Unique Aspects of Competitive Weightlifting Performance, Training and Physiology

Pcx/icur A DTir»i c 0112-1642/12/00(»O76'5/S49.96/0

Adam Storey and Heather K. Smith Department of Sport and Exercise Science, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand

Contents

Abstract 769 1. Introduction 770 2. Literature Reviewed 771 3. Weightlifting Performance 771 3.1 The Snatch 771 3.2 The Clean and Jerk 771 4. Training 774 4.1 Exercises 774 4.2 Annual Training Structure 774 4.3 Application and Variation in Training Load 775 4.4 Metaboiic Cost of Weightiifting and Nutritional Practices 776 4.5 Influence of Body Weight Changes on Performance 777 5. Anthropométrie Characteristics of Weightiifters 777 6. Physiological Responses and Adaptations to Weightlifting 777 6.1 Skeietai Muscle Structure and Function 778 6.1.1 Fibre Type Composition 778 6.1.2 Neuromuscuiar Function 778 6.1.3 Sex- and Age-Reiated Differences in Neuromuscular Function 779 6.2 Bone Mineral Density 780 6.3 Cardiovascular Structure and Function 780 6.4 Endocrine 781 6.4.1 Testosterone 781 6.4.2 Testosterone ; Cortisol Ratio 781 6.4.3 Grovi^h Hormone 782 7. Recommendations and Conclusions 782

Abstract weightlifting is a dynamic strength and power sport in which two, multijoint, whole-body lifts are performed in competition; the snatch and clean and jerk. During the performance of these lifts, weightiifters have achieved some of the highest absolute and relative peak power outputs reported in the literature. The training structure of competitive weightiifters is characterized by the frequent use of high-intensity resistance exercise movements. Varied coaching and training philosophies currently exist around the world and further research is required to substantiate the best type of training programme for male and female weightiifters of various age groups. As competitive 770 Storey & Smith

weightlifting is contested over eight male and seven female body weight categories, the anthropométrie characteristics of the athletes widely ranges. The body compositions of weightlifters are similar to that of athletes of comparable body mass in other strength and power sports. However, the shorter height and limb lengths of weightlifters provide mechanical advantages when lifting heavy loads by reducing the mechanical torque and the vertical distance that the barbell must be displaced. Furthermore, the shorter body dimensions coincide with a greater mean skeletal muscle cross-sectional area that is advantageous to weightlifting performance. Weightlifting training induces a high metabohc cost. Although dietary records demonstrate that weightlifters typically meet their required daily energy intake, weightlifters have been shown to over consume protein and fat at the expense of adequate carbohydrate. The resulting macronutrient imbalance may not yield optimal performance gains. Cross-sectional data suggest that weightlifting training induces type IIX to IIA fibre-type transformation. Furthermore, weightlifters exhibit hypertrophy of type II fibres that is advantageous to weightlifting performance and maximal force production. As such, the isometric peak force and contractile rate of force development of weightlifters is -15-20% and -13-16% greater, respectively, than in other strength and power athletes. In addition, weightlifting training has been shown to reduce the typical sex- related difference in the expression of neuromuscular strength and power. However, this apparent sex-related difference appears to be augmented with increasing adult age demonstrating that women undergo a greater age-related decline in muscle shortening velocity and peak power when compared with men, Weightlifting training and competition has been shown to induce significant structural and functional adaptations of the cardiovascular system. The collective evidence shows that these adaptations are physiological as opposed to pathological. Finally, the acute exercise-induced testosterone, Cortisol and growth hormone responses of weightlifters have similarities to that of following conventional strength and hypertrophy protocols involving large muscle mass exercises. The routine assessment of the basal testosterone : Cortisol ratio may be beneficial when attempting to quantify the adaptive responses to weightlifting training. As competitive weightlifting is becoming increasingly popular around the world, further research addressing the physiological responses and adaptations of female weightlifters and younger (i.e, <17 years of age) and older (i.e. >35 years of age) weightlifters of both sexes is required.

1. Introduction This review details the unique performance and training requirements of competitive weight- Weightlifting has been a longstanding part of the lifters with particular emphasis on the movement modern Olympic Games and has wide and growing demands, training intensities and commonly adopt- intemational participation. During the performance ed nutritional practices of these athletes. Further of the two competitive lifts, the snatch and the clean attention is directed towards descriptions of the and jerk (C&J), weightlifters are required to gen- physiological responses and adaptations of the erate extremely high peak forces and contractile musculoskeletal, cardiovascular and endocrine sys- rates of force development and, consequently, high tems to weightlifting training and competition, Fi- peak power outputs and contractile impulses,!'"''] nally, as weightHfting is becoming increasingly

