4~ Comparative Analysis of the Selection Process and Content of
Television International News in the United States and Koreai.A Case
Study of the U.S. CNN PrimeNews, Korean KBS 9 O'clock News and
SBS 8 O'clock News Programs.
A Dissertation Presented to
The Faculty ofthe College ofCommunication of
Ohio University
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctor ofPhilosophy
by
Chun n Park
June, 1994 © 1994 Chun II Park
All Rights Reserved
11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my committee members, Dr.
Don M. Flournoy, Dr. Sung Ho Kim, Dr. Guido H. Stempel III and especially Dr.
Charles E. Clift III for their guidance, encouragement and support, both in the classroom and during this project. My deepest gratitude in particular goes to Dr. Clift, the committee chair, who believed in and backed the research from the start. His constant input was greatly appreciated and helped keep the research in focus. He was a thorough, patient and supportive editor ofevery chapter, which he promptly returned.
I am also deeply grateful to Dr. Flournoy, for his advice and support throughout my doctoral program, and giving me the opportunity to do research in
CNN. Without his cooperation this project would have been impossible. My sincere thanks also go to the Dr. Stempel and Dr. Kim who gave their support, comments and suggestions.
Acknowledgments must be paid to the professors of Telecommunications, who in various fields have helped me during the course. Their enthusiastic instruction has been ofmuch help in the completion ofthis work.
I would like to thank Dr. Woo Hyun Won, my former advisor, for his support and encouragement for the past fifteen years.
IV Thanks are also due to the two special persons at Athens--Paster Ken Sang
Lee and Dr. Sung Sik Hong--who made my sojourn there special.
I wish to express my appreciation to my parents, Dr. Si Woo Park and Dr.
Jung Hee Suh, for their patience and love. They have been not only my first educators
but also my lifelong supporters. The pray, devotion and reassurance ofmy mother
have always been great influences on my life.
My warmest gratitude also goes to my uncle, Tae Woo Park, and my aunt at
New York for their love and support. I want to say thanks my brothers, Chun Wook
Park and Chun Bo Park, and their family in my country for their patience, love and
support.
And especially, I am eternally grateful for the love, devotion and support of my wife, Rye Kyeong. I could not have completed my course work and dissertation without her. My two sons, Han Seung and Kyung Seung, provided significant inspiration and motivation.
v CONTENTS
CHAPTER I. mTRODUCTION I
1.1 Purpose and Significance ofthe Study 2
1.2 Three Theoretical Approaches to the Study ofNews Organization and News Selection Process 4
1.3 Outline ofthe Study 8
CHAPTER II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 9
2.1 Studies oflntemational News Gatekeeping and Selection Process 9
2.2 Participant Observation Studies on the Newsroom Control Mechanisms and Factors ofthe News Selection Process 14
2.3 Comparative International Studies ofTelevision International News Content 17
2.4 Studies ofMain Actors in News Content 20
2.5 Theoretical Framework ofthe Study 22
2.6 Research Questions 24
CHAPTER III. METHODOLOGy 26
3.1 Research Methods and Sample Periods 26
3.2 Sample Selection ofTelevision News Organizations 30
3.3 Content Analysis 33
3.3.1 Coding 33
3.3.2 Coding Reliability 35
3.3.3 Coding Instruction 35
VI 3.4 Survey 37
3.5 Data Analysis ofthe Content Analysis and Survey 38
3.6 OperationalDefinitions 39
3.7 Participant Observation 42
3.7.1 Data Collection 42
3.7.2 Observationand InterviewAnalyses : 44
CHAPTERIV. RESULTS 46
4.1 SurveyResults 46
4.1.1 Comparative Analysis ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Internal Journalist/Organization and External Political/ SocialFactors for the InternationalNews Selection Across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS Television News Organizations 47
4.1.2 Comparative Analysis of the Degree ofinfluence of the IntrinsicContent-Oriented and ExtrinsicContext OrientedFactors for the InternationalNews Selection Across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS Television News Organizations 49
4.2 Participant Observation Results 60
4.2.1 Observation Analysis ofNewsroom EditorialProcedures for the Selection ofInternational News in CNN, KBS and SBS 60
4.2.2 InterviewAnalysis ofTelevision Journalists' Perceptions on the International News Selectionand Control Mechanisms in C'NN, KBS and SBS 80
4.3 Content Analysis Results 88
4.3.1 Comparative Analysis ofthe Main Topics ofIntemational and DomesticNews Stories in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clockNews and SBS 8 O'clock News 89
Vl1 4.3.2 Comparative Analysis oftheMain Actors ofInternational and Domestic News Stories in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News 94
CHAPTER V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 104
5.1 Summary and Implications ofFindings 106
5.1.1 Survey Results for Research Question One 106
5.1.2 Participant Observation and Interview Results for Research Questions Two and Three 107
5.1.3 Content Analysis Results for Research Questions Four, Five and Six 111
5.2 Conclusions 114
5.2.1 Uniformity ofCoverage in the Korean News Network 114
5.2.2 Economic Consideration at CNN and Political Consideration at KBS and SBS 115
5.3 Contribution ofthe Research Method 116
5.4 Further Research...... 117
BffiLIOGRAPHY 120
APPENDICES 127
ABSTRACT
Vl11 LIST OF TABLES
1. Sample Time Periods ofthe Three Research Methods. 30
2. The Number ofNews Workers Interviewed in CNN, KBS and SBS. 42
3. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Internal Journalist! Organization (I) and the External Political/Social Factors (E) for the International News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS. 52
4. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Internal Journalist! Organization (I) and External PoliticallSocial Factors (E) for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS. 54
5. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Intrinsic Content- Oriented (N) and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors (X) for the International News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS. 56
6. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Intrinsic Content- Oriented (N) and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors (X) for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS. 58
7. Comparison ofthe Lead Stories ofCNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 83
8. Comparison ofthe Main Topics ofAll News Stories in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 97
9. Comparison ofthe Main Topics of International News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 98
10. Comparison ofthe Coverage ofNinety International Events Between CNN PrimeNews and KBS 9 O'clock News. 99
11. Comparison ofthe Coverage ofNinety International Events Between CNN PrimeNews and SBS 8 O'clock News. 99
12. Comparison ofthe Coverage ofNinety International Events Between KBS 9 O'clock New and SBS 8 O'clock News. 99
IX 13 Comparison ofthe Main Topics Between Domestic and International News in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 100
14. Comparison ofthe Quoted Main Actors ofAll News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 101
15. Comparison ofthe Quoted Main Actors ofInternational News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 102
16. Comparison ofthe Quoted Main Actors ofInternational News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 102
17. Comparison ofthe Social Status ofthe Main Actors ofAll News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 103
18. Comparison ofthe Social Status ofthe Main Actors oflntemational News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. 103
x LIST OF FIGURES
1. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Internal Journalist! Organization and External Political/Social Factors for the International News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS. 53
2. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Internal Journalist! Organization and External Political/Social Factors for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS 55
..., -'. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Intrinsic Content- Oriented and Extrinsic Context-Oirented Factors for the International News Selection Between C~~ and KBS/SBS. 57
4. Comparison ofthe Degree ofInfluence ofthe Intrinsic Content- Oriented and Extrinsic Context-Oirented Factors for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS. 59
5. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of
the CNN " International News Gathering. tI 68
6. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of the KBS " International News Division." 69
7. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of
the SBS It International News Division.It 70
8. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of the CNN " PrimeNews." 77
9. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of
the KBS " 9 O'clock News. It 78
10. The Flow Chart ofthe International News Selection Process of the SBS " 9 O'clock News." 79
Xl Chapter I.
Introduction
Television news organizations. Television journalist. Television news content in the United States and Korea. Domestic and International news. Gatekeeping. International news selection process. Internal and external factors. Organizational control system. Newsroom editorial procedure. Government regulation of broadcasting. Main actors in the news content.
The daily agenda of reports, called "news," produced by the television news
organizations is not the inevitable product ofchance events; it is the result of decisions
made by the television journalists within a news organization. Journalists have the
discretion to select their own news events. The news orientations ofjournalists lead them to select certain news stories and reject others. However, the crucial decisions as to definition ofnews--what will and what will not be covered--are made not by the individual journalist but by executives of the television news organization. The news organization has absolute control over its product--news. In controlling the news product, the news organization attempts to satisfy certain basic requirements that will allow it to continue as a viable business. It must maintain a national audience for its advertisers. It must satisfy the ground rules laid down by the government or, in the case of the U.S., Federal Communications Commission (FCC), which licenses televi- sian news organization. It also must maintain credibility as a news medium. And it must conform to budgetary and time restrictions to maintain profitability (Epstein, 1981). Even in choosing and presenting certain news events, journalists must conform
to the editorial policies and needs of the news organizations that employ them. They
can, of course, assert idiosyncratic opinions in the news reports; but if they are to succeed, the news report they provide must retlect the organization's view of reality.
Ultimately, news must be viewed as the by-product ofthree factors: events, the televi sion journalist's perceptions ofthe events and the written and unwritten rules oftelevi sion news organizations.
1.1 Purpose and Significance of the Study
The principal purpose ofthe research is to examine the main factors influencing the international news selection processes oftelevision journalists, editorial procedures of the newsrooms, and news contents of the main news programs among different types and sizes of television news organizations in different countries and different cul tural settings. For the purpose of the study, the research is divided into two main parts: a survey and participant observation ofthe international news selection process, and a content analysis of domestic and international news stories originating in the
U.S. and Korea.
It is still not clear why television journalists make the choices they do. For ex ample, why do journalists select certain international news stories and reject others?
To understand their views ofthe world, it is important for us to examine this selection, process in their decision making. It is a complex process, influenced by many factors
2 that may vary considerably from media organization to media organization, from coun try to country, from culture to culture. Many researchers suggest that the international news selection process is mainly governed by professional and personal values, but that these values are influenced by organizational or external factors.
This study compares very specific aspects of the international news selection process: the main internal/external and intrinsic/extrinsic factors influencing the in ternational news selections of television journalists, editorial procedures of newsroom and the organizational/external control systems ofthree different television news orga nizations in the U.S. and Korea--CNN, KBS and SBS--as seen through participant ob servation of each newsroom, through in-depth interviews and through surveys of their news personnel.
A number of researchers have also attempted to explain how media news con tent is shaped by media routines, by journalist socialization and attitudes, social and in stitutional forces, and other influences (Gaunt, 1990; Wallis and Baran, 1990).
This study analyzes how news content reflects television journalists' viewpoints and how organizational or external forces act on the content. To comply this goal, this study compares what types and what quantities ofdomestic and international news are reported, and who are the main actors quoted as the news shapers or news makers in three different main news programs--CNN "PrimeNews," KBS "9 O'clock News" and SBS "8 O'clock News"--using content analysis.
3 This cross-national study will provide a kind of "triangulation" of findings on
the international selection processes and news contents among the three different tele-
vision news organizations in two different cultures. Such a plan of study could lead to
comparative theorizing and a better conceptual base about the relative influence ofthe
various factors affecting the international news selection process. It should identify
some features of news content which could be later applied to other television news
organizations.
1.2 Three Theoretical Approaches to the Study of News Organization and News Selection Process
This research examines the entire news process, but focuses on the selection of international news. As background, it is appropriate to look at some ofthe ways news organization and news selection process have been studied from the theoretical and methodological standpoints.
Communication researchers have examined news organization and news selec- tion process using three distinct theoretical approaches in terms of levels of gatekeep- ing: the journalist-centered gatekeeping approach, the organization-centered gatekeep- ing approach and the external social/institutional gatekeeping approach (Hirsh, 1977;
Cohen, Adoni and Bantz, 1990; Shoemaker, 1991). Even though all three approaches are process-oriented perspectives on the news and each requires the examination of various interactions, they hold different theoretical points of view on the news selec- tion process and the news organization.
4 The journalist-centered and organization-centered gatekeeping approaches have focused on. journalistic practices, or organizational.cansttainta.and their effects on the selection of news, and have stressed the fact that the nature of news is a prod uct of news organizations and their news personnel. However, these studies point to two different levels ofconstraints within the news organization.
The journalist-centered gatekeeping approach, originally proposed by Lewin
(1947), was applied to the study ofthe news selection process in pioneering studies by
White (1950), Cutlip (1954) and McNelly (1959). The basic assumption of this ap proach is that news is manufactured bX individual journalists-who select and interpret/a number of events, based on an unclear vision of society. This model focuses on deci sions and jurisdictions for decision given by the individual gatekeeper--"Mr. Gates."
Also, this approach emphasizes individual journalists themselves, including their pro fessiona] ,values, norms, .stereorypes and judgments aswell as their fundamental view cftheworld and their place in society (Galtung and Ruge, 1965; Tunstall, 1971; Gans,
1979).
The organization-centered gatekeeping approach developed from an awareness ofthe drawbacks ofan oversimplified individual gatekeeping approach. This approach argues that to take the individual as the gatekeeper is to deny the great body of knowl edge about the social and organizational context of individual behavior (Biley and
Lichty, 1972). Thus, the basic assumption of this approach is that news is an orga nizational product, generated by routine occupational practices in an institutional
5 setting with specific performance demands as well as limits of time and resources
(McQuail, 1991). This model focuses on the organizational structure and routines of
news operations as well as the economic and medium-related organizational con
straints determining them, such as cost, technology, programming time and particular
key roles in decision making within the organizational and structural context (Epstein,
1973; Schudson, 1978; Tuchman, 1978).
In terms of "routines of news operations, II in particular, communication schol
ars have developed them as patterned, routinized, repeated practices for forms that
media workers use to do their job (Shoemaker and Reese, 1991). Where routines were more important, scholars found uniformity in selection across gatekeepers. Sass
er and Russell's (1972) study showed that routine guidelines on story selection in fluenced gatekeepers' decisions for major news but that, for less prominent stories, gatekeepers' individual preferences or medium differences were more important.
Hirsch (1977) suggested that the media's selection of categories of news items more closely parallel each other than is the case with individual stories. In a later study,
Stempel (1985) found substantial agreement among three television networks and six newspapers on the "mix" of news stories by category, but he found disagreement about which specific stories should be used. Riffe, et al. (1986) again found that ABC,
CBS and NBC provided similar view of world and kind of events that were found in the world. Stempel (1989), in his more extended study, indicated that three networks were fairly similar in topics covered and in selection of stories, but not with either
6 CNN or PBS. Routines seem to dictate the overall patterns of stories, and individual
gatekeepers decide which particular stories will be used within that standard
framework.
The third theoretical perspective, the external social/institutional gatekeeping
approach, has sought to identify additional constraints external to the news organiza
tions (Gitlin, 1980; Hall, 1981; Turow, 1984). The common interests of all these
scholars are the political, economic, and social systems within which the news orga
nizations operate. Included in the external factors are the specific interests ofpowerful
groups who serve as news sources, the audience's interest, the relative autonomy
(formal and informal) of the news organization from the political groups including
government and from business enterprises, and the ideologies of the power-holding
groups within society. From this theoretical perspective, the exigencies of the news
selection process itself are seemingly less significant to the news product than are the
influences ofthe environment within which the news organization operates.
Each approach has some limitations in its ability to explain the entire news selection process. This study will combine the three gatekeeping approaches in ex amining the selection process of international news in the television news organizations.
7 1.3 Outline of the Study
This chapter has outlined the research focus and significance of the study in
terms of three theoretical approaches to the study of the news organization and news
selection process.
Chapter two reviews the previous literature on studies of international news
gatekeeping and selection process, participant observation studies on newsroom con
trol mechanisms and factors of the news selection process, comparative international
studies of television international news, and studies of main actors in news contents.
After reviewing previous studies, this chapter will also provide the alternative direc
tions for the research and suggest research questions.
Chapter three gives an overview ofhow the study was conducted including re
search methods, sample television news organizations and sample period. It also in
cludes a discussion of the participant observation methodology employed and gives a
detailed description ofthe categories for the content analysis and survey questionnaire.
Chapter four reports the results of the participant observation, survey and con
tent analysis according to the research questions.
Chapter five discusses the results of the study and provides a summary and conclusion. The chapter also outlines some future research directions suggested by the methodology and findings ofthe study.
8 Chapter II.
Review of the Literature
A thorough review of the mass communication journals and other research lit erature published over the past twenty years reveals no previous work on the specific foci of the study: the comparison of 1) The selection process ofthe international news story by television journalists, and newsroom editorial procedures and control mecha nisms; and 2) Domestic and international news coverage of the three television news organizations in the U.S. and Korea by using participant observation, survey and con tent analysis.
There are a number ofstudies which have some general relevance to the study.
They fall into four main categories: 1) Studies of international news gatekeeping and selection process; 2) Participant observation studies on the newsroom control mecha nisms and factors of the news selection process; 3) Comparative international studies oftelevision international news content; and 4) Studies ofmain actors in news content.
2.1 Studies ofInternational News Gatekeeping and Selection Process
Many media researchers have studied about how the gatekeeping of interna tional news stories is routinized. They have presented a variety of theoretical explana tions about various influences on the international news story gatekeeping process. In the gatekeeping studies, events are transformed into news as a succession of news
9 editors decide whether or not to rely items to their news audiences. Each successive
gatekeeper scans a universe of events, selects those items newsworthy under various
criteria, and forwards them along the chain to generate a news universe of events for
the next decision maker. The aim for such studies is to determine what factors cause
an event to be selected as newsworthy (Ahern, 1984).
Among those studies, the theoretical thinking on the determining factors can be
grouped into two perspectives: context-oriented and content-oriented, with the former
being the dominant paradigm.
The content-oriented approach, which has been principally oriented to the
study of the domestic news selection process, focuses on the characteristics and news
values inherent in the event itself regardless of the external factors. In this approach,
the traditional news values such as timeliness, impact or significance, human interest,
and conflict (negative nature ofthe events) are regarded as important intrinsic qualities
in the international news selection process. The assumption is that, irrespective ofthe
origin and context, an event that satisfies the above criteria tends to be judged news
worthy by the editors (Chang and Lee, 1992).
Benjamin (1978), in her study on gatekeeping functions oftelevision news pro
ducers, mentioned timeliness, human interest and proximity in that order as the most
important news factors in the news story selection. Maki (1980) described "impact" as the most frequently mentioned criterion for the news selection process, while Abbott
and Brassfield (1989) noted that "Iocalness" was the most important reason for the
10 story selection for both television and newspapers. With regard to the selection ofthe
international news, Galtung and Ruge (1965) developed a framework of analysis con
sisting of a list of "news factors" and offered twelve factors as the properties of the
newsworthiness of international events. These determinants involve the frequency, in tensity, unambiguity, meaningfulness, consonance, domestic news dominance, unex
pectedness, continuity of ongoing event, composition, elite nation and elite actors focus, personalization, negativity. More recently, Peterson (1979) confirmed all the news criteria guiding news choice suggested by the Galtung and Ruge's study except for consonance and added another category, the individual journalist'S cultural difference.
Unlike the content-oriented approach, the context-oriented approach looks at the origin of the international event and its relationship with such contextual variables as economic relations, cultural relevance, political ties, geographical proximity, and na tional rank in international hierarchy. Also, this approach considers the external or en vironmental factors such as political influences, the influences of the interest groups, audience's response, and organizational needs on the news selection process. The as sumption is that international news selection is determined by the context in which in ternational news events occur, and is influenced by the external or environmental factors. However, conclusions vary from study to study.
