------UNIT 15 THOMAS HARDY AND ROBERT BRIDGES

Structure Objectives Introduction Thomas Hardy : fife and Works The Darkling Thrush 15.3.1 Poem 15.3.2 Glossary 15.3.3 Discussion God-Forgotten 15.4.1 Poem 15.4.2 Glossary 15.4.3 Discuss~on Robert Bridges : Life and Works Nightingales 15.6.1 Poem 15.6.2 Glossary 15.6.3 Discussion Let Us Sum Up Suggested Reading Answers to Exercises

After reading this Unit carefully, you will be able to: describe the life and works of Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges; outline the themes of 'The Darkling Thrush', 'God-Forgotten' and 'Nightingales'; explain the poetic techniques of Hardy and Bridges; compare and contrast their poems.

15.1 INTRODUCTION

We have now come to the last Unit in this block. The three previous units dealt with the poems of three eminent Victorians i.e. Alfred Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning and Matthew Arnold. We have discussed a few poems by each of them and this has given us an idea about the poetry that they wrote. Alfred Tennyson, as we saw, wrote narrative poems -celebrated for their vivid imagery and sheer verbal music. Browning, also an extremely ' lyrical poet, perfected the dramatic monologue. Arnold. on the other hand, is primarily an elegiac poet and his works have the pervasive melancholy that the last quarter of the nineteenth century witnessed.

Now we sh'all discuss two more poets who in a way, provide a transition to the twentieth century. They do not properly fit under the category 'Victorian' for though they did write during Queen Victoria's reign, they were also writing in the early twentieth century. We have selected two short poems from Hardy and one from Bridges. Let us See how they are similar or different in style and technique.

Do please complete the exercises before going on to the next section.,

15.2 THOMAS HARDY : LIFE AND WORKS

Thomas Hardy was born at Higher Bockhampton near Dorchester on 2nd June, 1840. He began his education in the village school and later attended the school at Dorchester. At sixteen, he was apprenticed to Dorchester architect. John Hicks. Six years later he became assistant architect to Arthur Blomfield in London. In 1867, he returned to assist Hicks and began writing his first novel which is now lost. What follows is a long and fruitful career first as novelist and then as poet. When Jude the Obscure (1896) evoked bitter critical response, Hardy decided to write no more novels. He received many honours and much acclaim for his work in hi? later years. He died on 11 January, 1928. His ashes are buried in the Poet's Comer at Westminster Abbey and his heart in the grave of his first wife at Stinsford.

THOMAS HARDY

,Poems Wessex Poems and Other Verse (1 898) Poems of the Past and Present ( 1901) Time's Laughingstocks and Other Verse ( 1909) Satires of Circumstance (including Poems of 1912- 13) ( 1914) Moments of Vision ( 1917) Late Lyrics and Earlier (1 922) Human Shows ( 1925) Winter Words. ( 1928) .

15.3 THE DARKLING THRUSH

As we know, Hardy has the unique distinction of being a major poet and a major novelist. Those of you who opted for Elective English Course (EEG 05) 'Understanding Prose' will recollect having read his novel The Mayor of Casterbridge (1886). In his novels he integrates his stories into the natural background against which they are set. This same kind of integration is also camed out in his poetry. The poet's state of mind is often projected on to the outside world. In 'The Darkling Thrush' the gloomy landscape seems gloomier. Hardy is in a pessimistic mood. The thrush is the only cheerful crepture around him but even the bird's song fails to inspire cheer in him. This poem was first published on Dec. 3 1, 1900. England is usually cold and grey around this time and the passage of the old year may well have evoked nostalgia in the poet. The poem appeared in an anthology in 1902. h?us now read the poem.

15.3.1 Poem

THE DARKLING THRUSH ( 1902) 1 leaned upon a coppice gate a When Frost was specter-gray, b And Winter's dregs made desolate a The weakening eye of day. b Tbomm Hardy and Robert Bridgc8 The tangled vine-stems scpred the sky c Like strings from broken lyres, d And all mankind that haunted nigh c Had sought their household fires. d

The land's sharp features seemed to be Thecentury's corpseoutleant; His crypt the cloudy canopy The wind his death-lament. The ancient pulse of germ and birth Was shrunken hard and dry, And every spirit upon earth Seemed fervorless as I. At once a voice burst forth among The bleak twigs overhead In a full-hearted evensong Of joy unlimited; An aged thrush, frai1,gaunt and small, In blast-beruflled plume, Has chosen thus to fling his soul Upon the growing gloom.

