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Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad ISSN: 1909-3063 Universidad Militar Nueva Granada

Garcés Velástegui, Pablo Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach* Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, Estrategia y Seguridad, vol. 13, no. 1, 2018, January-June, pp. 93-117 Universidad Militar Nueva Granada

DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ries.2890

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Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach*

Pablo Garcés Velástegui**

Abstract

Latin American integration has usually been considered as means to some ends, a solution to some problem. However, the discrepancy between what it is and what it has aspired to be, suggests that it is a problem in and of itself. This paper applies an increasingly influential conceptual approach from social planning literature to argue that it is not just any problem but a ‘wicked’ problem. Contrary to ‘tame’ problems, which are exact science problems, wicked ones are social or societal and, thus, a matter of public policy. Wicked problems are inter alia elusive to define, unique, inherently paradoxical, consequential, subject to many interpretations and, as such, have no right solution. Latin American integration, it is argued here, meets

* Article elaborated in work carried out at the Center for International Relations of the Institute of Higher National Studies of Ecuador and

13 (1), 93-117. DOI: https://doi.org/10.18359/ in the School of Business and International Relations of the Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador (Quito). ** Ph.D. (c) in Development Studies del International Institute of Social Studies (La Haya); Master of Public Administración del London 29 de septiembre 2017 School of Economics and Political Science, England; Master of Public Policy del Hertie School of Governance, Berlín, Germany; Master of Arts in International Relations, Universität Bremen, Germany. E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] Recibido: 6 de junio 2017 Evaluado: 14 de junio 2017 Aceptado: integration as a wicked Referencia: Garcés, P. (2018). Latin American problem: the case for a plural approach. Revista de Relaciones Internacionales, y Seguridad , Estrategia Artículo de Reflexión ries.2890 94 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD these criteria, and the implications are important for both academics and decision makers. Should regional integration continue to be approached as a tame problem, results are likely to continue to disagree with expectations.

Keywords: Latin America; regional integration; wicked problems; regionalism.

Integración latinoamericana como un problema perverso: el caso para un abordaje plural

Resumen

La integración latinoamericana ha sido considerada usualmente como un medio para un fin, una solución para algún problema. Sin embargo, la discrepancia entre lo que es y lo que ha aspirado a ser sugiere que es un problema en sí misma. Este papel aplica un enfoque conceptual de la literatura en planificación social con influencia creciente para argüir que no es uno cualquiera sino un problema “perverso”. Contrario a los problemas ‘dóciles’, que son los problemas de las ciencias exactas, los perversos son sociales o de la sociedad y, por tanto, un tema de política pública. Los problemas perversos son inter alia difíciles de definir, únicos, inherentemente paradójicos, importantes, sujetos a muchas interpreta- ciones y, así, sin una solución correcta. La integración latinoamericana, se arguye aquí, tiene estas características y las implicaciones son relevantes para académi- cos y tomadores de decisión. Si la integración regional continúa siendo abordada como un problema dócil, los resultados probablemente seguirán discordando con las expectativas.

Palabras clave: América Latina; integración regional; problemas perversos; regionalismo.

A integração latino-americana como um problema perverso: o caso para um abordagem plural

Resumo

A integração latino-americana tem sido considerada como um meio para um fim, uma solução para algum problema. No entanto, a discrepância entre o que é e o que aspirava a ser sugere que é um problema em si. Este artigo aplica uma abordagem conceitual cada vez mais influente da literatura de planejamento social para argumentar que não é apenas qualquer problema, mas um problema “perverso”. Em contraste com os problemas “dóceis”, que são os problemas das

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 95 ciências exatas, os perversos são sociais ou da sociedade, portanto, uma questão de política pública. Os problemas perversos são inter alia difíceis de definir, úni- cos, inerentemente paradoxais, importantes, sujeitas a muitas interpretações e, assim, sem solução. A integração latino-americana, argumenta-se aqui, tem estas características e as implicações são relevantes para acadêmicos e tomadores de decisões. Si a integração regional continua sendo abordada como um problema doce, os resultados continuarão discordando com as expectativas.

Palavras-chave: América Latina; integração regional; problemas perversos; regionalismo.

JEL codes: Economic Integration F15; International Relations, National Security, and International Political Economy: General F50; Trade: Other F19.

Introduction1 ty was conceived as a promising strategy to guarantee territorial integrity Latin American regional integration, and political independence (Briceño, throughout history, has been pursued 2012). As such, unification was the ans- as an answer to various questions. wer to security concerns. A number of Different concerns and ideas about efforts in South and Central America how to address these questions have illustrate this intention (Dabène, 2009; dominated different moments, and the Iño, 2013). shape the integration of the region has taken illustrates the extent of their in- At the end of the century, the United fluence. Before and during the struggle States sought to advance an integration for independence, early XIX century, initiative in the whole continent, with the idea of a united Latin America, a clear economic focus. The intention an idea of continentalism rather than was to create a large customs union. nationalism (Vieira, 2005), was virtua- By so doing Pan-Americanism would lly synonymous with independence, replace Hispano-Americanism (Da- at least for figures such as Ávarez, bène, 2009). This proposal, nonethe- Monteagudo (Iño, 2013) and Bolívar less, was received with skepticism, as a (Tussie, 2009; Gil and Paikin, 2013). In threat against economic independence the context of decolonization and the in this case, and fueled Latin American threat of recolonization by Spain, uni- solidarity anew. Regional integration

1 This paper has benefitted from the contributions of many colleagues. I am particularly indebted to Valeria Paredes for helpful discussions. I would also like to acknowledge the Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales of Ecuador as well as the Pontifical Catholic University of Ecuador for their support of this research. Any errors therein are my own. All the usual disclaimers apply.

