 (\ inter 1972-73): 46 o. 3 ( pring 1973): " Fisher , p. 163 . 41-46; 22, 0.4 ( ummer 1973): 43-4 ; 23, 0 . 2(\ inter 1973-74): "Fletcher, 1:52. 40-4 ; 24, 0.4 ( urn mer 197 ): 15-44; and . Hopple, " ur­ 11 Al fred Lawrence Kocher, "The arly Architecture of Lanca ter opean Religiou and pacial Origins of the Penn yl ania Dutch," ounty, Pennsylvania," Lancaster Counly Historical Society Papers, Pennsylvania Folklije, 2 o . 4 ( ummer 1979): 2-27 . 24 (1920): 92-93. " Faust, p. 53. " Al ber! , p. 45; Fisher, pp. 162-65; Greene, 6:233-34; and Hain, p. " Rippley, p. 18. 149. "Fisher, p. 86; and tra sburger, p. x i. 19 Rupp, p. 541 . " Alan Gowans, Images of American Living (1964; rpt. ew York : JO hristO pher Dock, " 100 ecessary Rules of Conduct for hild­ Harper & Row, 1976), p. 3. ren," Penll ylvallia German Society Proceedings, 1764; rpt. 10 (1900) : ,oJ .G. Dunbar, "The Peasant Hou c," in Deserted Medieval Vi/­ 87-97; Benjamin Rush, " Account of Manners of German Inhabitants lages by Maurice Beresford and John G . H urst, cds. (London: Lutter­ o f Pennsylva nia," Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings, 1789; worth Pre , 1971), p. 236; and Ian D. hyle, " Rural Housing in rpt. 19 (1910): 40- 12 1; Alber! Bernhardt Faust, The German Element Lowland cot land in the Seventeenth entury," Scottish Studies, 19 in the United States (New York: HoughtOn MifOin Co., 1909), p. (1975): 55. 139; a nd Russell Wieder G ilbert, A Piclllre of the Pennsylvania Ger­ " aoimhin 0' Danachair, "Traditional Forms of the Dwelling lIIallS (1962; rpt. Gettysburg, PA: Pa. H istorical Assn., 197 1), pp. House in Ireland," Jou fll al of Royal Society of A ntiquaries of Ire­ 55-61. land, 102, Part I (1972) : 93. JI Fi her, p. 71. " Dunbar, pp. 238, 243; and Richard Rei d , Th e Shelf Book of " Fi sher, p . 126 . Cottages (London: M ichael J oseph, 1977), p. 203. " Oscar Kuhns, Th e German and Swiss Selllell/ents of Colonial " John F. Watson, A nnals of Ph iladelphia and PenllSylvania in Pellnsylvania: A Study of the So-ca ffed Pennsylvania DlIIch (1901; the Olden Time (1844; rpt. Phi ladel phia: E.S. Stua rt, 1900), 1: 171 ; rpt. New York: Henry Holt & Co., 1914), p. 19. and Gowans, p. 3. " La Vern J . Rippley, Th e German-Americans (Boston: Twayne "Stevenson Whitcomb Fletcher , Pennsylvania A griculture and Pub., 1976) , p . 19 . Country Lije (1951; rpt. Harrisburg, PA: Pa. H istori cal and Museum " Fi her, pp. 90-91 . Comm., 197 1), 1:372. " Kuhns, pp. 75-76. " Watson, I: 171. " Ralph B. trass burger a nd Willia m J. H in ke, " Pennsylvania "Fisher, p. 82. German Pioneers, " Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings, 42 " Fisher, p. 77. (1934): p. xiv-xv; and J ohn Joseph StO udt, Sunbonnets and Shoofly " Robert C. Bucher, "The First Shelters o f o ur Pioneer Ancestors," Pies ( . Brunswick: A .S. Barnes, 1973), p. 26. Pioneer A merica; I, 0. 2 (July 1969: 7- 12 . " Kuhns, pp. 36-37 . " Wa tson, 2:20. " Kuhns, p. 31 . ,o Fisher, p. 83. ·· Kuhns, p. 31 . " \ atson, 2:20, 23 ; and Bucher , " First Settlers," p. 7-12. " Fi her, pp. 92-93 ; Kuhns, pp. 59-60; Fa ust, p. 129; A . R. Wentz, " Fisher, p. 79 . "Beginning of German Element in Yo rk County, P ennsylvania ," " Gowans, p. 3. Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings, 24 (1916): 90-95 ; Fl etcher , "Dornbusch, p. xv. I :47-48; Russell Wieder Gilbert, A Picture of the Pennsylvania Ger­ " Whyte, p. 62. mails (1962; rpt. Gettysburg, PA: Pa. His to ri cal Assn., 1971), pp. " Alan Gailey, " The Peasant Houses of the Southwest Highlands 12- 13; Lemon, p . 43; Jackson, l :ix; and Daniel R. Gilbert, " Lehigh o f Scotland, " Gwerin, 3, o . 5 (June 1962): 227; and Beresford, County: The Land and its People," Pennsylvania Heritage, 4, No. p. 242. 3 (June 1978): 3. " Gailey, p . 239; and Whyte, pp. 57-58, 61. "Kuhns, p. 30. "Beresford, p. 238 .