So little cause for carolings Of such ecstatic sound Was written on terrestrial things Afar or nigh around. That I could think there trembled through ,' His happy good-night air Some blessed hope, whereof he knew And 1 was unaware.

15.3.2 Glossary

-? coppice :a small wood specter-gray : gray like a ghost dregs :literally, remains. Here it means that in winter it becomes dark quickly. ' weakening eye of day : fading light of the day vine-stems : stalks of creeping plants scored the sky :could be seen against the sky lyres : stringed musical instrument like a harp

haunted nigh : lived nearby sought their household fires z returned to the comfort of their homes.

century's corpse : As this poem was written on Dec. 3 1, 1900 a whole century had passed

outleant : at rest. He is referring in this and the following lines to the 'death' of the nineteenth century, as the new year 1901 approaches.

crypt : burial place or chapel under the church

canopy : literally, the covering over a throne or bed; here the sky.

wind his death-lament :the wind is singing a dirge or funeral song at the passing away of the year.

germ :seed

fervorless :lacking in warmth and happiness. \ 3 Victorian Poetry bleak twigs : dull and dry branches full-hearted evensong :energetic and impassioned evening song unlimited -:unrestrained gaunt : lean and haggard/grim/desolate looking blast-beruMed plume : its feathers ruffled in the wind fling his soul :express himself with great feeling growing gloom :increasing darkness carolings :songs ecstatic :joyous terrestrial :earthly

The first question that one might well ask is: Who is the speaker? Sometimes the speaker in the poem is a fictional persona and at other times it may be the poet himself. As we know the poem was written on the last day of December 1900, and as there is reference to it in the poem, it is clear that the speaker is Hardy himself. What tone is he speaking in? He sounds melancholy as he looks at the wintry scene in front of him.

Let us conjure the opening scene. Hardy is alone-it is evening and everything around him looks bleak and dreary. It is also the last day of the year and the century. Instead of looking forward optimistically to a 'Happy New Year' and the start of the twentieth century, Hardy seems to regret the passage of time. Let us now paraphrase the poem stanza by stanza before we discuss its overall composition.

Hardy tells us that one evening when the grey frost had thickened the air, he leaned against a gate leading to a small wood. The evening light was fading and it being winter, the whole landscape looked gloomy and desolate. The'disorderly stalks of vines could be seen silhouetted against the sky like the broken strings of a lyre. And all the people, who lived in the neighbourhood, barring Hardy, had gone to the comfort of their warm homes.

The landscape looked so bleak and desolate that in the dark it looked like the corpse of the bygone century laid at rest. The cloudy sky seemed to be the burial place of the century and the wind seemed to sing its funeral dirge. With death there is birth and renewal but now the germ of birth seemed hard and dry and no sign of life was visible. Everything on earth . seemed to share the utmost melancholy and listlessness that Hardy felt. Nature seems to be in sympathy with the poet's mood.

In this bleak landscape, suddenly an energetic and joyous voice burst forth from the dull leafless branches, singing an evening song. It was the song of a small, thin, old thrush with feathers ruffled by the cold wind. It seemed that the thrush had decided to express itsqlf thus

in the growing darkness. I+

Hardy is bewildered. He cannot fathom the reason for this joyous song. The landscape all around and even at a distance did not inspire or justify such exuberance. The poet then speculates,that it could perhaps be visions of some hope that inspiM the song of the thrush. This hope, which seemed elusive to the poet, was perhaps visible to the joyousSbird.

