.J()... BUL.l.EllN de mll8iqllefolklorique calltNlienne30.3 (1996)

Latin American Protest Music- What Happened to "The ~ew Songs"?

Murray Luft

This article will sketch the evolution of Latin America's protest and social changemusic. It will also attempt to answer the questionthat is perhapsmost often posedby folk music aficionadosin Canada-is the radical music tradition still alive, or did it die? The writer's perspectiveon protest music is not that of an objective musicologist,but rather that of an engagedlayman who hasbeen exposedto Latin American protest music trends over a twenty-five year period. Although much of the following analysisis drawn from one country, Bolivia, it is probable that the Bolivian experiencehas parallels throughout Latin America, from Mexico to Argentina. Jorge Coulon, leaderof the ChileanNew Songfolk group Inti-Illimani, remarkedin an interview during a 1993Canadian tour, "In Europe or North America, the peopleknow very, very little about SouthAmerica or Africa or Asia. And that is a problem more for you than for us!"! This article on Latin American protest music, then, is intendedto offer readersof The CanadianFolk Music Bulletin a vantagepoint from which to perhapsbetter understandtheir own musical traditions. I havetried to downplay Andeanfolk music becausethis topic is incredibly diverseand extensive,although it gets someattention in the Kjarkas discussion.There are literally hundredsof professionaland semi-professionalcon juntos (groups) playing in La Paz, Quito, and Cusco thesedays. Probably there are half this number running around Europe and North America in ponchoswith pan flutes, mostly economicmigrants. Of the latter group, somehave found sympatheticbenefactors to help them out (eg, Sukayworks with mandolin player David Grisman). Most survive by busking, playing in Latin American restaurants,or doing occasionalgigs at summerfolk festivals. Most have precious little to do with the Jara-Cruz-Rodriguez-Ricotradition and are not, as far as I know, crafting "protest" music. I suspectthat thereare areasthat I havenot dealt with sufficiently becauseof my limited geographicalknowledge and experience. For example,Native rights in Guatemalaappears to be a growing issue.There is evenan excellentGuatemalan Native conjunto living in Vancouver (whose nameescapes me) that producespretty cutting political stuff. I have focusedmy analysiswhere I feel most comfortable, in South America.

Early Roots of Latin American Protest Music able to vicariously experience what Uruguayan before engagingin any real warfare with the Boliv- writer Eduardo Galeanocalled "the open veins of ian army. Overnight, a folk singer became a martyr Many Canadians who grew up in the turbulent Latin America." to the cause of radical social change in the poorest 1960s were exposed to The Weavers, Pete Seeger, country of South America, joining the enigmatic Woody Guthrie, Phil <>Chs,Bob Dylan, Judy Col- The Radical Folk Singer's Calling Ernesto "Che" Guevara, who died three yeam ear- lins, Joan Baez and a host of other singer- lier at Nancahautzu in another ill-fated revolution- songwriters who believed that all was not well with "I am very happy to sing for you ary project. the established North American social order. A tonight. I understand folk music in a handful of Canadians were also attracted to distinct specialway-it is an integral expression From the SpanishCivil War to the OIban Trova processes of social change occurring in Latin of men and women and a reflection of America. They were introduced to Bolivia's Benjo the reality of my people. Through folk The earliest manifestations of Bolivian protest Cruz and a fraternity of early protest musicians in music we sing about love, we sing about music were inspired and influenced by the Spanish other Southern Cone countries- Violeta Pam in natural beauty, we sing about the Civil War (1936-39). For Republican forces fighting Chile; Mercedes Sosa and Atahualpa Yupanqui in Mother Land. But we also sing about against Franco's fascism, music aptly expressed the Argentina; Daniel Viglietti and Alfredo Zitaroza in our social problematic! Those of us who "struggle between good and evil." This tradition of Uruguay. want to be true folk musicians cannot protest songs from the Iberian Peninsula eventually During the 1970s, when social change music avoid this last theme ... for to do so became known to inhabitants of the New World. in the US and Canada seemed to be in retreat, would make us cowardsr Unionists and leftist Spanish immigrants to Latin "artists of conscience" proliferated in Spanish- America canied with them songs of protest and speaking nations in the Southern Hemisphere. The Benjo Cruz, Bolivia's leading folk singer, resistance. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Spaniard provocative songs circulating in the region easily spoke these words during his last recorded concert Joan Manual Serrat became well known in Bolivia matched English-speaking classics from the North- in La paz in 1969. His cutting political protest songs for a unique brand of utopian music that probably ern context, including Dylan's "Masters of War," had become an expression of the sentiments of his had its origins in the Spanish Civil War. Seeger's "Big Muddy," and <>Chs's "The Cruci- country's majority population, made up of miners, The Cuban revolution of 1959 nourished the fixion." In fifteen countries of Latin America, indigenous peasants, factory workers and radical roots of Latin America protest music even more protest music had become urgent, critical, and students, all opposed to the ruling military dictator- profoundly. The voice of revolutionary Cuban empowering! Etched upon the consciousness of an ship. Shortly after making his poignant declaration singer Carlos Puebla was popular in South America entire continent, social change songs were a cultural on the political commitment of the true folk singer, in the 1960s. During the 1970s, Cuba's socialist medium through which a growing number of Latin Cruz's voice of protest disappeared forever from musical renaissance, known as the Nueva Trova, Americans pondered the deep contradictions the penDS (coffee houses) of Bolivia. In 1970, he acquired a following among Bolivia's progressive inherent in their societies. Spanish-speaking Cana- exchanged his guitar for a gun and joined a band of sectors increasingly opposed to de facto military dians, privileged enough to catch even a partial guenoina fighters in the Teoponte jungle. Cruz and regimes and "Yankee imperialism." Some observers glimpse of the musical experience that accompanied his idealistic group of uroan, middle-class revolu- believe that the Nueva Trova was "officialized" by the processes of social change taking place, were tionary colleagues died of exposure, ironically even Castro's regime, as part of a strategy to counteract CanadianFolk Music BUUEl1N 30.3 (1996) 11