39 .. James Walton," ruck-Framed Buildings in Scotl and ," Gwerin, turn (Belfast, N. Ireland: Her Majesty 's Stationery Office, 1974) , pp . I, No.3 (June 1957): 114,11 7, 120. 5, 8; Early Architecture in Upper Allen Township, p. 13; and Reid, " Ake ampbell, " Iri sh Fields and Houses," &aloideas, 5, No. I pp. 206, 228 . (1935): 70; and Whyte, p. 65 . '''Evans, "The Ulster Farmhouse," p. 29; Evans, Irish Folkways, " Thomas Jefferson Wertenbaker, The Founding of American iv­ p. 45 ; and Henry Glassie, "The Types of the Southern Mountain ilization: The Middle olonies (1938; rpt. New York: ooper Square abin," in Th e Study of A merican Folklore by Jan H. Brunva rd , Pub., 1963), p. 320, plate 35 . cd . (New York : W.W. Norton, 1968), pp. 353, 355, 369 . " Otto Lasiu ,DasFriesisch(! Bauernhaus (1819; rpt. London: Tru­ "'Early Architecture in Upper A llen Township, p . 15. bner & 0 ., 1885), pp. 1-34; Rudolf Henning, Das Deutsche Haus '''Reid, pp . 190, 194. (London: Trubner & 0 ., 1882), pp. 1-183 ; Henry Glass ie, "Eight­ '''George H. Allen, "Some European Origins of Early Penn ­ eenth Century ultural Proce s in Delaware Valley Folk Housin g," sylvania Architecture," American journal of Archaeology, 40 (1936) : Winterthur Portfolio, 7 (1972) : 55. 126. " Jacq ues Lavalleye, Pieter Bruegel the Elder and Lucas van Leyden '''William Rotch Ware, Th e Georgian Period (1898; rpt. Boston: (New York : N.H. Abrams, 1967), plate 78. American Architect and Building News, 1923), 1:167; and G. Edwin " Rudolf Kempf, Dorfwanderungen: Bauernhaus-Typen Suddeut­ Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture of Pennsylvania Germans," schlands(Frankfurt: H. Keller, 1904), plates 16,52. Pennsylvania German SOciety Proceedings, 1931 ; rpl. 41 (1933): 30. " Kempf, plate 17 , 18 . '''Conway P . Wing, History of Cumberland County, Pennsylvania " Marion D. Learned, "The German Barn in America," Univer­ (Philadelphia: J. D. Scott, 1879), p. 26 . sityofPennsylvaniaLectures, (1913 - 14) , p. 344 . "'I. Daniel Rupp, History of York County From 1719 to the Pre­ " Wertenbaker, pp. 305, 321 -23 . sent (Lancaster, PA : Gilbert Hills, 1845), p. 714 . "Dornbusch, p. xv; Don Yod er, Pennsylvania Folklije, 9, No .3 "'Aymar Embury, II , " Pen nsylvania Farm Houses," Architectural (Sum. 1958): frontispiece; and Don Yod er, "The Pennsylvania Record, 30 (Nov. 1911) , pp. 476-77; Dornbusch, p. xx; Amos Long, Sketchbook of Charles Les ueur," Pennsylvania Folklije, 16, No.2 Jr., The Pennsylvania German Family Farm (Breinigsville, PA: Pa. (Winter 1966-67) : 34; and Henry J . Kauffman, Th e American Farm­ German Society, 1972) , 6: 469-87; and Amos Long, Jr., Farmsteads house (New York: Hawthorn Books', 1975), p. 73. and their Buildings (1972; rpt. Lebanon, PA: Applied Art, 1976) , pp. "Wertenbaker, p. 323, plate 36; and Freundeskreis Freilicht­ 38-40. museum Sudbayern, I (Nov. 1974): 37 . "'Kuhns, pp. 95 -97 . "'Yoder, Pennsylvania Folklije, 9, No. 3 (Sum . 1958): frontispiece. "'Dean Kennedy, "Century Old Farmhouses, Oley Valley, Berks '''Margaret Berwind Schiffer, Survey of Chester County, Penn­ County, Penn sylvani a," Pencil Points, 13 , No.8 (Aug. 1932): 216, sylvania, Architecture (Exton, PA : Schiffer Pub., 1976), p. 256. 223 . '''Glassie, "Eighteenth Century Cultural Process," p. 55 . ''' Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsylva nia," Architectural "'Henry Kauffman, " The Log Barn," in The Pennsylvania Barn Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 1921): 38; and 49, No.6 (June 1921): 524; by AJfred L. Shoemaker, ed. (Lancaster, PA: Pa. Dutch Folklore Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture, " pp. 34-36, 41 -42; and Foley, Center, 1955), pp. 29-30. p. 61. " 'Campbell, pp. 66, 68 . "'Edward A. Chappell, "Cultural Change in Shenandoah Valley: '''Richard Weiss, Hauser und Landschaften der Schweiz (1959; rpt. North Au gusta County Houses before 1861 " (M. AR. H. thesis, Zurich: Eugen Rentsch, 1973), p. 37; and Heinz Ludecke, Albrecht University of Virginia, 1977), pp. 39-40. Durer (New York : Putnam, 1972), p. 45 . "'Kennedy, 554; and Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," pp. "'AJfred Lawrence Kocher, " The Early Architecture of Lancaster 44-46. County, Pennsylvania," Lancaster County Historical Society Papers, '''Kocher, "Earl y Architecture of Pennsylva nia," Architectural 24 (1920): 95; and William J. Murtagh, "Half-Timbering in American Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 1921): 31 , 33 . Architecture," Pennsylvania Folklije, 9, No. I (Winter 1957-58): 4. '''Wertenbaker, p. 299; Martin Wright, "The Antecedents of the " ' Dornbusch, p. xix. Double- Pen H(,lUSe Type," Annals of Assoc. of American Geograph­ '''Murtagh, pp. 4-5, 7,9. ers, 48, No. 2 (June 1958): III ; Glassie, " Types of Southern Moun­ "'AJfred Lawrence KOCher, "Early Architecture of Penn~ylvani a," tain Cabin ," p. 364; Long, Pennsylvania German Family Far"!, 6:77; Architectural Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 1921): 33, 35 ; and Joe K. Kin­ Stanley Willis " Log Houses in Southwest Virgi nia," Virginia Caval­ dig, III, Architecture in York County (York, PA : Colonial York cade, 21, No. 4 (Spg. 1972): 36 ; and Foley, p. 51. Tourist Bureau, n. d.), p. 6. "'Wertenbaker, p. 303 . "'John B. Trussell, Jr., Pennsylvania Landmarks of the Revolution "'Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture, " p. 25; Glassie, "Types of (Harrisburg, PA: Bicentennial Comm. of Pa., 1976), pp. 36-37. Southern Mountain Cabin," p. 345; and Oltmar Schuberth, Freilicht­ "'Wertenbaker, plates 37, 38, 39, 40; and Robert P. Turner, museum Oberbayern (Grossweil: Bei Murnau, 1978), p. 118 . Lewis MIller Skercnes and Chronicles (York , PA: Historical Soc. of " 'Charles E. Peterson, " American Notes," Journal of Society of York Co., 1969), pp. 23,32. Architectural Historians, 15 , No. 3 (Oct. 1956) : 2. "'Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsylvania," Architectural "'Wright, p. I II; Robert C. Bucher, "The Continental Log Record, 49, No. I (Jan. 1921): 33-35, .37; and Wertenbaker, plate 39 . House," Pennsylvania Folklije, 12, No . 4 (Sum. 1962): 14; Gowans, "'Frances Griffin, Old Salem (Winston-Salem, NC: Old Salem, p. 4; and Fred Kniffen, "Folk Housing: Key to Diffusion," Inc., 1970), p. 31; Hubert G.H. Wilhelm and Michael Miller, "Half­ Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 55, No. 4 (Dec. Timber Construction: A Relic Building Method in Ohio, " Pioneer 1965): 558 . America, 6, No. 2 (July 1974): 43 -5 1; and Mary Mix Foley, The " ' Ru sh, pp. 40-121 ; Kuhns, pp. 98-99; Faust, pp. 135-36; Gilbert, American House (New York: Harper & Row, 1980), p. 40. pp. 39-41 ; and Stoudt, p. 115 . '''William B. Tishler, Old World Wisconsin : An Outdoor, Ethnic '" Long, Pennsylvania German Family Farm, 6: 79. Museum (Museum pamphlet) (Madison, WS: Univ . of Wisconsi n­ '''Fletcher, I: 375, 380; and Kniffen, "Folk Housi ng," p. 561. Madison, 1973). " 'Gla sie, "Types of Southern Mountain Cabin," p. 351. " 'Murtagh, p. 3; Harley J . McKee, Recording Historic Buildings '''Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 25 . (Washington DC: U.S. Dept. of Interior, 1970), p. 4; and Early "'Glassie, " Types of Southern Mou ntain Cabin," p. 343 . Architecture in Upper Allen Township (Mechanicsburg, PA: Center " ' E. Estyn Evans, "The Scotch-Irish in the New World : An Atlan­ Square Press, 1976), p. 10. tic Heritage," Journal of Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland, "'M.W. Barley, "Rural Housing in England," in The Agrarian 95 (1965) : 47. History of England and Wales by Herbert P.R. Finberg, ed . (London: '''Walter Allen Knittle, Early Eighteenth Century Palatine Em­ Cambridge Univ. Press, 1967),4: fig . 25, 26, 28a, 28b. migration (Philadelphia: Dorrance & Co., 1937), p. 198 ; and Fletcher, "'O'Danachair, p. 91; and Reid, p. 243 . I: 373; Alex W. Bealer and John O. Ellis, The Log Cabin: Homes of ' "E. Estyn Evans, Irish Folkways (London: Routledge & Paul, the North American Wilderness (Barre, MA : Barre Pub., 1978), 1957), p. 45 . p. 23 . "'E. Estyn Evans, "The Ulster Farmhouse," Ulster Folklife, I '''Photo of a Penn ylvania German bake oven, Pennsylvania Ger­ (1955): 27. man Society Proceedings 10, Part 7 (1900) : 120; Campbell, p. 70; "'AJan Gailey, Rural Housing in Ulster in the Mid-Nineteenth Cen- and Arbeitskreisfur Deutsche Hausforsc!1l11lg: Trier (Mun ter: Ersch-

40 elOuny Orl, 19(6). p. 13(,. "(,Ia IC," f ) f'C\ 01 oUlhcrn lountaln ( ablO," fl , I lelcher, I 73