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 96 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD was considered, again, as an answer to Finally, in light of the poor results of this problem (Briceño, 2012), adding neoliberalism, and in direct opposi- one component: anti-imperialism (Da- tion to it, in the XXI century, regional bène, 2009). integration gains impetus once more, this time under the banner of ‘post- During most of the XX century, integra- liberal integration2. The latest effort is tion was conceived as an answer to advanced as an alternative to the fai- better deal with the Latin American’s lures of previous attempts, especially condition of the periphery in an increas- the neoliberal one (Malamud and ingly globalized economy in which the Gardini, 2012). In this sense, it is ar- terms of trade were not beneficial to its guably the answer to the past and its exports (Prebisch, 1986). The aim was almost exclusive focus on economic to establish a common market, and it issues. In other words, while integra- was furthered under the framework of tion has been traditionally regarded import substitution industrialization, a as a means to economic ends, post-li- protectionist approach (The Economic beral integration seems to pursue mul- Commission for Latin America and the tidimensional ends (inter alia political, Caribbean [CEPAL, for its acronym in social, environmental). The result of Spanish], 1959). this process has been a plethora of coexisting and competing mechanisms At the end of the century, once again, with fuzzy delimitations (Tussie, 2009) integration in the region gained mo- mentum. Against the backdrop of the In this context, one question is bound increasingly dominant orthodoxy of to arise, namely, why has it proven neoliberalism, integration was con- to be so difficult for Latin American ceived as the answer to fix the re- countries to integrate? The argument gion’s economic performance by dint put forward here is that one plausi- of (trade) liberalization. Consequently, ble reason can be found in how the efforts during this period came to be problem of integration itself has been known as ‘open’ regionalism (Malamud understood. It seems that, thus far, the and Gardini, 2012; Tussie, 2009). The approach to this issue has been quite results, however, were not as expected unidimensional (and hence unidisci- and, in fact; some mechanisms like plinary), virtually dominated by eco- The Andean Community (CAN, for its nomic concerns. As great as the insights acronym in Spanish) and the Common gained from this focus have been, this Market of the South (Mercosur, for its particular approach entails constraints acronym in Spanish) were considered as well, as other dimensions (and disci- to have fallen into a prolonged crisis plines that study them) are arguably as due to this approach (Sanahuja, 2007). important as the economic one. Thus,

2 This type of integration falls within what the literature has termed “new regionalism” (Dabène, 2009)

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 97 public and foreign policy inspired by problem, as is a convention. Then, the this tradition carries its virtues but also case is made to regard Latin American its limitations. integration as a specific kind of problem, a wicked problem by applying Against this backdrop, an alternative Rittel and Weber’s (1973) approach. approach seems warranted. Instead The final section concludes. of considering it as a natural or exact science problem, the case is here made for Latin American regional Latin American Integration integration to be conceived of as a as a problem ‘wicked’ problem. To do so, based on the seminal paper by Rittel and Latin America has experienced a num- Webber (1973), originated in the so- ber of efforts of regional integration. cial planning literature, the framework The intention has been to unite the of wicked problems applied to Latin countries making up the region. Much American integration, which con- of the literature dates such experien- sists of a decalogue that differentiates ces to mid-twentieth century. Some those problems from conventional or authors (Dabène, 2009; Iño, 2013) ‘tame’ problems. As is argued below, assert, however, that the very idea of this means conceiving it as a societal Latina America as one political unit problem, a matter of public policy. preceded the notion of independent This entails recognizing the comple- states in the region. For them, the idea xity and uniqueness of the problem, of Latin America as a whole was con- the plurality of legitimate ways to comitant to the idea of independence tackle it, and, the fallibility of know- in late XVIII and early XIX centuries. ledge regarding its definition and solu- This suggests that after independence tions. In so doing, the purpose of this Latin America was in fact fragmented paper is not to identify specific causes or balkanized and efforts ever since to for the challenges that regional inte- form a larger political unit (above and gration has faced and faces currently. beyond the member nations) could be Instead, it is to provide an alternative conceived as a re-integration of sorts. interpretation of the problem lest we Such approach can help explain the persist with the same definitions of it constant interest of the region on this and the same solutions, which can be undertaking, especially in light of its part of the pro-blem themselves. unsuccessful attempts.

In that endeavor, I first set the stage Be that as it may, what is much clea- with a brief review of Latin America’s rer is that the history of Latin Ameri- efforts to integrate as a region (or sub- can integration shows many attempts region) and argue why it is useful to re- to unite with significant variation in gard its integration as a problem in and scope, motive, and depth. This is par- of itself, not only has a solution to a ticularly true for the second half of the

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XX century, the period in which I shall The second moment can be placed at focus. In this sense, there are at least the end of last century. It was charac- three moments of (sub-) regional in- terized by the dominance of a particu- tegration in Latin America. These are lar brand of economics: neoliberalism. characterized by quantity (meaning In 1991 Mercosur was established and an unusual number of integration ini- so was the Central American Integra- tiatives at any given time), by quality tion System (SICA, for its acronym in (meaning a distinct approach to inte- Spanish). In 1994 the North American gration initiatives) or both. Free Trade Agreement (Nafta came into force, and the Free Trade Area In the first wave, Central America of the Americas (FTAA) initiative was seems to have taken the initiative with born (although it never took off). In an educational and eventually mainly the same year, the Association of Ca- economic focus. As early as 1948 the ribbean States (ACS) was established. Central American Council for Higher Additionally, the Andean sub-region Education was created (Csuca, for received new impetus in 1996 when its acronym in Spanish). In 1951 the it the Andean Pact became the CAN. countries of this sub-region formed This scenario paints a picture of a the Organization of Central American segmented and overlapping regiona- States (Odeca, for its acronym in Spa- lism, described as a “messy outcome” nish ), and by 1960 they signed a mul- (Malamud and Gardini, 2012, p. 116). tilateral treaty the objective of which was to pursue economic integration The third moment of integration in via the creation of the Common Mar- Latin America takes place at the start ket of Central America (MCCA, for its of the XXI century. The Bolivarian Al- acronym in Spanish). Efforts in this di- ternative for the Americas (ALBA, for rection were also carried out later on its acronym in Spanish) is founded throughout the region. In 1960 the in 2004, and so is the Community of Latin American Free Trade Association South American Nations (CSN). The (Alalc, for its acronym in Spanish) was latter became the Union of South established, in 1965 so was the Cari- American Nations (Unasur, for its acro- bbean Free Trade Association (Carifta, nym in Spanish) in 2007. Four years for its acronym in Spanish) and by later, in 2011, the Community of 1969 the Andean Pact followed suit. Latin American and Caribbean States In 1973 Carifta became the Caribbean (Celac, for its acronym in Spanish) was Community (Caricom), in 1975 the created. Finally, and during this same Latin American and Caribbean Eco- year another integration project with nomic System (SELA, for its acronym in mainly an economic focus was born, Spanish) was established, and in 1980 the Pacific Alliance. For the first and the Alalc became the Latin American second, at least, the interest has moved Integration Association (Aladi, for its from economic issues to physical inte- acronym in Spanish). gration, political identities and secu-