prevailing currents of sentimental and Afro-Cuban ENOUGH! IT'S TIME FOR REBELLION!! feature article on Inti-Illimani noted, "... the group music (which were regarded as distractions to began to explore the musical styles of their native revolutionary ideology). The Nueva Trova proved While Bolivia remained in the grip of right- land and to offer an alternative to the sounds of to be an exciting experiment in the construction of wing military dictatorships during most of ,the imported pop-or worse, its local imitations-that pervaded the country in the late Sixties. "5 a Latin American musical tradition that was both 1970s, musical expressions of protest were forced Other Latin American musicians drew confi- politically progressive and esthetically appealing. underground; folk singers, artists and writers were The Nueva Trova became one of Cuba's main cul- equally as susceptible to imprisonment and exile as dence from Chile's New Song experiment and took tural exports. Cuban singer-songwriters like Silvio were pro-democracy politicians, intellectuals and bold steps to redefine and develop legitimate Rodriguez, Noel Nicolla and Pablo Milanes were labour leaders.4 Paradoxically, in spite of the expressions of what became known as mUsica widely listened to on bootlegged records and tapes hostile political environment throughout Latin popular ("music of the people") in distinct con- in Bolivia and elsewhere in South America, despite America, radical music seemed to find a sympa- texts.6 As rigid economic and social power relation- being banned by military governments. Rodriguez, thetic audience. It flourished in well cultivated and ships were upset, the Chilean New Song Movement who had never heard of Bob Dylan until 1969 protected niches, primarily on university campuses, helped to validate the signposts of an emerging because of the US blockade of Cuba, is credited in union halls, and semi-clandestinepeiias. socialist society. But in so doing, it also tended to with radically changing the structure of the romantic illuminate the contradictions of the bourgeois song in Latin America, bringing the folk element The Ozilean "New Song" Movement society in which it was enmeshed. There was a and political content together in love ballads. In an dogmatism that pervaded mUsica popular, to be interview in 1980, Rodriguez described the work of The election of socialist president Salvador sure, but it genuinely expressed the anger and hope the early Cuban "troubadours": Allende in Chile in 1970 gave a tremendous boost to of those who were marginalized by a highly strati- Latin American protest music. In many ways, thc fied and dependent capitalist society. Critics of the Commercialismhad relegated 'song' to protest singers who emerged in Chile displayed a New Song contended that an essentially middle-- being a commodified, pseudo-art. But style of music that was distinct from existing "in the class vanguard of the Chilean left seized upon the 'song' had or could have artistic qual- trenches" music, precisely because the radical social class conflict of the times and canonized the form ities and could be seen and treated as changes gaining ascendency under the Allende gov- and content of music which they believed best rep- great art forms like printing, poetry, or ernment were promoted within a democratic frame- resented the interests of the downtrodden masses. symphony. This was the spirit of our work.La Mteva Cancibn or "New Song" movement As social conflict in Chile was exacerbated, work, committed as we were to the rev- was heavily politicized and anti-establishment. It the music became an integral part of the political olutionary process.3 also represented an alternative Latin American battlefield! This conflict was much deeper and cultural form that spoke to a broad cross-section of more ideologically based than that caused by Rodriguez's voice of protest is unequivocally people, first in Chile, and later in other parts of the Dylan's first stage appearance with an electric expressed in songs like "La Cancion Urgente Para continent. Its rallying cry encompassed various guitar at Newport. It was no armchair, intellectual Nicaragua," written in 1982, which idealizes Nica- themes-solidarity, political liberation, social debate between purists and radicals, as Chileans ragua'~ struggle to break free from US interference justice, and cultural pride. The New Song skilfully were to learn on September ll, 1973, when the New and determine its own future: sculpted a soft human face on the stern Marxist Song Movement was pulverized by the brutal CIA- concept of class struggle. One has only to hear backed golpe de eslado ("coup d'etat") of General Today the Eagle suffers his greatest woe, Victor Jara's moving composition "Yo Recuerdo Pinochet. All progressive cultural forms identified Nicaragua pains him, for he is hurt by love. Amanda" to appreciate the dynamism and appeal with the Allende period were immediately labelled And it hurts him to see a child that La Mteva Cancibn had for a generation of subversive. The ensuing apagon cullural ("cultural Grow up healthy and go to school, young Chileans. blackout") decreed by the junta com-plemented Because on justice and affection, As Allende made a serious attempt to modify sinister policies of torture, murder, exile, and He cannot sharpen his claws. a social and economic structure that condemned "disappearances." Victor lara was arrested, then Chile to chronic backwardness, the New Song tortured and executed in the National Stadium, Fonnative Bolivian Protest Music reflected the country's utopian vision and its intent because he refused to quit singing! The works of to "take back," or expropriate, its cultural, Nobel Prize winning Chilean poet Pablo Neruda By the time Benjo Cruz appeared on the scene economic and political sovereignty. The standard- were burned! Those persecuted New Song musi- in Bolivia in the late 1960s, other singer-songwriters bearing protest group of the times, Inti-lllimani, cians fortunate enough to escape lived in exile for had already forged a brand of protest music that reinforced the Allende mystique that the times the next fifteen years.8 reflected the country's unique social and political indeed were a-changin'! In a well-known march makeup. Much of the radical music in Bolivia was tune, "Song of People's Power," they prophesied, The New Song Shifts to Argentina produced by militants of Marxist political parties "We will throw out the Yankees and their sinister who believed that a Cuban-style socialist revolution language with Popular Unity!" In addition to Inti- Following the Chilean military takeover, was on the horizon. Nilo Soruco is the best ex- Illimani, committed Chilean musicians, like Quila- Argentina assumed a position of prominence in the ample from this formative period. A leader of the payun, Angel and Isabela Parra, and, of course, dissemination of radical protest music. Bolivia, still teachers' union and a member of the Bolivian Com- Victor Jara, developed a distinct craft, which in the grip of Banzer's seven-year dictato~hip munist Party, Soruco wrote and performed over 250 tempered hard-edged social commentary with a new (1971-77), nourished its resistance with the under- songs. He was exiled twice. Like Cruz, Seroco was appreciation for indigenous musical forms. ground movement of New Songs from its influential regarded as a symbol of popular resistance among Paradoxically, the "New Song" was progres- Southern neighbour. A number of Argentine singers left-leaning Bolivian students and workers. A verse sive in some respects and traditional in other (even some who were non-acoustic and relatively from one of Nilo Soruco's early revolutionary respects. Middle-class young people were attracted successful commercially) filled the ideological songs exho1'ts: to utopian political messages in song which re- vacuum left by the cultural cleansing taking place in flected the heady days of the Popular Unity Chile. Mercedes Sosa, Jorge Cafrune, Horacio From Bolivia, heart of dark-skinned America, government. They began to validate Native instru- Guarani, Piero, and Eduardo Falli are a few of the we come, ments, rhythms and styles for the first time. The best known early social change musicians from Miners, Indian peasants, students, new songs were overtly socialist in a political sense, Argentina who took advantage of the political men, women, children; but also strongly Andean in a cultural sense. conjuncture to revive a floundering Chilean New We form a circle of raised fists, Chilean musiCians, believers in the New Song, Song movement. Later, in the 1980s Leon Gieco, We say to those who stomp on our flag and began to categorize foreign musical influences as Victor Heredia, and other younger musicians steal our resources, "alienating." Rhythm Mnsic Magazine's recent appeared on the Argentine protest music stage. 12. BULlEl1N de musi(jUefolklorlquecanadienne 30.3 (1996)