Ostgaard (1965) indicated that government control of the media and media ownership affect the selection of international news stories with some intrinsic factors
11 such as the use of pictures, proximity in geography and culture, and sensationalism.
Rogengren (1970) introduced a few related concepts in the study of international
news: degree of importance, physical or cultural distance of the events, and degree of
the predictability of the events. Hester (1973), in his study of international news and
information flow from the international relations perspective, suggested that news con
flicts, cultural affinities and economic association between the U.S. and event country,
and the hierarchy of nations in terms ofpopulation, economic development, and politi
cal stability are determinants of international news selection. Ahem (1984) reported
that a nation's gross national product (GNP), trade and political relations with the U.S.
were important determinants ofinternational news coverage.
More recently, several scholars have suggested more specific contextual or ex
ternal factors influencing the selection of international news. Chang, Shoemaker and
Bredlinger (1987), in their study ofdeterminants of international news coverage in the
U.S. media, noted that relevance to the U.S., deviance ofan event, potential for social change, and geographical distance were the best predictors in the selection of interna tional news stories for the U.S. media. Cohen, Adorn, and Bantz (1990) noted that two systemic factors were important values in Western broadcast organizations. The first factor is the relationship between the broadcast organizations and government, and the second factor is the form and degree of competition that each of the news or ganizations faces from other media organizations. Also" they argued that these exter nal factors would have an even greater impact in Eastern bloc and Third World news
12 organizations. Chang and Lee (1992) found that threat to the U.S. and world peace,
timeliness, and U.S. involvement were important factors in the choosing of
international news stories. Also, they indicated that individual journalist differences
and organizational constraints were important determinants to select international
news events.
Only a few Korean scholars have presented theoretical explanations about in fluences on the news selections process in Korea. Nam (1970) argued that countries involved in the same event would report actions taken by each other. Park (1987) found that the national rank of the international hierarchy (e.g., GNP, population) and geographical proximity were the important factors in choosing international news sto ries in Korea. Y00 (1989) found that individual gatekeeper's news orientation was an important factor in selecting news stories, according to organizational goals and edito rial policies. Yoon (1991) indicated that the main internal control factors affecting the international news selection were the management policy and principles of the news organization, the training program for the reporters, the working conditions, the level oftechnological knowledge, the foreign language skill, and the union activity. He also found that the nation's foreign policy, the power group, the political and cultural tradi tion, the economic pressure ofthe advertisers, and audience group were the important external control factors influencing the news selection process in Korea. Kwon (1992) noted that the complicated relationship between the heads ofbroadcast companies and political ruling power restrained the activities of the television journalists. Also, he
13 argued that Korean television journalists were oriented to the Western television journalists' values in terms ofthe selection ofthe international news.
The studies discussed above have been touched on most of the factors in-
fluencing the international news selection process. No single factor is able to account for the significant amount ofvariance in international news selection. The results tend to vary from study to study, mixing content-oriented and context-oriented factors.
This study, therefore, examines the relative influences of all content-oriented and context-oriented factors affecting the selection of the international news discussed in the previous studies.
2.2 Participant Observation Studies on the Newsroom Control Mechanisms and Factors of the News Selection Process
Communication researchers have provided a wealth of information on the newsroom control mechanisms and factors affecting the selection of news through par- ticipant observation within newsrooms and by conducting in-depth interviews with television journalists. Some studies have focused on the organizational constraints, some have dealt with professional and personal values, and others have emphasized extra-media factors such as political influences.
White (1950) reluctantly concluded that the selection of news was a highly subjective process strongly influenced by the gatekeeper's own experience, attitudes and expectations rather than by organizational constraints. However, this earlier lin- ear and individual-oriented model was deficient primarily because of a narrowness of
14 perspective (Bailey and Lichty, 1972). After perceiving the limitations of an over
simplified model, several communication researchers have begun to emphasize an indi
vidual journalist's role in the organizational context and look for various structural
constraints.
Breed (1955), in his study of social control in the newsroom, considered how
an individual journalist was socialized to learn the editorial policiesofthe news orga
nization. He suggested that an individual gatekeeper was affected .. by socializing forces
in the newsroom and described him as an organizational man influenced by internal and
external factors in the bureaucratic structure ofthe news organization. Garvey (1971)
showed that the longer a television journalist remains in a news organization the more
he conforms to and believes the values held by his immediate supervisor. Tunstall
(1971) also indicated the influence ofpeers or ff competitor-colleaguesIt among special
ist correspondents. Epstein (1973) examined control systems on the operation ofthree
network services--NBC, CBS, and ABC news. He concluded that certain consistent
directions in selecting, covering and reformulating events over long term periods were
related to organizational needs, especially economic considerations. Fishman (1980) suggested that news was a practical organizational accomplishment and that news workers heavily relied on the bureaucratic definition of the phenomena they report.
He discussed this by reference to three dynamics in the American news selection and production system: the bureaucratic logic, the normative logic, and the economic logic ofnews reporting.
15 Some scholars have focused on the outside forcesaffecting the operations of
the news organizations. Altschull (1984) argued that the media have become agents of
those forces that wield power in the economic, political, social, and cultural environ
ment. Bagdikan (1987), in his study of professional personnel and organizational
structure in the mass media, argued that news selection was manipulated by a "private ministry of information" whose members were the leaders of business and industry linked together through interlocking directories. Batayneh (1988) examined the crite ria and factors involved in selecting and writing news for Jordan Television's main
Arabic News Program during a thirteen-week period. The study revealed that the government's influences, policies, censorship and interference in the selection and as signments of news progressively offset the gatekeepers' professional news preferences and outlooks in carrying out their news gatekeeping and affected the audience interest in JTV's news practices. Gans (1979) investigated news selection criteria, observing news production at CBS and NBC network news. He emphasized interaction of journalists with sources and audience in the news selection process.
Through examining the previous studies on theparticipanrobservation studies of newsroom, as Gans (1979) suggested, we can classify them into five theories about the operations of newsroom: journalist-centered, organization-centered, event centered, outside-centered and sources-centered.
16 2.3 Comparative International Studies of Television International News Content .
Most examinations of television international news have been national in char-
acter, looking at the way a given nation's media report that news. But several commu-
nieation scholars have expanded this topic to comparative international studies of
television international news output.
Golding and Elliot (1979), in their book, Making the News, studied broadcast-
ing organizations and the operation of newsrooms in Ireland, Nigeria and Sweden.
Even though each country represents a very different society, these observers found a surprising number of similarities sueh as strongly patterned, repetitive, predictable work routines and responsiveness to external influences in newsroom. They stressed that three different broadcasting organizations provide same international news and same views on the world. The International Association for Mass Communication Re- search (lAMeR) (1980) conducted a large study comparing international news content in a selection of print and broadcast media in twenty-six countries covering every con- tinent. This study found that there is a set of"top 10" }\it news items, with a basic agenda of quite limited and fairly well shared "hot topics" among the examined coun- tries. The same international news stories were featured in Iran as in the U.S., in the
USSR as in Nigeria, even if the news angle was not always the same. Another ambi- tious international comparison of television international news is credited to Jack
Friedman and colleagues (1981). They examined the way four countries--Israel,
17 Jordan, the Soviet Union and the U.S.--reported the same week's news on television.
They noted that entertainment value rated high in the choice of domestic and interna
tional news stories in the U.S. Israel and Jordan television news were geared to par
ticular national needs. Siune (1983), in a nine-country study oftelevision portrayals of
the first European Community elections of 1979, found certain transnationally com
mon elements in journalists' contributions to the campaign, including emphases on
events, conflicts, personalities, topicality and the election strategies of the main con
tenders. Wallis and Baran (1990) also studied news content in a number ofD.S., Brit
ish and Swedish broadcast media. What they found in American broadcast
news--CNN Headline News and CBS-- was its apparent lack ofinterest in internation
al news, at least compared to that evidence by the traditional European news
organizations--BBC, INN, Swedish-TV. Cohen, Adoni and Bantz (1990), in their
cross-national study ofnews reports of social conflict in five countries, found that the
participating countries shared several relevant common features and that television news was an important source of information about political, social and economic af fairs occurring at home and abroad.
Some researchers have analyzed the comparison of international news cover age by the Third World media and by the Western media in terms of .deY~~9P~~nt orientatio9 of international news (Kirat and Weaver, 1985; Ogan, 1987). These noted that the developing world aired development news significantly more often than did the media in the developed world.
18 With regard to the New International Information and Communication Order
(NITCO) on the news flow from the developed countries to the developing countries,
there has been a long-standing concern over balance and accuracy in international
news coverage and content. Third World critics and some Western scholars have
characterized the U.S. media coverage ofthe Third World countries as being minimal
and biased. Many studies of the U.S. news media have pointed to imbalances and
biases in the carriage of international news. These studies have found that the image
of Third World countries portrayed in the news was distorted and slanted toward sto
ries on internal crises., conflict-laden events, violence and other bad news (Rosenblum,
1979; Boyd-barrette, 1980; Smith, 1980~ Wilhoit and Weaver, 1983; Adams, 1982;
Larson, 1984; Stevenson and Shaw, 1984; Weaver, Porter and Evans, 1984; Hachten,
1987).
However, several studies on CNN World Report--an internationally distributed
newscast in which any countries are free to present their own news from their own
perspectives to an international audience--have suggested a new trend in the use ofde velopment journalism by both developed and developing countries. These studies found that for domestic news, both blocs focused more on development stories. But for international news, the developed countries gave their international news a devel opment orientation significantly more often than did the developing countries.
(Dilawari et al, 1991; Park et aI, 1992).
19 2.4 Studies of Main Actors in News Content
The studies ofmain actors in news content can be divided into those which fo-
cus on news shapersand those which focus on news makers. News shapers are pres
ented as detached analysts. They are frequently described with impartial titles such as
specialist, expert, economist, political scientist or scholar. What distinguishes news
shapers from other individuals who appear on newscast is that they are not part ofthe
event. Their sale function is to provide" commentary or analysis, although their state
ments are never described as such.
News makers, on the other hand, are part of a bona fide news event. News
makers include government officials, military leaders, businessmen, criminals and vic
tims, leaders of advocacy organizations, sportsmen and common people. These peo
ple are clearly identified as representing specific sides within situations of controversy or conflict (Soley, 1992). In effect, news stories are reported about what these indi viduals have said or done.
Only a few studies have examined main actors as the news shapers or news makers in news content. Galtung and Ruge (1965) found that negative events and events concerning elite nations carried more items which feature elite people and ex cluded information about ordinary men and women. Sreberny-Mohammadi et. al
(1985), in their study ofinternational news reporting in media, found that the frequent ly seen actors on the wire services and even on local news tended to be government officials and politicians. Mowlana (1986), in his book, Global Information and World
20 Communication, noted that international news covered elites rather than the masses.
Brown, et al (1987) and Whitney, et al (1989) found that government officials were used more frequently than any other type of source in print and broadcast news re- ports. Whitney, et al and Honeys and Croteau (1989) also discovered that representa- tives of civil rights, human rights and labor groups were underrepresented as news makers. Dilawari, Stewart and Flournoy (1991) also noted that the most frequently appearing actors in international news on CNN World Report were political actors, but that there was a significantly greater number of academics, scientists and common people appearing on the CNN World Report than on the U.S. wire agencies and local media which 1979 study of IAMCR analyzed. Park, Dilawari and Flournoy (1992), in their development orientation study of domestic and international news on the CNN
World Report, found that although political/government officials were the most fre- quent actors in the international news from both the developed and developing coun- tries, developing countries covered a significantly higher percentage of the political/government officials than did the developed countries.
As previous studies have shown, most main actors were elite people. The sim- pIest explanation for the homogeneity among main actors was offered by Gans (1979), who observed that television journalists "find it easiest to make contact with sources similar to them in class position, as well as race, age and other characteristics."
21 2.5 Theoretical Framework of the Study
Through examining previous works on the international news gatekeeping and
selection process and participant observation studies of newsroom control mecha nisms, such contributions were valuable; but, while they brought some order to the wide array of factors that affected news selection, they failed to explain how the vari ous factors affected each other. Most previous studies using surveys, in-depth inter views, or participant observation have not combined all the internal/external and intrinsic/extrinsic factors influencing the international news selection process.
This study will incorporate the main factors from the previous works into fol lowing four categories:
1. The intrinsic content-oriented factors include accuracy/unambiguity, right
length, good visuals, good audio, timeliness ofthe report, human interest!
unexpectedness/sensationalism and negativity/conflict/loss oflives.
2. The extrinsic context-oriented factors include national impact/relevance to
the U.S. (Korea), U.S. (Korean) involvement in the event, hierarchy ofna
tional rank ofthe event country, cultural affinity between the U.S. (Korea)
and event country, economic relations between the U.S. (Korea) and the
event country, political ties between the U.S. (Korea) and the event coun-
try and geographical proximity.
22 3. The internal journalist/organization factors include general editorial policy of
the station, immediate supervisor, fellow journalists and personal convic-
tions.
4. The external political/social factors include the influences ofgovernrnentl
other political groups, the influences ofinterest groups, viewers' interest and
the reports ofother TV news organizations/newspapers. Then this study
will provide comparative theorizing ofthree different television news orga-
nizations on relative influences and interactions ofthe various factors using
participant observation ofeach newsroom and in-depth interviews and sur-
veys oftheir news personnel.
No previous research on the comparative international studies oftelevision in-
temational news content and studies of the main actors in news content has made a
distinction between domestic news and international news presented by the television
news organizations of different countries according to news topics and their propor- tions and main actors as news makers or news shapers. Also, previous studies have rarely examined international news coverage in relation to the international news selec- tion process.
This study, then, is to analyze how news content reflects television journalist's viewpoints and how organizational or external forces act upon the content, what types and quantities of domestic and international news are reported and who are the main actors quoted in three different news programs using content analysis. 2.6 Research Questions
The following research questions are addressed:
1. What differences are there in the selection process ofinternational news of
the three television news organizations: CNN in the U.S. and KBS and
SBS in Korea?
1-1) How each offour main factors--the internal journalist/organization fac
tors, the external political/social factors, the intrinsic content-oriented fac
tors and the extrinsic context-oriented factors--influences the selection
process ofinternational news stories by the television journalists ofthe
three television news organizations? What differences are there among
the three broadcast organizations?
1-2) What newsroom editorial procedures are structured for the selection ofin
ternational news in each ofthe three television news organizations?
What differences are noted?
1-3) What are the basic control mechanisms or forces that operate on the selec
tion process ofinternational news in each ofthe three television news or
ganizations? What differences are noted?
2. What differences are there in the news content ofthe three news programs:
CNN "PrimeNews," KBS "9 O'clock News," and SBS "8 O'clock News"?
2-1) What is the difference in the proportion ofdomestic and international
news appearing on the three news programs?
24 2-2) What topics are covered as domestic and international news in the three
news programs? What differences are noted?
2-3) Which main actors are quoted in the news stories ofthe three news pro
grams? What differences are there?
25 Chapter III. Methodology
3.1 Research Methods and Sample Periods
This study compares: 1) The relative influence of four main factors--the inter nal journalist/organization factors, the external political/social factors, the intrinsic content-oriented factors and the extrinsic context-oriented factors--influencing the in ternational news selection processes of television journalists; 2) Newsroom editorial procedures for the selection of international news and control mechanisms: and 3)
Main topics and actors in the news stories ofthe sampled major news programs among three different television news organizations--CNN in the U.S. and KBS and SBS in
Korea.
For the purpose of this study, the researcher made use of three different re search methods: content analysis, survey and participant observation. While three re search methods are quite distinct, they can clearly be used in conjunction with each other.
Content analysis was used to compare the domestic and international news coverage and the types of main actors noted across the three television news pro grams: the U.S. CNN "PrimeNews," and Korean KBS "9 O'clock News" and SBS "8
O'clock News." The analysis covered the two-week period from July 5 through 9 and
12 through 16, 1993 and the one-week period from November 22 through 26, 1993.
26 The sample week units were purposively selected to coincide with the participant ob
servation and survey periods ofthe three television news organizations in July and No
vember, 1993.
Content analysis comparatively examined the way three television news orga nizations reported the same weeks' domestic and international news. Recorded tapes were used. The news stories of all three news programs were also separately coded and analyzed using program rundowns and scripts which were provided by each ofthe television news organizations.
Content analysis could show the results ofthe news organizations' editorial de cisions and television journalists' news orientation, but it could not show the reason behind them. This was why a survey questionnaire was given to international news editors and producers responsible for the selection ofinternational news stories in each ofthe three television news organizations. In this case, survey questionnaires can help identify how television journalists rank a number of intrinsic and extrinsic news values used in the selection of international news stories, and can help detect some of the in ternal and external factors likely to influence their decisions. The surveys saved the re searcher interview time and also provided insight into the thoughts ofthe international news staff
Participant observation constitutes a "humanistic" methodology, which focuses on human interaction and meaning viewed from the insider's viewpoint in everyday life situations and settings. Through participant observation, it is possible to describe what
27 goes on, who or what is involved, when and where things happen, how they occur,
and why--at least from the standpoint of participants--things happen as they do in par-
ticular situations (Jorgensen, 1989).
This study used the methodology of participant observation to examine news-
room editorial procedures and control mechanisms, and to identify some...of theorga-
nizational .. and professional constraints guiding editorial choices within thejhree t··· .y.... .
television stations. Because the news gatekeeping and selection process is a naturally
occurring process, the best way to understand that process is to observe it first hand.
The aim of participant observation is to encounter the phenomena under the study and
record it in its natural freshness (Patton, 1990; Snyder, 1989). In this case, participant
observation provided detailed descriptions of situations, events, people, interactions
and observed behaviors as they occurred in the selection process.
These observations were complemented by a series of in-depth and qualitative interviews. In pursuit ofthis topic, the qualitative interview form was judged to be an appropriate approach to data collection, since the subject ofthe qualitative interview is the life world ofthe interviewee and hislher relation to it (Kvale, 1980).
Oakley (1981) distinguishes the qualitative form ofinterviewing from the tradi- tional interviewer-interviewee relationship. In a traditional interview, extracting in- formation from a subject is the goal. A hierarchical relationship is created in which the interviewer and interviewee are clearly unequal. This is a relationship fully compatible with the assumptions of traditional social science. In contrast, the type of interview
28 Oakley and other scholars (Nelson, 1989a't 1989b~ Langellier and Hall, 1989) employ
promotes a non-hierarchical relationship between the researcher and that which is re
searched. From this perspective, the interviewer and interviewee are considered 'co
researchers,' equally committed to gaining a better understanding of the experience.
Oakley (1981) notes that the success ofthe interview is determined by the formulation
of the relationship between the interviewer and the interviewee as an important ele
ment in achieving the quality ofthe information required.
The participant observation and the in-depth qualitative interviews were con
ducted during a two-week period in July and one-week period in November,
1993--KBS July 5 to 9, SBS July 12 to 16, and CNN November 22 to 26 Novemb-er.
By observing at more than one television news organization, more breadth is obtained
than would be possible from a single case study. Additionally, because news work is
fairly routine, spending one continuous week in the field allows for the depth necessary to answer the proposed research questions.