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 99 rity concerns (Malamud and Gardini, legal instrument that with which the 2012). The latter, although includes Common Market of Central America other aspects (such as education), is is created. This document, signed in dominated by a free market economic 1960, commits the parties to establish focus and, as such, appears rather as a the common market no later than five response to the first ones. years after the instrument has come into force (MCCA, 1960). However, The diversity of coexisting Latin Ame- this goal was not met in the time allo- rican integration projects suggests a cated for it, leading to reconsiderations situation of sub-regionalism rather about the process, its objectives and than regionalism per se. This has been the strategies to achieve them. described as a segmented and overlapping regionalism and has been ar- About the case of the Caribbean: the gued that “[it] is not a manifestation of Caricom. This mechanism was esta- successful integration but, on the con- blished with the goal of constituting a trary, signals the exhaustion of its po- common market by 2008 (Sanahuja, tential” (Malamud and Gardini, 2012, 2007). This objective has not been p. 117). This can be further exempli- met, and its future looks rather uncer- fied when looking into some of the tain. Hence, it has also failed to fulfill most successful projects. Given that its original aspirations (Malamud and success can be quite difficult to assess, Gardini, 2012) perhaps it is best to conceive of it as survival3, as it much less debatable to Apropos the case of South America: regard an extinct integration initiative the Mercosur. The constitutive docu- as a failed one. This is particularly im- ment of the Mercosur, the Asunción portant in the case of Latin America. If Treaty, states that a common market the surviving projects show problems, should be constituted by December it becomes clear that their success, 31, 1994 (Mercosur, 1991). This goal measured with a higher bar (i.e. be- was not met. In fact, according to yond mere survival) is rather doubt- Malamud (2011) this integration ful. In order to illustrate this scenario, mechanism rather than a common I shall review one existing mechanism market, it is an imperfect customs un- in each sub-region, so as to cover the ion (Sanahuja, 2007). Moreover, given whole region: recent events, he asserts that in the near future it is more likely to go back Regarding the case of Central America: to a free trade zone than to move to- the MCCA. The Managua Treaty is the wards a common market.

3 As Axline (1981, p.176) pointed out more than three decades ago “[…] one of the most remarkable features of Latin American regional integration has been its capacity to survive and remain active and dynamic in the face of numerous obstacles, shortcomings, and failures.”

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Concerning the case of the Andean This gains greater meaning when the sub-region: the CAN. This case is one concept problem is defined, as it is of the oldest surviving integration here, as the discordance between nor- mechanisms in the region. However, mativity and reality (Rittel and Webber, its original design had to undergo pro- 1973). The evidence presented found changes in the 1990s. Similarly, above points in that direction gi- and perhaps most importantly, it has ven the evident mismatch between witnessed the exit of one-third of its “what ought to be” (what integra- members4. In 1976 Chile decided tion initiatives have been expected to leave and in 2006 Venezuela de- to be) and “what is” (what integra- nounced the Cartagena Treaty. More- tion initiatives in fact are), i.e., the over, the customs union project failed discrepancy between expectations after Peru and Colombia signed FTAs and actuality. But problems can be of with the US. different sorts, and to contribute to addressing that of Latin American in- Thus, it seems that Rosenthal’s (1991) tegration, it is warranted to ask what assessment a quarter of a century ago kind of problem it is? This question is appears to be valid today as it was the issue to which I now turn. then. According to him, regardless of the objective, whether political, deve- A caveat is necessary. In what follows, lopmental o simply trade promotion, despite the notorious differences the initial aspirations of these mecha- among the various mechanisms, the nisms seemed overly ambitious, since discussion refers to Latin American in- many of them have failed to meet their tegration broadly conceived. It focuses objectives in the timetables established on a characteristic shared by many, in their treaties. That is, they have not perhaps most, of them: the elusive- only not addressed the problems they ness of the consolidation of the pro- sought to solve, but they have proven cesses (i.e., their problematic nature). to be problematic themselves. This does not deny the uniqueness of each project (in fact it is a highlight in Hence, the discussion thus far has the argument below) but as a point of shown that although Latin American departure for present purposes, the di- integration has been conceived as a fficulty that Latin American Integration solution to certain problems (e.g., se- has had to meet their original goals curity, economic growth, inequality, and aspirations (within the timetable education, international insertion), it as originally stated) as a common de- has proven to be a problem in itself. nominator is warranted.

4 Further, recently, the President of Ecuador has questioned the economic benefits that this integration project offers to this country and has stated the possibility of leaving it.

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Latin American integration as math or engineering, except for rare a wicked problem exceptions, can be solved in an agreed upon manner, if specialists in the field To make sense of the problem of Latin are given the relevant information American integration, I follow Rittel (Rittel and Webber, 1973). That is, 1) and Webber (1973) and apply their the problem can be accurately de- framework of “wicked problems” to fined; 2) the right solution can be the case at hand. The discussion can found; and, as a corollary of the above, usefully begin with a differentiation 3) both are mostly non-controversial. between “social” and “natural” or This character makes social problems “exact” problems. As I argue below, inherently different from exact ones; it the former encompasses the issues makes them ‘wicked’5. concerning government and policy; the latter is mostly related to those Hence, the problems with which the with which natural and exact sciences natural or exact sciences are concerned are preoccupied. can be considered “tame.” This means that these problems, based on the right Latin American integration is a “social” information and expertise, can be de- problem. Social in the scientific sense fined and are problems for which the that it is a problem that involves peo- right or correct solution is, in principle and the plurality of wills, motives, ple, findable. In other words, tame desires, and notions of “the good” they problems can be clearly identified as entail. That being so, it can also be con- can be whether or not they are solved sidered a “societal” problem. In short, (Rittel and Webber, 1973). Conversely, social or societal problems involve the wicked problems lack these characte- different worldviews of stakeholders. ristics and are prevalent in public po- As such, “[…] societal problems are licy issues (Head, 2008). As Rittel and matters of public policy” (Incropera, Webber (1973, p. 160) assert, “[social, 2016, p. 14). governmental and policy problems] are ill-defined; and they rely on an elusive The importance of this distinction can political judgment for resolution (Not be better grasped by contrasting it with “solution”. Social problems are never “natural” or “exact” science problems. solved. At best they are only re-solved- The latter, especially in disciplines like -over and over again)”.