Brumbaugh, "( oiomal ,\ rchllc Hire," p ~ , uno r lei her, .. ," I' .j 375 '''''ocher, " I arl) r hilcclurc 01 I anea ler ounl. ," p. 'Jl. ," p .: I. "'Ileicher, I: 375 "'Kocher, " I'arl) rchlle lure of I anea ler (ounl}," p. f ; and P,'I/fUI/,OI/O ,,,,/, 8/0 roplll,,}1 I letcher. I 374 Pram III, lit 1ft·" (Phtl.. dclphl.l: " Kempf, pp 77,97, Jmct S hcper . lI au und Hal \\'c\ll,di cher Photo 01.. entral.:hlmncl hou c. p, II ILl I II all/a (i,'rmon lJuIIl!m (\.IUn\ICr A\chendorlf, 1960). pp 142 14 , ISO, 160·63. (,',rilll , 10, rarl ( I 16K hcr. 1 arl) , \ r~hllc ·ture 01 16667. 17 ,219,291, lIan\ Jurgen Rach, BUlIl!rnhuII\. I U/u/urbClta. 1 an a ter (ount,." 1' . ; " 'her ... Mil \ rehllc ll '>chafl, 1975), p. I " \ rthur J La\\ ton. "The (,round Rule of 1'01 \ rehltc -ture." " Kocher, ' T arl) rchilccture of I. anca,ter OUnl) ," p 93 Pt?llnsr!l-Olllu I olHijl!. 2 , .... 0 I ( \ utumn 19 J)' 13 19 , Brumbaugh, "Colontal rchllccturc," p. 2 , \\ crlcnba er, fl. , John D \hlner, "Gcrmal1l \ r~hitc turc III Ihc .... C\\ \\ arid." II ; and cheper" p. 219. JOllrnolof ooe/l' of Irc/lltatllrol fI ,stonolll. 34 . 0. 4 (DeL 19 ): H(jla\'lc, "Type'> of oUlhern lountaln abm," p. 341 299 " Kocher, " f-. arly rchllcclurc of Lancaster ount)," p. 93. " d\\ard ·\ happell. "Acculturation in Ihe hcnandoah \ allc) ..·G la .... ie, "'1 ypes of o Ulhcrn lountam ablll." p. 342. Rhenish House of the \Ia"anullcn clllcmcnt." PrOCc." pp. 1<1·19 . .. , .Ia ss ic, " r ypes,of oUlhern ountatn abin," p. 342. " Richman. p. ; and illu IratlOm of BCrl olct-Herbclll log hou\c. "'Brumbaugh, "olonial rchileclure," pp. 22-23; and \ erlen­ B er ~ 0 .. P . Kauffman. Amencan Farmholl e, p. 7<1; and olc). baker, pp. 300- 1. p. 54 .. " 'Kocher," arly rchileclure of Pennsyl ania," 49, o. I (Jan. ... happell." ultural hange in henandoah Valle),." pp. 22. 29: 1921): pp. 39, 43 . and happell." ulturalion in the henandoah aile)· ... pp. - 6. '''F.W.II. Il olIstcin, German Engravings, Etchings, and II ood­ .. Glas ie, .. ighteenth entur)' ultural Pro c ." p. 41 ; and ClItS: 1400-1700 ( mSlcrdam: Van Gendl 0., 1976) , 19: 11 5- 121; happell," cculturallon IIllhe henandoah allc)," p. 62. Klaus Thicde, Alte Delltsche Ballemhauser (Konig tein im Taunus: " Kocher, " "arly rchitecture of Penn Ivania," rellltectural Hans Kosier, 1963), p. 5 1; Karl Erdmann dorffer, " Da Burgerhaus Record, <19. o. 1 (Jan. 1921): 36; Ri chman, p. 6; Long, PPllII­ in Munchen," in Das Delltsche Bllrgerhalls by dolf Berni and Gun­ ylvania German Famtly Farm, 6: 3; William Wo Weavcr. " \ eii.­ Iher Binding (Tubingcn: Ern t \i a mUlh, 1972), 17:T -T9, T59; and enthal and Earl)' r hllecture of eu- Ira burge: \\ i Plantation Robcn Pfaud, " Das Burgerhau in ug burg," in Das Dellt che Bur­ III Ihe Province of Pennsyhania" ( I. R. H. thesis. nhler ity of gerhall b dolf Berni and Gunther Binding (Tubingen: Ernsl \ a - irginia, 1973), figs. 5 , 59: Kauffman, Amencan Farmhouse, pp. mUlh . 1976),24: TI6-TI7. 7 -79, 1; chiffer, pp. 42,376; and -oley, p. 60. '''Flelcher, 1:374. '''Thomas T . \ aterman, The Dwel/lIlgs of olonial America "'Hugh Morrison, Early American Architecture from the First hapel Hill, ni . of Pre, 19 0), pp. 44-46; happell, olonial elliements to Ihe ational Period ( e\ York: Oxford ni . " ultural Change in henandoah alley." p. 25; and happell, Pres, 1952), p. 547. " cculturation in Ihe henandoah aile),." pp. 63 -()() . '''Photo of penl-roofed building, Pennsylvania German ociety '''Arbeltskrelsjllr /Jews lIe HaUSjorschung: I ner, pp. 124-27. Proceedings. 10, Pan 8 (1900): 58, 74. 109- 10; Kocher, " arly '''Heinrich Gotzger and Helmut Prechler. Das Bauernhaus III Archilecture of Lanca ter Counly." p. 93; Kocher, "arly rch­ Bayem (MuniCh: Georg D. allwe, 1960), pp. 60-1; chepers, ilecture of Penn ylvania," Architectural Record, 48. o. 6 (Dec. pp. 404-5; and Tor len Gebhard, Alte Bauernhauser von den Halligen 1920): 516; Raymond, plale B. C, 14, 26.28,34,39. 57, 60, 74, biszlI den A/pen ( 1unich: Georg D. \' . Callwey, 1977), p. 174 . 150; " Penn ylvania Barn," American Architect and Architecture, "'Brumbaugh, " Colonial Architecture," pp. 37-38; Milner, p. 299; 15 1, 0.2661 ( ep!. 1937): 48 ; Wertenbaker. p. 234-299; orrison, and Erdmannsdorffer, 17 : 9 ·99. p. 518; Harold L. Myers, Windows on Our Past (Harrisburg. PA: Pa. '''Brumbaugh. "olonial rchitecture." p. 54; aterman, pp. Hi lorical and Museum Comm., 1965), pp. 17-19 ,22-23; I rvin Ri ch­ 152-56; Long, Pennsylvania German Family Farm, p. 91; and Foley, man, Pennsylvania's Architecture (Uni er ily Park , P : Pa. Histor· pp. 63, 65. i al A sn., 1969), p. 11 ; John Francis Marion, Bicelllennial City .. , \ ertenbaker, p. 315. (Princeton, J: Pyne Press, 1974), pp. I 1-82, 191 -94; Gowans, p. ,,, happell, "Acculluration in Shenandoah alley," p. 60. 84; Tru sell , pp. 7, 26, 37 ; Rambling Around Old Tuipehockelllown, '··Esther . Fraser, " Penn yl ania German Dower Chests," An- Myerstown, PA ( Iyer lown, PA: Bicentennial Hi torical Publication tiques, II, 0.2 (Feb. 1927): 119-123; 0.4 (Apr. 1927): 280-83; o. omm., 1976), fig . 23; and Foley, p. 64. 6 (J une 1927): 474-76; Kocher, "Early Architecture of Lancaster "'Gowan , p. 84. Count)'," pp. 95-97; Raymond. plates 51, 157 ; and Monroe H . Fab­ "0" Penn ylvania Barns," p. 4 . ian, "The Penns)'1 ania-German Decorated Chest," Pennsylvania ''' Kempf, plate 83; Morrison, p. 518; Thiede, p. 109; and Arbe­ German Society. 12 (197 ). itskreis fllr Hausforschung: Pfalz (Munster: Erscheinungsort. 1974), '·' Kuhns, pp. 96-97; Arbeitskreis fur Hausforsclwng: Pfalz, p. p.80. :06; largarete Baur-Heinhold, Deutsche Bauernstuben (Konigstein "'Wenenbaker, p. 234. im Taunus: Hans Koster, 1975). pp. 21. 105; Hermann Schilli, Der '''Brumba ugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 44 . Vogtsballernhof (Lahr, \ . Ger.: Moritz Schauenburg, 1975), p. 20; "'!. Daniel Rupp, History of Dauphin, Cumber/and, Franklin, cheper , pp. 57-5 , 88-89, 150; Gebhard, p. 119; and Wolfram Bedford, Adams, and Perry Counties (Lancaster, P : Gilbert Hills, von Erffa, "Das Burgerhaus im \' estlichen Oberfranken," in Das 1846), pp. 461 ,463; and Fletcher, 1:84. Deutsche Bllrgerhalls by Adolf Bernt and Gunther Binding (Tub­ '''Greene, 6:246. ingen: Ernst Wasmuth, 1977),27: 134-35 . '''Wertenbaker, p. 307. '·'Photo of Johannes Mack log house with tile roof, Pennsylvania "' The Clarke-Hite Papers (Louisville, KY : The Filson Club, 1786); German Society Proceedings. 10. Part 8 (1900): 130; Dornbusch, p. and Barbara H . Church, "Early Architecture of the LO\ er alley of xxi; and Hans-Gunther Griep, "Das Burgerhaus der Oberharzer Virginia" (M. AR.H.thesis, Uni ersityofVirginia. 1978), p. 28. Bergstadte," in Das Deutsche Burgerhaus by Adolf Bernt and Gun­

II Stoudt, pp. 103-11. ther Binding (Tubingen: Ernst Wasmuth, 1975), 19 : TI-T24. "'Alfred L. Shoemaker, ed., The Pennsylvania Bam (Lancaster, '·'Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p . 36; and Wenenbaker, PA: Pa. Dutch Folklore Center, 1955), p. 14. p.301.

