A Posteriori 315: 20 th Century Analytic Consequent Glossary

a posteriori – (Latin) – the bourgeois – (French) the completeness – (math) able “from the latter;” rea- style of doing philosophy materialistic middle class to demonstrate all of the soned from experience we do in this class; ana- brute fact – a basic truth truths of a system to general principles lytic philosophy takes the that is asserted concept/conception – an approach of clarifying a priori – (Latin) “from abstract idea, thought to important concepts in calculus – method of rea- the earlier;” reasoned soning, especially about be less rigorous and clear from a general principle the sciences and life, than a strict definition rather than providing an change or quantity abnormal – not common independent source of Cartesian foundationalist conceptual analysis – re- abortion – the intentional knowledge program – see founda- verse engineering con- cessation of gestation. tionalism cepts in order to un- androcentrism – male fo- derstand how they are absolute – not relative; cused cause/causal – of or relat- constituted and their guaranteed antecedent – the first sen- ing to that which brings limits about effects abstract – existing only tence in a conditional or conceptual framework/ in theory or idea, not biconditional causal-nomological – re- scheme – an organizing concrete or tangible – two conclusions lating to direct effects set of ideas for viewing actual – real, not merely that cannot both be true and laws of nature (see and understanding the nomological) possible argument – a set of sen- world (see framework) analytic – (philosophy) tences, the last of which ceteris paribus – (Latin) conclusion – the last sen- statements that are true (conclusion) is supposed “other things equal;” tence in an argument (or false) in virtue of to follow from the prior conditions that are ex- ceptions to a rule conditional – a connection the way their meanings ones (premises) of two statements where, fit together (not syn- arithmetic – the mathemat- cognitive – relating to or if the first is true, then thetic); the analytic/ ical study of numbers involving mental pro- the other must also be synthetic distinction, cesses, especially with true (IF/THEN, , , , ) which is about mean- atomic fact – a basic truth to respect to processing in- ing, is closely related to be assumed formation conjuction – a connection of two or more state- the necessary/contin- axiom – an assumption nec- cognitive neuroscience – gent distinction, which essary for a proof ments where, if the con- the integrative study of junction is true, then is about possibility; belief – mental content held mental information pro- and the a priori/a pos- both statements must be as true by an agent cessing by the nervous true (AND, , , ) teriori distinction, system which is about knowl- biconditional – a connection conjunct – a statement in a edge; some think that of two statements where, cognitive science – the conjunction the three distinctions if either is true, then the study of mental informa- other must be as well. (IF tion processing – the amount to the same ethical view that takes thing, others do not AND ONLY IF, IFF, , , coherence theory of truth/ E, EQV, =, ) the moral of an ac- – an epis- tion to be determined by biochemistry – the scien- temological theory hold- its consequences tific study of the structure ing that a belief can be and function of biological justified by coheringconsequent – the last sen- chemicals (usually macro- with other beliefs (not tence in a conditional or molecules) ) biconditional Consistent 315: 20 th Century Analytic Philosophy Fallacy Glossary

consistent – logical coher- designatum/designata – eliminativism – the view ethical judgments – assess- ence, such that all claims that which is named that the in ments of whether some- could possibly be true desert – what one deserves question does not exist; thing is ethical an extreme form of anti- contradiction – affirming dichotomy – division of a evolution – a natural pro- statement and its oppo- realism subject into two alterna- cess of descent with mod- site (); all contradictions tives emotive meaning – emo- ification, paradigmati- are false (not consistent) tional valence of an ex- cally biological, often disagreement – paradig- correspondence/corre- pression, often not ex- thought of as resulting matically peers coming spondence theory of pressed in the content of in organisms that appear to distinct conclusions, truth – the view that the statement itself ‘adapted’ to fit their envi- which may raise concerns sentences are true if they ronment about the truth of an epis- empirical – able to be as- refer to how some unob- temic or moral claim sessed by experience evolutionary psychology – servable world actually is – a view that a problematic approach (see true) disease – a state of poor to human psychology by health, usually abnormal holds that experience and cortex – the outer layer of sensory evidence are the appeal to its semi-recent the cerebrum (what you disjunction – a connection root of knowledge hunter-gatherer past picture when you picture between two or more entitlement – that to which ex hypothesi – (Latin) “by a brain :-) statements where, if the the assumption pro- disjunction is true, then at one is to be provided due counterexample – an ar- posed” least one of its statements to some standing or ac- gument that is formally must be true. (OR, EI- tion – the state of be- equivalent to another, but THER, ) entity – thing ing actual in which the premises extension – the set of things are true and the conclu- disjunct – a statement in a – the philo- in the world to which a sion false. disjunction sophical study of knowl- edge and justification concept or expression criterion/criteria – stan- distributive justice – the references (not inten- dard by which something equitable distribution of equivalent – statements sion) is to be assessed resources that each imply each other external questions – (Car- definiens – that which de- duty/duties – obligations, nap) questions about the fines especially to those who equivocation – a fallacy framework itself, much have rights or based on of ambiguity in which definition – a statement confusion can be avoided understood moral rules the meaning of a term is that gives meaning to a by confusing internal changed from one state- term dynamic – (typically) non- questions with external linear, continuously up- ment to another questions denotation – the explicit, dating change, (for Ste- “eternal feminine” – the referent or definition of a fact – about the actual venson) the use of terms to assumed immutable con- term world (not value) connote feelings, moods, cept of ‘woman;’ gender denoting phrase – a phrase or motivate actions or at- essentialism fairness – equivalent distri- that uniquely identifies a bution according to each titudes ethical – that which is single or concept agent’s utility function effable – able to be described moral; an action that de- descriptive – about how fallacy – faulty reasoning egalitarian – equal or equiv- serves to be considered things are rather than (note: fallacy does not alent rights and opportu- for its own sake; social how they should be (not mean false) nities principles of a group normative) Feminine 315: 20 th Century Analytic Philosophy Life Glossary