The bloody military golpe de estado led by with a fulTOWed brow. Hemisphere during the 1980s: General Jorge Videla, and the subsequent "dirty For this reason I calI to You, the same as I war" against Argentina's organized left (1976-83), calI to my people; But who are the ones that we call our friends, resulted in a further constriction of the New Song For You are a labourer too, Christ the Workq- These governments killing their own? in the Southern Cone. This was a period in which God! 'Tit the people finally can't take any more, some 30,000 persons "disappeared" in Argentina! And they pick up a gun, or a brick, or a One of Mercedes Sosa's best known protest songs These religious songs offered hope to stone. "Solo Le Pido a Dios" ("I Only Ask God"), reflects oppressedpeople who had little spaceto manoeuvre And there are lives in the balance! the atmosphere of extreme repression evident in tenns of political dissent. They were meant to during this period: The El Salvador civil war (1980-1992) gave rise to an innovative brand of political protest which I only ask God, that the war will not make me effectively harnessed musica popular to revolu- indifferent! tionary social change. As the FMLN guerrilla com- It's a huge monster that steps clumsily, batants made dramatic territorial gains in their battle On a poor and innocent people! against the Salvadoran army, they received help from an unlikely ally, Los Torogoces de Morazan. As monolithic police states became the norln The Torogoces ("Songbirds"), from the province of in more and more South American countries, subtle Morazan, were amateur peasant folk musicians who expressions of freedom remained incredibly persist- carried their guitars and fiddles, along with their ent. Despite systematic human rights abuses, the M 168, into battle zones, providing moral support to New Songs were still hummed and sung. Like the the rebels, as well as entertaining sympathetic ubiquitous signs of graffiti painted on city walls, peasant communities in "liberated" zones. Their music gave hope to a suffering people. In Bolivia, ideologically charged music proved to be an ef- as in Argentina, protest music was equated with fective propaganda tool for the FMLN insurgents "building resistance." It was focused on one over- during the civil war .11 riding objective-to return Latin America to democ- The genius of the Torogoces was their ability racy! to communicate with the common people, using a Songs of protest, although at times barely language that the popular classes of El Salvador audible, played a strategic role in harnessingthe readily identified with. The full impact of their energy, purpose, and spirit of pro-democratic protest music, however, was only realized when it forces. Jorge Coulon, leader of Inti-lllimani, simultaneously"denounce" oppressionand human was recorded and broadcast over the clandestine describedthe contribution of protest music to this rights abuses, and "announce" the Gospel as guerrilla radio station Venceremos ("We Shall single-mindednessof purpose as follows, "... The manifested in freedom, peace and justice. The Overcome"). On nightly Venceremos broadcasts, music speaksfor itself. ... All people need to take transformation of the Church, from the role of the Torogoces would sing such catchy tunes as on the gods. Art, music, is the way to do it! "9 handmaidenof the colonial oppressor,to an advo- "The War of the Poor": cate for the oppressed,was a welcomedchange for From the Sandinista Revolution to the liberationist many people in Latin American countries who The war of the JK>OTis beginning; peace fOT Orurch yearned for a release from the yoke of military the rich is ending; dictatorship. Mrs. Oligarchy is deathly ill; no planes, no The triumph of the Nicaraguan revolution in cannons, no bombs, 1979 provided another stimulus for the development avil War in Central America-Opposing US Policy No Yankee advisors, nOTbattalions, can cure of Latin American protest music. Although far to her sickness. the North, the Sandinista takeover sent shock waves During the 1980s, protest and resistance Ay - Yaaay - Yaaay! Death to the sickly old . focused on a new arena of political conflict- I ' throughout South America. In Bolivia, for example, gIr. the political left breathed new life for the first time Central America. It was here that an interesting in years. Many Bolivian singers were influenced by anomalyemerged in Latin American protest music. Since the foot soldiers of the Salvadorean Anned emerging Nicaraguan folk artists like the Mejia The new brand of music was committed to de- Forces were primarily recruited from the poorest Godoy brothers. Ideologically motivated and social- nouncing and changing US policy in the region. strata of society. the Torogoces used satirical lyrics ly relevant, Nicaragua's unique New Song move- "Musicians of conscience"from the US and other set to folk rhythms to plant fear and doubt in these ment accommodated itself to limited and inter- countries, expressedtheir solidarity with the people young conscripts, often trying to convince them to mittent democratic spaces beginning to appear in of Nicaragua, Guatemala, and El Salvador, by desert and join the guerrillas' "just cause": many repressive South American countries. writing and singing powerful songsopposed to the During the early 1980s, the new song CIA-backed contras and right-wing regimes that Dear brother soldier, you are going to lose, movement received an uulikely new ally. The openly violated human rights, while opposingland Don't defend the cause of the rich, growth of the progressive Catholic Church had a reform, union organizing, and peaceful social Analyze who you are fighting for, strong impact on social protest throughout Latin changeprocesses. And remember the land mines, dear brother, America, filling the vacuum left by persecuted Good examplesof Northern mainstreamartists Always let the officers go first on patrols! "popular" organizations like labour unions and who producedcritical music during this period are political parties. Where liberation theology took Peter, Paul and Mary ("El Salvador"), Kris Kristof- The unique protagonistic role of the Togoroces root, themes of social justice were forcefully por- ferson ("Third World Warrior:), U2 ("BuUet the de Morazan in El Salvador's popular insun-ection is trayed in hymns and homilies in parish churches. Blue Sky"), Bruce Cockburn ("Rocket Launcher" unprecedented in the history of revolutionary Godoy's "Nicaraguan Peasant Mass" became a fa- and "Tropic Moon"), and Jackson Browne. In movements. Their experience represents the stra- vourite of progressive Catholic forces in Bolivia and addition to Cockburn, a number of lower profile tegic fusion of music with politics which many elsewhere. The chorus of the processional hymn, Canadianmusicians also formed a part of the Latin idealistic Latin American musicians have advocated "El Canto de Entrada, " states, America solidarity contingent in the 1980s.10 since the 19~. Benjo Cruz referred to this as "the Jackson Browne's penetrating tune "Lives in the folksinger's conversion to his true calling" and You are the God of the poor, a God human Balance," arranged with Andean pan flutes, radical Argentine singer Horacio Guarani carried and simple; captured the sentimentsof a growing number of this elusive concept from political theory to practice Th" Gnrl urhn ~urP-"t~ in th" ~tft'*'t~ th" C'wvI Americans ()OI)()sedto US foreil!n DOlicv in this when he penned the words: The Andean music revival can be crudely effect in Chile. The vencrableArgentine protest! compared to the boom in mainstream North Ameri- pops singer was accepted by an enthusiastic We singers are soldiers of the guitar, workers can folk music during the 19008. The Kjarkas, along audicnce after bcing banned from performing in of songs; with Savia Andina and Zulma Yugar, played a ~e public in Chile for 15 years. Sensing the antici- We singers, come from below, too, equivalent to that of Peter, Paul and Mary, The pation, Fiero chided the Chilean audiencewith the We cannot be silent when our people suffer; Kingston Trio and The Highwaymen in making folk words, "Patience, Chile, patience; remember, We singers are an army of birds telling thc music a highly desirable and commercially success- everything has its time!" The huge audience world "enough"! ful cultural form on college campuses in the North. spontaneouslybegan an impassionedchant: "Pino- But we singers must also bleed! In the space of a few years, the Kjarkas were chethas to go!" which grew progressivelylouder as responsible for esthetically transforming backwater the concertprogressed. By the time the middle-aged The Kjarkas-Cilltural Revival Without Political indigenous music from the Andes into an inter- folk-rocker Fiero launched into "Que Se Vayan' Force nationally appreciated musical form. (How many ("They Have to Go"), one could almost hear the folk festivals in North America do not have at least death knell sound for General Pinochet and his Bolivians have always found it somewhat one Andean folk group present?) cronies: ironical that predominantly white, uman, non- The impact of Bolivia's Kjarkas may well be indigenous countries like Chile and Argentina took greater than that of Inti-ffiimani and the entire My people know that they are in violent credit for the "indigenization" of the New Song Chilean New Song movement combined. But what territory . movement, especially when these countries orches- it conveys in form, it lacks in content. There are My people speak; my people yell; trated campaigns of genocide against their minority practically no elements of political protest to be Enough of death; enough of dying; Indian populations during Colonial and Republican found in the Andean musical renaissance. For this THEY HAVE TO GO! ... THOSE WHO periods. Bolivia, it must be remembered, is an reason, the Kjarkas were heavily criticized by the TORTURE! Andean country with a large indigenous majority. Bolivian left for "diluting the popular resistance," THEY HAVE TO GO! ... THOSE WHO During the height of the military repression in especially during Garcia Meza's military dictator- IMPRISON! South America, Bolivia became the focus of a dra- ship (1980-82).12 THEY HAVE TO GO! ... THOSE WHO matic experiment that resulted in an authentic DEPRIVE US OF LmERTY! "Andeanization" of the Latin American New Song Musical Midwifery-Assisting the Return to movement. This unique Native-roots movement was Democracy A similar reaction can be heard on the live in part a response to the vacuum created by the recordingsof MercedesSosa and Silvio Rodriguez cultural censorship and political repression which In the 1980s, Latin America experienced a as Argentina cautiously reclaims its democratic existed under successive de facto regimes. Even gradual return to democracy as inept military destiny. A huge crowd gatheredin Buenos Aires' though the movement was ostensibly non-political, regimes faced increasing pressure to abandon May Plaza erupted with delirious cries when Sosa it served to give expression to the unfulfilled government palaces. Protest music gained new sangthe last line of countrymanAtahualpa Yupan- cultural aspirations of the Native majority which strength as discredited military regimes retreated to qui's weD-knownmilonga"" "Two Brothers": made up Bolivia Morena ("Brown-skinned their barracks throughout South America. A series Bolivia"). of pro-democracy concerts held in Argentina and I have so many brothers and sisters that I can't A few immensely popular professional con- Chile became powerful symbols of freedom, elic- count them, juntos (musical groups) and musicians provided the iting an almost euphoric reaction from mass But the most beautiful one of all is named ... impetus for this development. The Kjarkas were the audiences. The 1989 Amnesty International Concert, FREEDOM! undisputed leaders! This acoustic group took fittingly held in Chile's National Stadium where Bolivia's rich, but undervalued, Native tradition and Victor Jara was executed 16 years earlier, is a case Democracy and the End of the Cold War raised it to mainstream popularity and status. in point. Over 100,000 Chilean citizens, frustrated Coming from humble origins in the Cochabamba by a lack of freedoms, human rights abuses, and In a recent interview, 1995 Nobel Prize valley, the four Quechua-speaking winner, Irish poet Seamus Heaney, Hermosa brothers who consti-tuted the remarked, "The role of poetry is to as- Kjarkas adapted indigenous music from sure the survival of beauty in times practically every comer of Bolivia. Once when tyrannical regimes threaten to their popularity at home was solidified, destroy it!"!3 But what is the role of they launched a series of international poetry (or music) when there are no tours throughout Latin America, Europe, more tyrannical regimesin power?After and even Asia. In the 1980s, a ticket to surviving the worst years of military a Kjarkas' con-cert was about the hottest repressionon the sub-continent,the New scalper item to be found in Quito, Lima, Song movementfaced an uncertain fu- Caracas, or Mexico City. ture due to the profound social changes The Kjarkas have written prolif- which took place in the late 1980sand ically, producing dozens of popular early 1990s.As democratictraditions and recordings. They have employed pre- personalfreedoms were restored,a great Columbian and meslizo" folk instnlments deal of pent-up pressure was released, almost exclusively, perfecting tight vocal and the former need for cultural expres- harmonies in Quechua and Aymara, as sions of protest in South American well as the Spanish language. Most countries simply dissipated. With importantly, they have "rescued" dozens of obscure censorship, welcomed this highly visible media military repressionno longer a reality, singer-song dance and musical mythms from Bolivia's distinct event and its international cast of stars. The eight writers seemed to lose their common sense of Native cultures. Thanks to the Kjarkas, practically aging integrants of Inti-Dlimani, newly repatriated purpose.Even though poverty and injustice did not every school child in Bolivia intimately knows the to Chile, hosted the concert, which also included vanish with the advent of liberal democracies,no difference between a chinlunki and a laquirari, will sets by Sting, SineadO'Connor, JacksonBrowne, single social or political issue remainedthat could recognize a tinku from a saya, and have learned to Ruben Blades, and Peter Gabriel. unify popular sentiment and imbue protest music play traditional instnlments like the quena or Piero's sold-out concert in Santa Laura with meaning and spirit. Since a democratic .iruri. Stadium in 1989 had the same powerful cathartic government was clearly preferable to a military 14... BUUEl1N de mllSiquefolklorique canlXlienne30.3 (1996)