41 '·'Wertenbaker, pp. 310-311; and Gilbert, p. 62. consin Barns," The Professional Geographer, 37, No. 2 (May 1975): '·'Faust, pp. 140-41 ; Brumbaugh, " olonial Architecture," pp. 201. 28-29; and Fletcher, 1: 386-88. "'Dornbusch, pp. xvi-xvii. '·'Gotzger and Prechter, p. 237; Griep, 19 : T78 ; Schilli, p. 75; and "'Dornbusch, p. x. Pfaud, 24: T78-TSO, T99. "'Ronald W. Brunskill , Vernacular Architecture of the Lake '·'Murtagh, p. 9. Counties (London: Faber & Faber, 1974), p. 85; and Ronald W. Brun­ '·'Morrison, p. 505 . skill , " Pennsylvania Bank Barn in Europe and America," Journal '·'Rambling Around, fig. 16 . of Society of Architectural Historians, 35, No. 4 (Dec. 1976): 294. ". leanor Raymond, Early Domestic Architecture of Pennsylvania '''Ronald W. Brunskill, Illustrated Handbook of Vernacular (1931; rpt. Princeton, NJ : Pyne Pre s, 1973), plate 53. Architecture (London: Faber & Faber, 1971), pp. 138-39. '" Kindig, p. 20. "'Brunskill, Lake Counties, pp. 82-86; and Angela OUino, The '''Kindig, pp. 4, 15- 16, 18-19; Morrison, p. 543; Henry Glassie, Complete Paintings of Durer (New York : Harry N. Abrams, 1968), " entral Chimney ontinental Log Hou e," Pennsylvania Folklife, plate 47 . 18, No.2 (Winter 1968-69): 32-39; Lawton, pp. 13- 19; and Henry "'Henry Glassie, Pallern in the Material Folk Cultural of Eastern C. Mercer, Th e Origin of Log Houses in United States (Doyle - United States (Philadelphia: Univ. of Pa. Press, 1968), p. 62; town, PA: Bucks County Hi torica1 oc., 1976), fig. 19 . Henry Glass ie, "The Double Crib Barn in South Central Penn­ "'David G. DeLong, Historic American Building: New York ( ew sylva nia, " Pioneer America, 2, o. 2 (July 1970): 25; and Glassie, York: Gerland Pub., 1979),2: 213, 222. "Eighteenth Century Cultural Process," p. 53. " 'Brumbaugh," olonial Architecture," pp. 30-31. IlO Fletcher, 1:8 3. '"Wertenbaker, p. 309. '" Bucher, "Swiss Bank House," p. 4. "'Robert C. Bucher, "The wiss Bank House in Pennsy lvania," "'Learned, pp. 347-48. 18, o. 2 (Winter 1968-69): 2-1 1; and Bryan J . teven, "The "'Wertenbaker, pp. 323-24 . Swi s Bank Hou e Revi ited: The Mes erschmidt-Dietz Cabin," "'Dornbusch, pp. xvi-xviii. Pennsylvania Folklife, 30, o. 2 (Winter 19 0-8 1): 7 -86. "'Paper given by Robert F. Ensminger at the annual conference '''Kennedy, p. 216 . of the Pioneer America Society in Aurora, OH 1 Oct. 1977 ; and " 'Photo of Chri topher Lei house, Myerstown, PA, Pennsylvania Robert F. Ensminger, "A earch for the Origin of the Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings, 10, Part 6 (1900): 82; Viola K. Mohn, Barn," Pennsylvania Folklife, 30, No. 2 (Winter 1980-81): 50-71 . Myerstown Bicentennial, 1768- 1968 (Myer town, P : hurch enter "'Paper given by Terry G. Jordan at the annual conference of the Pre s, 1968), pp. 48-51; Bu cher," wi ss Bank Hou e," p. 6; and Ram­ Pioneer America ociety in Shakertown, KY, 4 ov. 1978; and Terry bling Around, figs . 19,21. G. Jordan, " Alpine, Alemannic, and American Log Architecture," '''Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 37. Annals of Association of American Geographers, 70, o . 2 (June llO Raymond, plate 22-25 ; Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," 1980): pp. 154-80. pp. 31-33, 53; Long, Pennsylvania German Family Farm, 6:82 ; Interestingly, Robert F. Ensminger had made a field trip to Europe Arbeitskreisfur Hausforschung: PfalZ, p. 91; and Foley, p. 64 . in the Fall of 1975 to study barn prototypes, while this author began '" Kennedy, p. 217; and Chappell, "Acculturation in henandoah extensive American field trips in May 1976 with further field work Valley," pp. 63-87 . (2,000 miles) in the Spring of 1977 in England, Scotland, and Wales "'Church, p. 74; and Chappell, " Acculturation in Shenandoah while serving as Visiting Professor of Architecture at Edinburgh Col­ Valley, " p. 58. lege of Art. Then in the Spring of 1978, approximately 5,500 miles "'Lewis F. Allen, Rural Architecture (New York: .M. Saxton, were covered in Holland, Germany, Switzerland, and small portions 1854), p. 290; Long, Farmsteads, pp~ 5-8; Long, Pennsylvania Ger­ of Austria and the Al ace of France and approximately 1,900 miles man Family Farm, 6:321-25; hoemaker, p. 5; and Ri chard Raw­ throughout Ireland, including Ulster. The e trips resulted in about son, Old Barn Plans ( ew York: Mayflower Books, 1979), p. 54-75 . 2,500 color tran parencies (slides) along with everal hundred black '''Rush, pp. 54-55; Ellis and Evans, p. 348; Faust, pp. 137-38; and white negative . Coincidentally, during the ummer of 1978, both Learned, p. 347; " Pennsylvania Barns," p. 48 ; and Wertenbaker, p. Ensminger and Terry G. Jordan made imilar trip on the continent, 324. and a a member of the Board of Directors of the Pioneer America '''Glassie, "Eighteenth Century Cultural Proce s," p. 51 . ociety, 1 had heard their papers at its annual meetings. '''Dornbusch, pp. xxii-xxiii . "'Glassie, " Double Crib Barn," p. 25 . '" Joseph William Glass, "The Pennsylvania ultural Region: '" Jame Walton, "Upland Houses: The Influence of Mountain A Geographical Interpretation of Barns and Farmhouse" (Ph. D. Terrain on Briti h Folk Hou ing," Antiquity, 30, o . 119 (Sept. diss., Penn State, 1971), p. 146. 1956): 142 . "'S. W. Pennypacker "The Settlement of Germantown, Penn­ 119 Dornbu ch, p. xii. sylvania," Pennsylvania German Society Proceedings, 9 (1899): "·Learned, p. 348; and Glass, p. 46. 138; and Kuhns, pp. 84-85. '''Fletcher, 1: 169; and Shoemaker, p. 5. "'Don Yoder, "Through the Traveler's Eye," in The Pennsylvania "'Fletcher, 1: 169; and Shoemaker, p. 8. Barn by Alfred L. Shoemaker, ed. (Lancaster, PA: Pa. Dutch "'Gilbert, p. 48. Folklore Center, 1955), p. 12. " 'Dornbusch, p. xviii; Gla s, p. 38; and Bastian, p. 200. llOAlfred L. Shoemaker, " Barracks," Pennsylvania Folklife, 9, '''Susanne . Ridlen, " Bank Barn in Cass County, Indiana," No. 2 (Spg. 1958): 3. Pioneer America, 4, No.2 (July 1972): 25-43 . '" Dornbusch, p. xix . '''Kniffen, p. 563 . '" Fletcher, 1: 81. "'Ellis and Evans, p. 348; and Kuhns, p. 94. '''Shoemaker, "Barracks," pp. 3, 6. "'Rush, pp. 40-121; Elli and Evan, p. 348; Kuhns, p. 95; Faust, "'Kauffman, "Log Barn," p. 29; and Shoemaker, The Penn- pp. 137-38; Learned, p. 347; Wertenbaker, pp. 324-25; Dornbusch, sylvania Barn, pp. 10,35,37-38,91-96. p. xviii; and Glass, pp. 63, 87. '''Church, pp. 78-79. '" J. William Stair, "Brick-end Decoration ," in The Pennsylvania "'Wertenbaker, p. 310; and Fletcher, 1: 83. Bam by Alfred L. hoemaker, ed. (Lancaster, PA: Pa. Dutch Folk­ "'Whyte, p. 59. lore Center, 1955), pp. 71 -72; Gla ie, Pallern in Material Folk "'O'Danachair, p. 83. Culture, p. 60; and Long, Pennsylvania German Family Farm, pp. "'Dornbusch, p. xvii; Lavalleye, plates 73, 100; and M . Seidel and 330-332. Roger H . Marijnissen, Bruegel (Stuttgart: Belser, 1971), pp. 90, 298. l7O Wertenbaker, plate 19-20; Glassie, "Eighteenth Century Cul­ "·Fletcher, 1:81. tural Process," p. 45; and Richard Pillsbury, "The Con truction '''Robert C. Bucher, "Grain in the Attic," Pennsylvania Folk­ Materials of the Rural Folk Housing of the Pennsylvania Culture Reg­ life, 13, No.2 (Winter 1962-63): 7-15; Glass, p. 53; and De Long, ion," Pioneer America, 8, No.2 (July 1976): 104-6. 2: 206. '" Rupp, Hi tory of York COl/nty, p. 714. '''Yoder, "Through the Traveler's Eye," pp. 12-13 . "'Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," pp. 42-43; Wertenbaker. "'Robert W. Bastian, "Southeast Pennsylvania and Central Wi - pp. 326-29; Dornbu ch, p. xxi; Fletcher, 1 :83; Yoder, "Through the