popular with females, and younger and older in- to raise the barbell off the platform to a position dividuals, we highlight potential areas for future just below knee level. A transition period (also re- research that will enable the development of safe and ferred to as the 'double-knee bend') follows whereby effective training guidelines for these populations. the knees are re-bent and are moved under the barbell whilst the lifter's trunk is moved to a near 2. Literature Reviewed vertical position.[^"'"^ The 'double-knee bend' allows the lifter to take advantage of a stretch- The search for scientific literature relevant to shortening cycle during the subsequent second this review was conducted using the US National pulÚ^^^ The second pull requires the lifter to maxi- Library of Medicine (PubMed), SPORTDiscus™ mally accelerate the barbell by simultaneously and Google Scholar databases. Key search terms shrugging the shoulders and extending the hips, of'Olympic weighthfting', 'weightlifter/s', 'snatch', knees and ankles. During the performance of near 'clean and jerk', 'muscular strength' and 'muscular maximal to maximal full snatch attempts, the ver- power' were used. Further literature was obtained tical velocity of the barbell during the second pull from electronic 'related articles' searches and by can range between 1.65m/sec and 2.28m/sec.['*'''"'*l manually screening the reference lists of included During submaximal attempts and snatch-related studies. The inclusion criteria for all articles were; movements (i.e. power snatch), barbell velocities (i) refereed articles published in Enghsh language may exceed 3.00m/sec.'''''^l As the barbell rises journals and books from the 1970s until February, in the vertical plane to -62-78% of the lifter's 2012; and (ii) the terms 'weightlifter' and 'weight- height,!"''^"'^1 the lifter begins to 'pull' their body lifting' had to be in context with the sport of underneath the barbell; this phase is referred to as competitive weightlifting as opposed to general the turnover. The lifter then 'catches' the barbell in weight/resistance training. a straight-arm overhead position whilst fiexing at the knee and hip into a full squat position. The lifter then 'recovers' out of the full squat to a 3. Weigtitlifting Performance standing position whilst maintaining the barbell overhead. The duration of effort from the start of The snatch and C&J are complex whole-body the first pull until the competition referees signal movements encompassing a series of high-intensity a successful lift is -3-5 seconds. Each athlete is muscular contractions. During these lifts, weight- entitled to three snatch attempts in competition. lifters achieve power outputs unmatched by any other athletes.t'l Since 1998, the recognized body weight classes are: men <56kg, <62kg, <69kg, 3.2 The Clean and Jerk <77kg, <85kg, <94kg, <105kg and>105kg; and women <48kg, <53kg, <58kg, <63kg, <69kg, The C&J is a two-part lift that enables heavier <75 kg and >75 kg. Athletes must weigh-in during loads (-18-20% greater) to be lifted than during a 1-hour window that begins 2 hours before the the snatch. The clean requires the barbell to be start of their competition session. The athlete's raised from the floor (using a shoulder width grip) placing within their respective body weight class is to the front of the shoulders in one continuous determined by their competition total, which is movement. There are six phases of the clean the sum of their highest recorded snatch and C&J. (figure 2). The mechanical principles behind the first three phases (first pull, transition/double- knee bend and second pull) are the same as those 3.1 The Snatch of the snatch. During the second pull of near The snatch requires the weighted barbell to be maximal to maximal attempt cleans, the vertical lifted from the floor (using a wide grip) to an velocity of the barbell can range from 0.88 m/sec overhead position in one continuous movement.t^' to 1.73m/sec.f^''*l However, during submaximal The snatch includes six phases (figure 1). The first attempts and clean-related movements (i.e. power pull is initiated when the lifter extends their knees clean), barbell velocities may exceed 2.5

Fig. 1. The six phases of the snatch: (a) first pull; (b) transition to the start of the second puii; (c) compietion of the second puil; (d) turnover; (e) catch; (f) recovery.

As the barbell rises in the vertical plane to -55-65% to 17 times their body mass.^^^ Reported power of the lifter's height,P'l the lifter initiates the 'turn- outputs during maximal attempt jerk drives over' phase. The lifter then 'catches' the barbell on range from 2140 watts (W) for a lifter in men's their shoulders and descends into a full squat posi- under 56 kg class to 4786 W for a lifter in tion. The lifter then 'recovers' from the full squat the men's 105 kg+ class.^'^ At the completion of the position to prepare for the jerk. jerk drive, the barbell is vertically driven off the The jerk also has six phases (figure 2): (i) start; shoulders and the lifter's feet leave the ground. (ii) dip; (iii) jerk drive; (iv) unsupported spht This phase represents the 'unsupported split under the bar; (v) supported split under the bar; under the bar'. Once the lifter's feet are in contact and (vi) recovery. During the start phase, the lifter with the ground and the barbell is held overhead and the barbell must become motionless. The lifter with fully extended arms, the lifter is in the 'sup- then begins to dip down by flexing at the knee ported split under the bar' phase. The hfter must and hip, with the barbell held across the should- then recover and is required to stand motionless ers. At the lowest point of the dip, the lifter makes with their feet parallel to one another. The dura- the transition to the jerk drive where they are re- tion of effort from the start of the first pull to quired to accelerate the barbell in the vertical the signal of a successful lift is -8—12 seconds. plane. During this transition period, the athlete Each athlete is entitled to three C&J attempts in may be exposed to a downward force equivalent competition.

Fig. 2. The twelve phases of the clean and jerk: (a) first puil; (b) transition to the start of the second pull; (c) completion of the second pull; (d) turnover; (e) catch; (f) recovery from the clean; (g) start position for the jerk; (h) jerk dip; (i) jerk drive; (j) unsupported spiif under fhe bar; (k) supported split under fhe bar; (I) recovery from fhe jerk.