The sample time period and data collecting processes of the three research methods are summarized in Table 1:
29 Table 1. Sample Time Periods of the Three Research Methods
! News Content Analysis: Participant Survey: Organizations three one-week Observation: one-week period
I periods lone-week period KBS July 5-9 July 12-16 July 5-9 July 5-9 November 22-26 SBS July 5-9 July 12-16 July 12-16 July 12-16 November 22-26 CNN July 5-9 July 12-16 November 22-26 November 22-26 November 22-26
3.2 Sample Selection of Television News Organizations
CNN in the United States and KBS and SBS in Korea were selected for analy- sis and observation for two specific reasons.
CNN was chosen in the U.S. because it is an under-researched news organiza- tion compared with the big three television networks--ABC, CBS and NBC. CNN represents the "new generation" of news options available to viewers. CNN is a
24-hour cable news program and an around-the-clock service ofinformative program- ming that includes hard news, features, specialist's talk shows and block live coverage of major events. It is also re-defining the whole concept oftelevision news, moving it away from the standard menu of politics and disasters and into new areas such as
Third World issues (Wallis and Baran, 1990). With a 24-hour news program, CNNs coverage seeks more news of all types and a variety of perspectives, including non-
30 Western perspectives. Also, one of the reason for selecting CNN is that it is seen in many other countries in the world. eNN's 24-hour cable news is now the most watched of all the cable services, received by 58 million US homes and in 140 coun- tries (Flournoy, 1992). "PrimeNews," in particular, is the highest-rated news program among all CNN news programs (CNN Audience Research Department, 1993) and is chosen to investigate its international news selection process and news output.
Korean television service began during the 1950s, only a few years later than in . ~ the U.S. KBS-TV was established in 1961 and ?\1BC-TV began in 1969. Following establishment of Korea as a. nation in 1948, broadcasters were subjected to recurring military government control throughout the period from the 19605 to the 19805. The
1981 Basic Press Act (now defunct) placed all media under a single, very restrictive law. Many broadcast organizations were merged. Typical examples were that two commercial broadcast organizations--TBC-TV and DBS-radio--were forcefully merged into KBS, andMlsf: was nationalized and economically connected to KBS as well (Robinson, 1990).
A new broadcasting law passed the National Assembly in 1990 which allowed a third television network (SBS) to compete directly with KBS and 1vIBC (Auh,
1992). Now, three television networks cover the nation with an average of 11 hours ofbroadcasting per day.
KBS (Korean Broadcasting System) is the public broadcasting station which has three television channels. KBS-l is a channel of news and public affairs and
31 KBS-2 is an entertainment channel including soap operas, foreign movies, game shows
and comedies. The main income sources ofthese two channels are advertising (700/0)
and license fees (30%). KBS-3 is an educational channel which is operated by license
fees and corporate donations.
MBC (Moonwha Broadcasting Company) is a publicly, owned television net
work managed by lung-sao Foundation, but is totally supported from advertising reve
nues. Its main broadcast programs are entertainment including talk shows, soap
operas, quiz shows, foreign movies and comedies. Also, there are several news .pro
grams.
SBS (Seoul Broadcasting System) broadcasts to Seoul, the national capital of
Korea. and its suburban area since December, 1991. SBS is a privately owned and op erated television network by Taeyoung constructIon company. SBS has more enter tainment broadcast programs than those ofKBS and MBC.
KBS is chosen as representative ofKorean network television news mainly be cause it is the first Korean national network and may be considered by all of Koreans to be the model of the Korean network news operations. KBS-l has six news pro grams; Morning News (30 minutes), 9:40 a.m. News (20 minutes), 5;30 p.m. News
(10 minutes), 7 O'clock Evening News (25 minutes), 9 O'clock News (45 minutes) and
11:50 p.m. News (10 minutes). The "9 O'clock News" is a major and the longest news program ofall KBS news programs. Also, the "9 O'clock News" is the only newscast
32 which includes reporter packages in KBS. Thus, it is selected as the best sample for
the study.
SBS is a new, important news actor. It is the only private and independent
commercial television network in Korea. Currently, SBS airs six news programs; 6
O'clock a.m. News (30 minutes), 9:40 a.m. News (20 minutes), 5:30 p.m. News (10
minutes), 8 O'clock News (45 minutes), 9:45 Headlines News (5 minutes) and 11:50
p.m. News (10 minutes). The "8 O'clock News" is a major and the longest newscast in
SBS news programs. This news program is also the only one newscast which includes
reporter packages and is chosen as a good sample.
3.3 Content Analysis
3.3.1 Coding
In this study, Srebemy-Mohammadi's (1985) coding sheet as modified by Dila- wari, et al (1291) was used. Srebemy-Mohammadi's coding sheet was designed to tabulate data for the content analysis of domestic and international news coverage and presentation by press and broadcasting in 29 countries. The coding sheet ofDilawari, et al was used for the CNN World Report analysis. The set of categories was modi- fled for the research focus ofthe study. The categories: Diplomatic/Political Activity Between Nations/Group ofNations.
Politics Within A Nation: Internal conflict and crisis; Elections, campaigns, ap pointments or changes in government; Other political including legislation.
Military andDefense: Armed conflict or threat of; Peace moves, negotiations and settlements; Arms deals, weapons, bases, exercise and other.
33 Economic Matters: International trade, imports/exports, accord on trade/ tariffs; Capital investments including'state!stock!shares!dividends/profits; Economic performance such as industrial production/growth/sales (for econo my as a whole or particular enterprises), prices, inflation, cost ofliving, per capita income; Industrial projects such as dams, factories, roads, ports; Agricultural projects, corps, harvests, fisheries, poultry, animal husbandry; In dustrialllabor relations like dispute, wage, settlements; Monetary questions, ex changes rates, money supply.
Nationalllnternational Aid: Aid for disasters, famine, drought, flood relief; Aid for economy purposes, industrial development; Military aid in weapons, advisors, training; Aid for education, health & family planning, public health, social welfare and rural development programs.
Social Services/Social Problems: Problems relating to public health, housing, illiteracy; Educational services and provisions; Health services and provisions but excluding family planning; Family planning services and social welfare measures; Other social services and social welfare measures.
Crime, Police, Judicial, Legal andPenal: Non-political crime., police, judicial and penal activity; Political crime as above; Non-criminal legal and court pro ceedings like claims and damages; Other crimes or legal activity including drugs, narcotics.
Culture, Arts andArcheology.
Entertainment and Show Business Except Personality.
Personalities: Political; Entertainers/show business; Sports; Other.
Religion.
Scientific, Technical, Space, Medical.
Sports: National; International; Other.
Human Interest, OddHappenings, Animal, Sex.
Ecology: Energy Conservation; Pollution (air, water and atmospheric); Other.
Natural Disasters like Floods, Cyc1011es, Earthquakes, Drought, Famine, Vol canic Activity.
34 Man-Made Disasters andAccidents, like Nuclear Disasters, Calamities inflicte by War. . Travel, Tourism and Transportation.
Race andEthnic Problems.
Student Problems and Unrest, Protest, Demonstration.
3.3.2 Coding Reliability
Coding reliability was checked by having two coders--a Korean graduate stu- dent and a Korean undergraduate student in Telecommunications--code 60 news items
(about 4°A, of the sample). Their results were compared. The reliability of the coding was 87%.
3.3.3 Coding Instruction
Unit ofanalysis
The unit ofanalysis was the news item (all ofthe material following an It anchor presenting" or "correspondent presenting," including the name ofthe country and tele- vision news organization).
The coding schedule
The coding schedule ofthis study was conducted as follows:
1. News item number: Each news item coded was numbered from 000 1 to
1456.
35 2. Date: The sample periods included July 5 to 9 and 12 to 16, and November
22 to 26, 1993.
3. The origin ofcountry: "The United States" was coded 'I' and "Korea" was
coded '2.'
4. Television news station: "CNN" was coded '1" and "KBS" and "SBS" were
coded '2' and '3.'
5. Story type: The "domestic news" was coded '1' and the "international news"
was coded '2.'
( 6j}1ain topics: The twenty one topics were coded as follows: 1) Dipomaticl ,~....--"
political activity between nations/group ofnations, 2) Political activity with-
in a nation, 3) Military and defense, 4) Economic matters,S) Nationalfinter-
national aid, 6) Social services/social problems, 7) Crime, police, judicial, le-
gal and penal activity, 8) Culture, arts and archeology, 9) Entertainment and
show business except personalities, 10) Personalities, 11) Religion, 12)
Scientific, technical, space and medical, 13) Sports, 14) Human interest, odd
happenings, animal, sex, 15) Ecology, 16) Natural disasters, 17) Man-made
disasters and accidents, 18) Travel, tourism and transportation, 19) Race
and ethnic problems, 20) Students problems and unrest, protest, demonst-
ration, etc., 21) Weather.
7. Main actors: The position/sphere ofthe actors were classified into thirty cri-
teria: 1) Symbolic/nominal head ofthe state, 2) Chief executives, prime min-
36 ister, president ofthe state, 3) Other executives, government/cabinet minis
ter or government as a whole, 4) Legislature, parliament, congress or com
mittee thereof 5) Ruling party, 6) Violent political opposition, 7) Non-
violent political opposition, 8) Other politicians (national), 9) Local politi
cian or government official, 10) Ambassador or diplomat, 11) Military
regular forces ofstate, 12) Military-irregular, guerrillas, terrorists, etc., 13)
Industry, business, private sector, banking, etc., 14) Trade unions, workers
or farmers as distinct from management, 15) Pressure groups, lobbyists, 16)
Religious, 17) Sports, 18) Media including press/radio/TV/films/advertising,
media in general, 19) Academics/education/scientific/cultural/medical/
technology, 20) Police, 21) Judiciary/lawyer, 22) Criminals/prisoners,
23) Celebrities/show business, 24) Aristocracy/royalty in non-political bo
dies, 25) Nations, 26) United Nations and its related bodies, 27) Inter
governmental international bodies or national bodies, 28) Common people,
citizens, 29) Students, children 30) Other.
3.4 Survey
Gaunt's (1990) survey questionnaire was modified for the purpose of this study. To indicate the effectiveness of four main factors--the internal journalist/orga nization factors, the external political/social factors, the intrinsic content-oriented fac tors, and the extrinsic contextual-oriented factors--in the selection process of the
37 international news, the researcher employs five-point scales, each ranging from "defi-
nitely not important" 'I' to "very important" '5.' This survey questionnaire is provided
in Appendix. The total number of news workers who participated in the survey was
thirty-one: six news personnel in CNN, fifteen news personnel in KBS, and ten news
personnel in SBS.
3.5 Data Analysis of the Content Analysis and Survey
The coded news stories of three television news programs--CNN "Prime-
News," KBS "9 O'clock News," and SBS "8 O'clock News"--and survey data col- lected from their news personnel were comparatively analyzed using the basic ._''''' Chi-squaretechnique ofthe SPSS program. The results of content analysis were com- • C.-.,.., "~,,, .-, .,_,,',' ,',',' c",. v, ~ _.•. _, "'C''''._ '" """"'"";~'-~"""i",.~,,,",,.~, paratively tabulated according tothe main topics and main actors ofthe domestic and the international news across CNN, KBS and SBS television news organizations in the
U.S. and Korea.
Survey results were presented as two parts: 1) Comparative analysis of the de- gree of influence ofthe internal journalist/organization and external political/social fac- tors for the international news selection across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and
SBS television news organizations; and 2) Comparative analysis ofthe degree ofinflu- ence of the intrinsic content-oriented and extrinsic context-oriented factors for the in- ternational news selection across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS television news organizations. These results were analyzed using the sign test and Spearman
38 rank correlation to determine the significance level ofdifferences between the U.S. and
Korean news networks. Furthermore, each survey result comparatively examined the
relative influences of four factors among the three organizations. These results were
analyzed using the Friedman two-way analysis ofvariance by rank and Spearman rank
correlation to determine the significance level of differences among CNN, KBS and
SBS.
3.6 Operational Definitions
The various factors affecting the selection of the international news were di
vided into four groups: the intrinsic content-oriented factors, the extrinsic context
oriented factors, the internal journalist/organization factors and the external political/
social factors. The intrinsic content-oriented factors were defined as characteristics
and traditional news values inherent in the news story itself regardless of the external
or environmental factors surrounding the newsroom. These factors included accura
cy/unambiguity, right length, good visuals, good audio, timeliness ofthe report, human
interest/unexpectedness/sensationalism and negativity/conflict/loss of lives. The ex
trinsic context-oriented factors were defined as contextual or external variables such as
relevance to the u.s. (Korea), U.S. (Korean) involvement in the event, hierarchy of
national rank of the event country, cultural affinity between the u.s. (Korea) and event country, economic relations between the u.s. (Korea) and the event country, political ties between the u.s. (Korea) and the event country and geographical
39 proximity. The internal journalist/organization factors were defined as journalist's per
sonal or professional values and organizational constraints such as general editorial
policy ofthe station, immediate supervisor, fellow journalists and personal convictions.
The external politicaVsocial factors were defined as additional constraints external to
the news organizations such as the influences ofgovernment/other political groups, the
influences of interest groups, viewers' interest and the reports of other TV news
organizations/newspapers.
Type ofnews was defined as domestic or international news. There are almost
as many different definitions of international news as there are studies. Larson (1984)
defined international news as any story aired in one country which includes a reference
to any other nation. McQuail (1977) used the term "international" to describe any
news item in which more than one country is involved, including the host country.
Hester (1978) included "news with a foreign dateline" as international news. Almaney
(1970) defined international news as international affairs where the United States is in volved and foreign affairs where it is not playing an active role.
The above definitions show that international news reporting tends to reflect the relationships between nations. However, much of the confusion derives from the fact that there seems to be a sliding scale between domestic news and international news. Gans (1975), from observing news production at CBS and NBC network news, concluded that American international news is ultimately only a variation on domestic themes. It is quite natural for an international news story to be domestificated to make
40 it more understandable and relevant (Wallis and Baran, 1990). This phenomenon
curves when each news division has access to an international news story and provides
distinct viewpoints to viewers. For example, even if NAFTA is a typical international news story showing the relationships between nations, three news divisions of CNN-
Political Unit, Business Unit and International News Gathering--reported on NAFTA separately as a lead item in November, 1993. The Political Unit focused on the activi ties of Senate and House to pass the bill. The Business Unit reported on the impact of
NAFTA on u.S. economic development. The International News Gathering aired the responses of Canada and Mexico. The Political and Business Units each developed a
U.S. domestic angle on NAFTA.
In this study, international news was defined as any story fed from outside the country, from which a report was selected by CNN International News Gathering,
KBS International News Division and SBS International News Division. Domestic news was defined as any story selected by other news divisions such as the political news division and the business news division in CNN, KBS and SBS.
The topic of news story was defined as that which concerns the kind of event or situation the story is mainly about. Twenty-one topics with sub-categories were identified.
Actors were individuals, groups or other entities doing things or being affected by the events in a way that they become essential to the story or commentary. The
41 main actor was noted as the main subject of the story, around whom the story re-
volved. Thirty main actors were identified.
3.7 Participant Observation
3.7.1 Data Collection
The researcher moved back and forth between observing and interviewing dur-
ing the periods of participant observation in each newsroom. Participant observation
allowed the researcher to get close to the phenomenon under study through direct per-
sonal contact. The participant observation was also complemented by qualitative in-
terviewing with producers, international news editors and reporters ofthe international
news divisions (Table 2).
Table 2. The Number of News workers Interviewed in CNN, KBS and SBS.
News workers CNN KBS SBS Editors(Reporters) in the I 4 I 5 4 International News Division Producers 3 a 0
Editors in the TV News Editing 0 2 2 Division Other 2 0 0
The research questions and framework of this study provided the topics or subjects to be covered during interviews ofnews workers. The lists ofinterview ques- tions are provided in Appendix.
42 Additional topics for interviewing did emerge from the field work. Interview ing allowed participants to discuss their journalistic experiences and thoughts on the international news selection processes and principal influences and current newsroom editorial procedures. The international news chief editors or vice president and pro ducers were interviewed to understand their philosophies and organizational policies in relation to the international news selection processes. Editors or reporters of the in ternational news divisions and TV news editing divisions were interviewed on their news orientation and thoughts concerning the decisions they made regarding interna tional news selection and construction.
The researcher as an interviewer was free to develop a conversation and estab lish a conversational style, to explore, probe and ask questions with a focus on a par ticular subject. But qualitative interviewing had to take place so it did not interrupt people at work, or influence people's work. Sometimes the researcher had to wait for a lull in someone's schedule, or talk to journalists during lunch breaks or coffee breaks.
To record field observations and interviews, data recording techniques were used which worked successfully on previous participant observation research and qualitative interviews (Park, 1992; Snyder, 1989; Veur, 1992). The researcher carried with him at all times a memo notebook to record observations and interviews. Also, a small mi crocassette was used to record interviews. This captured the interview better than try ing to write the conversation long-hand.
43 3.7.2 Observation and Interview Analyses
Participant observation analyses consisted oftwo parts: 1) Observation analysis of newsroom editorial procedures for the selection of international news; and 2) Inter view analysis of television journalists' perceptions about the international news selec tion and control mechanisms in CNN, KBS and SBS.
To better understand newsroom editorial procedures and control mechanisms, the observation analysis was also divided into two parts: 1) International news divi sion's selection process of the international news; and 2) Sampled news program's selection process of international news in CNN, KBS and SBS. Each observation analysis resulted in three flow charts of international news selection process in three different international news divisions and news programs in CNN, KBS and SBS.
These flow charts were checked by producers and international news editors in CNN and KBS to increase the validity ofthe observation results.
Transcription ofthe interviews was an arduous task, but not one without val ue. As Nelson (1989a) indicated, it was the endless repetitious listening and reading of the recorded interviews and each transcript. All transcripts were analyzed using three phases ofphenomenological research: description, reduction and interpretation. These phases were developed and have been expanded upon in works by Cooks and Hale
(1992), Nelson (1989b), Peterson (1987) and Merleau-Ponty (1962).
In the first instance, the researcher combed the transcripts for significant state ments. Similar statements were grouped together. In the phenomenological sense,
44 this process (description) implies a concretization of experiences into some significant form. The intersubjective nature of these lived experiences can be described as "the mes." Discovering themes in transcripts involves isolating and then clustering signifi cant statements or revelatory phrases (Cooks and Hale, 1992). This clustering led to the creation of four topical headings which were again clustered into two themes.
Repetitious phrases were eliminated and non-essential elements ofthe statements were bracketed out in order to expose essential elements in the statements. The themes produced were described in terms ofan essential meaning.
The central concern in the interview analysis is the construction of meanings in the expression of narrators, emphasizing the experience reality ofthe news workers in the television news organizations.
45 Chapter IV.
Results
The purpose ofthis chapter is the presentation ofthe results in terms ofthe six
research questions. The results consist of the three parts: 1) Survey results for re
search question one; 2) Participant observation results for research questions two and
three; and 3) Content analysis results for research questions four, five and six.