42 r r,,,der' I'.)·c," p. I : Shoc:ma cr, PI" . 52· Y, r r .• n 0 I Ihlen, ,. Ikthkhnn, Pc-nn , h ru .. ,,. \( n riJpn fI', I . ' A 'IIIa ,tcrplcce of Penn )1'. anla ,crman r urnllure," _tnllrlll1 , " , o. 2 (I cb 1960) 1767; Cilibert, pp. 47· -1 9, I, I r,und, r 15 'rl,tllchIIllUII!UIII Sudbo~ern. (Dc 197) ttntcrlold: rimer <;mllh, lie). .'jIlin! ond (Jlher 80m O('corollOnr (I P ppllcd rt Pub, 1976): and [. riC 10iJOC, Rl"callt'( lIOn IJ/oc/.; ond WillII' e'" Yor . Ballatine Boo s, 197-1). p. 2 , r rany Rlcd Dlffcndcrller, "The Red cmplloner ," P.·nllu/'omo (,erllloll 'loC/el} Proceedlflli ~, 10, Part 7 (I ): 120; Ril )mond. plat~ 88 , 9 , f. ong, [onmleodl. pp 12·33: and L. ong, Penll )'1"01110 Gerlllon Fomtly I- orm, 6: 106-494 , 'Bealor and £0111 \, Th e 1011 (obm, pp 94, 121 " O\ kar o\cr, DOl BOllemJroli1 und eml! 10ndKhofTliche ond IIIHOrtlChe E,,,wldlllnli III AomTen (Klagenfurt Karntner Druekcrei, 1974), p. 139 . '" o\cr, pp. 152- 153. Ortenau rci\, n.d I, I" ~ '''Fi\her, p. 4. " Ware, I 169, Brumbaugh, " olonlal ' rchlle ture." PI" · 5-1 , '''Photo of yck, ermantown, PA, Pennsyl,'ofllo Germon oc· 5 -59, Thiede, p ,Ro~e, p 36 . and ' \onne \\ 11 pa"', " Plall1 lety Proceedlllgs, 10, Part 8 (I ): 76; and letcher, 1:379. 'A ails and Little ngels. Pioneer hurche 111 cntral Penn) I-ania," '" i~her, p. 80; Kocher, .. arly Archllecture of Pennsylvania," Pioneer America, 12 , 0 2 ( \a) 19 0) 76- Arch"eCTural Record, 4 , o. I (Jan. 1921): 39-43; Ra ymond, ,. Re nold ,p. 297-9 , 09 Plates 1-9; ugene . Doll , Thl! EphraTa 10isTer ( phrata, P : 'to Ro e, p. I 2; and Glatfelter, pp. I ,193- 4 . Ephrata loister Associates, 1958); and John L. Kraft , " phrata "'Reynolds, p. 309; \ ertenbaker, pp. 319-20; Ro c, pp. 55, 05; loi ~ ter, an ighteenth entury Religious ommune," AnTiques, Johfl G. \ aile, "Measured DraVoll1g of Out h Reformed hurch, I 18, o. 4 (Oct. 1980), pp. 724-37. . ., " HisTOriC Pre ervaflon, 25, o. 4 (Oct.-Dec. 1973): 2; and "oWare, I : 168 . Glatfelter. D. 2 4. '''Kocher, " arly Architecture of Pennsyl ania," A rch"ecTural "o Rose, p. 313 . Record, 49 , o. I (Jan. 1921): 33 ; Gowans, p. 89; and ilhelm eh- ''' Douglas Harn berger, " Hebron uthcran hurch," in IIJdl es wemmer, IImberg ( urnberg: erkehrsverein, 1975), fig . m Vernaclilar Arch,leCTure by K. dward Lay, omp. ( harlottes­ "'Kocher," arly Architecture in Pennsyl ania," 49, o. I (Jan. ville, A: chool of Architecture, ni erslly of irginia 1979), 1921): 40. 52:20; and Glatfelter, pp. 496-97 . '''Banister Fletcher, A HiSTory of ArchitecTlIre on Th e ComparaTive "'Rose, p. 39 -99 ; and Glatfelter, pp. 293-94 . Melhod(IS96; rpt. ew York: harle Sc ribner'S on, 1954) , p. 315; '" ertenbaker, pp. 319-20; Rose, pp. 181 -82,313,398-99,5 16-17; and Wert en baker , p. 315 . and Glatfelter, pp. 316- 18. "'Gilbert, p. 6. '''Ro e, p. 364. '" Brumbaugh," olonial Architecture," pp. 50-51; and G. Edwin "'Rose, p. 199. Brumbaugh, "Medieval onstruction at Ephrata," Antiqlles, 46, '''Rose, p. 136. No. I (July 1944) : 18-20 . "'Rose, p. 3S9-90. ' ''Felix Reichmann and Eugene E. Doll , "Ephrata as seen by Con- " 'Rose, p. 521 -22 . temporaries," Pennsylvania German Folklore SocieTy, 17 (1952): 91. "'Ware, 1: 171 ; and Rose, pp. 136, 199, 364, 374-75, 389-90, '''Wenenbaker, p. 31S. 396-97,521 -24. "'Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 22 . llO Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 7; and Hollstein, "'Wertenbaker, p. 318; and Griffin, pp. 1,42, 51 . 21 : 118 . "oBrumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 21. "' Early ArchiTecTlIre in Upper Allen township. p. 15 . '''Ware, I: 166; Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," pp. 21-22; "'Kocher, " Early Architecture of Lancaster County," p. 98. and William J . Murtagh, Moravian ArchiTecTlIre and Town Planning lll Helen Park, "A List of Architectural Books Available in Amer- ( hapel Hill , C: Univ. of North Carolina Press, 1967), p. 25 . ica before the Revolution," JOllrnal of SocieTy of ArchiTecTural His­ '''Allen, p. 126 . Torians, 20, o. 3 (Oct. 1961): 115-30; and Kocher, "Early Arch­ "'Helen Wilkinson Reynolds, Dlltch Houses in The Hudson Valley itecture of Lancaster County," p. 19 . before 1776 (1929; rpt. New York: Dover. 1965), plates 18,20,26-30, '''Wertenbaker, p. 313 . 37-39,46,49-50, 52, 63-64, 104 , 110, 113 , 115, 122, 125, 130-31, "'Gowl)ns, pp. 91-92. 137 , 147-49; Rosalie Fellows Bailey, Pre-RevoluTionary DIiTCh HOllses "'Chappell, " Acculturation in the Shenandoah VaJley," p. 55 . (1936; rpt. New York: Dover, 1968), plates 1,31,35, 50,52,54-55, "'Glassie, "Eighteenth Century CulturaJ Process," pp. 37,42-44. 57-61,63,65,67,71-72,74-75,77-79,81,83,86-87,89, 91, 93-95, "'Richman, p. 12; and Early ArchiTecTlIre in Upper Allen Town- 98, 100-102, 104 , 106, 108-9, 113-14, 134, 141, 144, 157; Rudolf ship, p. 31 . Stein, "Das Burgerhaus in Bremen," in Das DelJlsche Bllrgerhalls "'Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," pp. 7-8; and Mohn, p. 47 . by Adolf Bernt and Gunther Binding (Tubingen: Ernst Wasmuth, "oEarly ArchiteclIJre in Upper Allen Township. p. 26. 1970),13-23; Erdmannsdorffer, 17 :TI32-TI33; Pfaud, 24 :79-80; on '''Embury, p. 479; Glassie, "Eighteenth Century CulturaJ Pro­ Erffa, 27:35, 43 , 79-80, 84, TI3; and Albert F. Jordan, " Some cess," p. 44; and Morrison, p. 518. Early Moravian Builders in America," Pennsylvania Folklife, 24, "'Kocher, "Early I\.rchitecture of Pennsylvania," ArchitecTural No. I (Autumn 1974): 2-17 . Record,48, 0 . 6(Dec. I920): 516. '''Wertenbaker, p. 314; and Stein, 13:90-91, lOS, 113 . "JAJfred Lawrence Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsylvania" '''Morri on, p. 506. ArchiTeCTlIral Record, 48, o. 6 (Dec. 1920): 516; and AJfred law­ '''Brumbaugh, "Colonial Architecture," p. 53. rence Kocher, "The Early Architecture of Lancaster County, Penn­ "'Gowans , p. 90. sylvania," Lancaster CounTy Historical SocieTy Papers, 24, (1920): "'Kocher, "Early Architecture of Pennsylvania," ArchiTeclIJral 91. Record, 49, o. I (Jan. 1921):38; Raymond, plate 14; and Werten­ " 'Henry Glassie, "Eighteenth Century CulturaJ Process in Del­ baker, p. 311. aware VaJley Folk Housing," Wiflferrhur Porrfolio, 7 (1972): 56. '''Frank Cou ins and Phil M. RileY ,' The Colonial ArchiTeClIJre of "'Early ArchiTecTure in Upper Allen Township (Mechanicsburg, Philadelphia (Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1920), p. 221. PA: Center Square Press, 1976), pp. 2, 9-10. "oWertenbaker, pp. 319-20. '" Joseph William Glass, "The Pennsylvania CulturaJ Region: A J"Photos of Dunkard Church, Germantown, PA: Pennsylvania GeographicaJ Interpretation of Barns and Farmhouses" (ph.D. diss., German Society Proceedings, 10, Part 8 (1900): 109; and Harold Penn State, 1971), PP. 1-2. Wickliffe Rose, The Colonial Houses of Worship in America (New JJlGeorge H. AJlen, "Some European Origins of Early Penn­ York: Hastings House, 1963), p. 351. sylvania Architecture," American Journal of Archaeology, 40 (1936): "'Ware, I: 168; and Karl H . Snyder, "Moravian Architecture of 126 .