4. Training Eastern European teams, in particular the former Soviet Union and Bulgaria, a number of the world's There is limited evidence comparing the perfor- training programmes are variations of the general- mance and physiological responses arising from ized training models established by these nations.P^ different weightlifting training programmes.'^^"^''! However, Western coaches were required to make However, the English language coaching literature modifications to these training methods pre- and empirical evidence suggests that numerous sumably due to the higher prevalence of anabolic and varied practices exist amongst internationally steroid use amongst Eastern Bloc teams;'"'•'*^''*^' competi ti ve weightiifters ,'^ ' '^^"^^^ since the 1970s, competitive weightiifters have been subjected to random drug testing''*^' that can 4.1 Exercises include both urine and blood assays. The training programmes from the former The two competitive lifts form the basis of Soviet Union were based upon the classic 'period- the training programmes for junior and senior ization' model'^^ consisting of a preparatory phase weightiifters. Complementary exercises that have (generalized and specific conditioning), competition movement patterns similar to the competitive lifts phase (specific training mimicking the demands of (e,g, hang/power snatch, hang/power clean, snatch competition), and a transition phase (generalized and clean pulls, front and back squats) and sup- conditioning at the end of a training cycle). A wide plementary exercises (e.g. overhead presses, back variety of exercises at varying intensities and vol- extensions and abdominal work) that target sy- umes were incorporated into these programmes nergistic muscle groups are also used. The com- with the belief that this would prevent athletes plementary exercises are also incorporated into reaching a state of overtraining due to 'movement the training programmes of other power ath- pattern monotony','^^ Although international-level letes'^*'^^'-"' as follows: (i) kinematic similari- weightiifters would typically perform 20 000-25 000 ties exist between the propulsive phases in both multijoint exercise repetitions per year, only weightlifting and jumping movements;'^^"^^' and 15-35% of those repetitions were competition lifts (ii) significant relationships exist between weight- performed at 80-90% of their one-repetition max- lifting ability and power output during jumping imum (lRM) with an additional 4-7% being per- (r = 0,59 to 0.93) and sprinting (r=-0,52 to formed at >90% of lRM,'2'-25.44] -0.76)t".3v-40] and tests of agility (-0.41).'"! In contrast, the Bulgarian training approach However, despite commonalities in the mode is characterized by frequent, near-maximal to of exercise and other acute variables, the training maximal-intensity loading'^'••^^'^"'**1 and is more programmes of weightiifters differ, particularly in closely aligned with the demands of competition. the frequency and volume of high-intensity loads, It has been reported that Bulgarian lifters per- from that of other power athletes (refer section 4.3). formed between 1400 and 4000 maximal attempts, The collective differences in the competitive de- and 450 and 460 failed supramaximal attempts mands and the required physiological adaptations each year in training.'^'''*^' Approximately 10% of of other various athletes may account for these dis- the total training time is devoted to warm-up ex- crepancies. Furthermore, due to the technically and ercises, 45% to competition lifts, 40% to comple- physically demanding nature of the snatch and mentary strength exercises, 3% to supplementary C&J, modified versions are often employed by other exercises and 2% to other sports and cross-training athletes for the enhancement of muscular power, activities,'^'' There is very little variation in training intensity, by comparison with the training 4.2 Annual Training Structure programmes of the former Soviet Union, How- Broad descriptions of variations in weightlift- ever, fluctuations in training volume are applied. ing training variables have been offered in the The training follows a repeated pattern of 2-3 weeks literature.P''^^"^*'^^-'*'^ More specific details are of increased loading followed by 1 week of reduced rarely outlined. Due to the success of many loading. This cyclic pattern of 'overload' and

'recovery' is believed to contribute to subsequent suppression of key anabolic mediators, prolonged long-term improvements in performance.'^'*''*''^ infiammatory signalling and decrements in muscu- Although the competitive performances of lar performance.f^^"^^ In contrast to these findings, weightlifters continue to improve, as evident by weightlifters demonstrate both acute and long-term increases in national and world records, further improvements in competitive lifting performance research needs to be directed towards several as- in response to their frequent HIRE training pects of weightlifting programme design. These aspects include (i) effective coaching strate- Although little evidence exists to suggest that gies for novice weightlifters; (ii) the infiuence of weighthfting training, under proper supervision, exercise volume and intensity on physiological is more injurious to children or adolescents when and performance variables in female and youth compared with other sports,'^'"*^1 considerable weightlifters; and (iii) the efficacy of variations in controversy still surrounds the use of weightlifting training techniques (e.g. the incorporation of ec- exercises in younger populations (i.e. <17 years of centric-only exercises). age). As such, definitive biological and/or training age appropriate weightlifting training guidelines have yet to be established. The training age of 4,3 Application and Variation in Training Load a weightlifter greatly inñuences their ability to International-level weightlifters perform two positively adapt to the frequent use of HIRE. or more high-intensity resistance exercise (HIRE) Over a 10-week training period in competitive [>80% lRM] sessions per day, of the same major junior (17-20 years of age) weightlifters, moderate muscle groups, 6 or 7 days per week.P'-^^'^*] An volumes of high-intensity (>90-100% lRM) load- extreme example of this high-frequency of training produced significantly greater strength gains ing was demonstrated by the Greek weightlifting (10.5% improvement in C&J and 9.5% improve- team during preparations for the 1996 Olympic ment in back squat) when compared with low Games, Across a 6-day training week, the Greek (3,0% improvement in C&J and 5,3% improve- team performed 13 snatch, 11 C&J, 11 back squat ment in back squat) and high (6,9% improvement and 9 front squat sessions,'^'' In senior weight- in back squat performance only) volumes of sim- lifters, dividing a given training volume across ilarly high-intensity loading.t-^^' Furthermore, it two sessions that are performed on the same day has recently been demonstrated that performing produces significantly greater increases in muscu- additional high-intensity training sessions within lar strength, hypertrophy and maximal neural ac- the same day does not lead to significantly greater tivation of the trained musculature.^'**'''^] However, performance improvements in young weightlift- as the majority of the exercises that are performed ers.t^*! In comparison, international-level senior by weightlifters are the competitive lifts and similar weightlifters (20-35 years of age) demonstrate a muitijoint movements, a large number of muscle greater ability to tolerate and adapt to higher contractions are performed by the same major volumes of high-intensity loading.f^-'--*-^^' How- muscle groups within each training session. ever, masters' weightlifters (>35 years of age) ex- Thus, the frequency of HIRE performed by hibit significant declines in training ability and weightlifters exceeds evidence-based recommenda- weightlifting performance,'^^"*^' which is in accor- tions for improving muscular strength and power dance with the well documented impaired adaptive in advanced trained adults. For example, the responses to resistance exercise with increasing American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) adult age.[^'"^'l On the basis of these findings, we propose (i) a training frequency of 4—6 sessions propose that an inverted U-shaped relationship per week; and (ii) training different muscle groups exists between competitive age and the volume during subsequent strength and power sessions to of high-intensity loading that leads to enhanced allow for adequate recovery.'^^'^'i Previous evi- weightlifting performance (figure 3). dence has also shown that repeated HIRE bouts During ballistic activities such as bench throws of the same muscle group/s result in the persistent or jump squats, absolute peak power output (PP)