What is the theme of the poem? The poet is sad at the passage of time and the futility of human existence. This gloom is heightened by the bleak winter weather and the dark evening. In spite of such gloomy surroundings, an aged thrush bursts out in full-throated joyous song that brings a feeling of hope to the poet's heart. fiethin aged bird braves the winter blasts andstill continues to sing. Do you think this is a comment on the poet's lad of spirit? Does the frail bird's perseverance provide the poet with a ray of hope and a fresh incentive to face the new year with more courage and fortitude? The final message that comes through clearly establishes the fact that a blithe spirit can surmount life's difficulties, however bleak and unyielding they might at first seem. This joyous spirit is infectious and I can also infuse joy among those who feel dejected and depressed. The frail bird, small and --

insignificant against the vastness of nature is still striving-ana it is this persistence that Thomas and Robert makes it noble. This short lyric has four eight-line stanzas. The rhyme scheme is ab ab cd cd and the metre is inambic with each line containing 4 feet (iambic quadrometre). The rhythm is thus quick and racy and maintains a steady pace throughout the poem: Each stanza is rich in images- 'Frost was specter-gray' 'weakening eye of day' 'vine stem ... like smngs from broken lyres'. Throughout the second stanza, we find the image of the 'Century's corpse'. The poem is thus visually evocative in every detail down to the 'blast-beruffled plume' of the frail thrush. In lines 21-24, note the preponderance of the *I' sound that adds a liquid quality and mellifluous flow to the lines. The alliteration in 'blast-beruffled' 'growing gloom' add to the verbal music of the poem.

This is a very short poem yet it is packed with images that invest it with layers of meaning. Hardy is known for his particular genius for condensation. In the first stanza itself, he has captured a whole landscape, the time of year, the time of day, as well as his own mood as people return to their houses, in the space of 8 lines. He works by suggestion rather than by detailed description. Compare the mood bf this poem with.that of the final lines of Shelley's 'Ode to the West Wind' : Thou dirge Of the dying year, to which this closing night Will be the dqme of a vast sepulch~e.

Glossary dirge: slow mournful song sung at burial dome :rounded vault as roof sepulchre :burial vault, tomb

Exercise I Read the poem carefully once more, and answer the following questions: i) How would you describe the mood of the first verse? Pick out details that you find are most effective in establishing this mood.

ii) What does the image of 'The Century's corpse' add to the poem? iii) Why do you think Hardy describes the thrush as 'aged .... frail gaunt and small?' Does this phrase lead you to expect the phrase 'to flink his soul upon the growing gloom?' '

iv) Some readers feel that in the last 2 lines Hardy is admitting that the thrush is wiser and more courageous than he is. Others have felt that he is being ironic. How do you read these lines?

15.4 GOD-FORGOTTEN

Let us now read another short poem by Hardy. As we know, Hardy had lost faith in religion while still a young man and consequently took a rather bleak view of human existence. The universe, for him, was controlled by the 'Immanent Will' completelj, indifferent to human needs and sufferings. Human actions played an insignificant role in this larger hostile design. Browning's worldview is generally referred to as 'optimistic' whereas Hardy's is often spoken of as 'pessimistic'.

Hardy did not usuaIly date his poems so we cannot say exactly when 'God-Forgotren' was written. It first appeared in Poems ofpast and Present (1901). This poem, as you will see, is a fantasy. Read it aloud as many times as necessary-it is fairly eau and you should have no difficulty understanding it. As you read the poem try to answer the following questions: what does the title God-Forgotten mean? who are the two speakers in the poem? on what note does the poem end? .is the poem a ballad? What is the rhyme scheme?

Let us read the poem. 15.4.1 Poem Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges

I towered far, and lo! I stood within The presence of the Lord Most High, , Sent thither by the sons of earth, to win Some answer to their cry.

-'The Earth, sayest thou? The Human race? By Me created? Sad its lot? Nay: I have no remembrance of such place: ~ Such world 1 fashioned not'.

-'O Lord, forgive me when I say Thou spakest the word that made it all.' 'The Earth of men-let me bethink me ... Yea! I dimly do recall

'Some tiny sphere I built long back (Mid millions of such shapes of mine) So named ... It perished, surely-Not a wrack Remaining, or a sign?

'It lost my interest from the first, My aims therefor succeeding ill; Haply it died of doing as it durst?' 'Lord, it existeth still.'

'Dark, then, its life! For not a cry Of aught it bears do I now hear; Of its own act the threads' were snapt whereby Its plaints had reached mine ear.

'It used to ask for gifts of good, Till came its severance self-entailed, When sudden silence on that side ensued, And has till now prevailed.

'All other orbs have kept in touch; Their voicings reach me speedily: They people took upon them overmuch In sundering them from me!

'And it is strange-though sad enough Earth's race should think that one whose call Frames, daily, shining spheres of flawless stuff Must heed their tainted ball! ...