43 Medicine, Music and "Money" Munyon by NED D . HEINDEL and NATALIE I. FOSTER

Munyon's medicines were sold in general stores in a distinctive wooden case with a metallic cover. They were popular in the gold rush camps of the American West. This case is on display in the District Museum, Munyon always sported a pompadour and affected an Cripple Creek, Colorado. elegant attire. In summer or in the South he dressed (Courtesy Rupe Welch, Cripple Creek, Colorado) in white. tical applications were of his own devising. Later ana­ The aiHng American has always been on the look out lyses of his products by government chemists acting for the sure cure. In the late 19th and early 20th cen­ under the Pure Food and Drug Act gave reason to doubt turies fulfillment of that desire was the object of the the veracity of his "research" claims. In fact, it was bustHng business of patent medicine manufacture. never the true therapeutic quality of his products but The increasing abuses of the public trust and gullibility rather the extensive public promotion which sold the so­ by some members of that industry culminated in the called "cu res. " passage of the Pure Food and Drug Act of 1906. One Most Munyon ads pictured the good "doctor" him­ of the most colorful and well-known of the nostrum self, sporting a pompadour, invariably dressed in sol­ peddlars in the period just before and after these first emn black, right arm upraised and index finger pointed federal regulatory statutes, and an early victim of their to the sky . Munyon alway printed a short promotional legal effects, was Pennsylvania's own James Munroe phrase with each picture, and many of these quotations Munyon. Munyon, often called "Money Munyon" by became the by-word of contemporary popular culture: the press, was one of the most successful proprietary It will cure! medicine manufacturers whose extensive advertising Doctor yoursel f. campaigns for himself and his products made his name There's a Munyon pill for every ill. a household word in turn-of-the-century America. I would rather preserve the health of a nation than be The Munyon Homeopathic Home Remedy Co. was its ruler. lOcated between the 1800s and 1920s at various Phila­ No punishment is too severe for him who deceives the delphia addresses: on Arch Street, Jefferson Street, sick. Parkside Avenue, 54th Street, and others. Munyon If the sign of the cross were to be destroyed the next claimed to employ a large corps of expert chemists and best sign would be the index finger pointed heavenward. physicians making fundamental discoveries whose prac- By this sign [the upraised finger] we conquer. • r it \ a There IS and \\a n: .. rdt:u In I ·ri. aim y n' death. b) Phil Ham nan R IIope di c.

[he most famou advertl ement of IInyOI1 howed him with index finger rai ed, high col/ar, pompadour, and tern expre siol1 stating hi trad1l10nal "There I hope" phra e. he e and many other became the pa word of bel­ iever and coffer alike. People would pa on the treet and greet each other jokingly with the inde t fin- ger pointed upward uttering the mo t famou unyon phra e, " There I Hope." In 1907 , Vincent Bryan and . Ray Goetz, two top tin-pan alley ong writer, put together a tuneful ditty entitled "Dr. Munyon." It became an in stant hit. heet mu ic howing hi tern, black-clad figure with finger elevated wa widely old, and the lyric which lampooned hi mottoes, medicine, and manneri m ()\\\)Z ~ MUSIC 'C 81' /'>...J were on the lip of many American. In 1915 Franz Lehar' hit operetta, "Alone At La t," included a ong J M. M UN\( CJ ~ about bacteria in food entitled " ome Little Bug i It",. ' ~(D I'" J . t OIT$ON 1m..... H Going to Find You Some Day," which further poofed Dr. Munyon' anti-indigestion remedie with: Take a lice of nice fried onion Munyon associated with artists, actors, authors, and And you're fit for Dr. Munyon, members of the theatrical crafts. One of his songs, Apple dumpling kill you quicker than a train apparently an embodiment of his personal philosophy, hew a chee y midnight "rabbit" was dedicated to S. F. ixon, a local theater manager. And a grave you'll oon inhabit- The picture is believed to be that of the honoree. Ah, to eat at all i such a fooli h game .. .. (Courlesy Music Deparlmenl. Free Library of Ph i1ade/phia)

CONSTIPATION Part of the reason that songs about Munyon were so popular was probably that he was himself known to be a struggling· song-writer. Beginning in the 1880s and Many of Munyon's continuing (ill at least 1900, Munyon turned out pieces medicines were suggesting that possession of wealth call buy transitory claimed to be of claim to social status ("Money is Power"--1883), rec­ "natural" origin ommending tolerance for the experimental use. of cuss­ based on plant­ words by youth ("Dop-'t Whip Little Ben"-1883), pro­ derived extracts. moting patriotic sentiments and martial enthusiasm ("Munyon's Grand March"--1898), and many other pirited works. None of his numbers seem to have elic­ ited popular fervor. In fact, whi1ff many of the Mun­ yon songs were published by commercial firms such as White-Smith-Music Publishing Co. and the J.E. Ditson Co., "The Nation's Song" and "Munyon's Liberty Song", which appeared about the time of the Spanish-

A Compound 45 He went to work at age seven as a bobbin boy in the fab­ ri c mills in and around Wocester, Massachusetts, but by 16 he was a successfu l theatrical and booking agent. With hi s collected savings he took off for Italy to study music. On the ship to Europe, however, he met some congenial young men in whose company he toured the capitals of the continent, returning home at 21 virtually penniless. Munyon's Inhaler

THE GREATEST DISCOVERY OF THE AGE .