dictatorship for the vast majority of people, radical victims of the government's Law 21060, which au- declare social change became increasingly redundant. thorized the closure of Bolivia's state mines. In In the late 1980s, the world witnessed the de- reaction to this harsh neoliberal policy, the miners' Everybody talks about our Rights, ... struction of the Berlin Wall and with it the demise union organized a mass, peaceful march from th\J But Juan still doesn't have any land, of socialism as a dominant world ideology. This mining towns to La Paz. Thousands of marchers Pedro only has one shirt to put on, change also had a dramatic effect on Latin Ameri- were turned back by tanks and tear gas near the city Antonio has lived a hundred years without can social change movements. Latin American s0- of Ororo. "Los Mineros Volveremos" is really a shoes, cial critic Eduardo Galeano described the loss of song about hope and despair in the face of Manual lost his hands in the factory, this utopian counte11JOintas similar to "... being econolnic restructuring: Luis left his lungs in the mines, orphaned by the world!" Despite a new political Julian still doesn't know how to read and playing field, political parties from the left failed to In the streetsand the plazas, we will find our write! achieve significant support at the polls. Many ad- pride again; vocates of a leftist electoral alternative felt betrayed We havecome from afar, to demandour right A number of Bolivian conjuntos are also ad- by ideological infighting and the fracturing of suc- to work. dressing the theme of Native rights. In addition to cessive leftist coalitions. The impact of the fall of As I leave, a new cry arisesin my throat, Luis Rico, indigenous musicians who have some communism was also reflected in the protest music All together, companions, we miners will degree of affinity to Native rights issues include of the region. Fewer and fewer singers carried the return! Nom de Potosi, Kolla Marka, Altiplano, Viento vision of a socialist future in their music. Radical Sur, Rumillacta, and Luz Mila Carpio. During the musicians in Bolivia, for example, who were re- Many Spanish-language protest songs have highly publicized 1991 protest march of 800 cruited to support the building of a "united front," been written about the hardships induced by global Amazonian indigenous tribal people (1,000 kilo- quickly became disillusioned by the political left's economics in the 1980s. Yet the most provocative metres from Beni to La Paz), the media played a immaturity, poor showings in electoral contests, and song on the subject is still that of an angry Bruce definitive role in drawing public sympathy to their general state of disarray. Cockburn, whose driving rock anthem in English, demands. The marchers played traditional percus- . And They Call It Democracy,. leaves little doubt sion and wind instruments throughout the arduous Protesting Structural Adjustment and the New as to who are the winners and losers in the new trek. Surprisingly, however, very little popular Economy global economy: protest music was written to help commemorate this event and reinforce the importance of Native rights Neoliberal economic policies inevitably ac- North, South, East, West, kill the best and in Bolivia's multi-ethnic society. companied the return to democracy in Bolivia and buy the rest; elsewhere.""" Without a viable socialist option, It's spenda buck to make a buck, The second issue, which is particularly Latin Americans were forced to meekly accept in- You don't really give a flying tuck about pertinent in the Andean countries and is connected ternational capitalism as "the only economic game people in misery! closely to Native rights, is that of peasantfcoca- in town." Beginning in 1985, for example, Bolivia's IMF, dirty MF, takes away everything it can growers rights. The central protest message in Bo- government passed a series of Draconian structural get; livia is twofold-that coca leaf is not cocaine and adjustment laws. Designed by the International Always making certain that there's one thing that coca leaf growers are not DarCo-traffickers! Monetary Fund (IMp), and reinforced by powerful left, Bolivian folksinger Luis Rico, for example, has governments and corporations to the North, these Keep them on the road to insupportabledebt! been an outspoken defender of the coca growers. new economic policies had a devastating effect on Rico's ballad Pucha Carny conveys his radical ad- the welfare of the p