4.1 Survey Results
Of a total ofthirty one respondents, fifteen respondents were KBS internation
al news editors and editors of the TV News Editing Division. Ten responses were
SBS international news editors and six from CNN international assignment editors and
producers. Survey results comparatively examined the relative influences of the four
main factors for international news selection across the television journalists of the
U.S. CNN and Korean KBS and SBS television news organizations. The four main factors are as follows: 1) The internal journalist/organization factors--journalist's per sonal or professional values and organizational constraints; 2) The external political/ social factors--additional constraints to external the news organization such as govern ment or interest groups' influences; 3) The intrinsic content-oriented factors--news val ues inherent in the news story itself; and 4) The extrinsic context-oriented
46 factors--contextual or external factors such as political, econonuc and cultural
relationship between the U.S. (Korea) and the event country.
4.1.1 Comparative Analysis of the Degree of Influence of the Internal Journalist/ Organization and External Political/Social Factors for the International News Selection Across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS Televi sion News Organizations.
Table 3 presents the comparison of the influences of the internal journalist/or-
ganization and external political/social factors for the international news selection
across the U.S. CNN and Korean KBS/SBS television news organizations. On a num-
ber of internal and external factors, the sign test result reflects some similarities be- tween the U.S. CNN news organization and Korean KBS/SBS news organizations (P
== .145). In terms of the Spearman rank correlation coefficient, however, there are some differences in the relative influences of the internal and external factors for the international news selection between the U.S. and Korean news networks (r = 0.45,
N.S.). As is evident, the U.S. CNN international news editors considered "Viewers'
Interest" the most important factor in their selection of international news (M == 4.5), followed by "General Editorial Policy ofthe Station" (M = 4.3), "Immediate Supervi- sor" (M = 4.2) and "Fellow Journalists" (M = 4.0). However, Korean international news editors regarded "Immediate Supervisor" (M = 4.6) as the most influencing fac- tor in their selection ofinternational news, followed by "General Editorial Policy ofthe
Station" (M = 4.3), "Reports of Other TVslNewspapers" (M = 4.2) and "Personal
Convictions" (M = 4.0). Although "The Influences ofthe Government/Other Political
47 Groups" and "The Influences of the Interest Groups" are the least influencing factors
in both of the U.S. and Korea, the means of these factors in Korean television news
organizations (M = 3.6/3.2) are significantly higher than those in the U.S. television
news organization (M = 1.2/1.0). Figure 1 shows more clear comparison of the rela
tive influences ofeach internal and external factor between CNN and KBS/SBS.
Furthermore, using analysis ofvariance by ranks, a non-significant Chi Square
was found among international news editors ofthe three news networks (X2 = 2.68, df
= 2, N.S.). However, the Spearman rank correlation coefficients show that there are
some differences in the relative influences of the internal and external factors between
the CNN and KBS international news editors (r = 0.63, N.S.) and between the CNN
and SBS international news editors (r = 0.39, N.S.), whereas there is a significant simi
larity in the relative degree of influence ofthe internal journalist/organization and ex
ternal political/social factors between KBS and SBS in Korea (r = 0.95, P < .01)
(Table 4 and Figure 2).
The above findings suggest that both U.S. and Korean international news edi
tors use several criteria in their selection of international news. While CNN interna
tional news editors emphasize the audience-oriented concept (e.g., viewers' interest)
for the international news selection and consider their working environment's con
straints (e.g., general editorial policy of the station, immediate supervisor and fellow journalists) important in their selection of international news, KBS and SBS interna tional news editors regard their chief editors of the international news division as the
48 most influencing factor in their selection of international news. Also, media competi- tion and the influences ofexternal groups (e.g., government and other political groups) have strong influences on the selection ofinternational news in Korean television news organizations, especially in the private and commercial television news organization,
SBS. These results also show that CNN international news editors are more apt the
Korean international news editors to discuss with their colleagues the assigned interna- tional news items.
4.1.2 Comparative Analysis of the Degree of Influence of the Intrinsic Content Oriented and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors for the International News Selection Across the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS Televi sion News Organizations.
An important finding, noted in Table 5, is that there are statistically significant differences in the relative influences of the intrinsic content-oriented factors and the extrinsic context-oriented factors for the international news selection between the U.S.
CNN and Korean KBS/SBS television news organizations (P = .029). Among the
U.S. CNN news workers, the most influencing factors are "Accuracy/Unambiguity"
(M = 5.0), "Timeliness ofReportII (M = 4.5), "Good Visuals" (M = 4.0), "Human in- terestlUnexpectedness/Sensationalism" (M = 4.0) and "Negativity/ConflictlLoss of Li- ves" (M = 4.0), while "National Impact! Relevance to Korea" (M = 4.8), "Korean
Involvement in the event" (M = 4.8), "Timeliness of Report" (M = 4.6), "Accuracy/ unambiguity" (M = 4.4) and "Good Visuals" (M = 4.4) are the most important factors for the international news selection among Korean international news editors. Figure
49 3 shows more clear comparison ofthe relative influences ofeach intrinsic and extrinsic factor between CNN and KBS/SBS.
Furthermore, using analysis of variance by ranks, significant differences were found in the influencing factors among CNN, KBS, SBS international news editors
(X 2 = 8.46, df= 2, P < .02). However, there is a significant similarity in the influenc ing factors between KBS and SBS international news editors (r = 0.82, P < .01)
(Table 6 and Figure 4).
The above findings suggest that CNN international news editors focus more on the intrinsic content-oriented factors than on the extrinsic context-oriented factors, whereas Korean international news personnel emphasize more the extrinsic context oriented factors (e.g., relevance to Korea, Korean involvement in the event) than do
CNN people. Also, KBS and SBS television journalists consider economic or political relations between Korean and the event country significantly more as the influencing factors for the selection of international news than do CNN television journalists.
These results suggest that KBS and SBS news workers report international news story more by the national perspective than by the global perspective.
In relation to research question 1, survey results show that even though the in ternal journalist/organization and intrinsic content-oriented factors are ofgreater influ ence than the external political/social and extrinsic context-oriented factors for the international news selection process of all three news networks, Korean television
50 journalists consider the external political/social and extrinsic context-oriented factors more than do CNN television journalists. In Korean news networks, there is a signifi cant similarity in the relative influences of four main factors for the international news selection between KBS and SBS.
51 Table 3. Comparison of the Degree of Influence of the Internal Journal ist/Organization (I) and the External Political/Social Factors (E) for the Interna tional News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS.
Main Factors CNN KBS/SBS Sign
Mean Rank Mean Rank I [General Editorial Policy ofthe 4.3 (2) 4.3 (2) 0 Station (I) Immediate Supervisor (I) 4.2 (3) 4.7 (1) +
Fellow Journalists (I) 4.0 (4) 3.1 (8) - I Personal Convictions (I) 3.2 (6) 4.0 (4) +
Viewers' Interest (E) 4.5 (1) 3.8 (5) - I The Influences ofthe 1.2 (7) 3.6 (6) + Government/Other Political Groups (E) The Influences ofthe Interest 1.0 (8) 3.2 (7) + Groups (E) /Reports ofOther 3.3 (5) 4.2 (3) + [TVs/Newspapers (E) -Sign Test P = .145
-r(CNN-KBS/SBS) = 0.45, N.S.
-The Degree ofInfluence
Definitely Not Important 1 Not Important 2 Average 3 Important 4 Very Important 5
- I: The Internal Journalist/Organization Factors E: The External Political/Social Factors
52 Figure 1. Comparision of the Degree of Influence of the Internal Journalist/Organization and External Political/Social Factors for the International News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS.
5
Very Important 4
3 t/'l W
2 1----+------+------~------+------f------\---
Not Important 1
Editorial Policy Immediate Supervisor Fellow Journalists Personal Convictions ViewersInterest Government/Political Interest Groups Other TVs/Newspapers The Degree II Main Factors of Influence CNN KBS/SBS - --+- Table 4. Comparison of the Degree of Influence of the Internal Journal ist/Organization (I) and External Political/Social Factors (E) for the Internation al News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS.
CNN KBS SBS Main Factors S F S F S F M Rank Rank M Rank Rank M Rank Rank General Editorial Policy 4.3 2 2 4.3 2 2 4.3 2 2 ofthe Station (I) Immediate Supervisor (I) 4.2 3 3 4.6 1 2 4.7 1 1 Fellow Journalists (I) 4.0 4 1 3.1 7 2 3.1 8 3 Personal Convictions (I) 3.2 6 3 3.8 4 2 4.2 4 1 Viewers' Interest (E) 4.5 1 1 3.8 4 2.5 3.8 5 2.5 The Influences ofthe 1.2 7 3 3.5 6 2 3.7 6 1 Government! Other Political Groups (E) The Influences ofthe 1.0 8 3 2.9 8 2 3.6 7 1 llnterest Groups (E) Reports ofOther 3.3 5 3 4.2 3 2 4.3 2 1 TVs/Newspapers (E) Total of FRank 19 16.5 12.5
_X2= 2.68, df=2, N.S.
er (CNN-KBS) = 0.63, N.S. e r (CNN-SBS) = 0.39, N.S.
-r (KBS-SBS) = 0.95, P < .01
-The Degree ofInfluence
Definitely Not Important 1 Not Important 2 Average 3 Important 4 Very Important 5 - S Rank: The Spearman Rank; F Rank: The Friedman Rank
54 Figure 2. Comparision of the Degree of Influence of the Internal Journalist/Organization and External Political/Social Factors for tile International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS.
5
Very Important
~ ~---+--~ 4 1---4 I ~ , I
~ Vl 3
2
Not Important 1
Editorial Policy Immediate Supervisor Fellow Journalists Personal Convictions ViewersInterest Government/Political Interest Groups Other TVsINewspapers
The Degree Main Factors of Intluence CNN KBS SBS - --+- ..&.,~ Table 5. Comparison of the Degree of Influence of the Intrinsic Content-Oriented (N) and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors (X) for the International News Selection Be- tween CNN and KBS/SBS. .
Main Factors CNN KBS/SBS Sign M (Rank) M (Rank) ,AccuracylUnambiguity (N) 5.0 (1) 4.4 (4) - Right Length (N) 3.3 (7) 3.1 (14) - Good Visuals (N) 4.0 (3) 4.4 (4) + Good Audio (N) 3.3 (7) 3.7 (II) + Human InterestlUnexpectedness/ 4.0 (3) 3.9 (10) - Sensationalism (N) Negativity/ConflictILoss ofLives (N) 4.0 (3) 4.1 (9) + Timeliness ofReport (N) 4.5 (2) 4.6 (3) + National ImpactlRelevance to the 3.8 (6) 4.8 (1) + U.S.(Korea) (X) The Hierarchy ofInterational Rank ofthe 2.3 (10) 4.2 (6) + Event Country (X) U.S.(Korean) Involvement in the Event 2.7 (9) 4.8 (I) + (X) I Cultural Affinity Between the 2.2 (13) 3.4 (13) + U.S.(Korea) and the Event Country (X) Economic Relations Between the 2.3 (10) 4.2 (6) + U.S.(Korea) and the Event Country (X) IPolitical Ties Between the U.S.(Korea) 2.3 (10) 4.2 (6) + [and the Event Country (X) I [Geographical Proximity (X) 1.7 (14) 3.7 (11) + e Sign Test P=.029 er(CNN-KBS/SBS)=O.33, N.S.
-The Degree ofInfluence Definitely Not Important 1 Not Important 2 p Average 3 Important 4 Very Important 5
56 Figure 3. Comparision of the Degree of Influence of the Intrinsic Content-Oriented and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors for the International News Selection Between CNN and KBS/SBS.
5 1-1lIIRAlI---- ~~----~t·~·--_ ..__ .-. t .------.--+ ..-..------...-.- - +-.------..---t------..-----____+___ Very Important 4
3
v-. 2 --_. '-J Not Important
1 r-r-=l I I
C/) ~ ~ ~ C/) C/) o C/) t: ~ c c;a U B C 0 d d.> ~ ~ ~ 0 d.> 0 'S ::s ::s c, ~ ~ e ,~ s= C/) d.> The Degree ~ ~ ~ E '~ ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ d.> ..0 ~ < .s d.> ~ ~ d.> of Intluence ... "'0 U ~ ] ~ § ..c '"tj o 0 ~ 0 ,-:= 01) o o § ~l ;> ~ ...-4 s= C/) ] 0 .a C ';> til ~ ~ o ~ ~ § d.> c3 cd a ft ~ ::r: ':g ,S c, :3 's 01) 00 ~ u 0 0 d.> ~ s= d) e 0 ~ z; E C-' uo ~ ~ < Main Factors I CNN KBS/SBS • --$-- Table 6. Comparison of the Degree of Influence of the Intrinsic Content Oriented (N) and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors (X) for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS.
CNN KBS SBS Main Factors S F S F S F MRankRank MRankRank M Rank Rank AccuracylUnambiguity (N) 5.0 1 1 4.3 7 3 4.5 3 2 Right Length (N) 3.3 7 1 3.0 14 3 3.2 13 2 Good Visuals (N) 4.0 3 3 4.5 4 1 4.1 5 2 Good Audio (N) 3.3 7 3 3.7 12 1 3.6 11 2 Human Interest/Unexpectedness/ 4.0 3 1 3.9 10 2.5 3.9 7 2.5 Sensationalism (N) Negativity/Conflict! 4.0 3 2.5 9 1 4.0 6 2.5 Loss ofLives (~T) " Timeliness ofReport (N) ~.5 2 2 ~.9 2 1 4.3 4 3 National Impact! Relevance to the 3.8 6 3 5.0 1 1 4.6 1 2 U.S.(Korea)(X) I The Hierarchy ofInternational Rank of 2.3 10 3 14.3 7 1 3.9 7 2 the Event Country (X) U.S.(Korean)Involvement in the Event 2.7 9 3 4.9 2 1 4.6 1 2 (X)
") Cultural Affinity Between the 2.2 13 3 3.7 12 1 2.8 14 J:., U.S.(Korea) and the Event Country (X) Economic Relations Between the 2.3 10 3 ~.4 6 1 3.9 7 2 U.S.(Korea) and the Event Country(X) Political Ties Between the U.S (Korea) 2.3 10 3 4.5 4 1 3.8 10 2 and the Event Country(X)
Geographical Proximity (X) 1.7 14 3 13.8 11 1 3.5 12 2 Total of FRank 34.5 19 30 -X2=8.46, p<.02 er(CNN-KBS)=O.25, N.S. ·r(CNN-SBS)=O.56, N.S. ·r(KBS-SBS)=O.82. p<.Ol
·The Degree ofInfluence Definitely Not Important 1 Not Important 2 Average 3 Important 4 Very Important 5
58 Figure 4. Comparision of the Degree of Influence of the Intrinsic Content-Oriented and Extrinsic Context-Oriented Factors for the International News Selection Among CNN, KBS and SBS 5 Very Important
r- «.& 4W;: __ 4 "-I - - l' • ..I
3 I----+---~~
2 Vl Not \0 Important 1 ----r- I I I
Cf) ~ ~ (1) Cf) Cf) l 0 ~ .c Cf) u t: .c s:: (1) ~ Cd (1) 0 0 ~l c ~ ~ (1) 0 0 61 t ::s o, 0 f== ~ The Degree . c ::s (1) 's .~ (1) Cf) ~ tE Q) a> e r;:l.c ~ < ~ 0 ~ (1) a~ (1) ~ (1) Cd ~ ~ >= Q) .~ ca of Influence "'CJ U ~ Q) > Q) 0 "'CJ 0 0 .-::: ~ 0 tE '0 ca~ ~ C 0 a --0 Cf) ~ :.a 0 E5 0 '0 ~ C) e 'S: Ul 0 ~::s ~ ~ 0 (1) .s ~ ~ ::s c cd Os ::r: 'E .~ ~ :3 OJ) u· OJ) 0 0 cd Q.) Q) u ~ ~E t: Q.) E 0 C) o::s Z 0 o E:: ~ ~
Main Factors I CNN KBS SBS II- --.---. 4.2 Participant Observation Results
Participant observation results consisted of two parts: 1) Observation analysis ofnewsroom editorial procedures for the selection ofintemational news in CNN, KBS and SBS; and 2) Interview analysis oftelevision journalists' perceptions on the intema- tional news selection and control mechanisms in CNN, KBS and SBS.
4.2.2 Observation Analysis of Newsroom Editorial Procedures for the Selection of International News in CNN, KBS and SBS.
To better understand newsroom editorial procedures and control mechanisms for the selection process ofinternational news, observation analysis is divided into two parts: 1) Analysis of international news division's selection process of international news in CNN, KBS and SBS; and 2) Analysis of sampled news program's selection process ofintemational news in CNN, KBS and SBS.
Analysis ofIntemational News Division's Selection Process ofIntemational News in CNN, KBS and SBS
The international news division's selection process for international news cov- ers the "international news gathering step" and the "international news processing step." The international news gathering step includes the selection process of interna- tional news from the overseas bureaus and correspondents, international TV news agencies, international or national wire agencies, and affiliates of each news organiza- tion. These four main sources of international news provide a variety of international
60 international news events which are transformed into international news copy. The news editors-- processing step means that international news processors--international news copies reselect the main international news stories from the original international and revise them.
Figure 5 shows the international news selection process of CNN "International i) nine- News Gathering."! There are four main sources ofinternational news in CNN: bureaus; ii) teen CNN overseas bureaus including six Asian bureaus and nine European international wire international TV news agencies including RTV and WTN; iii) AFP of CNN overseas agency; and iv) affiliates including KBS, TV Asahi, etc. The staffs people including a bureaus range from a maximum of fifteen people to at least four of correspondent, a camera man and regional employees. Currently, the total number reporter packages CNN overseas correspondents are thirty-five. They make their own
which are sent to CNN International News Gathering based in Atlanta, Georgia. In- events, and ternational TV news agencies are the main visual sources of international news copy. By Agence France-Presse (AFP) is the only wire source of international without re- making contracts, CNN can use broadcasting materials of other countries collects about one- strictions. From these sources, CNN International News gathering reporter hundred international news stories everyday, including twelve or fifteen
packages.
News Gathering. II Also, the 1 In CNN, international news division is called "International international news editor is called the "International Assignment Editor." 61 In CNN International News Gathering, ten or fifteen international assignment
editors select major international news stories based on their professional judgments.
The editors are classified into daytime, evening and overnight teams. Each editor is al-
located to a bureau and regional coverage assignment. There are three senior interna- tional editors, who are the most seasoned people and have multilingual skills. They play major roles on everyday coverage assignments, future story planning and direct- ing editors' coverage. The senior vice president is responsible for the overall operation of International News Gathering and attends eNN's executive meeting every Monday.
The assistant editors, currently five people, perform only administrative work such as making bureau copy and story files. After selecting and summarizing major interna- tional news stories, CNN International News Gathering sends through computers the list ofreporter packages and international news stories, including summaries, to CNN,
Headline News, CNN Radio, CNN Spanish and CNN International. Here is an example: The November 18, 1993 coup in Nigeria presents an example of the news gathering and news processing steps of CNN Interna tional News Gathering. From the AFP international news feed with the "alert" sign, Nigeria coup news appeared in the comput er. It was 4: 10 p.m. The international assignment editor prompt ly called to a Nigerian regional correspondent to make sure ofthe story. After checking the news story, the editor called to the pro ducer of CNN International to notify this important international news story. At that time, CNN International already was airing its "International News Hour." Five minutes later (4: 19 p.m.), the CNN International producer called back to the editor and said he decided to insert that story as a live phone interview with the Nigerian reporter. The editor called to the regional reporter again, gave some advice about the live phone interview and let phone connected to the producer. Finally, at 4:24 p.m., the
62 Nigerian coup story was reported in the form ofa overseas corre spondent live phone interview with the anchor for three minutes. From the gathering step to the processing step, it took just four teen minutes.