High penditures incurred by the athletes. For example, Volume of a mean caloric expenditure of 39.5kJ/min was high-intensity Moderate recorded in male weightlifters during a 1 week loading preparatory phase of training characterized by a Lovi/ moderate- to high-volume of moderate- to high- intensity lifts.'^'l This value is comparable with the metabolic cost incurred by high-volume circuit-style resistance exercise.''^^ Furthermore, the training stimulus alone produced a weekly energy Fig. 3. Proposed relationship between the volume of high-intensity (90-100% of one-repetition maximum) loading that ieads to enhanced expenditure of 16456kJ.'^'l The reported mean weightlifting performance and competitive age. Junior: 17 to <20 years daily energy intakes of male weighthfters range of age; senior: >20 to <35 years of age; masters: >35 years of age. between 13 212 kJ and 19 307kJ,['3-97] ^^i^.^ ^^^ consistent with the values recommended for 'hard has been shown to occur between training loads training' male athletes (14 700-23 100kJ/day).['*l of 30-50% of lRM.I^^-"] However, more recent As expected, the corresponding relative daily en- research suggests that the load required to elicit ergy intakes values of 134-244 kJ/kg/dayP3,95-97] PP during jump squats may even be as low as are comparable with those of other strength and body mass only.t''''^'''J Therefore, the prescrip- power athletes.P^''^-'^'''l In regards to macro- tion of relatively low-intensity (i.e. 0-60% lRM) nutrient consumption, it is reported that weight- resistance exercise (inclusive of complementary lifters consume a greater number of daily servings weightlifting exercises) is often recommended to of protein-rich sources when compared with improve muscular power and dynamic athletic other athletes.P^'9'*''°°l As a result, the protein in- performance.t^'''''*'^"-^^' For example, the lighter take of male weightlifters has been reported to relative training loads used for the power snatch, range between 1.6g/kg/day and 3.2g/kg/day,''^'^^ power clean and various pulling movements result in which is high when compared with the recom- a greater maximum barbell vertical velocity, con- mended 1.2-1.7 g/kg/day for resistance train- tractile impulse and thus a greater PP when com- ing athletes.'^°'^^'^^''°'l Furthermore, weightlifters pared with maximal competition iifts.[i8-20.36,86,87] derive approximately 40-44% of their daily energy During the snatch and/or C&J, PP has been shown intake from dietary fat,P3.95,96,i02] ^^ich is also to occur with loads of 70-80% of IRM" 9-30,86,88] well above the acceptable range for health and demonstrating that the high-intensity training of athletic performance of 20-35%.['°3-'O'*' This is weightlifters results in improved PP under high- a possible consequence of their greater intake of load conditions. Therefore, weightHfters will fre- protein-rich animal products. Conversely, the quently train for the competitive lifts at intensities reported carbohydrate intakes in weighthfters of >70% of lRM.Pi.25-28] Athletes who are required 2.9-6.1 g/kg/dayP^-'^''°^l are insufficient according to generate high PP against heavy external loads to the current recommended levels of 7-8 g/kg/day (e.g. wrestlers, bobsledders and rugby union/league for athletic individuals.'""'^ Combined, these reports players) are likely to benefit from high-load suggest that the dietary habits of male weightlifters weightlifdng training.['^•^''•^^•^^•^^•^°' However, at may not yield the desired training gains and/or present there is a paucity of research examining health benefits due to the emphasis placed on the efficacy of power training with high- versus protein consumption (with high fat) at the ex- low-load weighthfting exercises in trained strength pense of adequate carbohydrate ingestion. As the and power athletes. training and competition demands of weighthfters differ to those of other strength and power ath- 4.4 Metabolic Cost of Weightlifting and letes, further research is required to (i) document Nutritionai Practices the current dietary habits of competitive weight- The metabolic demands of weightlifting train- lifters; and (ii) identify the optimal macronutrient ing are refiected in the relatively high energy ex- balance for weighthfting performance.