'But sayest it is by pangs distraught, And strife, and silent suffering?-- Sore grieved am I that injury should be wrought Even on so poor a thing!

'Thou shouldst have learnt that Not to Mend For Me could mean but Not to know: Hence. Messengers! and straightway put an end To what men undergo' ... .

15.4.2 Glossary

Lord Most High' :God sons of earth : human beings 'Victdrhn Poetry fashioned :created + -- bethink me :remember wrack :remnants from a wrecked vessel that are cast ashore. Here it simply means remains.

haply :perhaps , durst :dared plaints :complaints severance self-entailed: self-imposed break in relations orbs : sun, moon, stars sundering them :breaking away tainted ball :flawed planet; here, earth. distraught :very upset homing at dawn : suggests the return of a bird to its nest.

15.4.3 Discussion Now that you have read the poem carefully, you know what the title means. Hardy's titles are usually loaded with meaning. Who is God-Forgotten or forgotten by God? The poet here refers to planet earth which has broken all ties with God so that He can no longer hear their cries for help. God is still in touch with all the other planets but it is earth which chose to break away and must now face the consequences of being forgotten by God. This theme has been dramatized by Hardy by presenting a dialogue between God and himself.

As we pointed out, this poem is a fantasy and by suspending your disbelief for a moment try to imagine the narrator standing face to face with God. W& did. he undertake this journey? On behalf of his suffering fellow-human beings who had sent him on this mission to relate their tales of woe to God who created the earth.

What is God's first response to his representation? It is one of surprise for He seems to have forgotten the existence of earth altogether. It is only on being reminded again that He faintly recalls that 'tiny sphere I built long ago'. He had created this planet as one among millions but once He discovered that His aims had failed, He lost interest in it. In fact, He was under the impression that had perished leaving behind no sign of its existence. As His memory clears, God recalls that earlier He could hear cries for help and favours from the earth but then suddenly hurrm beings seemed to have snapped all ties with Him and there was complete silence that remained unbroken till the poet's plea.

God says that the other heavenly bodies were in constant touch with him and it was rather strange that earth should expect any attention after its utter decadence. In comparison all other planets were pure and faultless. In spite of all this, God is moved with sympathy at the plight of human beings. He then tells the poet that if he had donenothing to rectify the ills of humankind, it was only because He did not know of them. God directs His heavenly Messengers to set out immediately and put an end to human problems. When the narrator returns home after his interview with God, he expects to find His Messengers solving terrestrial problgms. Clearly this did not happen and he chides himself for his childish expectations. Knowing fully well that it is naive to expect such miracles, narrator would still like to hope in moments of crisis that such divine help will be forthcoming.

Is the end of the poem compatible with Hardy's philosophy? As we have already seen, Hardy's view of the world is neither conventional nor cheerful. As be says in his verse drama Dynasts:

... It lends Its heed To other worlds, being wearied out with this; Wherefore Its mindlessness of earthly woes.

'It' here refers to Providence. You will notice that the ideas expressed here are very similar to those in 'God-Forgotten'. In short, Hardy is mounting a direct attack on the idea of Providence. According to Christian belief, those who do good deeds are rewarded with Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges heaven. In Hardy's scheme of things there are no such easy assurances. On the contrary, he seems to believe: As flies to wanton boys, are we to the gods They kill us for their sport. (from King Lear, quoted in Preface to Tess.)

If you read the final stanza of 'God-Forgotten', you will note that Hardy endorses his belief in the theory that men may hope and hop, but will not find any relief or sympathy from God. 0

Is the poem a ballad? But first, let us recapitulate what a ballad is. A ballad, as we know, is a fairly short narrative poem written in songlike stanzas usually of 4 lines each (quatrains). Usually the story is told objectively. Considerable use is made of dialogue and the narrator does not make any explicit comments expressing his feelings or judgements about the events recounted. But this does not prevent us from making our own inferences. We can see that his poem has four line stanzas rhyming abab cdcd. dxercise I1 ) As we have just seen, Hardy does not have faith in the idea of Providence. Read the following passage taken from his novel Tess of the d'llrbervilles and write what you infer in the space provided. Here Tess is talking to her younger brother Abraham. Relate this to the poem 'God-Forgotten'. 'Did yo; say the stars were worlds, Tess?' 'Yes.' 'All like ours?' 'I don't know; but I think so. They sometimes seem to be like the apples on our stubbard-tree. Most of them splendid and sound-a few blighted.' 'Which do we live on-4 splendid one or a blighted one?' 'A blighted one.' 'Tis very unlucky that we didn't pitch on a sound one, when there were so many more of 'em! ' 'Yes.' 'Is it like that really, Tess?' said Abraham, turning to her much impressed, on reconsideration of this rare information.'How would it have been if we had pitched on a sound one?' . 'Well, father wouldn't have coughed and creeped about as he does, and wouldn't have got too tipsy to go this journey; and mother wouldn't have been always washing, and never getting finished.' 'And you would have been a rich lady ready-made, and not have had to be made rich by marrying a gentleman?' '0 Aby. don't-don't talk of that any more!' , 15.5 ROBERT BRIDGES: LIFE AND WORKS (1844-1930)