We are all together in the struggle, mercial ports of the Pacific Rim. We becausetheir daily struggle to survive Protesting that we have been forgotten, believe that it is necessary to maintain and provide for their families is By a wretched government which and restore the older buildings instead of tremendous!... I am a pennanentfighter takes advantage of us! demolishing them to erect glass towers for the rights and dignity of all people, in their place. That would transfonn men and women. I have alwaysbeen for A third issue gaining some notoriety as a Valparaiso into just another city .15 peace. I love our continent and pr0- "singable" protest theme throughout Latin America foundly yearn for its unity, fully is environmental protection. In Bolivia, Luis Rico Finally, it is important to note that despite knowing that we not only have people and Jaime Junaro are best known for producing unlimited potential for musical themes which living in misery, but also have people songs about pressing environ- who create the condi- mental issues. Rico's protest tions for this misery. tune against the increasing pollution in La paz's main Women's equality is river system, written in the clearly one area where Cana- dian female musicians seem Afro-Bolivian saya-caportil rhythm, with back-up instru- to have defined a more viable mentation from a prestigious protest niche than their countel]>a1'ts in Latin Ameri- folkloric dance band, has become a popular dance tune ca. Without overly simplify- at festivals throughout the ing the issue, it can be country. Rico's song mourns concluded that distinct cultur- al contexts are in large part the death of the Choqueyapu River with the following responsible for this difference lyrics: .. in emphasis.