In KBS, there are five main sources ofinternational news: i) twelve KBS over-
seas bureaus including three U.S. bureaus in New York, Washington D.C. and Los
Angeles; ii) Yonhap News Agency; iii) international wire agencies including Asso-
ciated Press (AP), Agence France-Presse (AFP), Reuters and United Press Intema-
tional (UPI); iv) international TV news agencies including RTV and WTN; and v)
affiliates including CNN, ZDF, NHK and BBC. In the twelve KBS overseas bureaus,
there are nineteen overseas correspondents including three correspondents in Japan and two correspondents in Washington D.C., New York and Paris respectively. They make their own reporter packages, but in some cases the bureau only provides audio, and the pictures are added by KBS International News Division based in Seoul, Korea.
Yonhap News Agency is a major news agency which collects all of international news stories from about seventy international news agencies including the big four wire agencies in Korea and distributes international news stories with the translated summa- ries to all television news organizations and newspapers in Korea. Among others,
CNN International, BBC World Services and RTV are major visual sources ofintema- tional news for KBS. In addition to the above five formal sources, editors frequently refer to the major domestic newspapers in order to check which international stories are the important topics and how they are handled in the newspapers.
63 There are thirteen news personnel in the KBS International News Division: a
chief editor, two deputy editors and ten international news editors. The chief editor is
responsible for the whole operations ofthe international news division. He supervises
all coverage assignments of the editors and directs reporter packages. Everyday he
also attends two editors' editorial meetings as the representative of the international
news division and presents the major international news items. After participating in
those meetings, he leads two staff meetings, one is in the morning (9:30 a.m.) and the
other in the afternoon (3:00 p.m.). In these staff meetings, he delivers the chief execu-
tive messages on the editorial policy ofthe station and makes coverage assignments to
editors. Two deputy editors make future story planning and more detailed coverage
assignments on major international news items. Ten editors collect all international
news copies from the sources and select major international news stories. They oper-
ate in four teams--early morning, daytime, evening and overnight--and are assigned to
each news program. Everyday they select about thirty five to forty international news stories including reporter packages from their sources. The selected international news stories are sent to the TV News Editing Division (Figure 6). An example oftheir process was on July 8, 1993:
In the morning staff meeting of KBS International News Divi sion, the chief editor explained the international reporter package for the "9 O'clock News" to the international news editors. The package was the story of the G-7 summit being held in Tokyo. This topic had already been decided in the morning editors' edito rial meeting. In handling the G-7 reporter package, the chief edi tor explained what the main content of the political declaration was, especially focusing on how world political leaders handled the crisis of North Korea's nuclear weapon and the Uruguay
64 Round issue, and what the content of the economic declaration was expected and what difference would be noted in comparison with the previous year. In the second editorial meeting, the deci sion was made that the G-7 reporter package would be a satellite interview between the female anchor and the overseas correspon dent in Japan. The chief editor notified the decision of the edi tors' editorial meeting in the second staff meeting of the International News Division and assigned two editors for han dling this reporter package. After the staff meeting, two editors called to the KBS overseas correspondent in Japan to discuss the G-7 reporter package. The satellite interview was conducted at 7:40 p.m. and prerecorded. Several editors of the TV News Editing Division joined in editing the live satellite interview. The satellite interview reporter package on the G-7 summit was aired
for six minutes in the "9 O'clock News. II
The structure and main sources of SBS International News Division are simi- lar to those ofthe KBS International News Division. The only difference is the num- ber and size ofthe overseas bureaus and correspondents. There are five main sources of SBS international news: i) five SBS overseas bureaus including six overseas corre- spondents; ii) Yonhap News Agency; iii) international TV news agencies including
RTV and WTN; iv) international wire agencies including AP, AFP, Reuters and UPI~ and v) affiliates including CNN. Like KBS, the domestic newspapers are also informal sources of the SBS international news selection for judging each international news story's news value.
SBS's International News Division consists of a chief editor, a deputy editor and eight editors. Their roles are very similar to those ofKBS international news per- sonnel. The chief editor directly supervises all international news items and makes coverage assignments. Surprisingly, he assigns reporter packages to editors without
65 any staff meeting. He also attends three editors' editorial meetings as the representa-
tive of the international news division. The deputy editor plans future story. Eight
editors check all international news feeds from their sources and select the main in-
ternational news stories. They operate in three teams--early morning, daytime and
overnight. After the gatekeeping process for international news is completed, the in-
temational news division sends the international news stories it has to the TV News
Editing Division (Figure 7).
An example ofthe SBS international news selection process was from the cov-
erage ofthe Somalia crisis: July 13, 1993, the chief editor lets his international news editors know about the day's two international reporter packages for the "8 O'clock News" after the morning editors' editorial meeting. One was on the Japanese national election and the other was about the Somalia crisis. Without formal staff meeting, he as signed the reporter packages to two editors. The reporter pack age on the Somalia crisis was assigned to the new female editor. It was the first reporter package assigned to her. She began to review all materials including international and domestic wire agency feeds and several domestic newspapers to get more in formation. For the pictures, she watched CNN International sev eral times. The whole production process of the reporter package from writing to editing was her responsibility. It took the editor from 9:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m. to complete the reporter package on the Somalia crisis.
Through observing the selection processes of international news in three dif- ferent television news organizations, it is clear that the overall structures of their in- temational news divisions are similar. However, there are several differences in the
66 operational and editorial procedures for the international news selection process in each television news network.
The CNN international assignment editors and senior international editors ac tively select international news stories using their professional judgments, while the
Korean international news editors and deputy editors are under the control and direc tion of their chief editors. While the Korean international news editors have relative autonomy in the selection of anchor-presenting international news stories, the editors' editorial meetings with the chiefexecutive are where the number and topics ofreporter packages are decided. In the case of KBS, the chief editor makes assignments to the international news editors in staffmeetings ofthe international news division after par ticipating in the two editors' editorial meetings. In SBS, the chief editor makes assign ments to international news editors without any staffmeetings. The CNN international news personnel frequently have free discussion on the topics of international news items, whereas KBS and SBS international news editors have little discussion on the topics of international news stories with fellow editors and have a rigid hierarchical relationship with the chiefeditors.
67 ~ ( Figure 5. The Flow Chart ofThe.International News Selection Process ofthe CNN "International News Gathering"
I A Int'l Event I I B Int'} Event I I C Int'l Event I I I
/...--_...._----_....._...... _.... _..._...._...- ...... ;-19 CNN Oversea Bureaus L_ .. _ .._._.... _._._._....~ Making Reporter :-.~._Q.~Qvers~~o!!e~.~~d~.!!~)j Packages -Int'l TV News Agencies (RTVIITNIWTN..) -Int'l Wire Agency +--- ..,'lIllo.. Main Source of (AFP) the CNN Int'l News
1 -Affiliates
10-15 Int'l Assignment Editors -3 Teams(daytimelEveningiOvernight) -Regional Coverage Allocationto Editors
5 Assistant Editors I...... -~ H -Administrative Functions , Gatekeeping Process of tfie 3 Senior Int'l Editors CNN Int'l News -Future, Story Planning/Logistics t------~!~..Gathering -Director ofCoverage in Atlanta -lnt'l Newsource Feed
Senior Vice President....-1 .... -Supervising/Overviewing I
Sending the List ofthe Int'l News Stories Including Main Content/Reporter .....~ --. Packages to All CNN News Programs I' Through the Computers i
68 Figure 6. The Flow Chart of The International News Selection Process ofthe KBS "International News Division"
I A Int'l Event I IB Intll Event I C Int'l Event I I I f
! -12 KBS Oversea Bureaus l ...._.... __._...._...._...._. Making Reporter 1 t.Q.?_~v~~ea <;o~e~po~d~~~)) Packages f -Yonhap News Agency -Int'}Wire Agencies (APIAFPlReuterslUPij t-----...... , Main Sources of -Int'l TV News Agencies KBS Int'l News (RTVIWTN..) -Affiliates
Gatekeeping Process of the 10 Reporters(=Editors) KBS Int') News -4 Teams(Early ~{IlingIDaytime/ Division EvenmgfUverm t) -News Program location to Editors r ""\ )~ * StaffMeeting 1 (9:30-10:OOa.m.): Story Planning/ 2 Deputy Editors" Coverage Assignment I" -Story Planning/Future/ *StafTMeeting 2 I Coverage Assignment (3:00-3:30p.m.): Confirming Coverage Assignment - \.. for 9 O'clockNews ~
ChiefEditor r Before leading Two "' -Supervising/Directing on All StaffMeetings, Int'l News Items Attending Two -Coverage Assignment I------+--+--~... Editors' Editorial "------' Meetings: -Discussing/Selecting Reporter Packages Sending Selected Int'l News Stories/ \. -Story Planning ~ Reporter Packages to the TV Editing -E I Division
69 / Figure 7. The Flow Chart ofThe International News Selection Process of the SBS "International News Division"
I A Int'! Event I I B Int'! Event I I C Int'! Event I I I 1
l~- -'" _ ....- ....- ••• _ ••• _- •• _ ..... __._•••• _ ... _- '"-, : -5 SBS Oversea Bureaus \ ~ I ~ 9~e~~._C~rr~~nd.:~n~tr q"_~1 '·,__ .. d __ Making Reporter Packages - Yon1)~'p News Agency -Int'l Wire Agencies (APIAFPlReuterslUPI) -Int'l TV News Agencies Main Sources of (RTVIWTN..) SBS Int'l News -Affihates t
I 1 i 8 Reporters(=Editors) -3 Teams (Early MorningIDaytime'--' /Ovemight) -Regional Coverage Gatekeeping Process Allocation to Editors of the SBS International News Division
,~ r, I Deputy Editor *Participating I -Story PlanningIFuture~------t---~'1 Three Editors' )~ Editorial Meetings: Discussing/Selecting Reporter Packages, Story Planning ChiefEditor *After Meetings, Making -SupervisingIDirecting Coverage Assignment on All Int'l News Items/ l------;-...~ to the Editors for Coverage Assignment 8 O'clock News
Sending Selected Int'l News Stories/ Reporter Packages to the TV News rE-- Editing Division )
70 Analysis of Sampled News Program's Selection Process ofInternational News in CNN, KBS and SBS
Figure 8 shows the international news selection process of the CNN "Prime-
News." "PrimeNews" is a multi-site newscast originating in Atlanta and Washington
D.C. The total number of news workers involved in the CNN PrimeNews is sixteen
people: an executive producer, a producer, an assistant producer, five writers, two edi-
tors and an anchor in Atlanta; and a producer, three writers and an anchor in Washing-
ton D.C. The CNN Primeblews' international news selection process begins at 2:00
p.m. after the executive producer and the Atlanta producer come to the office. The
executive producer is responsible for the overall operation of "Primel-Iews" and the
10:00 p.m. "World News." He supervises the selection of new for the program, dis-
cussing the main international and domestic news items with the Atlanta producer.
The Atlanta producer plays an active role in selecting international news stories and reporter packages from the list of international news stories offered by the CNN In- temational News Gathering. She makes preliminary (5: 15 p.m.) and final (6:00 p.m.) rundowns, leads the staff meeting, where she assigns international and domestic news stories to the D.C. producer and the Atlanta writers. The assistant producer selects all appropriate pictures. Before the staff meeting, she checks and selects the international news pictures, in discussion with the Atlanta producer. After the staff meeting, she se- lects and edits all domestic news pictures, fitting these to the needs of writers assigned to each story. The writers make scripts of each news story. "PrimeNews" news
71 workers have one staff meeting everyday at 5: 15 p.m. Washington D.C. news person
nel are connected through the phone. In the staff meeting, they freely discuss the do
mestic and international news items on the basis of the preliminary rundown made by
the Atlanta producer. After the staff meeting, the Atlanta producer makes the final
rundown, but she continuously follows important international news stories through
the computer until 8:00 p.m. On average, "PrimeNews" includes seven to nine in
ternational news stories, including two or three reporter packages, in a total ofthirty
five news stories.
The international news selection process ofthe KBS "9 O'clock News" is total
ly different from the process of the CNN "PrimeNews" (Figure 9). The topic and
number of international news reporter packages are decided in the two editors' edito
rial meetings. In the first meeting (9:00 a.m.), The ten chief editors ofthe news divi
sion plus the chiefexecutive discuss major news items and preselect important reporter
packages. The chief executive informs any changes in the station policies or personnel
changes. The chief editor of the International News Division presents the main in ternational news items to participants at this meeting. The second meeting (2:00 p.m.) decides on the international and domestic reporter packages and the order of news
presentation for the "9 O'clock News. ff The male anchor also participates in the se
cond meeting and grasps the main content of the "9 O'clock News. II These two edi tors' editorial meetings mainly focus on the "9 O'clock News" and discuss only reporter packages.
72 Under the guideline of the meetings ofthe chief editors, the chief editor ofthe
International News Division leads the division's two staff meetings. In the first staff
meeting (9:30 a.m.), the chief editor informs his editors which international reporter
packages were preselected and notifies them of any other subjects which were under
discussion from the editors' editorial meeting. Also, the chief editor makes assign
ments to each editor. According to the coverage assignment, international news edi
tors make an official "news planning report" on the reporter package and submit it to
the TV News Editing Division. In the second staffmeeting, international news editors
conform their coverage assignments and continuously communicate with their over seas correspondents about the reporter packages. Other editors who are not assigned to the reporter packages do their routine duties preparing international stories for pre sentation by the anchors and submitting stories to the TV News Editing Division.
The TV News Editing Division makes preliminary (1:50 p.m.) and final (8:00 p.m.) rundowns on the basis ofthe main points decided by the editors' editorial meet ing and the news planning reports collected from the ten news divisions. Before final izing the rundown, the TV News Editing Division changes the preliminary rundown two times (4:40 p.m. and 6:00 p.m.) to update new domestic and international stories.
Also, the division is fully responsible for the "9 O'clock News" production.
The international news selection process ofthe SBS "8 O'clock News" is very similar to the process ofthe KBS "9 O'clock News" (Figure 10). The main differences are that SBS has three editors' editorial meetings and no staff meeting of the
73 International News Division. Before the first editorial meeting (8:30 a.m.), the TV
"News Editing Division makes the preliminary rundown. On the basis of the prelimi
nary rundown, the participants--the chief editor and the chief editors ofthe eight news
divisions--in the morning editors' editorial meeting discuss the major news items and the chief editor of the International News Division presents the main international news items and the story plans. After the first meeting, the chief editor ofthe Interna tional News Division informs the international news editors which international report er packages will be prepared for the "8 O'clock News" and gives each editor responsibility for each international story. The second editors' editorial meeting is held at 2:00 p.m. and checks the main international and domestic items again. In the third editors' editorial meeting, the heads of the station, including the male anchor, finalize international and domestic reporter packages for the "8 O'clock News" and decide the presentation order of all news items. The procedures ofthe International News Divi sion and TV News Editing Division are almost the same as those of KBS. The TV
News Editing Division makes a preliminary rundown, revises it two times (9:00 a.m. and 2:30 p.m.), and distributes a final rundown (7:30 p.m.) to the two anchors and the participants of the editors' editorial meeting. Also, the division takes charge of the
whole production process of the "8 O'clock News. II The average number of interna tional news items for both KBS and SBS is three to five stories including one to two reporter packages among a total offorty news stories.
74 divisions-- and those international news stories which the anchors will present are se lected by the international news editors under the direction ofthe chief editors. Thus, the selection processes of international news in Korean news organizations is more complicated and more time consuming than CNNs selection process.
76 Figure 8. The Flow Chart of The International News Selection Process of the CNN "PrimeNews"
Time International News Gathering
r I The List ofInt'l News StoriesIReporter Packages '-. through Computer Discussion with ~ EX Producer on 2:00 AX Producer's Int'l News Items 5:15p.m. Review ofInt'l News Stories! Reporter Packages Checking Preli minary Selected Int'l News Items' Visual Quality I Preliminary by Assis. Producer I 5:15 p.m. Rundown by the AX Producer
-Allocating StaffMeeting 5:15 Segments of (participating All News Stories 5:30 p.m. Staffs ofAX & DC- to DC Producer through Phone) -Allocating Each Story to Writers -Discussion on Final Rundown the Selected 6:00 p.m. by the AX Producer News Items
Producers--Continuously Following Int'l News StorieslReporter Packages 6:00 Writers--Writing Scrips 8:00 p.m. Assis.Producer--Selecting Pictures Editors--Editing Pictures Font PA--Making Fonts
8:00 p.m. Anchors in AX/DC I
77 Figure 9. The Flow Chart ofThe International News Selection Process ofthe KBS 9 O'clock News
-Participants: ChiefExecutive/ 10 News Divisions' ChiefEditors Editors' Editorial -Discussion & Information Exchange on Meeting 1 (9:00 a.m.) the Current Major News/Notifing Station's Policy -Presenting Main Int'l News Items by the Chief Editor ofInttJ News Division
TV News Editing Int'I News Division Division -StaffMeeting (9:30 a.m.): -Collecting All Story Planning! News Planning Rep_orts Coverage Assignment -Making Preliminary -Making News Planning Rundown (1:50 p.m.) Reports (I :30 p.m.)
-Participants:Including M.Anchor -Discussing Preliminary Rundown -Selecting Main Int'l Reporter Packages . R P k
TV News Editing Int'I News Division Division -StaffMeeting (3:00 p.m.): -First Revising Confirming Coverage Preli.Rundown Assignment (4:40 p.m.) -Communicating Continuously with Over -Second Revising seas Correspondents for Preli.Rundown the Reporter Packages (6:00 p.m.) -Making Anchor Presenting News Stories -Selecting Anchor -Selecting Pictures Presenting Int'l News Stories
-Final Rundown (8:00-8:30 p.m.)
78 ~ . ~ Figure 10. The Flow Chart of the Iriternational News Selection Process \ ofthe SBS 8 O'clock News ) I TV News Editing I Division -Making Preliminary -Participants:ChiefExecutive/ Rundown (8:30 a.m.) 8 News Divisions' ChiefEditors -Discussion & Information Exchange on the Current Major News and Editors' Editorial Preliminary Rundown Meeting 1 (8:30 a.m.) -Presenting Main Int'l News Items by the ChiefEditor ofInt'l News Divisio
TV News Editing Int'I News Division Division -Coverage Assignment to the -First Revising Editors by the ChiefEditor Preli. Rundown (9:00 a.m.) (9:00 a.m.)
Editors' Editorial -Discussing & Adjusting Preliminary Meeting 2 (2:00 p.m.) Rundown
TV News Editing Int'l News Division Division ...---.... -Confirming Coverage -SecQnd Revising Assignment Prell. Rundown 2:30 .m.