Life Robert Bridges had a privileged education at Eton and later at Corpus ~hdsticollege in Oxford where he graduated with a First in Greats. After travelling in Europe and the Middle East, he took a degree in medicine but retired from practice in 1882. He matured slowly as a poet and it was only in the 1890s he became known to a wider public, though his work was never popular. He was appointed Poet Laureate in 1913 and his long philosophical poem The Testament of Beauty appeared in 1929. Bridges' work is remarkable for its chaste diction and its sensitive metrical patterns.

Works / Prometheus The Firegiver: A Mask in the Greek Manner Demeter: A Mask Eros and Psyche The Grdwth of Love Shorter Poems Books 1,11,111, IV, V ('Nightingales' in Book V) New Poems Later Poems Poems in Classical Pro* October and Other Poems New Verse Two Pieces Written After The War The Testament of Beauty

ROBERT BRIDGES I Thomas Hardy and Rokrt Bridges I 15.6 NIGHTINGALES L I I The nightingale is often eulogized in English literature. While we do not have nightingales 1 in India, we do have its Indian counterpart, the kal, The nightingale is known for its I melodious song and is generally found far away from human habitation. Matthew Arnold I dso addresses the nightingale in his poem 'Philomela' (which means, nightingale) 'Hark! ah, the nightingale- The tawny-throated! Hark, from that moonlit cedar what a burst! What triumph! hark!- - What pain!'

John Keats has also sung about the bird in 'Ode to A Nightingale'

8 Thou wast not born for death, immortal Bird! No hungry generations tread thee down; The voice I hear this passing night was heard I In ancient days by emperor and clown .... In both poems, the mood is different. The first celebrates the beauty and the pain of the nightingale's song. In the second, the poet would rather believe that the bird has sung from the beginning of time, eluding death and destruction. Let us now read Bridges' poem and ay to understand how it is different from these two earlier poems gdthe specific mood it * evokes.

15.6.1 Poem NIGHTINGALES BEAUTIFUL must be the mountains whence ye come, 1 And bright in the fruitful valleys the streams, wherefrom 1 Ye learn your song: Where are those starry woods? 0 might I wander there, Among the flowers, which in that heavenly air - Bloom the year long! Nay, barren are those mountains and spent the streams: Our song is the voice of desire, that haunts our dreams, A throe of the heart, Whose pining visions dim, forbidden hopes ~rofound, No dying cadence nor long sigh can sound, For all our art.

Alone, aloud in the raptured ear of men We pour our dark nocturnal secret; and then, As night is withdrawn From these sweet-springing meads and bursting boughs of May, Dream, while the innumerable choir of day Welcome the dawn.

15.6.2 Glossary starry woods :enchanted forests heavenly air :divine atmosphere spent :dried throe :severe pain pining visions :longed for hopes ,nocturnal : literally, of the night, but here it means 'dark' bursting boughs :blossoming branches choir of day : song of the birds

15.6.3 Discussion Who is speaking in the poem? And what is the tone? Perhaps one could begin by asking these questions. The first person speaker need not necessarily be the poet himself but may be a fictional persona, as we have seen. Here however, the poet addresses the nightingales as if they were persons. The poet feels that the mountains from where the nightingales hail must he extremely beautiful. Their valley homes must be fertile and it is from the bright streams and their musical flow that the nightingales probably learnt their song. The poet wonders where those enchanted forests were that the nightingales inhabited. He then wishes that he might be able to wander in those woods, among the flowers that bloom the whole year in that divine atmosphere.