The river was like a The Day the Music Died clean kiss in happier times, But under its death Today, the stereotypical sentence,it is like an ugly ! "protest musician" is no longer easily identifiable in scar, This song is a soya of - Bolivia. As in Canada, con- temporary folk musicians in mourning, A remembranceof the South America may selec- poor, a funeral servicefor La tively incorporate specific protest issues into their song Paz. Water that you can't portfolios, largely guided by drink, let it flow again; personal convictions, social! Let it quenchthe thirst, political circumstances, and of those yet to be born! audience approval factors. The one Bolivian artist who .-" most closely fits the "protest A Bolivian television musician" label is Luis Rico. journalist made the point that Highly respected by his col- the protest message in Rico's "Funeral of the River" will leagues for being unwilling to compromise, Rico continues be remembered among young "". " '" to compose on political sub- people because the song is jects. He has been jailed not only singable, but also seven times and exiled twice. danceable! Cuba's Silvio ~. Now 50 years old, Rico re- Rodriguez affirms the impor- marked in a recent interview tance of dance rhythms in Latin American protest music, "There will' always advocate women's rights in Latin societies with Bolivian Times, "My only boss is my guitar be music to dance to and music to listen to. When characterizedby overt andrampant machismo, there and heart. What I feel, I intelJn'et! What I sing, I live and practice! When I was imprisoned for my the lyrics to dance music become so good that they is little evidence to support the thesis that this deserve to be heard also, we will have reached the constitutes a significant" singable" issue today. music, it did affect my family, but I have no regrets. "16 ideal!"14 While singers like Jenny Cardenasand Mercedes In Chile, Inti-lllimani has made an effort to Sosa maintain a certain identity as "feminist" At present, there are several excellent Bolivian folk musicians (in addition to the ones already men- preserve its reputation as a protest group by moving singers,there is a generalabsence of gender-related into the environmental field. In addition to calling social change music being produced in South tioned above) who on occasion have written and performed issue-based, socially committed songs. for protection of Chile's southern moist forests, America. Even Sosa's sympatheticremarks about Jorge Coulon told a Calgary interviewer that Inti's Latin American women on CIESPAL radio seemto The best known artists are Manuel Monroy, Adrien social change music now includes an esoteric field be overshadowedby a larger, more passionate Barrenechea, Matilde Casazola, Dagmar Dumchan, Jesus Duran, Taller Arawi, Canto Popnlar, and called "architectural preservation": appeal for solidarity and reconciliation on a continent which has suffered the worst of human Ernesto Cavour. However, none of these musicians Environment and culture go hand in rights violations: can be classified as pure "protest musicians." hand and that is the reason that at the Comparatively speaking in the Canadian context, moment we are fighting to save the Latin American women at this point in they are probably more protest-oriented than Spirit structural appearanceof Valparaiso,one time don't have the luck of being highly of the West, but less so than Bruce Cockburn. of the oldest and most important com- respected. They shouldbe more revered, Bolivia's folk musicians expressed an interesting array of opinions regarding whether Bolivia and Paraguay (1932-35). As part of her didn't disaPIK>int, eventually getting protest music had indeed died in the 1990&. Most catharsis (described as a symbolic dialogue with her around to playing political favorites. admitted that the times have changed drastically, father, a Chaco War veteran), Cardenas an-anged Curiously, insteadof ringing anachron- and with them, the nature of social change/protest and perfonned numerous Chaco-period pi~ istic, as so any protest songs often do music. Some mentioned the difficulties encountered some with the assistance of a traditional military once the battle is over, Inti pieces tend finding record companies that would record them, brass band. She has launched an investigative foray to be so metaphoricby nature that they because of linrited demand and a general public into the music of the 1952 Bolivian revolution and simply adapt to new circumstances. indifference to their subject matter, as well as a has plans to establish her own ethnographic 'Para Volar,' for example, which was subtle disdain on the part of a conservative music collection of Bolivia's rich indigenous musical always interpreted to be about exile, industry towards "out-of-touch radicals" who refuse traditions. suddenly becamea song of connection to embrace the new social order. The musicians Clearly, protest is less and less pronounced in and freedom.z2 interviewed mentioned that, in one way or another , Cardenas's contemporary work, although her eclec- they have been forced to "change or die!" or "to tic perspective keeps her closely engaged with the Luis Rico hasremained remarkably true to the experimentally adapt to the present reality in order Latin American New Song movement. She has causeof the radical protest singer. Yet he refusesto to survive!" represented Bolivia in Chile, Britain and Gennany, be pigeon holed. He shows no allegiance to any Yet, none of the Bolivian musicians and sang at the Vancouver Folk Festival in 1993. Bolivian political party. He even rejects the term interviewed would categorically claim that protest Cardenas's evolution from a fairly focused protest "protestsong". In the Bolivian Times interview, he music was a dead issue in Latin America in the musician in the 1980s to a musicologist and notes: 1990&. The most idealistic and optimistic folkloristas interpreter of diverse Latin American styles and My songs have messagesunlike any believe that if the gap between rich and poor traditions in the 1990s is evident in her comment, composer in Bolivia. My songs, how- continues to widen as at present, protest music "My favourite song is still Silvio Rodriguez's 'La ever, are not protest songs! They are would likely experience a comeback. However, an Maza' ('The Hammer'), but I am attracted to many songsof love toward the peasant,miner,