feminine – exhibiting cul- good – (hypothetical) that imperialism – the impos- justice – the elimination of turally stereotypical be- which may be beneficial ing one’s will on an- arbitrary distinctions and havior and appearance (categorical) that which is other, especially in the a balance between com- associated with women morally desirable for itself context of governments peting claims (esp. of lib- feminism – the advocacy health – the absence of ill- implication – the truth of erty, equality, and desert) of women’s rights ness one statement requires justification – evidence in fa- feminist empiricism – /historicist the truth of another vor of a claim the advocacy of greater – the act or practice of incompleteness – inabil- justified true belief (JTB) women’s focus and rep- explaining current phe- ity to prove all truths – purported to be jointly resentation in science nomena by appeal to his- from stated assump- sufficient and individually and other fields tory tions necessary for knowledge feu follet par excellence – Human Genome Project – ineffable – unable to be knowledge – the subject of (French) “most excellent a decade long, $3 billion described epistemology; thought to fire sprite” a pretentious project aimed at discov- information – (cognitive be at least a justified true way of saying that some- ering the human genetic science) a measure of belief thing is hard to pin down code in the hopes of dis- uncertainty or random- knowledge projects – at- covering genes ‘for’ par- flatus vocis – (Latin) “voice ness; something has tempts to understand the blast;” a very pretentious ticular traits; although it as much information world was eventually completed way of referencing mere as can be most com- levels of analysis – different names or sounds as op- and interesting results pressed without loss of followed, it turned out kinds of questions that posed to the objects to content can be asked about a phe- which they refer genetics were not nearly as deterministic nor as intension – the proper- nomenon, often ranging formula – a claim written interpretable as scientists ties implied by a con- from abstract to concrete in mathematical symbols had thought cept (not extension) levels of organization – foundationalism – the idealists – a group of views intention – a mind’s nestedness of systems (e.g. view that beliefs are that thought of as property of having cell tissue organ system, justified when they are in some way deeply relat- content or about etc.) based on basic or self- ed to human experience, something levels of processing – bio- evident (not coherent- understanding, or per- internal questions – logical distance from sen- ism) ception; relevant German (Carnap) questions sory input framework – way of orga- idealists include Kant, within a framework, liberatory – of or relating to nizing ideas, evidence, Hegel, Schopenhauer, to be answered accord- the seeking of rights for and experience and Nietzsche, although ing to the methods and marginalized groups there were also other fa- standards of the frame- gene – a unit of heritable life – a state of being that is biochemistry mous idealists elsewhere work like Bishop Berkeley perceived as qualitatively genetics – the study of intuition – pre-theoretic different than inert mat- variation and its hered- illocution/illocutionary understanding or desire ter; life is thought to have act – a kind of speech in ity ipso facto – (Latin) “by some moral standing, which the act of speaking genome – the complete set that very fact” though perhaps less so itself conveys or consti- than that are con- of genetic material in an tutes the intended action judgments, ethical – see organism ethical judgments scious, can feel , or are (e.g. “I object”) aware Linguistic 315: 20 th Century Analytic Philosophy Possible Glossary