4.5 Influence of Body Weight Changes on lifters (i.e. <56 kg to <85 kg) are somatotyped as Performance predominately ectomorphic or mesomorphic''2^*' with body fat percentages of 5-10%."0-'22-i23,i25] Athletes participating in weight-restricted events will often train at a body mass that is 5-10% above These compositional characteristics are comparable their required competition weight class.^^' In the to weight restricted wrestlers and athletes com- week leading up to competition, a minor reduc- peting in the sprinting and jumping events of tion in body mass (e.g. a loss of 1-2 kg) might be athletics.''"•'•^^'''^^l Conversely, weightiifters in the achieved by restricting fluid intake and consuming a heavy to unlimited weight classes (i.e. <94 kg to low residue diet.'""' To 'make weight' and to avoid >105kg) tend to be more endomorphic meso- the loss of lean muscle mass, it is common for s''^^' with corresponding body fat percentages weightiifters to rapidly reduce total body water con- °''^'-'^^ These individuals possess similar tent prior to competition weigh in. This is achieved body compositions to heavyweight wrestlers, pow- via passive methods including self-limited fiuid in- erlifters, discus, shot put and hammer throwing take, acute heat exposure and/or the use of (banned) athletes."°''2''"'3'l Although the anthropométrie data diuretic agents.['°^' Whilst the detrimental effects of on female weightiifters is less comprehensive, the hypohydration on endurance performance are well limited data suggest that the body fat percentages of documented,''°^""°' less evidence exists regarding female weightiifters may be double that of male the effects of hypohydration on muscular strength weightiifters of a similar body mass.''°''^^''^^l How- and power. Evaluations of the effects of short-term ever, elite male and female weightiifters exhibit a hypohydration on maximal force production, mus- lower body fat percentage when compared with cular endurance and PP have demonstrated a de- lower level competitors of a similar total body crease'"'""^' or no change'"^""'^ in these variables. mass.''^^''^^' Thus, the resulting differences in lean Where mild hypohydration (i.e. <2% reduction in body mass becomes a major contributing factor body mass) techniques have attenuated neuromus- to the divergent neuromuscular responses seen cular performance, rapid rehydration interventions between male and female and elite versus non- over a short period of time (i.e. over a 2 hour period elite weightiifters (refer section 6.1.3).''22.i33-i40] as done in competition) have effectively restored In comparison to other strength and power performance variables.''"1 However, an athlete's athletes of a similar body mass and composition, ability to overcome the detrimental effects of dehy- weightiifters have proportionally shorter arm span dration is severely affected when hypohydration- and tibial lengths, larger biacromial breadths and induced reductions in body mass reach 3-4%.''°^-' '•*' are shorter in height.''2O''22.125,136] ^uch anthro- pométrie characteristics provide two mechanical It is thus tenable that severe hypohydration advantages when lifting maximal loads: (i) the would impair weightlifting performance. For weight- mechanical torque that is required to lift a given lifters opting to train at a body mass >3% above load is less due to shorter lengths of the resistance their competition weight, minor dietary modifica- lever arms; and (ii) the amount of muscular work tions should be introduced in the weeks leading up required to lift a given load is decreased via a to competition to achieve a body mass of <2% above reduction in the vertical distance that the barbell that desired/required for competition. Mild hypo- must be displaced.''^'l Furthermore, the shorter hydration techniques may then be implemented body dimensions coincide with a greater mean 24 hours prior to competition weigh-in, followed by skeletal muscle cross-sectional area, which is ad- effective rehydration strategies afterwards. vantageous to weightlifting performance.''•''*]

5. Anthropométrie Charaoteristios of Weightiifters 6. Physioiogicai Responses and Adaptations to Weightiifting The anthropométrie characteristics of male weightiifters have been documented extensive- The complexity, intensity and brevity of weight- jy [10,120-125] Light;, to middle-weight male weightlifting impose great challenges when attempting