-Participants:Including M.Anchor Editors' Editorial -Finalizing Reporter Packages 1\1· ( ~---; -Deciding the Presentation 1. ' eetmg 3 5:00 p.m, Order ofthe All News Items
TV News Editing Int'l News Division I Division -Communicating Continuously -Selecting Anchor Pres. with Overseas Correspondents Int'l News Stories ...-----.. for the Reporter Packages -Making Anchor Presenting News Stories -Selecting Pictures
79 4.2.2 Interview Analysis of Television Journalists' Perceptions on the Interna tional News Selection and Controi Mechanisms in CNN, KBS and SBS.
The interview analysis examines news workers' journalistic experiences and
thoughts about the public images of television news organizations, current newsroom
editorial procedures and control mechanisms, and the international news selection pro-
cesses and main influencing factors across CNN, KBS and SBS. The total number of
participant interviewees is twenty-one news workers: eight editors or producers from
C~TN., seven editors ofthe KBS International News Division and TV News Editing Di-
vision and six editors from SBS. The results clustered into two themes: the first theme
focuses on the images ofeach television network arising from the scope ofinternation-
al news coverage and its influencing main factors, and the second theme is about the
basic control mechanisms ofeach television network.
Theme 1: CNN AS Globalism VS KBS/SBS As Nationalism.
• CNNAs A Global News Network CNN is a 24 hour news and global news network. The big three are entertainment networks. They have only some news pro grams. Our great competitor is not NBC, CBS, ABC, but BBe. It is also a 24 hour news network and internationally distributed network. (A CNN Executive)
This statement shows that CNN people consider CNN to be a global news net- work. In describing the specific features of CNN, CNN television journalists
80 mentioned a considerable variety ofthings. Not surprisingly, the most common refer-
ence was "globalism." We are a global news organization to everybody outside the United States. When selecting any international story, I consider how each story is important to everybody....Relevance to the United States and political, cultural or economic relationship be tween the United States and the event country are not important factors to choose international news story. PrimeNews is in ternationally distributed and our viewers are around all of the world. We consider international relevance ofthe news story. (A CNN Executive Producer)
This program goes out on CNN Domestic and CNN Internation al. So, this program has global audience, not US audience.... I don't give priority to domestic or international news. I treat them equally. (A CNN Producer)
Diversity ofeditors is additional evidence of CN~ as a global news network. CNN International News Gathering is constituted of multiple na tionalities. I am a Chinese. I am familiar with Asia culturally and historically. So, I am in charge ofAsia region. Also, I am a Rus sian expert because I did Russian studies in Columbia University. One of international assignment editors is from Ireland and he is responsible for Northern Europe. Another person is from Singa pore. (An International Assignment Editor of CNN International News Gathering) I am also a visitor to the United States, too. Many CNN people come from outside U.S. (An International As signment Editor ofCNN International News Gathering)
The executive producer of CNN PrimeNews is English and the assistant pro- ducer is a Mexican-American.
81 • KBS/SBS As A National News Network
Korean television journalists always emphasize more domestic news than in- temational news for their main news programs. We are under the social reform period. We are liquidating the past military culture. All Korean people have the needs of repa ration from the past. According to this domestic situation, our news program must focus on domestic news. International news is second choice. (A KBS ChiefEditor)
Korean television networks' emphasis on the domestic political news is iIIus- trated in the following comparison of lead stories ofKBS "9 O'clock News," SBS "8
O'clock News" and CNN "PrimeNews" (Table 7).
The news orientation of Korean television journalists in the selection of in- temational news also shows that Korean television networks are national-oriented. The most important factor to select international news story is relevance or national significance to Korea. We always try to re port any international news story by our viewpoints including specialist's comments. It is suitable to our viewers' interest. (A KBS ChiefEditor)
"Relevance to Korea" is the most important factor to choose in ternational news story. Also, we select news story of country which is important to Korea. For example, the new international policy of the United States is definitely reported, but man-made disaster of Africa should be neglected. However, if this man made disaster was happened in Korea, we cover this topic. Any way, first priority to report news story is domestic news, interna tional news story is second choice. (An Editor ofKBS TV News Editing Division)
82 Table 7. Comparison of the Lead Stories of CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
Date CNN KBS 9 O'clock News SBS 8 O'clock News I, I PrimeNews I I July 5, I Economic In 1980s, a special military The Supreme Court makes I I 1993 Summit in corps operated terrorists. judicial reform policy. Tokyo This corps terrored current president. July 6, Mississippi River The strike ofHyundai The strike ofHyundai Group 1993 Flooding Group. labor. July 7, Mississippi River The police searched for The police searched for 1993 Flooding Hyundai labor union office. Hyundai labor union office. July 8, Keating Trial The Government announced The Political Declaration of 1993 the past military generals' G-7 Summit emphasized 1 absurity, "Yulgok North Korea's return to NPT. Absurity." July 9, Economic The government submitted The government punished six I 1993 Summit in forty people to disciplinary generals by Yulgok absurity. I Tokyo action by "Yulgok Absurity." July Mississippi River All public officials began to All public officials began to 12, Flooding register their property to the register their property to the I 1993 Government. Government. I July Flooding The police restricted The police put Japanese 13, Mississippi River Japanese correspondent by Fuji-TV correspondent under 1993 his illegal espionage restraint by his espionage activities. activities. July IFlooding Army Security Command Army Security Command and 14, .Mississippi River and Army Intelligence Army Intelligence Service ,1993 Service conspired together conspired together for the I for the terror ofopposite terror ofopposite politicians
I politicians in 1980s. in 1980s.
National impact or relevance to Korea is a major element in the selection pro- cess of international news in KBS. It is also seen as a major factor in the international news selection in SBS.
83 Relevance to Korea is the most important factor to select interna tional news. For example, the earthquake ofJapan did damage to Korea. Mississippi river flood is arelevant topic to our rainy sea son. Thus, we cover these news stories. Also, political and eco nomic relationship between Korea and the event country is very influencing factor. According to these relationship, big super powers such as the United States and Japan are usually covered. (A SBS ChiefEditor)
Currently, news story on North Korea's nuclear weapon is a top issue, because it has a great impact to South Korea. There are a lot factional fights around the world. When we handle this topic, first consideration is safety of Koreans who are resident in the event country. (A SBS ChiefEditor)
However, several Korean international news editors criticized the current national-oriented perspective concerning international news selection in Korean televi- sion news organizations. Sometimes I feel a contradiction between organization's news value and my personal news value. The station emphasizes na tional impact or relevance to Korea, but this value can possibly lose the mainstream of the international news. For example, Is lam is spreading around the world. But we do not cover this top ic, mainly because it is not significant to Korea. (An International News Editor of SBS International News Division). We need to report international news by the world perspective, not by nation al interest's perspective. We should consider international impact of news story, not national impact. The main role of reporter is not comment or explanation on news story, but just information delivery. Current important news value such as relevance to Ko rea can be entirely cut offKorea from the outside world. (An In ternational News Editor ofKBS International News Division)
84 Theme 2. CNN As A Market-Oriented Business Versus KBS/SBS As A Government-Oriented Service.
• CNNAs Business
CNN news personnel always mention CNN as a business entity. We are a business. We try to make money. We make money by selling advertising time. We sell scientific reports and medical re port to sponsors. In PrimeNews, We sell scientific reports to AT&T. (A CNN Executive Producer)
The most important factor in selecting international news is the picture's quality. We, television business, see the pictures. If the picture's quality is good, we choose the story. But whenever we select the picture, we should pay on that. So, we must consider the cost of the picture. We need to make balance between cost and visual. (An International assignment editor of CNN Interna tional News Gathering)
The sales research department based in New York is currently examining cost analysis of CNN International to five or six coun tries in Europe. We, audience research department, are studying product development research such as Airport Channel and Checkout Channel. (A CNN Executive)
The business-oriented characteristic ofCNN is closely related to viewers' inter- est and the ratings ofprograms. The nature ofour business is 24-hour news.... The nature of our business is to better understand a country, a region, and ultimate ly all of the world. So, flood or earthquake can not be ignored regardless of good news or bad news. It has great interest and importance to viewers around the world. (A CNN Executive)
Whenever I come to the office at 2 PM, at first, I check last night rating of our show provided from the CNN Audience Research Department.... My priorities to choose news story are the most interesting story and most understandable story. Big scandal, natural disaster, fire, earthquake, or plane crash are examples. We have weather, sports news and consumer news... these are news viewers want every night. (A CNN Producer)
85 The above interview statements show that CNN news personnel perceive that
CNN serves two markets--audience market and advertiser market--, and those two
markets are seldom considered separately. Theses statements indicate, in particular,
that when CNN news personnel think about the audience segment, they consider who
would be interested in receiving their particular media product and, simultaneously,
which advertisers might be interested in that audience.
• KBS/SBS As En/ighteners
Whenever Korean television journalists report any story related to the govem-
ment, they seem to try to read the government's mind or motives. Korea is under political and social reform periods. The center of reform is new government. News from government is very valu able and very interesting to all Korean people. Accordingly, we should report more political news, especially government reform policies. (A SBS ChiefEditor)
The government leads the national public opinion and national sentiment in Korea. The media just inform viewers the Govern ment's policy. Thus, media do not have their opinions. For exam ple, last Monday (July 5, 1993), we reported five related stories on the military terrorists news. They were too much. The main reason is that current president was one ofvictims by those terro rists. The heads of the station read government's motives too much. (An international news editor of KBS International News Division)
Probing the government's motives by Korean news workers results partly from the fact that government is the biggest news source in Korea.
86 Korean news organizations consist of political news division, economic news division, social news division and cultural news division, etc. All reporters go to their assigned government of fices to get information, mainly because government leads our society. Accordingly, most news comes from government. We can not get news from anywhere. (An International News Editor ofKBS International News Division)
The above themes drawn from interviews show that CNN television journalists
see CNN as a global news network, while Korean Television journalists consider their
organizations as national news networks. According to the journalists' different per-
ceptions on their news organizations, criteria for the selection ofinternational news are
very different between the U.S. CNN and Korean KBS and SBS news personnel.
When selecting and reporting any international news story, the CNN news personnel
focus on the relevance and importance to the viewers around the world, while Korean
news personnel interpret each international news story from the national interest view-
points and focus more on the relevance to Korean and the Korean People. In terms of
basic control mechanism ofeach news organization, CNN television journalists clearly
perceive CNN as a market-oriented business and seriously consider the advertisers and
ratings of their news programs. However, Korean television journalists consider the
government more often than the advertisers and do not see ratings. They cover many
news stories about the government's policies and activities, and use the government's news sources. Also, when reporting news stories related to the government, they al- ways try to read the government's mind to maintain a good relationship between the government and the news organization. Even though SBS is a private and commercial
87 television network, its news personnel only mention a relationship with the govern
ment, not with the advertisers. It indicates that Korean news networks still follow the
style of "government say-so" reporting.
As for research questions two and three, observation results indicate that the
editorial procedures for the international news selection in CNN are more flexible, au
tonomous and are mainly dictated by each journalist's job spercialization. However,
the editorial procedures of KBS and SBS are more bureaucratic and hierarchical.
AlSO., many more news personnel are involved to the selection process of international
news in Korean news networks than CNN. It means that Korean news networks have
the characteristics of collective decision making and collective responsibility, while
CNN prefers for individual decision making process and individual responsibility.
In terms of the basic control mechanism on the newsroom, commercialism is
the main control mechanism for CNN, while maintaining good relationships with the government is the basic control mechanism for the selection and reporting processes of news stories in Korean television news networks.
4.3 Content Analysis Results
Content analysis examined the way the three television network news programs reported the same weeks' international and domestic news. The analysis covered the two-week period from July 5 to 9 and 12 to 16, and the one-week period from
88 November 22 to 26, 1993. Out ofa total of 1456 stories, 348 (23.9%) were news sto-
ries of CNN "PrimeNews," 568 (39.0%) stories were covered in KBS "9 O'clock
News" and SBS "8 O'clock News" reported 540 (37.1 %) stories. In terms oftype of
news, 1250 (85.9%) were classified as domestic news and 206 (14.1%) were interna-
tional news. The findings ofthe content analysis are divided into two parts: 1) Com-
parative analysis ofthe main topics ofinternational and domestic news stories in CNN
"PrimeNews", KBS "9 O'clock News", and SBS "8 O'clock News'", and 2) Compara-
tive analysis of the main actors of international and domestic news stories in CNN
"PrimNews," KBS "9 O'clock News," and SBS "8 O'clock News."
4.3.1 Comparative Analysis ofthe Main Topics ofInternational and Domestic News Stories in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
Examination of Table 8 reveals the attention given to the various news topics offered in CNN "PrimeNews," KBS "9 O'clock News" and SBS "8 O'clock News."
CNN "PrimeNews" focused significantly more on "Cultural/Sports/Human Interest
News" (25.0%) and "Natural/Man-Made Disaster News" (14.9%) than other topics, while Korean network news programs covered "Domestic Political News" (KBS:
16.2%, SBS: 18.9%) and "Crime/Judicial News" (KBS: 17.3%, SBS: 20.9%) than oth- er topics, and the proportions were significantly different from those of CNN "Prime-
News" (X2 = 148.693, df = 16, P < .01). "Military/Defense News" (CNN: 6.9%,
KBS: 6.3%, SBS: 6.3%) and "Economic/Aid/Ecology News" (CNN: 22.7%, KBS:
89 24. 1%, SBS: 23.7%) were covered in almost equal proportions by the three different
network news programs.
In terms of the distribution of the main topics in the international news by
CNN, KBS and SBS major news programs, CNN "PrimeNews" covered "Cultu rallSportslHuman Interest News" (20.0%), "Natural/Man-Made Disaster News"
(20.0%) and "Crime/Judicial News" (12.6%) more than did Korean network news programs (X 2 = 42.539, df= 12, P < .01) (Table 9). KBS "9 O'clock News" focused significantly more on "Military/defense News" (40.7%) than did the other two net works (CNN: 22.1 %, SBS: 28.1%). SBS "8 O'clock News" focused more on "Diplo matic News" (26.3%) than did CNN and KBS (CNN: 2.1%, KBS: 16.7%). "Domestic
Political News" (CNN:II.6%, KBS: 14.8%, SBS: 12.3%) and "Economic/Aid/Ecolo gy News" (CNN: 11.6%, KBS: 13.0%, SBS: 12.3%) were covered in almost equal proportions in the three networks news programs.
With regard to the coverage of international events, a total of ninety different international events were covered by the three network newscasts during the sample periods in July and November, 1993 (Some ofthese international events were reported several times by each ofthe three newscasts; however, each event is counted only once for the purpose of comparison). The major international events included the Bosnian civil war, the Somalia crisis, the North Korea nuclear threat and nuclear talks between the U.S. and North Korea and the G-7 Economic Summit. In the coverage of ninety international events, Table 10 and 11 show that there are statistically significant
90 differences between CNN and KBS/SBS newscasts (CNN-KBS: X2 = 12, df= 1, P
< .01; CNN-SBS: X2 = 15.188, df= 1, P < .01). While KBS "9 O'clock News" and
SBS "8 O'clock News" covered twenty-four and twenty-five international events re
spectively which were not reported by CNN "PrimeNews," CNN covered thirty-eight
and thirty-nine events which were not reported by KBS and SBS. These results sug
gest that CNN Covered more various international events than did KBS and SBS.
Table 12 shows that there is a difference in the coverage of ninety international events
between KBS and SBS newscasts (X2 = 6.052, df =1, P < .05). This result reflects
that both KBS and SBS covered fifty-six different international events, but only cov
ered twenty-three in common. The three tables show that twelve international events
only aired in SBS, eleven only aired in KBS and thirty-four international events which
aired in CNN were not reported to the Korean viewers.
Furthermore, Table 13 shows a more detailed comparison of the main topics
between the domestic and international news in CNN "PrimeNews," KBS "9 O'clock
News," and SBS "8 O'clock News." In terms of coverage of "Diplomatic News" and
"Domestic Political News," Korean television network programs (KBS: 135, SBS:
146) focused more on those topics than CNN did on "PrimeNews" (N = 35). Howev er, KBS and SBS news programs covered those topics more as domestic news (KBS:
118, SBS: 124) than as international news (KBS: 17, SBS: 22). CNN "PrimeNews" covered "Domestic Political News" more as international news (N = 11) than it did as domestic news (N = 8).
91 In terms of coverage of "Military/Defense News," CNN "PrimeNews" covered
this topic more as international news (N = 21) than as domestic news (N = 3), while
KBS "9 O'clock News" treated this topic more as domestic news (N = 22) than as in
ternational news (N = 14). SBS "8 O'clock News" covered this topic almost equal by
as domestic news (N = 18) and international news (N =16). Other topics such as
"Economic/Aid/Ecology News," "Social Service/Social Problem News," "Crime/Judi
cial News, II and "Cultural/Sports/Human Interest News" were covered significantly more as domestic news than as international news in all three network news programs.
On the main topics of domestic and international news, the above findings suggest that the coverage of CNN "PrimeNews" focused more on economic news, cultural and human interest news and disaster news than other topics, whereas KBS "9
O'clock News" and SBS "8 O'clock News" covered more economic news, crime news and domestic political news than other topics in the sample periods--July and Novem ber, 1993. Emphasis on economic news by both U.S. and Korean network news pro grams may be due to the new economic recovery policies initiated by presidents who were inaugurated in the U.S. and Korea in early 1993. CNN's greater coverage of di saster news results from the Mississippi river flood in July, 1993. Korean networks' extreme coverage of domestic political news and crime news arise from the political and social reforms by their new president, Kim.
With regard to international news coverage, despite the small number of total news stories, CNN covered more international news stories (N = 95) than did KBS (N
92 = 54) and SBS (N = 57). It shows that CNN is a more global-oriented news network, and KBS and SBS are more national-oriented news networks. In terms ofinternation al news topics, military news was the most frequently covered topic in CNN, KBS and
SBS news programs. It results from the investigation ofNorth Korea's nuclear capa bilities and the Bosnia civil war. CNN covered many crime news in comparison with
KBS and SBS. It suggests that CNN television journalists pay more attention to ques tions addressing human rights than do Korean television journalists. Also, CNN fo cused significantly more on human interest and disaster news than did KBS and SBS.
It also shows that CNN news personnel have more humanistic-oriented news values than Korean news personnel.
Comparisons of the coverage of ninety different international events by the three network newscasts indicate that CNN covered more various international events than did KBS and SBS.
Comparison ofthe main topics between domestic and international news shows that all networks covered diplomatic news more as domestic news than as international news. It means that this topic is mainly reported not by international news divisions, but by political news divisions. In the case ofCNN, in particular, all news on the U.S. president is handled by the "Special Event Unit." In Korean television networks, all news about the Korean president is mainly covered by the "Political News Division."
93 4.3.2 Comparative Analysis of the Main Actors of International and Domestic News Stories in CNN PrimNews, KBs 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
Table 14 shows the main actors in the news stories from CNN "PrimeNews,"
KBS "9 O'clock News," and SBS "8 O'clock News." Despite having the least number
of total news stories, CNN "PrimeNews" (N = 399) quoted more news makers or
news shapers than did Korean network news programs (KBS: 340, SBS: 190). The
most frequently quoted main actors in the stories of CNN "PrimeNews" were "Com-
man People/Student" (30.6%) and "Cultural/Academics/Sportsmen" (25.1 %) , while
"Politica1lMilitary" actors (KBS: 41.2%, SBS: 44.2%) and "Economic/Business" ac-
tors (KBS: 17.6%, SBS: 20.0%) appeared most frequently in the stories ofthe Korean
network news programs.