linguistic – about lan- modal – relating to pos- Neurath’s Boat – a meta- obligation – (see right) guage sibility, actuality, or ne- phor for experience: we ontological/ – the – the study of rea- cessity are on a boat (framework) metaphysical study of soning about the truth model – a simplified rep- that needs to be repaired the nature of being and of statements resentation (anomalies), but there is existence no shore (foundations) in logical empiricism – a modus ponens – (Latin) which to rest, so we must operationalize – give ex- broader, less hard-core “mode of affirming;” an replace each plank (idea) plicit criteria for view than logical posi- argument of the form: using only the materials ordo cognoscendi – (Latin) tivism modus tollens – (Latin) we have available “ordered by knowledge;” logical form – organized “mode of denying;” an ordered by how we un- argument of the form: neuroscience – the scientif- of sentences using ex- ic study of the brain and derstand them epistemo- plicit logical connec- nervous system logically tives like AND, OR, moral – what is right to /nominalistic ordo essendi – (Latin) “or- NOT, IF, etc. do regardless of one’s dered essentially;” or- own aims – the belief that univer- logical – a sals or mental concepts dered by how they are view in the 20th cen- – the philo- have no objective reality ontologically tury that held that the sophical view that de- but exist only as words or P – philosophers choose P, only meaningful philo- nies supernatural and names Q, and R their placehold- sophical problems were is aligned with a scien- nomological – law-like er symbols for proposi- those which could be tific investigation into tions analyzed by logical philosophical questions non-cognitivism – the analysis view that moral claims paradigmatic/paradigmat- naturalized epistemol- ically – most typical marginal utility – serves ogy – the philosophi- are merely factual claims as a minimal benefit cal view that science with emotional content – the interpre- can best investigate and (‘yay’/‘boo’) tation of sensory experi- meaning – that which is ence communicated or in- explain questions of normal – common, typical tended to be conveyed knowledge and justifi- normative – about how person – a creature worthy cation of moral consideration meaning, emotive – see things should be rather emotive meaning necessary – could not be than how they are (not phenomenon/phenom- otherwise (not merely descriptive) ena – any state or pro- metamathematical – for- possible or actual, see normative inquiry – con- cess known through the mulae about mathemat- sufficient) ics templating the ideal or negation – the denial of a desired state of affairs point of view – see stand- – the philo- statement. If the state- point epistemology sophical study of the noumenon/neumena – the ment is true, its nega- ‘thing-in-itself ’ world out- positive right – a guarantee fundamental nature of tion is false. (NOT, ~, reality side our experience (not that something will be ¬) phenomenon) given metaphysical realism – negative right – a guar- the view that objects in noûs – (Greek) “mental ac- possible – not actual, but antee that something tivities” consistent with our un- the world exist indepen- will not be taken away dently of our thoughts numeral – figure represent- derstanding of logic, and frameworks ing a number metaphysics, and laws of nature Platonic/ 315: 20 th Century Analytic Philosophy Sentential Glossary

Platonic/Platonism – the pseudoquestion – a state- realism – (epistemology) reference – the picking view that abstract, non- ment framed gram- a view of a reality onto- out of an object, idea, or physical objects actu- matically as a question, logically independent of property ally exist but which cannot be conception, perception, receptivity – (Kant) the practice – way of behav- answered, often be- etc.; (science) the thesis property of our minds ing cause it makes an incor- that what science dictates such that objects in the rect presumption (e.g. is approximately true; real world can affect it premise/premiss – sen- “where does the sun go () the view that tences in an argument at night?”) moral facts and values ex- representation – the use of that purport to support one symbol, idea, or ob- Q – see P. ist independently of our a conclusion understanding of them ject to stand for another “quid est ergo tempus? si prima facie – (Latin) “first reason – the drawing of in- right – guaranteed benefit appearance;” on the face nemo ex me quaerat scio; or protection (see obli- si quaerenti explicare ferences or conclusions of it (see a priori) from known or assumed gation, negative right, velim, nescio” – (Latin) positive right) principle – a basic gener- “What then, is time? If facts alization that is accept- no one asks me, I know reciprocity – when a listen- right (to use) – rights for ed as true what it is; if I wish to ex- er and a speaker are able use of objects or land processing – the conver- plain it to him, I do not” to communicate success- salva veritate – (Latin) sion of information or R – see P. fully “rescued truth” a case in of experience to infor- recognition of intention which substitutions do mation S – epistemologists typi- not change the truth val- cally label subjects ‘S’ as – to become aware of proof – a logical demon- or understand a stated ue or meaning of a propo- believing propositions sition stration showing that (see P). meaning the premises guarantee scepticism/skepticism – rationality – deciding – (explana- the conclusion tory) explanations of doubt about what is held based on or in accordance as the true property – a characteris- with reason or in accor- complex phenomena are tic of an object dance to values always improved by ap- science – a way of system- peal to simpler or more atically isolating variables proposition – claims that rational acceptability – can be shared, under- fundamental things; to better understand the what reasoners accept as (ontological) everything world stood, and held to be a reasonable processes true or false that exists is made from semantic/semantical – and products of inquiry a small number of basic propositional attitudes – they may be interested in concerning the meaning substances that behave of something rather than an agent’s mental con- rational choice theory in regular ways; (meth- tent toward a proposi- its structure (not syntax/ (RCT) – a framework odological) explanations syntactic) tion (e.g. believe, doubt, for understanding ag- ought to use the simplest suspect, etc.) gregate behavior as fun- entities possible (see Oc- – (general) the faculty through which the exter- propositional sign – a damentally rational and cam’s razor); (theoreti- proposition; proposi- economy maximizing cal) higher-level theories nal world is apprehended; tional signs are sensitive are replaced outright by (language) the meaning rational reconstruction – attributed to a reference to grammatical changes a systematic, formal re- translating theoretical and word order differ- statement of intuitively terms to more funda- sentential – written in sen- ences understood concepts mental concepts tences