to obtain valid and meaningful physiological HIRE studies in non-weightlifters indicates that data from competitive weightlifters. Furthermore, there may also be a concomitant IIX to IIA fibre- it is onerous and/or inappropriate to apply sim- type transformation.''^'^*! Conversely, a restora- ilar exercise protocols in non-weightlifters due to tion of type IIX content has been shown to occur in the technically demanding nature of the specific other athletes (i.e. swimmers, runners and cyclists) movements. As such there is limited data on the during pre-competition tapers, which involve a acute neuromuscular, cardiovascular and endo- planned reduction in training volume.''^^"'*^' How- crine responses that occur (especially in female ever, the existence of a tapering-induced reshift in weightlifters) during weightlifting training and the fibre-type composition of competitive weight- competition. Furthermore, few studies have ex- lifters has yet to be quantified. amined the adaptations of the neuromuscular and endocrine systems that arise from moderate 6.1.2 Neuromuscular Function (weeks-months) to long-term (months-years) peri- Maximal voluntary isometric peak force (PF) ods of weightlifting-specific training. However, in- and PP are strongly related to weightlifting per- vestigations into the physiological responses and formance.''*'*''**! During isometric conditions, PF is adaptations of masters' weightlifters do provide reached in the vicinity of 300-400msec.I'*"-'*''-'^'! some insight into the long-term benefits of weight- However, during dynamic weightlifting movements, lifting training. weightlifters achieve PF, PP and maximum barbell velocities in <260msec.''*''^-''*-'^^! Thus, the maximal 6.1 Skeletal Muscle Structure and Function contractile rate of force development (RFD) in the early phase of muscle contraction is of great 6.1.1 Fibre Type Composition importance to these athletes.''*''''^^-'^'*! The force-velocity properties of a muscle are in Improvements in both PF and contractile RFD part determined by the relative proportions of have been reported in male and female weight- fast-twitch (type IIA and IIX; formerly identified lifters following moderate- to long-term periods as IIB) and slow-twitch (type I) muscle fibres.'^"*-"*'! of training.P^-**'''-^^-''*^! These findings demonstrate Strength and power athletes, including weight- that the frequent high-intensity training used by lifters, exhibit mean percentages of fast-twitch weightlifters (refer to sections 4.2 and 4.3) effec- fibres in the vastus lateralis ranging from 53% to tively increases muscular strength and power con- 65%.l^''-''*^"''**! Although similar percentages have currently.''*^-'^^ As a result, the isometric PF and been reported in untrained adults,'''*'*-"*'-'^^! the peak RFD of male weightlifters is -15-20% and cross-sectional areas of type II fibres are con- -13-16% greater, respectively, when compared siderably larger in weightlifters.i"*^-""*-"*'-"**! Such with other strength and power athletes (i.e. football a structural difference is advantageous to force players, sprinters, throwers and jumpers).''^*''^^! production as type II fibres possess a greater ca- This improved muscular function may arise due pacity to generate power per unit cross-sectional to an enhanced voluntary and/or refiex-induced area when compared with type I fibres.'''*'-'^'"'^^! neural activation of motor units''**''*''*"-'*'! and/ Both the proportion of type IIA fibres and the or a selective recruitment of fast-twitch motor relative myosin heavy chain IIA isoform content [180,181] have been shown to be greater in weightlifters when During the performance of the snatch and compared with recreationally active adults.'''*^! In C&J, weightlifters have demonstrated some of addition, weightlifting performance is strongly cor- the highest absolute and relative PP reported in related to type IIA percent content (r=0.94) and the literature.''-^-'*-^! For example, during the type IIA percent fibre area (r = 0.83).["*3! Thus, second pull of maximal snatch and C&J attempts, evidence from cross-sectional studies suggests that values as high as 5442 W and 6981 W, respect- the frequent high-intensity training of weight- ively, have been reported in male weightlifters.'^-^! lifters results in hypertrophy of type IIA fi- Furthermore, the corresponding relative PP for bres.'''*^-''*'*-'''^-''**! Evidence from longitudinal male and female weightlifters range from 53 W/kg

to 56 W/kg and 38 W/kg to 40 W/kg, respective- tion of the total the lifter would theoretically achieve ly,[4,5] ^g ^ comparison, during maximal bench if they were in the super heavy-weight class with the press and deadlift exercises performed by male same lifting ability. Various other allometric scaling strength athletes, absolute PP of 415 W and 1274 W, formulae have been derived.''-''*-'^^''^^' However, respectively, have been reported''*-^' with relative many tend to yield either an overestimation or PP ranging from -4-12 W/kg.''•^' In addition, during underestimation for certain body weights. exercise tests that incorporate the lower body (i.e. In untrained and/or recreationally trained males clean pulls and various jumps) the reported PP of and females, reported sex-related differences in male weightiifters is -13-36% greater when com- absolute neuromuscular strength and power range pared with other power athletes.''^''''^^-'^'-'^^' How- from 31% to 48% and 17% to 46%, respective- ever, during upper body only exercise, no differences ly [139,189-192] However, when comparing the cur- in absolute or relative PP were shown to exist rent under 69 kg (the only common body weight between weightiifters and handball players.'^^^ class between sexes) world record lifts for youth, These findings highlight the important contribu- junior and senior male and female weightiifters, tion that the lower body makes to power devel- there is a consistent sex-related difference of opment in weightiifters. Furthermore, they may 15-20% (table I), Thus, it is evident that although be explained by the specificity of training, as hand- long-term weightlifting training minimizes the sex- ball players are required to perform repeated high- related difference in neuromuscular function, fac- intensity upper body movements (i.e. throwing) tors such as the distribution and total amount of in competition,'^^'^^' Conversely, the upper body lean body mass in male and female weightiifters will musculature of a weightlifter plays a relatively ultimately influence the expression of strength and lesser role, in comparison to the legs, during the power across all age and weight categories.'*^'^'^J snatch and As competitive weightlifting is becoming increasingly popular in masters' athletes, a number 6.].3 Sex- and Age-Related Differences in of studies have investigated the influence of in- Neuromuscuiar Function creasing age on competitive weightlifting perfor- To compare performances across the different mance and neuromuscular function,'*^"**-"^-"'^' body weight classes, Sinclair scores, based upon Pearson et al.'*^' demonstrated that, on average, current world record totals and adjusted each masters' weightiifters (aged 40-87 years) were able Olympic year, are used,''^^' The lifter's actual to generate 32% more isometric knee extensor competition total is multiplied by the appropriate force and lower body explosive power when Sinclair coefficient. The resulting score is a projec- compared with age-matched, healthy, untrained

Table I, Sex- and age-related differences in the under 69 kg world records' Category Lift Male Female Percentage of the male record Mean±SD(%) obtaihed by a female Youth Snatch 142 117 82.4 83.711.2 C&J 172 145 84.3 Total 310 262 84.5 Junior Snatch 158 123 77.8 80.0 + 2.4 C&J 190 157 82.6 Total 346 275 79.5 Senior Snatch 165 128 77.6 79.2 ±1.4 C&J 197 158 80.2 Total 357 286 79.9 a Current world records as of November, 2011. C&J = clean and jerl<.