5 Following Rittel and Webber (1973, p. 160), these problems are called “[…] ’wicked’ not because these properties are themselves ethically deplorable. We use the term ‘wicked’ in a meaning akin to that of ‘malignant’ (in contrast to ‘benign’) or ‘vicious’ (like a circle) or ‘tricky’ (like a leprechaun) or ‘aggressive’ (like a lion, in contrast to the docility of a lamb).” This ought to be complemented with Brown’s (2010, p. 62) contribution when she states: “‘Wicked’ here refers to issues that prove to be highly resistant to resolution through any of the currently existing modes of problem-solving.”

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Beyond their social character, there the coexistence of judgments of right are certain characteristics that wicked and wrong, continuity and change, problems have that allow their iden- etc. Further, given than wicked pro- tification. It is a decalogue proposed blems are inherently societal problems, by Rittel and Webber (1973). To attest it is rather unlikely that consensus can whether Latin American integration is, be reached in pluralistic societies with in fact, a wicked problem, it is nece- competing (and conflicting) interests ssary to analyze it against that frame- on the definition of a problem, let work. In light of the discussion above, alone its solution (Incropera, 2016) the importance of this exercise is twofold: 1) defining the problem is a cha- In the case of regional integration, a llenge in itself and therefore a valuable basic illustration shall suffice to make contribution; and, by so doing, 2) it this point. Regional integration can be can contribute to the generation of regarded as a multidimensional (i.e., plausible solutions, since it can prove multidisciplinary) issue, even if con- very detrimental to treat a wicked ventionally it has been mostly commer- problem as a tame one, or viceversa. cial (as in the case of the free trade zones and customs unions). This is 1) There is no definitive formulation because it involves political decisions of a wicked problem that can have inter alia political (e.g., lost of sovereignty), social (e.g., labor In the case of tame problems, an ex- conditions), environmental (e.g., re- haustive and complete formulation gulations) motives as well as impacts. can be provided. Such definition con- Therefore, the information required tains all the relevant information re- by a stakeholder to make sense of the quired for the problem-solver to find problem is likely to differ depending a solution for it (assuming, of course, on their background (professional or they are expert in the field). otherwise). A political scientist, a law- yer, and an economist will look at the Wicked problems, on the other hand, problem differently given their distinct are notoriously difficult to define and expertise for problem-solving. In other in fact, they elude conclusive defini- words, people’s backgrounds provide tions. This is because the information them with specific tools for problem- required to understand them depends solving; the upshot is that as useful as upon the problem-solver’s idea to solve they can be in certain situations, they them. According to Brown (2010), this also run the risk of being considered is an underlying paradox (the source all-purpose instruments, materializing of the problem being the basis for its the saying ‘if all you have is a hammer, resolution), and wicked problems rest everything looks like a nail’. on such paradoxes. Moreover, she illustrates this by showing that the pu- What is the problem of Latin Ameri- blic service can be characterized by can integration? Quite a few plau-

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 103 sible answers are depending on the identity. Consequently, depending on approach. According to economic the ideas (theories) favored by poli- theory, perhaps the problem is the cy and decision makers as well as all lack of sufficient scope and depth in other stakeholders, the problem will be transborder trade (Balassa, 1961b). Af- defined in different ways according to ter all, regional trade, between 2000 what may be regarded as the solution. and 2004, moved from 16 % to 20 % of the region’s trade, and although Moreover, each of these interpreta- this shows an upward trend, it is still tions may entail further causes. In the relatively low (Sanahuja, 2007). If this first case, how can trade be facilitated? is to be considered the problem, the If signing FTAs is the alternative, how solution will be to facilitate regional can countries be motivated to engage trade further. From a neofunctionalist in this process? Concerning the se- perspective, it might be argued that cond, how can sovereignty be trans- it is the lack of supranational institu- ferred? If creating institutions leading tions (Haas, 1970). The literature has to the establishment of autonomous characterized Latin American inte- organisms is the solution, how can gration projects as being intergovern- this be accomplished? Finally, in the mental in nature6 (Sanahuja, 2007), third case, how can identity be gene- relying on inter-presidential dynamics rated? Improving regional communica- (Malamud and Gardini, 2012). Should tion can be an option to address this, this be regarded as the problem, the but how can this be done? Hence, solution would be to incentivize the should the problem-solver formulate transfer of sovereignty. A transactional the problem regarding the causes for analysis, in turn, may find it is the ab- the discrepancy between what-is and sence of a community with an identity what-ought-to-be, then they have also (Deutsch, 1957) that curtails furthering formulated the solution. the projects. In fact, it has been argued that it is an ‘elitist’ regionalism since it As such, articulating the problem of does not have the support of a wide Latin American integration is itself the part of the population and there is no problem. And it can only be defined common identity (Sanahuja, 2007). when a solution to it is also defined. As can be gathered from the above, This is because the process for the the solution, in this case, would be former is the same as the process for to strengthen the quantity and quality the latter. Rittel and Webber (1973, p. of communication channels directed 161, emphasis in the original) argue towards the generation of a regional that “[p]roblem understanding and

6 In fact, for one of Cepal’s past general secretary, “The problem of Latin America is that the proper strategy to melt the different nationalisms into a single Latin American nationalism has not been found.” (Dabène, 2009, p. 41)