Cu res Colds, Coughs, Catarrh, Asthma, Qronchitis and all Throat and Lung Diseues and Prevents Consumption BY INHALATION.

(,louds (If o,edicalt'fi ,. al)of are inb.aled lhrough t. he rnl,l1\b and etnilkd {rum th~ DOItr Ht, clun,io$ anll vapo r ~ IUrlf( all the dt,..· p&r"', A 8eO~ of relle! i.e felt at "0 t', ll< 1MI IOlturHI h . F:.reryoodr. pnilt'l it. It b .. { IInmon 1(>0"8 curt' (or {'atu rb, Col. A, Cougla, A,thma., Hr >ot'ititia ami .11 throat And luag lrc>u1J1et. It I ... rm ~nry air p~e.. And at un d~t.rb1' the dileuf> (l''' rma. h cllrH I. hl"l)ugh mt"di ted aDd ,.i t.a h ~ ..h. h II II lOV1R;OrlUog t-rmie to \h~ . ilal (1'1"Cft. A reUl.I~ which I'oolbP1t, he&14 &nd io ... i«oratet It I "i .... ly curCi t .. ta.rrh &DJ dilu&ee or the 0 ....1 ntjtl1nll It )lCWIili'fe1y ("Qr. di of t.he throat ADd loop. 11. (·n .. LIN 1 \'IU to cure )ourw1f .. \ home. It motIu uno~ aD1 cuu..i.ng, buruiQl or cauter-­ i",in~ It de..lN YI ., once ,b. bacilli o( bronchitit and OO D· uwplion. The songs written by Munyon often had a martial Ita ute i, (on o,..eeI imrn-eoJ lat.el! Ly a IeIl5t! of relMl. flavor. One published during the Spanish American If. eoablflll 70U to " \'8 bia docwr. (... War featured military heroes on the cover sheet. Munyon himself was pictured holding the main stanza FOR SALE IY ALL DRUGGISTS. PRICE, WITH EYlRYTHING IDMPLETI, $1.00 of the song. (Courtesy Music Department, Free Library oj Philade/phia) The Munyon company developed and promoted many American War, were published, paid for, and di str­ medical devices in addition to the pills, potions and ibuted by Munyon himself. The cover of " Munyon's ointments which constituted their major business. Liberty Song" features a central portrait of Munyon surrounded by smaller pictures of political and military figures, e.g. McKinley, Dewey, Schley. Both of these He wasn't pennile s long and oon earned the sobr­ publications contain numerous testimonals for Munyon iquet, " Money" Munyon, which stuck with him for the cures with information on prices and availability of pro­ rest of his life. On a walk down Wabash Street in Chi­ ducts. cago, he watched a Chinese laundry-worker using a Whether from his medical promotions, his public an­ somewhat different starch preparation from that com­ tics--well-reported by the press -- or the songs about him monly available in the stores. He bought a large quan­ and by him, Dr. Munyon was well-known to the Amer­ tity of the material, promoted it heavily a "Imported ican public. He seemed to thrive on publicity and the Chinese Starch," and was well on the way to his first effect on the sale of his products was apparently sal­ million. He briefly tried his hand at teaching school, uatory. practicing law, social work, and editing. Patent medicine manufacturing, however, was neither In the early 1880s, using Philadelphia as hi ba e of Munyon's first nor his only business. He was a operations, he first edited and later assumed the com­ man of many talents, widely traveled, broadly exper­ plete publication responsibility for several short-lived ienced but certainly never the possessor of an earned pro-labor magazines including Christian Voices and The doctorate. Born on August 3, 1848, in TQompson, Labor World. When, in 1884, Munyon began the pub­ Connecticut, he had a natural bent for things musical, lication of Munyon's Illustrated World, he doubtle began to sing in public at age six, and studied music with hoped to produce something with more appeal than a a passion which characterized many of his later efforts. local labor magazine. It was a slick, handsome quarto 46 \/Iln I"On ediled and promoled a IIl1mber of horl­ IlI'ed mart.a;:'lIIe. . The) were (Iwraclef/;:.ed by IIIlInerOIl e Ic/II II?,!. alld wood III illlI IrallOll , ell/ollOllal artle/e IIrf/llg Ihe reader to patf/Ol­ i 111, and adverll el1lelll for ,\llInyon m edicine. A pecwl I ue of \1un)'on' lIIu traled ~ orld III Augu t I 5 featllred artle/e ab ul Ihe recently decea ed Iy e ran t. ( OUrles) 'l,lT/liZ Ltbron. , \ 'a\at Academcy . •l nnapofLs. \ID)

which al 0 er ed a an ad erti ing vehicle for hi pill Munyon fa ced and urmounted numerou ob tacle and potion. ome ource have claimed that the re­ on the road to fame and fortune. hen, about 1 85, he deemable in ert included with ad in Munyon' mag­ began the manufacture of proprietary medicine, he azine were the fir t trading tamp (Philadelphia In­ claimed to formulate product from root and herb he quirer, March 11 , 1918, page 2). had encountered near hi birthplace in Thompson, Connecticut. He intended to apply the name "spec­ About 1887 he changed the title to Munyon's Maga­ ific " to each of the e remedies but wa prevented when zine, and backed by an exten ive adverli ing campaign, he learned that the already-exi ting Humphrey' Phar­ he promoted it a a family-oriented monthly. It macal had a prior claim on the word. Munyon settled reached a circulation of over 100,000 with a $1.50 an­ for "cure," and that change erved him well. Mun­ nual ub cription co t. For many year Munyon main­ yon' Kidney ure, Munyon' A thma ure, Munyon's tained editorial offices at 1342 Arch treet in Phila­ pecial Liquid Blood Cure, and Munyon's Catarrh delphia. Under his editor hip, the Munyon Homeo­ Cure were just a few of the many materials he promoted pathic Home Remedy Co. produced a popular annual to the public. Begi nning hortly after the passage of almanac which combined time of tide, sunsets, wea­ the Pure Food and Drug Act (1906) and culminating ther foreca t , crop information, and mi cellaneous hi - with hi arre t, trial, and conviction in 1910 for selling torical fact with an equal blend of te timonal and pro­ fal ely labeled medicines, Munyon was a target of the motion for his no trum. One popular Munyon fea­ federal chemi t . ture wa the o-called "Free Advice Service" or "Guide to Health Free," Munyon would mail an "examination blank" to any f MUNYON'S PILE OINTMENT sufferer reque ting one. I f the pro pecti e patient de - For PIIII, blind or bleeding, protrud ing or cribed hi I her ymptomatology and mailed the com­ C ' - Intarnal. Stops itch ing Ilmost immedia te . pleted form to the company, he would recei e tailor­ Illals inflamma ti on and giY9S ease to the made medical advice without cost ("We weep a. ay all sore parts. ,It re commend It Ic: Fiss ure, Ulcerations , Cra ck. and su ch ana l trOUbles doctor charges. we put the be t medical kill at your er­ vice absolutely free"). All replies were mailed in plajn envelopes, and the company claimed that "Our Medical Munyon was quick to adopt new developments in his Majl Department is having great success at curing old business. The flexible, " roll-up" tupe applicator was obstinate cases." It is to be presumed that the free ad­ one of the first in medical use and was sold for vice usually contajned a suggestion that a particular the dispensing of pile and constipation ointment. Munyon remedy be employed.