With regard to the main actors of international news, CNN (N = 50) quoted more actors than did KBS (N = 36) and SBS (N = 25). The most frequently quoted actors in the international news of CNN "PrimeNews" were "Common People/Stu- dent" (42.0%) and "Political/Military" actors (26.0%), whereas "PoliticallMilitary"
(KBS: 58.3%, SBS: 56.0%) and "Cultural/Academics/Sports" (KBS: 27.8%, SBS:
16.0%) actors appeared the most frequently in the international stories of KBS and
SBS news programs. However, "Economic/Business" actors were rarely covered in the international news stories ofall three network news programs (Table 15). Further- more, in the comparison "Common People/Student" with the other five actors combined, Table 16 shows that there were statistically significant differences among
94 the three news programs (X 2 = 12.143, df = 2, P < .01). This result indicates that
C:NN covered in almost equal proportions the "Common People/Student" category
(58.0%) and five actor category (42. 0%), whereas KBS (88.9%) and SBS (84.0%)
quoted a significantly higher percentage of individuals in the five actor category than
"Common People/Student" category(KBS: 11.1%; SBS: 16.0%).
In terms ofthe social status comparisons ofthe main actors in the news stories
among the three network news programs, the "Social Elite Group" (CNN: 64.2%,
KBS: 79.4%, SBS: 69.5%) were quoted more than the "Non Social Elite Group" in
the news stories by both U.S. and Korean News programs; CNN "PrimeNews"
(35.8%), however, covered a significantly higher percentage of the "Non Social Elite
Group" than did KBS (20.6%) and SBS (30.5%) (X2= 20.946, df= 3, P < .01) (Table
17). Furthermore, Table 18 shows the social status comparisons ofthe main actors in the international news among the three network news programs. CNN "PrimeNews" covered in almost equal proportions the "Social Elite Group" (56.0%) and "Non So cial Elite Group" (44.0%), while KBS and SBS network news programs quoted sig nificantly more the "Social Elite Group" (KBS: 88.90/0, SBS: 80.0%) than the "Non
Social Elite Group. II The social elite group includes political and government offi cials, business people, attorneys and academic actors. The non social elite group in cludes common people, farmers and workers as distinct from management.
The above findings show that more types of actors were involved in the CNN
PrimeNews' stories than those in KBS and SBS news programs. In particular,
95 significantly more common people appeared in the CNN PrimeNews' domestic and in ternational stories than on Korean network news programs, whereas political actors were covered significantly more in Korean network news programs than in CNN "Pri
rneNews. II This suggests that the CNN television journalists seriously consider view ers' interest and their opinions, while Korean television networks' main news source is government officials and other political people.
Concerning research questions four, five and six, CNN covered more interna tional news than did KBS and SBS, despite the small number of total news stories.
Even though military news was the most covered international news topic in CNN,
KBS and SBS, CNN focused on crime, human interest and disaster news more than other topics. However, KBS and SBS covered diplomatic and domestic political news more than did CNN. In terms of the main actors in the international news coverage, the most frequently quoted actors in the stories of CNN "PrimeNews" were common people, whereas political/military actors appeared the most frequently in the interna tional stories ofKBS and SBS news programs.
96 Table 8. Comparison of the Main Topics of All News Stories in CNN Pri meNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS ~ O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS ! Main Topics
N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N CoI.Pct I Diplomatic News 16 4.6 43 7.6 44 8.1 I
Domestic Political News 19 5.5 92 16.2 102 18.9 I Military/ 24 6.9 36 6.3 34 6.3 Defense News Economic/Aid! 79 22.7 137 24.1 128 23.7 Ecology News I I i Social Service! 7 2.0 38 6.7 30 5.6 Social Problem News I
Crime/ 41 11.8 98 17.3 113 20.9 I Judicial News Cultural/Sports/ 87 25.0 78 13.7 54 10.0 Human Interest News NaturallMan-Made 52 14.9 22 3.9 15 2.8 Disaster News Weather News 22 6.3 24 4.2 20 3.7 I I Total 348 100.0 568 100.0 540 100.0 I I I
x2 = 148.963, df= 16, P < .01
97 Table 9. Comparison of the Main Topics of International News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS Main Topics N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct I Diplomatic News 2 2.1 9 16.7 15 26.3
Domestic Political 11 11.6 8 14.8 7 12.3 News Military/ 21 22.1 22 40.7 16 28.1 Defense News Economic/Aid! 11 11.6 7 13.0 7 12.3 (Ecology News /Crimel 12 12.6 0 0.0 4 7.0 iJudicial News ICulturaVSportsl ~ 19 20.0 3 5.6 3 5.3 !Human Interest News I INaturalfMan-Made 19 20.0 5 9.3 5 8.8 Disaster News
Total 95 100.0 54 100.0 57 100.0
x 2 = 42.539, df= 12, P < .01
98 Table 10. Comparison of the Coverage of Ninety International Events Be tween CNN PrimeNews and KBS 9 O'clock News.
CNN Covered Int'l Events Not Covered Int'l Events KBS N Col.Pet N Col.Pet Covered Int'l Events 16 29.6 I 24 66.7
Not Covered Int'l Events 38 70.4 12 33.3
Total 54 100.0 36 100.0
x~ 12, df=l, P < .01
Table 11. Comparison of the Coverage of Ninety International Events Be tween CNN PrimeNews and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN Covered Int'l Events Not Covered Int'l Events SBS N Col.Pet N Col.Pct Covered Int'l Events 15 27.8 25 69.4
Not Covered Int'l Events 39 72.2 11 30.6
Total 54 100.0 36 100.0
x 2= 15.188, df-l, P < .01
Table 12. Comparison of the Coverage of Ninety International Events Be tween KBS 9 O'clock New and SBS 8 O'clock News.
KBS Covered Int'l Events Not Covered Int'l Events SBS N Col.Pet N Col.Pct ! Covered Int'l Events 23 57.5 16 32.0
Not Covered Int'l Events 17 42.5 34 68.0
Total 40 100.0 50 100.0 I x 2= 6.052, df=l, P < .05
99 Table 13. Comparison of the Main Topics Between Domestic and International News in CNN Primeblews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News. .
CNN KBS SBS Main Topics Dom.News Int'l News Dom.News Int' News Dom. News Int'I News N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct Diplomatic 14 5.5 2 2.1 34 6.6 9 16.7 29 6.0 15 26.3 News
Domestic 8 3.2 11 11.6 84 16.3 8 14.8 95 19.7 7 12.3 Political News
Military/ 3 1.2 21 22.1 14 2.7 22 40.7 18 3.7 16 28.1 Defense News
Economic/Aid! 68 26.9 11 11.6 130 25.3 7 13.0 121 25.1 7 12.3 Ecology News
Social Service/ 7 2.8 0 0.0 38 7.4 0 0.0 30 6.2 0 0.0 Social Problem News Crime/Judicial 29 11.5 12 12.6 98 19.1 0 0.0 109 22.6 4 7.0 News
Cultural/SportJ 68 26.9 19 20.0 75 14.6 3 3.7 51 10.6 3 5.3 Human Interest News Naturall 34 13.4 19 20.0 17 3.3 5 9.3 10 2.1 5 8.8 Man-Made Disaster News Weather News 22 8.7 0 0.0 24 4.7 0 0.0 20 4.1 0 0.0
Total 253 95 514 54 483 57 (Row Percent) (72.7) (27.3) (90.5) (9.5) (89.4) (10.6)
100 Table 14. Comparison of the Quoted Main Actors of All News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS Main Actors I I N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct PoliticallMilitary 81 20.3 140 41.2 84 44.2
EconomiclBusiness 42 10.5 60 17.6 38 20.0
Cultural/Academics! 100 25.1 70 20.6 19 10.0 Sports Att 0 meyfP alice 26 6.5 17 5.0 12 6.3
Intemationall 28 7.0 6 1.8 7 3.7 Regional Organization I Common People/ 122 30.6 47 13.8 30 15.8 I Student Total 399 100.0 340 100.0 190 100.0
2 x = 98.504, df= 10, P < .01
101 Table 15. Comparison of the Quoted Main Actors of International News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS Main Actors N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct Political/Military 13 26.0 21 58.3 14 56.0
EconomiclBusiness 0 0.0 0 0.0 1 4.0 I CulturallAcademics! 8 16.0 10 27.8 4 16.0 Sports
AttorneyfPolice 4 8.0 0 0.0 a 0.0 I
IIntemationav 4 8.0 1 2.8 2 8.0 [Regional Organization Common People! 21 42.0 4 11.1 4 16.0 Student Total 50 100.0 36 100.0 25 100.0
Table 16. Comparison of the Quoted Main Actors of International News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS Main Actor N Col.Pct N CoI.Pct N CoI.Pct Other Five Actors 29 58.0 32 88.9 21 84.0
Common People/ 21 42.0 4 11.1 4 16.0 Student Total 50 100.0 36 100.0 25 100.0
x 2 = 12.143, df= 2, P < .01
102 Table 17. Comparison of the Social Status of the Main Actors of All News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
CNN KBS SBS Social Status N Col.Pct N Col.Pct N Col.Pct Social Elite 256 64.2 270 79.4 132 69.5 Group
Non Social 143 35.8 70 20.6 58 30.5 Elite Group
Total 399 100.0 340 100.0 190 100.0
x2 = 20.946, df= 2, P < .01
Table 18. Comparison of the Social Status of the Main Actors of Interna tional News Items in CNN PrimeNews, KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News.
: CNN KBS SBS Social Status N Col.Pct N Col.Pet N Col.Pct Social Elite 28 56.0 32 88.9 20 80.0 Group I
Non Social 22 44.0 4 11.1 5 20.0 Elite Group Total 50 100.0 36 100.0 25 100.0
x 2 = 12.12~ df= 2, P < .01
103 Chapter V.
Summary and Conclusions
This research comparatively examined the main factors influencing the interna
tional news selection processes of television journalists, newsroom editorial proce
dures and the basic control mechanisms, and news content ofthe main news programs
among three different types and sizes of television news organizations--CNN, KBS
and SBS in the U.S. and Korea.
While previous studies ofthe int.ernational news gatekeeping and selection pro cess and participant observation studies of newsroom editorial procedures and control mechanisms have addressed many of factors affecting international news selection, they have not combined several ofthe important factors and have failed to explain how the various factors affect each other. Thus, this study combined all main factors from the previous works into four categories: the internal journalist/organization factors, the external political/social factors, the intrinsic content-oriented factors and the extrinsic context-oriented factors.
Previous research on international news content and the studies ofthe main ac tors in television news content have not made a distinction between domestic and in ternational news presented by the television news organizations of different countries according to topics and main actors. Also, few studies have examined international news coverage in relation to the international news selection process. Thus, this study
104 analyzed how news content reflected television journalists' viewpoints and how orga nizational or external forces acted on the content. It looked at what types and quanti ties of domestic and international news were reported, and what main actors were quoted in three different news programs.
For the purpose of this study, this research addressed the following SIX questions:
1. How each ofthe four main factors influence the selection process ofinterna
tional news stories by the television journalists ofthe three television news
organizations: CNN in the U.S., and KBS and SBS in Korea? What differ
ences are there among the three broadcast organizations?
2. What newsroom editorial procedures are structured for the selection ofin
ternational news in each ofthe three television news organizations? What
differences are noted?
3. What are the basic control mechanisms or forces that operate on the selec
tion process ofinternational news in each ofthe three television news orga
nizations? What differences are noted?
4. What is the difference in the proportion ofdomestic and international news
appearing on the three news programs?
5. What topics are covered as domestic and international news in the three dif
ferent news programs? What differences are noted?
105 6. Which main actors are quoted in the news stories ofthe three news pro
grams? What differences are there?
Survey, participant observation with interview and content analysis were used
to answer these research questions: 1) Survey results for research question one; 2)
Participant observation and interviews results for research questions two and three;
and 3) Content analysis results for research questions four, five and six. The results
are now summarized.
5.1 Summary and Implications of Findings
5.1.1 Survey Results for Research Question One
In comparing the degree ofinfluence ofthe internal journalist/organization and external political/social factors on the selection of international news among interna tional news editors of CNN, KBS and SBS, both U.S and Korean international news editors use several criteria. While CNN international news editors emphasize the audience-oriented concept (e.g., viewers' interest) for the international news selections and consider the constraints oftheir working environment (e.g., general editorial poli cy ofthe station, immediate supervisor and fellow journalists) important in their selec tion of international news, KBS and SBS international news editors regard their chief editors as having the most influence over their international news selections. Also, media competition and external group pressure (e.g., government and other political groups) have strong influences on the international news choices in Korean television
106 news organizations, especially on the private news organization, SBS. Also, CNN in-
temational news editors are more apt the Korean editors to discuss the colleagues the
assigned international news items.
With regard to the comparison of the relative influences of the intrinsic
content-oriented and the extrinsic context-oriented factors among international news
editors, CNN international news editors focus more on the intrinsic content- oriented
factors (e.g., accuracy, timeliness) than on the extrinsic context-oriented factors. Ko-
rean international news personnel emphasize more the extrinsic context-oriented fac-
tors (e.g., relevance to Korea, Korean involvement in the event). KBS and SBS
television journalists consider economic or political relations between Korea and the
event country as more important factors for the selection ofinternational news than do
CNN television journalists. These results suggest that KBS and SBS news workers
report international news stories more from a national perspective than from a global
perspective.
5.1.2 Participant Observation and Interview Results for Research Questions Two and Three
The overall structures of the three international news divisions are similar to each other. However, the operational and editorial procedures for the selection of in- temational news in each television network are different as follows:
In tenns of the diversity, number and role of the main gatekeepers involved in the selection of international news, there are differences between CNN and Korean
107 news networks. First, CNN is constituted ofmultiple nationalities, while Korean news people have fairly homogeneous profiles in terms of educational background and jour nalistic training. It shows that CNN is a more globally-oriented news network. Se cond, the CNN international news editors and producers actively select international news stories using their personal and professional judgments. In Korean television networks, many more gatekeepers from all news divisions are involved in the selection of international news. The international reporter packages ofKorean news programs are mainly chosen by the heads ofthe station--the chief executives and chief editors of the news divisions--in two or three editors' editorial meetings. International news sto ries presented by the anchors are selected by the international news editors under the control and direction of the chief editors. In the case ofKBS, the chief editor makes assignments to the international news editors in two daily staffmeetings ofthe interna tional news division. In SBS, the chief editor makes coverage assignments without staff meetings. Thus, international news editors have little opportunity to discuss on the topics of international stories with their colleagues, leading to a rigid hierarchical relationship with the chief editors. The selection processes of international news in
Korean news organizations are more complicated, bureaucratic, hierarchical and more time consuming; while the CNN's selection process of international news is simpler, personal and autonomous. It means that CNN has the flexible and horizontal struc ture, whereas the structures of KBS and SBS are the traditional, rigid and vertical hierarchy. In terms of the media leadership style, Korean chief editors may have the
108 task-oriented leadership style, whereas CNN executives have employee-oriented lead ership style. While the task-oriented Korean chief editors direct and supervise their editors closely to ensure that the task is performed to the bosses' satisfaction, the employee-oriented CNN executives try to motivate subordinates and encourage group members' performance by allowing their staffs to participate in decisions affecting them and by forming friendly, respectful and trusting relationships with their em ployees.
With regard to the production process of the major news programs, sixteen
people have the full-time responsibility for CNN "PrimeNews, It whereas KBS and SBS have no formal newscast teams for their major news programs--KBS "9 O'clock
News" and SBS "8 O'clock News." According to their job specializations, the CNN
"PrimeNews" news workers in different positions--producers, writers and editors--do their own work and coordinate their activities with others. In staffmeetings, they free ly discuss the topics and formats of international news items with their fellow journal ists. But many more news divisions and news people are involved in the production processes ofKorean news programs. While the TV News Division is mainly responsi ble for the production process--making rundowns, and selecting anchor-presenting in ternational and domestic news stories--, reporters make their own scripts and edit pictures. In terms of managing media organizations, these results indicate Korean news organizations have the characteristics of collective decision making and group responsibility, while CNN fosters individual decision making and responsibility.
109 With regard to coordination of the production process of major newscasts, these results show that Korean news networks prefer "horizontal coordination," while
CNN "PrimeNews" have the "self-contained" structure. By developing the horizontal coordination structure, Korean news networks have established horizontal linkages be tween individuals in different news divisions to produce their major news programs.
But, CNN has established the self-contained organizational unit which has responsibil ity for all aspects ofeach news program; "PrimeNews" contains all the specialists that it needs and thereby requires no coordination with other newscast teams.
In addition, interview analysis indicates that CNN television journalists see
CNN as a global news network, while Korean television journalists consider their or ganizations as national news networks. According to the different perceptions oftheir news organizations, each television journalist's main news criteria for the international news selection are very different between the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS television networks. When selecting and reporting any international story, the CNN news personnel focus on the story's relevance and importance to viewers around the world, while Korean news people try to interpret each international news story from the viewpoints ofnational interest and focus on the relevance to Korea and the Korean people.
In terms of the basic control mechanism of each news organization, CNN television journalists clearly perceive CNN as a market-oriented business and seriously consider the advertisers and ratings of their news programs. However, Korean
110 television journalists consider the government more than the advertisers and do not
even see ratings for the news programs. They cover many news stories on the govern ment's policies and activities, and from the government's news sources. Also, when re porting news stories related to the government, they always try to read the government's mind. Even though SBS is a private and commercial television network, in the interviews, its news personnel mentioned relationships with the government, but not with advertisers. This indicates that Korean news networks whether commercial or non-commercial still follow the style of "government say-so" reporting.
5.1.3 Content Analysis Results for Research Questions Four, Five and Six
The main topics of domestic and international news suggest that the coverage of CNN "PrimeNews" focused more on economic news, cultural and human interest news, and disaster news than other topics, whereas KBS "9 O'clock News" and SBS
"8 O'clock News" covered more economic news, crime news and domestic political news than other topics in the sample periods--July and November, 1993. It suggests that CNN reporting is more soft news-oriented, while KBS and SBS reporting is more hard news-oriented. Emphasis on economic news by both U.S. and Korean network news programs may have been due to the new economic recovery policies initiated by the presidents who were inaugurated in the U.S. and Korea in early 1993. eNN's greater coverage of disaster news results from the Mississippi river flood in July, 1993.
111 Korean networks' extreme coverage of domestic political news and crime news arise from the political and social reforms by the new president, Kim.
With regard to the international news coverage, despite the small number ofto- tal news stories, CNN covered more international news stories than did KBS and SBS.
This result provides additional evidence that CNN is a more globally-oriented news network, which was found in the in-depth interviews with the CNN news personnel.
In terms ofthe international news topics, military news was the most covered topic in CNN, KBS and SBS news programs. It results from the North Korea nuclear threat and the Bosnian civil war. CNN covered more crime/judicial news in compari- son with KBS and SBS. The covered crime news stories include British and French toddler trials. CNN also covered many demonstration news stories including the labor union march of Spain and the protests ofBelgium and France. These results suggest that CNN television journalists pay more attention to human rights stories than do Ko- rean television journalists.