The nightingales then respond, saying that the mountains where they hail from are barren and the streams dry. Their song is not the song of joy but is the wng of unfulfilled longing and desire, a pang of the heart. The nightingales say that they cannot express their longings and unfulfilled hopes even though they are famed for their art. The nightingales believe that no cadence or sigp can express the depth of their sorrow.

The nightingales continue their tale of woe. They pour their hidden secret into the ears of human beings through their song. And as the night fades from the meadows and branches on a May morning, they sleep and dream while numerous other birds welcome the daybreak with their song.

This lyric is structured in the form of a dialogue. The poet addresses the nightingales in the opening verse. He has come to the conclusion that as the nightingales sing so beautifully, they must live in some beautiful divine abode. However, the response from the nightingales is surprising-they do not live in enchanted forests but in bleak and barren mountains. Their song is not a song of joy but a cry of pain and unfulfilled hopes.

The stanzas are of 6 lines each. As we have seen the poem is visually beautiful not just in content but also in form. Have you noticed Bridges' use of 'ye' and 'nay'? Do we use such words in every day speech? No. They are archaic literary forms as we would expect to find in say, Shakespeare. Yet these are often found in the poems of Bridges. Does this have any purpose? The use of 'ye' has a slightly lighter tone and a greater lyrical quality than 'you'.

Bridges also uses personification extensively. The nightingales are personified when the poet addresses them as 'ye'. His images are ethereal and evocative. As we read the first stanza, we are transported to an imaginary world of 'fruitful valleys', 'stany woods' and 'heavenly air'-an idyllic utopia the poet has conjured through his imagination.

What then is the essence of the poem? What is the idea behind his dialogue between the n~ghtingalesand the poet? It seems that reality is quite different from appearances. The poet can hear the beautiful song of the nightingales but he cannot hear the note of pairband. longing concealed therein. The song evokes images of ethereal valleys of flowers that bloom forever to the poet's mind. But the.reality is quite different. It is from an abode of barren mountains and dried streams that the nightingales come singing secretly in the dead of night of their unfulfilled hopes and desires. This is the pain that Matthew Arnold has discerned in his poem 'Philomela', from which we gave you a few lines in Section 15.6.

Exercise I1 1. Explain the following lines with reference to their context: .. P Alone, aloud in the raptured ear of men We pour our dark neturnal secret; and then, As night is withdrawn From these sweet-springing meads and bursting boughs of May, Dream, while the innumerable choir of day 9 Welcome the dawn. Robert Brldgri

I

15.7 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, we have discussed: the life and works of Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges; Hydy's poem 'The Darkling Thrush' in which he contrasts his own feeling of ' hopelessness with the joyous spirit of a small old bird; 'God-Forgotten', a lyric that exemplifies Hardy's philosophy that Providence is indifferent to human suffering; 'Nightingales' by Robert Bridges, an exquisite lyric that corrects the poet's ideal image of the nightingales' existence by presenting'the contrast between appearance and harsh reality.

15.8 SUGGESTED READING

If you would like to read more about the poems of Thomas Hardy and Robert Bridges consult the following books: FBA Pinion, A Commentary on the Poems of Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1976). TRM Creighton, Poems of Thomas Hardy (London: Macmillan, 1975) v Donald Davie, Thomas Hardy and British Poetry (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1973). R. Brett Young, Robert Bridges (London: 19 14)

E. Thompson, Robert Bridges 1844-1930 (Oxford 1931) J.G. Ritz, Robert Bridges and Gerard Manley Hopkins, 1863-1889: A Literary Friendship .(Oxford, 1960) Victorian Poetry ... 15.9 ANSWERS TO EXERCISES

Exercise I i) Re-read the first stanza and sub-section 15.3.3 ii) The image of the 'Century's corpse' makes the idea of an abstract concept like the passage of time more concrete. It also makes us visualize the bleak landscape more effectively. iii) By describing the weak old thrush, Hardy is able to further highlight its fortitude and resilience in the face of the 'blast'. One is also startled by the sudden outburst of song I fmm this frail creature. Hardy, by the use of contrast is able to express his own sad lack of the spirit that is seen in the little bird. iv) Each individual has a personal response to a poem and here we leave you to formulate your own.

Exercise I1 Please refer to sub-section 15.6.3.