adults. It is likely that neural factors contributed greater age-related declines in muscle shortening to this enhanced functionality in older weightlifters velocity and PP than men, which is likely due to a as no significant differences in lean lower-limb decreased neural drive and a combination of volume existed between groups,'^^' Furthermore, muscle fibre loss and atrophy.^^o'-^o^] the maximal motor unit discharge rates in the rectus femoris of masters' weightlifters have been 6.2 Bone iVIineral Density shown to be -20% greater than in untrained, age- matched adults.'"^' Therefore, it appears that long- The skeletal structures of weightlifters undergo term weightlifting training and competition has the significant adaptations in response to the large compressive and shear forces that are encountered potential to attenuate the age-related decline in during training and competition,'^22,36,203] gj^, motor unit size, number and/or function that becomes apparent after the age of 60 years.'"^"^' chemical indicators of bone formation are elevated by up to 35% in actively competitive weight- A significant reduction in type II fibre size and lifters when compared with age-matched, healthy content is associated with increasing agel"**"^""' adults.'^°''^ Furthermore, greater site-specific in- and is likely to contribute to the annual decline of creases in trabecular and cortical bone densities -1-1.5% in PP and competitive performance that have been reported in the vertebrae (13-42%), fem- has been reported in masters' weightlifters.I*^-''^! oral neck/trochanter (12-24%), tibia (9-12%) and According to Anton et al. ,1*^1 the rate of decline in radius (10%) of competitive weightlifters when competitive performance is markedly greater in compared with untrained and recreationally trained women across all weight classes.t^^' These pre- adults.'^°^"-^°'l Following -30 years of retirement vious findings are confirmed when comparing the from weighthfting, former weightlifters aged be- current under 69 kg male and female world records tween 50 and 64 years have been shown to exhibit across all age categories (figure 4). Interestingly, no a significantly greater bone mass when compared such sex-related difference with increasing age has with age-matched controls.pos) However, between been reported during the expression of maximal the ages of 65-79 years, no differences in bone strength in competitive powerlifting,'^^' Therefore, mass existed between groups.^^'l Thus, it is evi- it was concluded that only the ability to perform dent that weightlifters must maintain an adequate complex and explosive power-type exercises de- level of physical activity past the age of 65 in order clines at a greater rate in women.'^^1 These findings to attenuate age-related dechnes in bone mass. are in accordance with previous investigations, which have demonstrated that women undergo 6.3 Cardiovascuiar Structure and Function

60-| High-intensity resistance exercise increases peripheral vascular resistance, thereby stimulating concentric left ventricular (LV) hypertrophy,^"^'^''1 The increase in myocardial wall thickness arises due to the parallel addition of new myofibrils and is a = 0.90 compensatory attempt to reduce LV wall stress and systolic pressure.P"'^'^' A number of studies have 10- examined the ventricular morphology and function in competitive weightlifters.['2'-2'3-227] go^ig investigations have reported that the absolute LV mass (g) of weightlifters may be -13-30% larger than that of age-matched healthy and/or sedentary control sub- Age category (years) jects.P"''2'^'222-22^-229] However, in most instances, Fig, 4. The sex-related differences as a funcfion of age (years) the increased LV mass exhibited by weightlifters is between male and female world record tofals in the under 69 kg proportional to their total body mass, body surface category. World record totals as of November, 2011, M = masters; R^ = coefficient of determination. area and/or lean body mass, thereby indicating a

physiological as opposed to a pathological adapta- and catabolic hormones for the large part in young tion.P'9,222,228,229] -j-j^g •^^ ^f importance as LV hy- male weightlifters. Here we include where sub- pertrophy is categorized as an independent risk stantial data have been obtained, the responses of factor for cardiovascular morbid events.'^"' Con- testosterone, cortisol and growth hormone. versely, other studies have shown no significant differences in absolute or relative measures of car- 6.4.1 Testosterone diac morphology between weighthfters and healthy Testosterone is a potent androgenic-anabolic adults.'^'5.2'8.221,224,226] j^e lack of difference in hormone that is considered to be a major pro- these results may be explained by (i) the experi- moter of muscular hypertrophy, strength and mental groups being more evenly matched for power.'235'2361 The reported basal serum total tes- body dimensions;'2'5'2'^l (ii) differences in the tosterone concentrations in male weightlifters range training history of the control subjects (e.g. se- from ~14.4nmol/L to 27.7nmol/L,"^0-'^«-237-24i] dentary/untrained vs recreationally trained);'^^^' which is within the normal range for young, healthy and (iii) possible sex-related differences in cardiac untrained men (12.1-34.7 mol/L).'2'«'242.243] short- hypertrophy as only one study has examined term exercise-induced increases in total serum tes- cardiac morphology in female weighthfters.'^'^' tosterone of-17-30% have been reported in male In hght of these findings, the consensus of opi- weightlifters in response to acute weightlifting nion is that weighthfting does not induce a true training sessions of moderate to high intensity and concentric enlargement of the left ventricle as volume.'''''^^'2'*'l In addition to the influence of ex- seen in pathological conditions. ercise type, volume and intensity, the training age of The cardiorespiratory function of competitive an individual also affects the exercise-induced tes- male weightlifters, as determined by maximal oxygen tosterone response. Elite junior weighthfters with >2 consumption (VOjmsjd^ has been reported to range years training experience exhibit significantly great- between 42.0 and 50.7mL/kg/min."2i-226-228,230,23i] er exercise-induced increases in serum testosterone As expected, these mean values are similar to those when compared with those with <2 years train- of other athletes involved in short-duration high- ing experience.'^"*'! Combined, these results demon- intensity/power activities.'''^'! Short-term (8 weeks) strate that weighthfting training ehcits a response weighthfting-style training in active adults has similar to that reported for conventional strength been shown to increase both absolute and relative and hypertrophy protocols involving large muscle VO2max by ~6-7%.'22''l However, annual evalua- mass exercises.'^**"^"*^ tions over the course of 3 years of specific weight- The available data pertaining to the testosterone lifting training in competitive weightlifters revealed response to competition and competition-hke set- significant reductions in both absolute and relative tings is limited to salivary measures.'^^--^'*^' During VOsmax of -4% and 11%, respectively.'232] With official and simulated weightlifting competitions, regards to resting haemodynamics, reported values Passelergue et al.'^'*^' reported no significant changes for mean heart rates range between 60 beats per in sahvary total testosterone. From this limited minute (bpm) and 81bpm, systolic blood pres- data, it appears that competition settings fail to sure between 115 mmHg and 153 mmHg, and meet the exercise volume threshold that is required diastolic blood pressure between 71 mmHg and to induce a significant testosterone response in 93 mmHg.'2i4.22i,222,226-228,23t,233] -pj^ese data classi- weightlifters.'^^*! Xhis is in accordance with previous fy weightlifters as being 'normal' or stage 1 hyper- investigations that have demonstrated no significant tensive as per the ACSM guidehnes.^^"*! changes in total testosterone following high- intensity, low-volume, moderately long rest period duration, resistance exercise protocols.'^'^^'^'^^'^''''^^"! 6.4 Endocrine Evidence of endocrine responses and adapta- 6.4.2 Testosterone : Cortisol Ratio tions in weightlifters and/or related to weightlifting The basal testosterone : cortisol (T : C) ratio is performance are predominately limited to anabolic often used to represent the physiological strain