CNN focused significantly more on human interest news than did KBS and
SBS. The survey results also confirm that CNN news people consider the factor of human interest in selecting international news story more than do Korean news per- sonnel. The preference for human interest stories also appeared to an interview with a
CNN producer: "1 don't like political news stories. These political stories are usu ally covered in other CNN newscasts and even other networks. My priorities to choose news story are the most interesting sto ry....I like animal very much. Don't you like it?"
112 "Primel-Iews" actually covered many animal news stories including the stories about
the extermination crisis of Siberian tiger, new zoo of China, the negligence of a tiger
family in the Philippines and the cruel hunting of endangered species in Thailand.
These results show that CNN news personnel have more humanistic-oriented news
values than Korean news personnel.
Comparisons of the coverage of ninety different international events between
CNN and Korean news networks reflect that CNN covered more various international
events than did KBS and SBS.
Comparison ofthe main topics between domestic and international news shows
that all networks covered diplomatic news more as domestic news than as international
news. It means that this topic is mainly reported not by the international news divi
sion, but by the political news divisions. In the case ofCNN, in particular, all news on the U.S. president is handled by the "Special Event Unit." In Korean television news networks, all news on the Korean president is mainly covered by the "Political News
Division."
With regard to the quoted main topics, more types of actors were involved in the CNN "PrimeNews" stories than those in KBS and SBS news programs. In par ticular, significantly more common people appeared in both the domestic and interna tional news stories on the CNN "PrimeNews" than on Korean network news programs. This suggests that the CNN television journalists seriously consider
113 viewers' interests and their opinions, while among Korean television networks, their main news sources are government officials or other political people.
5.2 Conclusions
Through the above findings, the study found the following two main points: 1)
There are some differences in the selection processes ofinternational news and content between the U.S. CNN and Korean KBS/SBS news networks; 2) There are high simi larities in the selection processes of international news and content between the KBS and SBS news networks. These findings can be concluded, in terms of 1) Uniformity ofcoverage in the Korean news networks; 2) Economic consideration at CNN and po litical consideration at KBS and SBS.
5.2.1 Uniformity of Coverage in the Korean News Networks
Survey results showed that the KBS and SBS news personnel used similar cri teria for the selection ofinternational news. Also, content analysis results indicate that
KBS and SBS network newscasts are highly similar. As Stempel (1985, 1988) and
Riffe et al. (1986) suggested in their US news networks studies, these findings mean that the two networks provide similar views of the world and kinds of events that are found in the world. This uniformity in the treatment of domestic and international news, and influential factors affecting international news selection may arise from the homogeneous profiles of Korean television journalists. Not only are Korean news
114 personnel becoming more alike in their educational and social backgrounds, they are
also more inclined to pursue the same journalistic training. For example, all SBS chief
editors plus the chief executive came from the existing two television networks--KBS
and MBC--and from major newspapers. In particular, the SBS chief editor of intema-
tional news division came from the KBS International News Division. Accordingly,
the new television journalists ofKBS and SBS are exposed to the same form of pro-
fessional training from the heads ofthe stations.
Participant observations done for this study show that the editorial procedures for the international news selection including main sources of international news are remarkably uniform in KBS and SBS. This offers another explanation why the amounts and topics of international news reported in the KBS and SBS newscasts are so similar. Also, media competition between Korean television news networks have introduced new constraints and procedures that have tended to standardize the news selection process.
5.2.2 Economic Consideration at CNN and Political Consideration at KBS and SBS
Interview analysis shows that economic considerations strongly influence in- ternational news selection in CNN. CNN news personnel are under pressure to pres- ent appealing stories that attract wide audiences to keep the company profitable. This pressure is even more burdensome for CNN "PrimeNews" news personnel because their stories must be exceptionally interesting to attract a global audience. As content
115 analysis results showed, shaping "PrimeNews" content with its emphasis on the excep
tional rather than the ordinary and its more international news coverage on conflict, di
saster and human interest news, CNN news workers seek to satisfy audience
preference. This attention to viewer's interests is strongly related to the profit motive
and becomes a paramount selection criterion. This economic factor imposes more
stringent constraints on CNN than other television networks because CNN deals with
larger, more heterogeneous audiences.
On the other hand, the findings show that the criteria Korean news people use
in story selection relate to the political significance of the story, its broad national or
social purpose, or own political views rather than audience appeal. Even though SBS
is a private and commercial television news network, the station takes positions that
further the goals ofthe government. Both domestic and international news ofKorean
newscasts conform to the prevailing political ideology and confirm its accuracy. They
also engender support for major government policies such as political and social re
form policies and economic recovery campaigns. Korean television news organiza
tions, whether public or private, still follow "government say-so" journalistic practices.
5.3 Contribution of the Research Method
While a test ofthe method was not a goal ofthis study, one ofthe conclusions of this research is that the method is clearly applicable to studying the selection pro cess and content of television international news and provided insights. From the
116 outset of this study, the researcher's intention to compare the television international news content dictated the use of systematic content analysis. The need to understand factors affecting news content, many ofwhich cannot be measured by empirical means, suggested participant observation as an appropriate method ofinquiry. Finally, survey questionnaires were used not only because they provide answers to direct questions, but also because they lend some structure to what might otherwise appear to be an un structured research design. Thus, the use oftriangulation of methods gave the findings even more validity. On the other hand, while the content analysis lacks its representa tiveness because of a weakness in randomness, the qualitative interviews suggest the findings from the content analysis do have some merit.
5.4 Further Research
This study has perhaps raised more questions than it has answered. Its focus has provided information of a very specific nature about international news selection and content in three television networks--CNN, KBS and SBS--in the United States and Korea. Because ofthis tightness offocus, and also because ofthe sample's lack of representativeness, its results cannot be generalized, but they could be usefully ex tended to other television news organizations, not only in the United States and Korea but also in other countries. It would be particularly interesting to make a comparative analysis of television news organizations in countries by different political systems or
117 economic circumstances. A further step would be ultimately to extend the study to
different media.
The method ofinquiry used for this study--a combination ofsurvey, participant
observation and content analysis--seems to be appropriate for the exploration of the
selection process of news stories and thoughts of television journalists, and their out
put, news content. The same method could also be used to study other kinds of news
selection processes, in particular national news including political news and business news, as well as its news content. Here again, research could be extended to other media and other countries.
A number of such research projects, using the same methodology, would eventually yield valuable comparisons between different types and sizes ofmedia orga nizations in different countries and different cultural settings, and would greatly con tribute to our understanding of the news selection process, including influencing factors and news content. Repeated studies across time would provide insights into changes taking place in journalistic procedures and their output.
One unavoidable drawback ofthis study is that, while content analysis may be performed on data from identical time periods, participant observation is conducted at different time periods, at least ifonly one observer is used. Further research should in clude a large field study involving several groups of communication scholars and journalists in different countries, all making selections from the same day's news file.
118 Also, further progress could be achieved by refining the taxonomy developed
in Chapter 3 (e.g. operational definitions of domestic and international news) and ap
plying it to a variety of different news selection processes in different media. In terms
of the definition of international news, most existing research in this area has focused
on "content perspective" such as relationship between nations. But this study applied
the "organization's perspective" of international news-news story from outside the
country, with reports being selected by the international news division. A further ex
ploration might prove how this definition could be applied and modified for the in
ternational news selection ofdifferent media and different countries.
Finally, this study has confirmed the findings of some previous research, ex tended this research to international settings, and added new knowledge of the selec tion processes of international news including newsroom editorial procedures and control mechanisms, and news orientation oftelevision journalists. The fact that it has raised other questions and pointed to a number ofinteresting new avenues for investi gating suggests that this field will continue to be a rich area ofresearch for a long time to come.
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126 APPENDICES:
Appendices #1: Coding Sheet.
Appendices #2: Survey Questionnaire.
Appendices #3: The List ofInterview Questions on the International News Selection Process ofthe CNN International News Gathering.
Appendices #4: The List ofInterview Questions on the International News Selection Process and Editorial Procedures ofthe CNN PrimeNews.
127 Name of The Coder: Date ofCode:
CODING SHEET
Date ofNews:---- Television News Organizations: _ Story Section: _ Story Number (This refers to a story position in the news, e.g. 1st, 2nd or 20th story): _ Story type:_ 1) Domestic News _ 2) International news
TOPICS (Identify one and only one main topic by entering "1" against that category. Enter "2" to subsidiary topics.)
_* Diplomatic/political activity between nations/group ofnations
* Political within a nation: _1) Internal conflict/crisis _2) Elections, campaigns, appointments or changes in government. _3) Other political including legislation.
* Military and defense: _1) Armed conflict or treat of _2) Peace moves, negotiations and settlements. _3) Arms details, weapons, bases, exercise and other.
* Economic matters: _1) International trade, imports/exports, accord on trade/tariffs, etc. _2) Capital investments including state/stock/sharesldividends/profits. _3) Economic performance such as industrial production! growth, sales (for economic as a whole or particular enterprise), prices, inflation, cost ofliving, per capita income, etc. _4) Industrial projects such as dams, factories, roads, ports, etc. _5) Agricultural projects, crop, harvests, fisheries, poultry, animal hus- bandry, etc. _6) Industrial/labor relations like disputes, wages, settlements, etc. _7) Monetary questions, exchanges rates, money supply. _8) Other.
128 * National/Intemational aid: _1) Aid for disasters, famine, drought, flood relief _2) Aid for economy purposes, industrial development. _3) Military aid in weapons, advisors, training, etc. _4) Aid for education, health & family planning, public health, social welfare and rural development programs.
* Social services/Social problems: _1) Problems relating to public health, housing, illiteracy, etc. _2) Educational services and provisions. _3) Health services and provisions but excluding family planning. _4) Family planning services and social welfare measures. _5) Other social services and social welfare measures.
* Crime, police, judicial, legal and penal: _1) Non-political crime, police, judicial, and penal activity. _2) Political crime as above. _3) Non-criminal legal and court proceeding like claims and damages. _4) Other crimes or legal activity including drugs, narcotics, etc.
_* Culture, arts, and archeology:
_* Entertainment and show business except personalities:
* Personalities: _1) Political _2) Entertainment/show business _3) Sports _4) Other.
_* Religion
_* Scientific, technical, space, medical:
* Sports events: _1) National _2) International _3) Other
_* Human interest, odd happenings, animal, sex, etc.
* Ecology: _1) Energy conservation
129 _2) Pollution (air, water and atmospheric) _3) Other
_* Natural disasters like floods, cyclones, earthquakes, drought, famine, vol canic activity:
* Man-made disasters and accidents like nuclear disasters, calamities in flicted by war, etc.
_* Travel, tourism and transportation:
_* Race and ethnic problems:
_* Students problems and unrest, protest, demonstrations, etc.
Main Reporter ofThe Story:_l) Male _2) Female
Main Actor in The Story:_l) Male _2) Female
Position! Sphere ofMain and Other Actors in The Story
_1) Symbolic/nominI head ofstate _2) Chiefexecutives, prime minister, president ofthe state _3) Other executives, government/cabinet minister or government as a whole _4) Legislature, parliament, congress or committee _5) Ruling party _6) Violent political opposition _7) Non-violent political opposition _8) Other politicians (national) _9) Local politician or government official _10) Ambassador or diplomat _11) Military - regular forces ofstate _12) Military - irregular, guerrillas, terrorists, etc. _13) Industry, business, private sector, banking, etc. _14) Trade unions, workers or farmers as distinct from management _15) Pressure groups, lobbyists _16) Religious _17) Sports _18) Media including press/radio/TV/films/advertising, media in general _19) Academic/education!scientific/culturaI/medicaIltechnology _20) Police/fire
130 _21) Judiciaryllawyer _22) Criminals/prisoners _23) Celebrities/show business _24) Aristocracy/royalty in non-political capacity _25) Nation(s) _26) United nations and its related bodies _27) Inter-governmental international bodies like Red Cross, Amnety, etc. _28) Common people, citizen _29) No human actor _30) Children, students _31) Other
Main Actor Quoted/interview: _1) YesIHow many:_ _2) No
Presentation: _1) Pre-recorded _2) live
131 Survey Questionnaire
1) Below are several factors that may guide your selection of international news. Please rate how each factor affects your choice of news on the five-point scale ( 1 is "definitely not important," 5 is "very important").
definitely not not average important very important important important 1 2 3 4 5 - General Editorial Policy ofthe Station I I I I I
- Immediate Supervisor I I I I I
- Fellow Journalists I II I I
- Personal Convictions I I I I I
- Viewers' Interest I II I I
- Influence ofGovernment! Other Political Groups I I I I I
- Influence ofInterest Groups I I I I I
- Reports ofOther TVsf Newspapers I I I I I
- Other: I I I I I
2) What qualities do you look for when selecting an international news story? Please rank how each quality affects your choice of news stories on the five-point scale.
-Accurac~nambi~~y I~~~~I~~~_I~~~~I~~~~I
- Right Length I-----II------I-----I
- Good Visuals I-----II------I I 132 2 3 4 5 - Good Audio I I I I I
- Human InterestlUnexpec- redness/Sensationalism I I I I I
- Negativity/Conflict! Loss ofLives I I I I I
- Timeliness ofReport I I I I I
- National Impact! Relevance to the U.S. I I I I I
- Hierarchy ofNational Rank (GNP, Population, etc.) ofthe Event Country I I I I I
- U.S. Involvement in the Event I I I I I
- Cultural Affinity between the U.S. and Event CountryI I I I I
- Economic Relations between the U.S. and Event CountryI I I I I
- Political Ties between the U.S. and Event CountryI I I I I
- Geographical Proximity I I I I I
- Other: I I I I I
For statistical purpose only, I need some general information about you.
1) What is Your Sex? _ Male Female 2) What is Your Age? _ 3) Number ofYears in Profession? years 4) Number ofYears with This News Organization? years 5) Job Title? ------133 The List of Interview Questions on the International News Selection Process of the CNN International News Gathering..
1. I would like to know the structure ofthe "International News Gathering"--the num ber and class ofposition ofeditors, and operation systems, etc.
- How many editors are in the International News Gathering? - Is each editor assigned to a specific team within the news division? - How many overseas correspondents and bureaus do you have?
2. What are the main sources of international news for CNN? Are they big four wire agencies or CNN overseas correspondents?
3. I hear that there is the "Domestic News Gathering" distinguished from the "Interna tional News Gathering" in the CNN. In terms ofnews items, how could I distinguish the "International News Gathering" from the "Domestic News Gathering" or other news units--Business Unit, Features Unit, etc.?
- IfDS president Clinton visits to Korea, which news division handles this news item- Political Unit or "International News Gathering"?
- Last July, the G-7 Economic Summit was held in Tokyo, Japan. Did "International News Gathering" handle this news item?
/ 4. When you select certain international news items, what are the most important fa cotrs/qualities to choose them?
5. (For vice president of the CNN "International News Gathering") Do you have any regular staffmeeting with editors? Ifyes, do you give editors some general direction s/guidelines on selecting/handling international news stories in the meeting?
6. I would like to know the selection process or editorial procedure of international news from the editor's selection of international news story to the anchor' presenta tion? This is the question on the international gatekeeping/production process.
7. - On average, how many international news stories does the "International News Gathering" collect everyday?
- Among the total selected international news stories, how many stories are there aired in the CNN newscasts?
134 8. Almost everyday, I watch the special live telecast which inserted in the regular news programs. Who decides the live telecast? For example, in the G-7 Economic Summit reports ofJuly, 6, "PrirneNews" aired the live telecast on president Clinton's address in the Waseda University (8:30-9:00 p.m.). Who decided it?
9. - How is the "International News Gathering" interconnected with each CNN news programs, especially with "PrirneNews"? - What kind ofspecial relationship does the "International News Gathering" with the CNN "International"?
10. In terms ofthe topics ofinternational news, some communicational scholars argue that US TV news programs have been focusing on the developed countries more than on the developing countries. Also, when handling the developing countries, most of international news on the developing countries are mainly negative stories such as coup, flood, earthquake. What do you think about this assertion?
11. In terms of handling international news, what are the unique strategy of CNN dis tinguished from the three networks--ABC, CBS and NBC?
135 The List of Interview Questions on the International News Selection Process and Editorial Procedure of the CNN "Primelvews."
1. I would like know the structure ofthe "PrimeNews"--the number ofproducers/writ ers/other staffs, the management ofthe dual air system in Atlanta and Washington D.C., etc.
2. - I think that one ofthe unique characteristics ofthe "Primel-lews" is the dual air system in D.C. and Atlanta. What kind ofnews items do you usually assign to two an chors in D.C. and CNN center separately? Do you have other unique characteristics of the "PrimeNews" distinguished from other newscasts of CNN--Early Prime, The World Today, and World News--, and the evening news programs of the three networks--ABC, CBS and NBC--?
3. - When you select certain international news items, what are the most important fac tors/qualities to choose them? - Do you give staffmembers some directions or guidelines on selecting/handling international news stories? - Is there any difference of the factors to select news stories between domestic and international news? 4. How many times do you change the "rundown" before fixing the final rundown? For this, do you have statfmeeting everyday or everyweek?
5. - How many international news stories do you usually cover in the "PrimeNews" from the total international news stories offered by the "International News Gathering"?
- What proportions ofdomestic/international news stories do you cover in the "PrimeNews"?
6. How do you constitute the presentation format ofthe "PrimeNews"?
- Do you have any particular presentation order ofthe news stories from the lead to the final news story in the "PrimeNews"? What kinds of news stories are usually the lead story?
7. Sometimes, I see the special live telecasts which are inserted in the "Primel-Iews. It Who decide the live telecast?
136 - For example, in the G-7 Economic Summit report of July 6, 1993, "PrimeNews" aired the live telecast of the president Clinton's address in the Waseda University (8:30-9:00 p.m.). Who decided it? .
8. In terms of the topics of international news, some communicational scholars argue that US TV news programs have been focusing on the developed countries more than on the developing countries. Also, when handling the developing countries, most of international news on the developing countries are mainly negative stories such as coup, flood, earthquake. What do you think about this assertion?
137 ABSTRACT
p~ CHUN IL. Ph.D. June 1994 Mass Communication
l\ Comparative Analysis ofthe Selection Process and Content ofTelevision Internation al News in the United States and Korea: A Case Study ofthe U.S. CNN PrimeNews, Korean KBS 9 O'clock News and SBS 8 O'clock News Programs. (137 pp.)
Director ofDissertation: Charles E. Clift III, Ph.D.
This research comparatively examined 1) The main factors influencing the
international news selection processes oftelevision journalists, and newsroom editorial procedures and control mechanisms in the three television news organizations--Cable
News Network (CNN), and Korean Broadcasting System (KBS), non-commercial network and Seoul Broadcasting System (SBS), commercial network--through participant observation of each newsroom, and in-depth interviews and surveys oftheir news personnel; and 2) The main topics and actors of domestic and international news in the three main news programs--CNN "Primeblews," KBS "9 O'clock News" and
SBS "8 O'clock News"--using content analysis.
The key finding is that there are significant differences in the selection processes of international news and content between the U.S. CNN, and Korean KBS and SBS news networks. This result suggests that CNN is a more global-oriented news network and is mainly operated by the market-driven business control mechanism, whereas