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 104 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD problem resolution are concomitant above showing the failure of many to each other” and that, in fact, “[t]he projects to meet their original objec- formulation of a wicked problem is the tives suggests deficiencies that can be problem”. due to a number of factors, such as: an underestimation of the scope of the 2) Wicked problems have no goals, overestimation of the capacity of stopping rule all parties to achieve them, rushed establishment of goals for whatever rea- Because tame problems can be solved, son (where political ones often trump the problem-solver knows when to all others). In this sense, it could be stop. Clear criteria have been esta- argued that such failures are attribu- blished to recognize when the solution table to problems related to the design for these problems has been found. of the projects and, therefore, to their Therefore, once the solution is found, nature and their inherent logic. How- the work is done. ever, that position actually supports the argument elaborated here since it en- That is not the case when it comes to tails that should there have been more wicked problems. Following from the time or resources for a better design, previous point, since the processes for the problem could have been solved. understanding a problem and (re)sol- To be sure, the actual reasons are an ving it are the same (because there are empirical question. However, for this no criteria to determine sufficient un- purpose of this essay suffice it to note derstanding of a problem), and since that the evidence shows that one after the causal chains for a wicked pro- the other, integration mechanisms has blem have no end, then the problem- been unable to meet the aspirations solver can always dig deeper, go fur- set out by their members and in each ther, do better. Thus, additional re- case, those in charge could have been sources, (time, effort, etc.) can always done better. improve the probabilities that a better understanding of the problem, This brief review shows how the and thereby a better solution, can be approaches have been singular in fo- found. Consequently, the problem- cus or one-dimensional and super- solving exercise does not stop due to ficial along the causal chain. Perhaps the intrinsic logic of the problem. It the more telling evidence of this is the must stop for reasons like the scope of fact that, despite the modifications a project, resource limitation, etc. that some of the mechanisms have su- ffered, some integration projects face The problem of Latin American inte- considerable difficulties, to the extent gration has been tackled in different of being “in crisis,” as in the case of ways at different times, for reasons CAN and Mercosur (Sanahuja, 2007). certainly beyond the nature of the Therefore, analysis of the problem of problem. The examples described Latin American integration does not

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 105 stop due to reasons inherent in the in nature, for instance seeking only to logic of the problem but due to rea- create only free trade zones, it may be sons external to it. argued that they are singular or one- dimensional. Granting, for the sake of 3) Solutions to wicked problems are argument, the pertinence of such ap- not true-or-false, but good or bad proaches, it still does not mean that consensus is likely to be found regar- Once again, building on the last point ding problem definition and solution. above, given that there are criteria to Stakeholders with a background in the determine when a tame problem has same field, with analogous expertise been solved, there are criteria to ob- and the same information, may reach jectively determine when a proposed different conclusions. This is because solution is correct or false. This is, of even within the same discipline there course, one of the virtues of the exact can always be contending schools, sciences, to which tame problems are theories, methods that can be used. associated. The goals of Latin American integra- The case of wicked problems is di- tion have evolved along with socio- fferent. Various analysts, parties, stake- economic changes in the member holders can all be equally prepared countries, changes in the nature of the and entitled to assess the definition of world economic situation, and chan- a problem and therefore also its pro- ges in thinking about economic deve- posed solution. Although all can judge lopment. This evolution, considered in those proposals, none has the authority the context of different approaches to to establish formal norms to determine the study of integration, has created a correctness. Thus, the evaluation can situation in which some of the princi- only be carried out in terms of good or pal effects of integration (increases in bad instead of true or false. trade, investment) may be interpreted as successes or as failures depending Going back to the first point above, on the perspectives of the analysis regional integration can be usefully (Axline, 1981). considered as a multidimensional problem. As such, different experts Furthermore, regional integration in (or stakeholders more broadly) from general and Latin American integra- various disciplines may understand the tion, in particular, is a political deci- problem differently and thus provide sion, not a technocratic one. This different legitimate solutions. How- means that the interests, preferences, ever, no one set of criteria applies to all and expectations of all stakeholders, of them to assess truth or falsity. More- which in turn answer to such aspects over, this applies even if this multidi- as their beliefs, culture, and ideology, mensionality is not conceded. Certain need to be factored in when defining integration projects that are economic the problem/finding the solution. This

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 106 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD does not apply only to the diversity of of which can turn out to be unexpected member States of a given integration and undesired. Therefore, there can be project, and the issue of intergovern- no ultimate test to assess the solution. mentalism (Sanahuja, 2007), but also to the many different interest group This situation can be attested at the within States and their worldviews. first rung of the economic integration Therefore, any solution that comes to ladder: the free trade agreement. FTAs the fore is best understood in terms of have been considered as a means to “good” or “bad,” or perhaps even in an end, the latter being regional inte- terms of “better” or “worse”. gration (Balassa, 1961a, 1961b). Thus, they can be regarded as a solution to 4) There is neither an immediate the problem of integration. The lo- nor ultimate test of a solution to a gic of FTAs, in brief, consists on enlar wicked problem ging markets to have access to greater demand, which incentivizes competi- With tame problems, attempts towards tion among producers and eventually their solution can be accurately eva- improves productivity and competi- luated within relatively short periods tiveness in supply via the possibility of time. Ideally, how good or bad an of reaching economies of scale. This attempt to solve a problem can be de- eventually has benefits for consu- termined on the spot. That is because mers (lower prices and higher qua- 1) the solutions proposed have limited lity) and producers (higher revenues/ or constraint effects, which facilitate salaries and better quantity and qua- complete evaluation; and, 2) the tests lity of employment). Nevertheless, as to assess a proposed solution are en- the case of Nafta shows, this is a pro- tirely under the control of the people mise difficult to keep. Particularly in with the expertise and information. the case of employment, real wages and agriculture, this treaty has had Not so with wicked problems. When unwanted impacts for Mexico (Po- it comes to these problems, solutions laski, 2006; Stiglitz, 2004). Moreover, have effects over a virtually limitless not only can free trade agreements time and space. Any solution for a have undesirable economic reper- wicked problem can generate waves of cussions but their effects can reach consequences over an unbounded pe- a wide array of issues. In the case of riod, which may outweigh the benefits Nafta, such consequences have been or advantages of the solution. Further, identified in areas such as the envi- these consequences may affect a mul- ronment (Davis and Kahn, 2010) and tiplicity of dimensions or spaces, many even human rights7 (Martínez, 1994).