article published by a Latin American students' Thisother mayfonns soundof Latin sentimental,American butmusic, I reallyas well love and environment. We need to worry magazine points out that idealism and optimism are about what is wrong with Bolivia. This presently over-balanced by the reality of the boleros (a fonn of traditional love ballad)r9 is what I do! I show through my music conservative 1990&: dramaticevents so peoplewill not repeat The protest song is a pure manifestation Even the enduring Inti-ffiimani have opted to them}3 that emerges where injustice breaks out. change with the times. In deciding to write and In our countries there are many reasons perfonn more instrumental music (rather than vocal Nowhere is the future of Latin American to protest. Our societies have not found music), they have greatly increased their listening protest music more shrouded in ambiguity than in the means that will carry them towards a audiences, taking in non-Spanish-speaking fans the recent compositions of Cuba's enigmatic Silvio secure progress. Many men and women worldwide. But, by becoming more internationally Rodriguez. Rodriguez's songs have never been still suffer from the most horrible palatable, they have also weakened their identity as easily stereotyped; his complex music has been conditions of degradation. For these a Latin American protest group. In a review of an subject to innumerable interpretations and critiques, reasons, in our countries, we would Inti-Dlimani concert written for the Los Angeles both from the left and the right. Although he has expect protest music to be on an upward Daily Breeze, a cryptic message emerges that Inti often been accused of being an apologist for trajectory. Nonetheless, in the last few might no longer be a symbol of the struggle for Comandante Fidel, for example, his songs defy years, it is plain to see that the volume freedom and justice in Latin America: "The 90s such facile interpretation. The 1994 album of protest music in Latin America has version of Inti-Dlimani no longer cries for revolu- Rodriguez is evidence that even Cuba's pace- been considerably reduced!17 tion. Its poetic lyrics are no longer preoccupied setting protest musician is also going through a The impressive diversity of innovative musical with freedom and social justice. The greying band process of dynamic change. The songs on this expressions by Latin American's (former) protest members don't damn the Yanquis as they once album are intensely personal, sentimental, and even fraternity is intimately related to music market did. "20 spiritual. One piece, entitled "El Problema," is trends. It is safe to say that most musicians are now In an interview with Toronto's NOW surprisingly free of socialist jargon and concludes more focused on esthetics than politics. The magazine, Inti's spokesman Jorge Coulon tries to by casting life's main problems and solutions in an evolving careers of Jaime Junaro, Jenny Cardenas, refute NOW's insinuations that the group's once almost Christian philosophical context: Inti-Il1imani, Luis Rico and Silvio Rodriguez may strong political edge has been lost. However, The problem is not to take an axe to the pain, provide some insights into where protest music Coulon is clearly unconvincing when he describes And make firewood out of it, might eventually end up by the year 2(XX). the group's efforts at balancing the political and the The main problem is the soul, the problem is esthetic in the 1990s. When Coulon was asked if the resurrection, The Bolivian singer Jaime Junaro, leader of group had given up its radical perspective, he The problem, sir, will always be how to plant the 1980sprotest-oriented conjurno Savia Nuevo, replied: love. now playing solo, has broadened his musical Absolutely not! There is much more perspectives.During a 1994interview to launchhis revolutionary spirit in the members of Conclusions-The Future o/the New Songs album In Half the World, Junaro made the Inti-Dlimani than most young people in following observation: Chile. It's just that the times we live in Although interesting musical expressions will At the end of the 20th Century, we now are very different! I don't think continue to be developed in Latin America, it is musicians, all artists, must search for Andadas is any less political than other doubtful whether current "singable" issues like the new creative alternativesto project our recordings we've done, but perhaps it ones discussed above-Native rights, peasant/coca music not only to the year 2000, but to seems less urgent. The most important growers' rights, and environmental protection-will the year 3000. Otherwise we will aspect of what we do is rescuing the catapult protest music back into prominence, or continuerunning around in circles, with acoustic roots of our Latin American sustain a New Song revival in the latter years of the the samemessage. IS musical heritage. This is a higher and Twentieth Century. As starving folk musicians are more permanent goal!"21 forced to become more eclectic in order to survive, Jenny Cardenas mentioned having pursued A slightly more sympathetic Chicago Tribune it is predicted that "issue-focused" protest music new "personal" musical paths since the late 1980s. music review praises Inti-Dlimani for their ability to will only constitute a small part of the total Latin With the death of her father, she focused her "adapt," while remaining true to their political musical output for the foreseeable future. Clearly, energies for a period of time on collecting and roots: more emphasis will be placed on esthetics, rather intel]'Teting the songs of the Chaco War between Known as a political group, the Intis than politics! Canadian Folk Music BULlEl1N 30.3 (1996) ...17

The future of Latin American protest music rock group Los Fabulosos CadiUacs. Some of this nnn has as much to do with listening audiences, as with group's CUn1mt songs, infused with OUtl'ageous It is this writer's contention that Latin Ameri- musicians. Make no mistake about it-Latin visual effects and lyrics, represent an entirely new can music will always be reflective and rhythmic, Americans love music! Indeed, in 1994, they spent medium through which Latin American youth'are festive and folkloric, personaland political. Protest $1,900 million on cassettes, CDs, and LPs. Rock being stimulated to question their social reality. The will certainly be more subdued and subtle in future music makes up a major share of this burgeoning newestCadiUac hits are politically charged, urging musical forms, but the intense longing for market. Increasingly, the music consumed is in young people not to forget their bloody history! endogenous solutions to a changing regional English and is imported from the United States. Their videos feature images of a clumsy and problematic will persist. Eduardo Galeano recently Today, aging Bolivian baby boomers tend to forget obtrusive military officer, remarkably reminiscent remarked that Latin Americans will never be the "glory days," when they helped erect barricades of Chile's omnipresent General Pinochet, and even satisfied with imposed answers to their social as part of the popular resistance to military juxtaposes New Song hero Victor Jara with a problems and will always reject "imported models" dictatorships. They are more concerned with passing parade of infamous military dictatom from that don't jibe with their deepest aspirations: making a living in a hostile neoliberal economic South America's recent past. Clearly, Los Things are unbearable as they are now- environment. They may nostalgically still listen to Fabulosos CadiUacs and their brand of Latin rock poisoned sonls, poisoned air, poisoned Benjo Cruz's last recorded tape from time to time, are creating a new consciousness among youthful waters! ... We are being obliged to or line up for six hours to purchase a ticket to Latin Americans who were probably not even born accept a world without soul as the only Mercedes Sosa's only La paz concert this year. But when the above personalities left their profound one possible.In this system,there are no it is doubtful that they will create a significant imprint on the region. Other rock artists with the pueblos (peoples), only markets; no demand for the recordings of Jenny Cardenas and potential to keep protest music alive include Mana citizens, only consumers; no nations, Luis Rico or help to develop a mass market for (Mexico) and Ricardo Arjona (Guatemala). only companies; no cities, only con- radical New Songs in the same way that post- At present, there is an intense philosophical glomerations; no human relations, only industrial yuppies have fueled the rock nostalgia brooding over the future of protest music. In economic competitions!... We will have addition to lamenting the present state of the New to invent somethingas an alternative to industry in North America. the presentsystem. "2 Silvio Rodriguez, while evoking an admired Song, many Bolivians expressed optimism that Bertolt Brecht, stated that "... art should entertain critical art forms of all kinds (including film, It can be predicted that as Latin American as well as educate; it fails when it doesn't drama, music, writing, and painting) would not musicians experimentwith new cultural expressions entertain! "24 In this light, perhaps Latin America's disappear because they are urgently required to that respond to the social reality of el pueblo, they f uturc protest music will be projected by completely remind el pueblo ("the people") of their most will inevitably draw strength from the musical unpredictable, serendipitous factors and forces. Few cherished values and collective social history. One treatise of Spaniard Joan Manual Serrat who obscrvcrs would have expected Latin rock music to Bolivian musician, for example, maintained hope passionately sings of reclaiming hope in "Utopias": provide an effective cultural vehicle for 21st Cen- that ways will be found to ensure that the deeply- To live without utopias ... tury pr