imposed by a training programme,'2^'"253] as it in male and female weightlifters''33,i76,24i,245,254] generally exhibits an inverse relationship with ex- and other strength athletes (i.e. bodybuilders and ercise volume.''^2.238.254-256] p^j. example, across powerlifters) when compared with recreationally a 5-week training period in elite female weight- trained and untrained adults.'242.244,26i,262] g^g. lifters, a 37.0% reduction in training volume elici- nificant exercise-induced increases in GH occur ted a mean increase of 72.5% in basal T;C similarly in men and women in response to mod- ratios.''^^' Conversely, Wu et al.'^^^^ demonstra- erate-intensity, high-volume and short rest period ted that a 54% increase in weightlifting training resistance exercise protocols (i.e. hypertrophy volume over 2 weeks resulted in a 60% reduction training).'^'*^'^^''^^^] Conversely, only minor in- in the basal T : C ratio. However, weightlifting creases in GH have been reported following con- training for >1 year and prior exposure to increased ventional strength and power protocols that use training volumes appears to attenuate this relation- high loads, low repetitions and long rest peri- ship.'^^' Furthermore, during extended training ods.'^''^'^^"^*^] In contrast to these latter findings, periods (i.e. \2—lA weeks) of varying intensity and 4.5-13-fold increases in GH have been reported in volume, experienced weightiifters have demon- male weightiifters in response to their high-intensity, strated a positive association between an increased high-power training.''^^'^'*''^^' However, these con- basal T : C ratio and maximal voluntary isometric fficting results may be explained by (i) the differ- PF and pp.[i32,255,257] ji^yg^ ^j^g routine assessment ences in the training experience of participants that of the basal T : C ratio may provide an effective has been shown to affect the magnitude of GH re- way in which to measure acute and chronic adap- lease;'^''^'^^^'^*^ and (ii) differences in the absolute tive responses to weightlifting training. and relative intensity, volume and type of exercise In competition settings, the T : C ratio is greatly performed (i.e. isolation vs multijoint exercise) in inffuenced by pre-competition anxiety and may each i decrease prior to any form of strenuous physical activity.P"*^! Furthermore, an official weightlifting 7. Recommendations and Conciusions competition has been shown to produce a higher salivary cortisol response and, thus, a greater The high-intensity, explosive nature of weight- decrease in the salivary T : C ratio, when com- lifting training and competition results in a pared with a simulated competition.'^^] However, number of structural and functional adaptations competitors with higher pre-competition salivary of the musculoskeletal and cardiovascular sys- cortisol levels also exhibited superior lifting perfor- tems. Of particular interest is that the rapid force mances.'^^' In stressful situations, salivary cortisol and power generating ability of weightiifters ex- levels have been shown to increase by 230% from ceeds that of other strength and power athletes. basal values.l^^^] A pre-competition anticipatory rise Although the use of weightlifting exercises are in circulating catecholamines'^^°-^^'] may stimulate becoming increasingly popular across a number the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone, which of sports, the frequency of HIRE performed by in turn increases cortisol secretion.P^°' As a positive weightiifters is unmatched by other athletes and association exists between increased catecholamine exceeds the current ACSM recommendations for levels and force production,'-^^'' it is possible that strength and power training. As younger and this mechanism may account for the higher cortisol older individuals of both sexes are being drawn to levels and the superior lifting performances that the sport of weightlifting, it is imperative that were reported during an official competition.'^^' further research is conducted in these populations to ensure the development of safe and effective 6.4.3 Growth Hormone training programmes. Particular focus needs to Conventional resistance exercise does not appear be directed towards understanding the acute to affect basal concentrations of growth hormone responses and long-term adaptations of female (GH).P^'] In accordance with this contention, sim- weightiifters, as the majority of existing research ilar basal GH concentrations have been reported has solely been conducted in male athletes.

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