7 For a wider discussion on the relationship between international trade and human rights see Abbott, Breining-Kaufmann and Cottier (2006).

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The illustrations above, indeed, pre- tions on samples instead of popula- sent rather early assessments. The full tions have effects on the lives of the effects of Nafta and all dimensions people making up the sample) and affected will remain to be a black once implemented they cannot be box. Not even long-term analyzes reversed. This is particularly evident can aspire to be exhaustive. Because in the case of public policy. Large pu- of their nature, as has been argued, blic works (e.g., dams, canals), for all integration projects defy conclusive intents and purposes, are irreversible evaluations. “The full consequences as well as long-lived, and so are public cannot be appraised until the waves programs (e.g., school curricula, health of repercussions have completely run services, cash transfers). In both cases, out, and we have no way of tracing many people’s lives would irreversibly all the waves through all the affected be influenced by the solution adopted, lives ahead of time or within a limited not to mention the amounts or invest- time span” (Rittel and Webber, 1973, ment such projects would require, p. 163). which is also irreversible.

5) Every solution to a wicked On that account, any attempt to solve problem is a “one-shot-operation”; the problem of Latin American inte- because there is no opportunity gration can prove irreversible in many to learn by trial-and-error, every senses. First, the costs required for attempt counts significantly this effort are irreversible. In the case of Unasur, countries contribute more Exact science problems usually allow than 50 million USD in total per annum for various runs or attempts at solving a (Noboa, 2016). The reason is twofold. tame problem. That is, failed attempts On the one hand, there are the more rarely are prohibitive. In fact, those evident direct costs in monetary terms. sciences are built on the experimen- On the other, there is the opportunity tal design (Moses and Knutsen, 2012), cost, which, in the case of public po- which means that trial and error is an licy, is the public policy that cannot be essential part of their inner workings. funded (Le Grand 2007). Moreover, it is not evident that the outcome of such attempts, whether Second, as already argued, FTAs can successful or not, has a fundamental be considered as a popular solution impact on the course of societal affairs. and, as such, a useful illustration in this discussion. In basic terms, they seek Conversely, every solution for wicked to eliminate discriminatory barriers problems is always consequential. for products originated in the signing Their implementation leaves prints countries (Malamud, 2011), i.e., to that cannot be undone. Solutions can- liberalize the transborder circulation not be rehearsed (since they involve of goods and services. As such, they people and their lives, even applica- affect the terms of exchange in trade

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 108 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD between countries. Depending on the 6) Wicked problems do not have terms agreed upon, this can be be- an enumerable (or an exhaustively neficial or detrimental to national pro- describable) set of potential duction and people’s lives. Should an solutions, nor is there a well- unsatisfactory deal be struck, products described set of permissible from country A may be pushed out of operations that may be incorporated its own market due to more competi- into the plan tive products from country B being im- ported. The consumption of some is The set of tools or resources that can the wage of others (Chang, 2014) and be used to solve problems in the exact without a demand eventually, there is sciences is well defined. Mathematics no supply. In time, ceteris paribus, this is the prime example here since the means unemployment for local indus- set of operations available to solve its tries. The Nafta, again, provides a case problems is explicit. Therefore, in the in point (Polaski, 2006). case of tame problems, it can be determined when all possible options to Additionally, the same applies to solve the problem have been identi- more advanced forms of integration. fied and considered. For example, in the case of common markets, defined by the free mobility Wicked problems or policy problems of factors of production, the circula- present a different scenario. Possible so- tion of labor can be consequential. lutions for them are, in principle, infinite. Although none of the integration There is no exhaustive or comprehen- initiatives in the region has reached sive enumeration of all the alternatives the common market phase, there that can be used to tackle them. There has been increasing interest in facili- is always room for creativity and novelty tating the mobility of people across in the generation of solutions. borders of member States in different mechanisms (Malamud, 2011). This, In such fields of ill-defined pro- of course, has irreversible effects for blems and hence ill-definable so- migrants and their families. lutions, the set of feasible plans of action relies on realistic judgment, These examples show that solutions the capability to appraise ‘exotic’ for the Latin American integration ideas and on the amount of trust problem can have irreversible effects and credibility between plan- and be longlived. Those characteris- ner and clientele that will lead to tics mean that failed attempts become the conclusion, ‘OK let’s try that’. prohibitive and every trial counts lest (Rittel and Webber, 1973, p. 164) countries have to incur in trying to reverse decisions and correcting for The history of Latin American integra- undesired effects, which can pose a tion illustrates this quite well. There different set of wicked problems. have been many attempts of different

Latin American integration as a wicked problem: the case for a plural approach REVISTA - Bogotá (Colombia) Vol. 13 N.° 1 - Enero-junio 109 kinds and degree-seeking to answer problem-solver can never be certain the question how can Latin American that, between two cases, the differenc- countries integrate? Should it focus on es do not outweigh the commonalities trade (in a neoliberal manner) as in between them. This is so because of the case of the Pacific Alliance? Per- each problem belongs to its context, haps can it be a social aspect such i.e., it is grounded in a particular time as higher education, exemplified by and place (Brown, 2010). Hence, Central American’s experience with classes, groups of families cannot be Csuca? Or should it be political as established for these problems. They in ALBA? Or multidimensional as in cannot be pigeonholed. “For wicked Unasur? Is it possible to integrate the problems, one solution does not fit all” whole region under one project like (Incropera, 2016, p. 14). Celac? Or are sub-regional arrangements like CAN, Mercosur, SICA more perti- It is not difficult to see how Latin Ame- nent? Given the precedent of the region rican integration meets this criterion. By in this matter, it is not too far-fetched to much the region’s experience has been assume that, should these initiatives fail; unsuccessful because it has failed to new alternatives will emerge. follow the European Union (EU) model (Dabène, 2009), purportedly the most 7) Every wicked problem is advanced and successful regional inte- essentially unique gration project to date (Dieter, 2009; Kassim, 2007). Mechanisms aiming to As argued above, tame problems can be constitute a common market such as accurately defined. This entails that they the MCCA and the Mercosur exemplify can also be characterized. Despite the this. However, as argued above, these great variety of shapes and forms they very projects illustrate the difficulty can take, they can still be adequately in fulfilling the requirements of that known. Their features, similarities, and model, since they are yet to do justice differences can be stated precisely. This to their names. facilitates classification within groups or families in such a way that they can Moreover, given the context depen- be matched with the set of tools that is dence of wicked problems, calling applicable for each of them. Latin American integration unique can be misleading. In fact, each integration The opposite is true for wicked pro- mechanism is unique. As such, this can blems since every one of them is be illustrated by moving from emula- essentially unique. By “essentially ting practice (doing as the EU has done) unique” it is meant that despite the to adopting theory (following a pres- number of properties that two or more cription). A close look at the founda- problems may share, there always may tional treaties of the cases studied here be at least one distinguishing property shows an effort to follow the EU but, that is of overriding importance. The by so doing, arguably also adopt the