NOles: I Calgary Herald, November 22, 1994 (interview with James Muretich). 2 Quole From Benjo Cruz's last live recording. In 1972, I found, in a Santa Cruz music store, a copy of the recording which included this monologue, disguised from lhe secret police in a Lawrence Welk record jacket. 3 Interview with Silvio Rodriguez by Rina Benmayor, Havana, 1980 (as found in liner of his 1990 CD Cancionea Urgentes). 4 The satirical song "Murio La paz" ("Peace has Died"), written by an unlikely radical, mainstream pops artist Vico Vega, was banned in 1972 from Bolivian radio stations because of oblique references to then reigning dictator General Hugo Banzer Suarez. 5 G.."(lrge Imir.lian, "Singing the Songs of Chile." Rhythm Music Magazine, February 1994. 6 The word popular in Spanish has a distinct meaning from the word in English. Popular means "reflecting the culture of the majority and/or emanating from the mass..'S."The English term has more economic overtones-i.e., something popular is something widely liked or in high demand or of instrumental value. Musica Popular in Bolivia or Chile is essentially an expression of the music of the common people, and not music that is marketable or commercially successful. [Loft's "ommenls on the differences of meaning between the Spanish popular and the English "popular" reminds one of the various meanings of the English term "folk," whi"h has hcen "onlested temlory (alleast until this Society changed its name in 1990, a gesture which seems to signal the capitulation of one contestant team). Presumably there are cultural power players in Latin America at work attempting to control the meaning of popular. -GWL] 7 I rememhcr having an interesting ,:onversation with a professor of classical music during the Allende years who lamented the fact that the Music Faculty at the University of Chile in Santiago was being taken over by "inferior" music (he meant New Songs played by uncultured, poor students on charangos and quenas and lampllna..). With great anger, he spoke of how this politicized music had begun to replace what he believed was "superior" classical music (i.e., essentially "on"ertos played hy "hildren of the upper classes on violins and flutes). 8 Chilean refugeesarriving in Canadain 1975used to keep their hopes of a return alive by singing Quilapaylin march pieces. "The PeopleUnited Will Never Be Dcfeated!" h..-came a strong political symbol of the struggle against Pinochet's dictatorship for leftists in exile. Not all Chileans, however, saw value in the New StIng. In 1994. for example. an outstanding Chilean musician now living in Calgary was asked by fans at a local folk club to playa Victor Jara piece. This musician r"fused 10 fill the r..-quesl and instead launched into a noisy flamenco tune. I preferred to assume that he didn't know any Jara songs and was maybe oblivious to the N"w StIng movement in his country of origin, rather than to assume that he was pro-Pinochet. In either case, the musician's response was puzzling, and the incident wa, for m" unfortunate. 9 Calgary Herald, Fehruary 22, 1994 (interview with James Muretich). , 10 Many lo"al Toronlo musi"ians joined the Central American solidarity cause during the 1980s. Bruce Cockburn's 1987 benefit concert at the Diamond Club (with ChIlean new song proponent Angel Parra sharing the stage) was standing room only! Several less high profile singers (like Bob Carty and Nancy White), often ap""al~-d al solidarity events, performing their own songs, as well as interpreting Latin American protest themes adapted into English. 12 Ivan Gon:tales, Las Guitarras del Fuego de Ayer, ARCOIRlS Edition, San Salvador: 1994. ,. Stlme protest/New Song enthusiasts would shudder at the thought of including the Kjarkas (and related non-political groups like Savia Andina, Zulma Yugar, Ennljueta Ulloa, Fo~le:ta, Warn, Amaro, Fortaleza and Proyeccion) in an article on Bolivian protest music. In spite of their lack of political consciousness, these "'lnJun/"., "annol hc Ignored because of their crucial role in renewing the melodic lines of Bolivian indigenous music and creating the stylized, modem form of Andean mus", O(IWappre"iated anlund the world. (Postscript: At the time of the writin~ of this article (October 1995), the Kiarkas actually disbanded, only to return under 18... BULlEllN de musiquefolklorique canadienne30.3 (1996)

a new name, Pacha, with a slick, new international image. Guided by Placido Domingo's manager, they are making an assault on the world market. Less folky, more polished! Tuxedos have replaced ponchos, background strings have replaced charangos. And, of course, the music is still non-political.) 13 Presencia, La Paz, October 5, 1995. ' 14 Interview with Silvio Rodriguez by Rina Benmayor, Havana, March 1980 (as found in the CD liner Canciones Urgentes, 1990). [One is reminded of the 1960s controversy over the socio-esthetic value of "Folk Rock." The question was sometimes raised, "Were the kids who danced to rock versions of Bob Dylan songs aware of the social and esthetic complexities of those songs?" Roger McGuinn, leader of the Byrds, is said to have responded with the peculiar comment, "If one line of 'Mr. Tambourine Man' gets through to them, it will all have been worth it." Presumably his accountant was satisfied, whether or not this ever happened. The degree to which the bass and guitar riff with which the group opened the song has become so thoroughly identified with it suggests that, whether or not the lyrics were heard, the Byrds' danceable version of "Mr. Tambourine Man" defines the song for many people. -GWL] 15 VOX, University of Calgary student-run arts newspaper, February 1994. 16 Bolivian Times, March 24, 1995, interview with Luis Rico. 17 Canta Con Nosotros, Venezuela, 1987. 18 Presencia, La Paz, September 2, 1994. 19 Interview with Jenny Cardenas, ML, September 4, 1994. 20 The Daily Breeze, Los Angeles, February 22, 1994. 21 NOW, Toronto, February 3, 1994. 22 Chicago Tribune, February II, 1994. 23 Bolivian Times, March 24, 1995, interview with Luis Rico. 24 Interview with Silvio Rodriguez by Rina Benmayor, Havana, March 1980 (as found in the CD liner Canciones Urgentes, 1990). 25 Presencia, October 20,1995. "Mestizo, like the familiar metis, means "mixed," referring to a racial mixture, almost invariably Native and European. The social position of mestizos varies from region to region. "'"The milonga is a dance/music predecessor of the tango, which became the national dance of Argentina. "NeoliberaJ" and "neoconservative" may, ironically, be interchanged, depending upon how one reads economic and political history. Luft here refers to the economic concepts of Milton Friedman and others who supported such various right wing leaders as Pinochet in Chile, Reagan in the US, and Thatcher in Britain. In Canada, particularly, Luft's usage reminds us of a tradition of conservatism whose commitment to community is at odds with the extreme individualism and commercialfocus of contemporaryrepresentatives of the right wing point of view. [GWL]

Murray Luft, a development/aid wort in Bolivia, was raised in Calgary, where he visits frequenlly.

"There are literally hundreds of professional and semi-professional conjuntos (groups) playing in La paz, Quito, and Cusco these days. Probably there are half this number running around Europe and North America in ponchos with pan flutes, mostly economic migrants Most survive by busking, playing in Latin American restaurants, or doing occasional gigs at summer folk festivals." Alpa Kallpa, a Calgary based group, attracts fans on the Stephen Avenue Mall, July 1996.