47 nected wives. His first wife was Cornelia Hudson, a Philadelphia lady whose social stature gave him access to circles unlikely to be opened to the former bobbin boy from Connecticut. Munyon's second wife, Dora Harvey Vromman, was a short story writer, and hi s third, Pauline Neff, was a popular actress. He married Mi ss Neff in 1908 when he was 60 and she was about one-third his age. It was not a happy union. Pauline, who was call ed "the most beautiful stage actress of her day," originated the sheath-style gown and introduced that fashion by long promenades on the Atlantic City boardwalk. ever one to shrink from expressing her own opinion, she and the good "doctor" became eng­ aged in a public exchange witnessed by many and cover­ ed with glee by Philadelphia newspapers. While stop­ ped in heated argument in their car at the intersection Munyon's medicines were old in small glass vials of Broad and Chestnut, she threw his hat and overcoat within rectangular carton. Hi picture appeared on from the vehicle and slapped hi s face. They sued each theendjlap. other for di vorce, and in 1913 the marriage was dis- ( ourle y Bell Ba vly, Hislorical Pharmacy o/n/n/s iOIl, olved. ell' Orlealls, LA) Munyon never again married, although he li ved in The government found Munyon' Kidney ure common-law relationship with a fourth lady. While ("Cure Bright' di ea e, gravel, all urinary problem, he did not profit in a divorce settlement, she survived and pain in the back or groin from kidney di ea e ") the " doctor" and acquired a sizeable share of his acc­ to con i t of ordinary white ugar. The Munyon As­ umulated wealth. thma Cure ("Permanently ure A thma") was analy­ Death came to Money Munyon as he might have zed and found to be a mixture of ugar and alcohol. wi hed it on March 10, 1918. Wintering in Florida and The Munyon Special Liquid Blood ure ("Eradicate dining in the plu h urroundings of the Royal Poinciana Syphili and crofula ... cure enlarged ton il or glands, Hotel in We t Palm Beach, he uffered a udden troke ulcer , and all form of ore and eruption ") wa mo t­ and collap ed at the luncheon table. Ala, he had no Iy potas ium iodide and milk ~ugar. Munyon wa time to lift hi index finger heavenward and utter, charged with lying about hi ugar pill and imilar no - " There is hope! " trums, pleaded guilty, paid a fine of $600, and went There wa little hope for the Munyon Homeopathic about his bu ines with only light modification in the Home Remedy Co. either. The homeopathic move­ phra ing of hi s ad . ment in general was in decline. Munyon' name ake Gone wa the claim that he wa " Doctor" Munyon; and heir, Jame Munroe Munyon, Jr., died two month it was replaced by the title" Profe or. " Gone wa the after hi father' passing. The firm continued for a inclusion of "Cure" in the title of every drug product; hort time under the upervi ion of Money Munyon' it was replaced with "Remedy." Gone were the sweep­ econd on, Duke Munyon, but it cea ed operation en­ ing uses of "eradicate ," "cure ," and "remove "; tirely in the mid-I920. One of Penn ylvania' mo t they were replaced by •• I f administered freely, will never colorful patent medicine firm had pa sed from exi t­ disappoint you," "Recommended for. .. ," and" pec­ ence, but it contribution to popular culture in the ially prepared for .... " The impact of the court exper­ early 20th century live on in history, memory and ong. ience had been negligible for Munyon merely modified the wording on his labels and the public hardly noticed the change. The upraised finger, the oft-repeated 10- Biblography: In formational source on James . Munyon can be gans, and the multi-hyped claims of by-gone year were found in : still remembered. When faced with another et-back, I) Rear faces of heet mu ic by Munyo n in Music Department of the Free Library of Philadelphia. the total destruction in 1913 by fire of his plant at 54th 2) L.S. Levy, Give Me Ye lerday: Americall Hislory ill Ollg, Uni­ and Jefferson Street, Munyon wa undaunted. He re­ versity of Oklahoma Prp.ss, orman, OK, 1975, pp 379-3 2. built immediately with scarcely any loss of business. 3) F.L. Molt, A Hi lory of A mericall Maga:ille : 1885-1905, Har­ Munyon was as colorful in private life as he was in vard Univer ity Press, ambridge, MA ., 195 7, pp. 7- . public. In his ads he wore somber black, but at high­ 4) Philadelphia Inquirer, Monday, March II , 191 ,p. 2 (obit.) society watering holes in New York, Newport, Atlantic 5) Say Ail! Say All!, Carroll Reece Mu eum, Johnson ity, Tenn., 1968, p. 22. City, and Palm Beach he sported white flannel uit and 6) A.J . ramp, oSlrums alld Qllackery alld P elldo- fedicille, white hats. Thrice married, he made millions and en­ Vol. 111 , Am. Med . A oc. Pre , hicago, 1936, pp. 559- 60, joyed both the use of his fortune and his socially con- 590,603 .

48 ~&&c~ 9lcic~

I f you are ju tan imere ted onlooker or an avid ear­ al 0 hope to print item \\ hi h a number f them will cher for ne\ book appearing on the cene that i the write in the near futurc. Penn yl ania Out h ountry, there are t\ 0 new book or the oJ1\enienc~ of the reader, a OPY of Pjal:. r­ which are likely to be of ital and la ting intere t to ou. Palaline i available for on ultation on rcque t in ince we ha e been' following the agarie of fortune a Room 301 l yrin, our Foll-lif r hi\e 'enter, al­ both pa ed from in pi ration through author' weat though we believe many \\ ill want to pur ha e opic for and tear, to the verge of the final product it elf, we feel their own u e. a kind of ital intere t in the final product. e belie e Then, our e ond re ommendation, a ne\\ learning that both are top in their field and commend them to aid \ hich i the be t in our I alopinion, in e the app- the ub criber on that ba i. Once again, \ e are not in earance of the Buffington Barba Grammar in the the bu ine of reviev ing book, and the e are not 0 in­ earl 1950': - arl . Haag, Penn yl ania German tended. If you de ire a fine book re ie\ , con ult one Reader and Grammar, ni r it Park, P : The Penn- of our fellow-journal which pecialize in that form, or yl ania tate ni er it Pre ,19 2. i en all the on- look at the Book ection of your favorite publi her or going debate 0 er form and ub tance, appearance and ource. pelling, Haag ha done a ma terly job. ho on thi Fir t, we call your attention to an exten ive collection good earth i going to a that he ha plea ed e er one? of es ay , a Fe Ischrijl for Fritz Braun, by Karl cherer ot u, urely! But it ha a great deal to commend it & Roland Paul, Pjalzer - Palalines, Kai er lautern: Hei­ and \ e recommend that OU take a long look at it. e mat telle Pfalz, 1981. Compo ed of ection which plan, for in tance to u e it for further oral practice, re­ match the four chi ef enthu iasm of Braun during hi citing many of the ample entence and e erci e he lifetime (1905- 1976), the book i mar elou Iy concei ed provide, particularly when not in an area \ here many and beautifully reali zed. The four ection on Migra­ nati e peaker no. Ii e. tion History , Palatine at home and abroad, Folk Cul­ U ing a good balance of reading and grammar, Haag ture and Folklife in the Pfalz and Pennsylvania, and pre em the point of grammar in a nearly non­ Dialect and Dialect Poetry present a multi-faceted view obtru i e \ ay a can be done. To be sure, his chap­ of chief concern of Braun, the H eimatstell e and many ter are ery long, but they are constructed to be broken tudent and lover of mattET P enn ylvani a German for into hal e, \ ith exten i e vocabularies which will a half century. Among the Pfalzer contributor are thrill the profe ors but dri e students wild. The life­ numbered Scherer, Paul, Kuby, Poller, Bi choff and long intere t in the dialect which Haag prossesse is ob- Kelz, while American cholar here included are Yoder, iou in eery page of thi fine work. Both he and the Weaver, Wei er, Waldenrath, Par on , Bra \ ell and pres de er e credit for their belief in the book's value. Schelbert. How many of them are al 0 name of con­ It is a gem. The fine t tribute our public can offer is to tributors of articles to Pennsy lvania Folklije in pre ious u e it exten i el. Good work, Earl!! !-WTP i ues constitutes a matter of atisfaction to u . We July 2-3-4-5-" 1-8-')-10,1')83

DAYTIME GATHERINGS STARTING AT 9a.m. TO Sp.m.

The Festival and its Sponsorship The Kutztown Folk Festival is sponsored by the Pennsylvania Folklife Society, a nonprofit educational corporation affiliated with URSINUS COLLEGE, College­ ville, Pennsylvania. The Society's purposes are threefold: First, the demonstrating and displaying of the lore and folkways of the Pennsylvania Dutch through the annual Kutztown Folk Festival; second, the collecting, studying, archiving and publishing the lore of the Dutch Country and Pennsylvania through the publi­ cation of PENNSYLVANIA FOLKLIFE Magazine; and third, using the proceeds for scholarships and general educational purposes at URSINUS COLLEGE.

FOR THE FOLK FESTIVAL BROCHURE WRITE TO: Pennsylvania folklife Society Coltege Blvd. & Vine, Kutztown, Pa. 19530