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 110 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD influence of Bela Balassa’s (1961a, blem has been adequately defined, the 1961b) phases to regional integration, process of finding a solution entails the namely, 1) free trade zone, 2) customs scrutiny of the causal explanation for union, 3) common market, 4) econo- that discrepancy. Tame problems are mic union, 5) political union. However, relatively straightforward in this regard. each mechanism has experienced idio- In the exact sciences, addressing the syncratic difficulties at different levels, cause of the problem is the solution. which makes their problems unique. For example, the CAN has lost a few In the case of wicked problems, it members and faces the challenge of the should be recalled; the problem bilateral trade agreements its members is defined in terms of the solution. signed with external parties. The Alalc, in Thus, the very definition or formu- turn, had to undergo important changes lation of the problem depends on in order to survive, such as renounce what are considered to be its causes. its commitment to FTAs and provide Moreover, the causal chain can be, a more flexible scheme (challenging in principle, infinite. Therefore, ad- thereby Balassa), establish explicit su- dressing the solution poses a new pport for relatively less developed states wicked problem. In this sense, the and go beyond trade to incorporate de- original or first problem becomes a velopment goals. And other integration symptom of the new or second pro- projects have their particular problems. blem. To solve the second problem, What this suggests is that integration à once again, its causes have to be la Balassa is not a one size fits all solu- addressed, and this will become tion and believe it is akin to treating another wicked, “higher level,” pro- Latin American integration as a tame blem still, of which the second one problem. That is, it has been diagnosed was a symptom. Thus, the farther as a case belonging to the family of “in- the causal analysis goes, the higher the tegration” and given the treatment that level it reaches. To complicate matters apparently has worked in those cases. further, there is no predetermined co- From this point of view, post-liberal inte- rrect level at which wicked problems gration efforts such as Celac or Unasur, should be addressed. There is no such with their multidimensional approach, thing as a natural level nor can it be can provide useful information in this determined on logical grounds. This discussion in the upcoming years. presents a conflict for the problem- solver. On the one hand, they should 8) Every wicked problem can be not address symptoms but problems. considered to be a symptom of On the other, they should seek to another problem reach the highest level possible but the higher the level in which the pro- Problems have been conceived of here blem is formulated, the more general as the discrepancies between what-is it becomes and the more difficult it is and what-ought-to-be. Once the pro- to take action.

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As was argued above, Latin American truth is found (i.e., the only correct integration can be studied from diffe- answer), the tame problem is solved. rent perspectives and depending on The only accepted methodology that the framework adopted; different the problem-solver ought to follow in conclusions can be reached. For illus- such ambitious undertaking is well es- tration, I shall only make a theoreti- tablished: positivism. I cannot dwell on cal comparison using neofunctionalist the implications of this approach here theory (see Haas, 1970), arguably one I have done so elsewhere (see Garcés, of the most relevant for regional inte- 2016) and the literature offers insight- gration. From this point of view, one of ful accounts (Caldwell, 1994). For the causes for the lack of consolidation this section suffice it to illustrate this of Latin American integration could be methodology by its guiding compass, the absence of a transfer of sovereignty the hypothesis. To solve a problem, a to the supranational level, since pro- hypothesis is tested. In basic terms, a hy- jects have established intergovernmen- pothesis predicts a state of affairs, usua- tal schemes solely. The cause of this, in lly a relationship between a couple of turn, can be found in the insufficient variables under certain conditions. If cooperation (in kind and amount) on the relationship holds, i.e., the state of matters of mutual interest that can affairs is confirmed, the hypothesis is generate spill-over effects on others accepted, if not, it is rejected. leading to the creation of institutions to address them. The causes of natio- Hypotheses stated to solve a wicked nalism have further been discussed by problem have more than one way to different disciplines and depending on be rejected or accepted. Depending on the preference of the problem-solver, the theory, ideology or worldview used the causal chain will reach ever higher to approach the problem; the problem- levels along that path. solver will pay attention to different aspects of the problem. This becomes 9) The existence of a discrepancy evident in the case of the professional representing a wicked problem can practice: economists, sociologists, law- be explained in numerous ways. The yers, anthropologists are likely to tackle choice of explanation determines the same wicked problem in quite di- the nature of the problem’s fferent ways. One may argue that at resolution least these disciplines have a minimum of scientific standards, established by What I have thus far referred to as sol- their academic communities. Even this ving problems in the exact sciences, can be questioned, given the plura- i.e., solving tame problems, is akin to lity of views existing within disciplines the generation of knowledge under the (Russell, 2010). But, for better or worse, positivist framework. The natural scien- wicked problems are not to be solved by ces are dominated by the pursuit of technocrats (only). They are societal pro- certainty to find the ‘truth.’ When the blems, which require political solutions.

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Accordingly, several non-scientific ex- and shared among its members” (CAN, planations may be used to accept 1969, own translation). “[…] to acce- or reject a hypothesis. As Rittel and lerate [the member states’] processes Webber (1973) state: of economic development with social justice” (Mercosur, 1991). Different That is to say, the choice of explana- projects have different motivations, but tion is arbitrary in the logical sense. one that is present in most of them, one In actuality, attitudinal criteria guide way or another, goes beyond measu- the choice. People choose those ex- rable goals, namely, solidarity, frater- planations which are most plausible nity, commonality (of history, culture, to them. Somewhat but not much etc.). It is an empirical question to exaggerated, you might say that evaluate the importance of the latter. everybody picks that explanation of However, the constant presence of this a discrepancy which fits his inten- element, and its emphasis on recent tions best and which conforms to developments such as the ALBA and the action-prospects that are avail- Unasur, certainly make it an extraordi- able to him. The analyst’s ‘world- narily (political and) relevant one. view’ is the strongest determining factor in explaining a discrepancy 10) The problem solver has no right and, therefore, in resolving a wi- to be wrong cked problem. (p. 166) Closely related to the above, solving Motives guiding integration processes tame problems is a matter of hypo- can be found in the documents by thesis testing. In the exact sciences, it which these initiatives are generated. is understood that hypothesis (alterna- In this sense, it can be seen that the tive solutions to a problem) are there justification for integration in Latin to be refuted. The more tests or refu- America has been made in terms of tations that the hypothesis can with- “[...] to improve the living conditions stand, the better it’s standing8. That is of [member states’] peoples” (MCCA, how knowledge grows in positivistic 1960). “[…] to fulfill the hopes and as- terms (Caldwell, 1994) and, this case, pirations of their peoples for full em- it is how problem-solving techniques ployment and improved standards of grow. Therefore, the problem-solver work and living” (Caricom, 1973). “[…] is not blamed for the rejected hypo- to achieve [certain ends] through the theses, provided that they have follo- generation of integration and coopera- wed the scientific rules. The trial-and- tion system seeking development that error approach mentioned above finds is economic, equilibrated, harmonic its corollary in this aspect.

8 For a review of positivism’s approach to evaluate knowledge claims, as well as a plausible alternative for International Relations inquiry, see Garcés (2016).

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Wicked problems do not show this un- for mistakes and should not expect to derstanding. Due to the fact that they have full support for their decision. The are societal problems, solutions seek to same solution can have very different change some part of the world. In fact, interpretations depending on the pers- wicked problems are generated by pective. For example, how economic the society in which they are set and, integration has been carried out has thus, their resolution requires changes been interpreted quite differently, in in that society (Brown, 2010). As such, opposing ways in fact, from different they can be consequential in people’s sectors. While FTAs have been ada- lives, and no tolerance is given to the mantly promoted by right-wing politi- problem-solver. They are liable for cians and policymakers in the region, the solutions they implement and their they have been repudiated by those repercussions, which, as argued above, affiliated with the left. The opposite, are nearly infinite and impossible to left of center initiatives opposed by fully assess. Moreover, this is further right-wing activists, has also been ha- complicated by the plurality of world- ppened. In the history of Latin Ame- views that stakeholders may have. It rica, at different times, different camps would not be realistic to assume that have come out on top. In the second consensus can be reached among all half of the XX century the region en- stakeholders regarding the definition gaged in an effort to integrate under of a wicked problem and its solution. a protectionist framework: import What can be deemed acceptable for substitution industrialization. Defen- some may not be for others. Hence, it ders of the free market condemned this is likely that the problem-solver will al- initiative while its detractors supported ways be at fault for their decision from it. More recently, whereas the Pacific some perspective. “We are thus led to Alliance can be considered as a victory conclude that the problems that [socie- for the free market, the FTAA, the last tal] planners must deal with are wicked great effort to liberalize the whole con- and incorrigible ones, for they defy tinent, is its greatest lost. In both cases, efforts to delineate their boundaries the divergence between advocates and and to identify their causes, and thus detractors was remarkable. Regardless of to expose their problematic nature” the outcome, the burden of the blame (Rittel and Webber, 1973, p. 167). inevitably fell over the problem-solver.

Regional integration is a political decision with significant effects on peo- Conclusions ple’s lives that can extend over an undetermined period of time and can Latin American integration has been spread over a multiplicity of areas and conceived as a solution or an answer to dimensions. Because of this, the pro- address different problems and challen- blem-solver (usually the head of state ges. The many initiatives and the trans- or government) has virtually no room formations that they have undergone

Pablo Garcés Velástegui 114 REVISTA DE RELACIONES INTERNACIONALES, ESTRATEGIA Y SEGURIDAD show the constant interest in integration The argument presented here is not but also that this project is a problem in favor of exclusion but favor or in- in and of itself. What kind of problem? clusion. Singular or unidimensional Adopting the definition of a problem as approaches have provided great in- the discrepancy between what-is and sights about the social world in ge- what-ought-to-be, and following Rittel neral and Latin American integration and Webber’s (1973) seminal contri- in particular. However, in light of the bution to the social planning literature, rich diversity of worldviews produced this paper has argued that Latin Ameri- by different perspectives on the same can integration is a wicked problem. matter, paying attention to only one of them to define and solve a problem Wicked problems are social or societal can be problematic as each might hold problems and, as such, a matter of pu- only one piece of the puzzle. Conse- blic policy. As opposed to tame or exact quently, in light of argument above, science problems, wicked ones are in- this is rather an invitation to welco- ter alia elusive to define, unique, inhe- me, with healthy criticism, different rently paradoxical, and consequential, approaches, disciplines, ideologies, subject to many interpretations and, and perspectives, to the definition and as such, have no right solution. Latin (re)solution of the problem of Latin American integration appears to meet American integration. That is, this is a these criteria, and the implications are call for plurality. important. Whether for academics or practitioners, for all stakeholders, This has implication for both acade- in fact, treating it as a tame problem, mia and practice. In academia, the the most conventional and pervasive literature shows that integration of the approach, is likely to (continue to) de- region is mostly studied from a unidis- liver poor results. ciplinary orientation. This is perhaps to As well as different forms of go- be expected since policy and decision vernance and changes in ways of makers are influenced by academic re- living, resolution of wicked pro- search. Thus, this would entail a call to blems requires a new approach to engage in more inter- multi- and trans- the conduct of research and to the disciplinary research. In practice, given decision-making based on that re- that this is a societal problem, it is all search. Rather than following the the more important to listen atten- fixed trajectories of pre-existing re- tively to all stakeholders. If all continue search pathways, addressing wicked to talk past each other, the problem problems involves the inquirer and of and the solution to Latin American decision-maker in exploring the integration is likely to remain the pro- full range of investigative avenues. verbial elephant and those concerned (Brown et al. 2010, p. 4) with it, the proverbial blind men.

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