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Routledge Handbook of Minority Discourses in African Literature
Tanure Ojaide, Joyce Ashuntantang
Amazigh/Berber Literature and “Literary Space”
Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429354229-5 Daniela Merolla Published online on: 14 May 2020
How to cite :- Daniela Merolla. 14 May 2020, Amazigh/Berber Literature and “Literary Space” from: Routledge Handbook of Minority Discourses in African Literature Routledge Accessed on: 16 Jul 2020 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9780429354229-5
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Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 cerning languageuse. cerning derives frombased oncolonialsources, whiletheformer recent censusesthatare unreliable con- estimated tonumber between 12and25million.Thelatterfiguredepends uponrecalculation that censusesandany existingsources are eitheroldorunreliable: Amazigh peopleare presently debate inbothcolonialandpostcolonial sociopoliticalcontexts.Therangeofestimatesindicates TheestimatedpopulationfiguresforImazighenwere andare oftheresearch in the discourse domain. historically Berberremains inscribed term studies,while the Amazigh (sg.)andImazighen(pl.)tendtostandoutinsociety andincurrent Africa. inNorth andmajority onminority at discourses space”Berber literature and“literary and byofidentityconstruction lookingatthearticulation investigates Thisarticle literature anentrancetosuchdynamicconstructions. offers Amazigh/ ( articulated power relationships whichare notsimplydichotomic(dominant/dominated)but very much dynamicsby lookingatculturalinteractionandchangeretracinghistorical inequalityin assigned “situationofminority” inthelightofreciprocal needstobereconstructed ormajority The Africa. groupsinNorth and toavoiding and majority ofminority essentialistinterpretations themselves. actors Suchaninterrogation leadstoquestioningtherelationships amonghistorical todiscussandislargelyrejected by canbetricky theImazighen of Amazigh/Berberminority groups thatsuffered censure andgrossviolenceincolonial postcolonialtimes,thenotion can literatures? Althoughraisingsuchaquestionmay seemparadoxical inthecaseoflanguage Areina“situationofminority” theImazighen/Berbers Afri- intheMaghreb andin(North) Tuareg Berber-speakingpopulations inMali,Niger, of Burkina Faso. andthenorth to theoasisofSiwa Tunisia, inEgyptandpassesthrough Algeria, andLibya. Italso includesthe extendsfrom spaceofthecommunities usingAmazigh/Berbervernaculars Moroccographical AAIHBRE LITERATURE AMAZIGH/BERBER Both the terms AmazighandBerberare usedbecause, Boththeterms sincetheendof20thcentury, the A contested situationin(North) minority Bertheleu 2008 Bertheleu AND “LITERARY SPACE”AND “LITERARY 2 Moreover, communities inEurope thelargemigrant are notalways taken : 29).Reflectingon“minor,” “minority,” and“minorization” in Contested figures population African literaturesAfrican Dnea Merolla Daniela 3 27 loci of political and scientific ofpoliticalandscientific 1 Thegeo- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 ent one. Considering thefigures,Salem ent one. Considering Amazigh/Berber speakers steadilydecreased inthe20thcentury, asitisalsodoinginthepres- is, however, very littleinhabited:Tuaregs are estimatedtobearound two millionspeakers inall. and BurkinaFaso, area, which are estimatedtobe83%oftheinhabitantssuchanenormous Tuaregs, wholive inawideSaharanandsub-Saharanarea Libya, across Algeria, Mali,Niger, tively by activists andby thelatterusuallyworking scholars, onthebasisofcolonialsources. The and 6%inLibya (DjebelNefusa).Suchfiguresare much lower thanthoserecalculated respec- Mzab), 2%inTunisia (IsleofDjerbaaandChenini,Douz,Tozeur), (Zenaga), 1%inMauritania (Kabylia, Aurès,the populationinMoroccoMiddleandHighAtlas,Sous),17%Algeria (Rif, World’s Amazighspeakers number 17million,andin2008,they Minorities), constituted35%of Morocco, suchasTaqbaylitBerber vernaculars, andTachawit orTarifit inAlgeria andTasoussit in Itisusefultoremember whatlinguisticandculturalarena isbeing discussedhere. TheAmazigh/ ofthe population). minority only a[significant] (Berber-ness, theconsciousnessofbeingBerber, islinked totheBerberlanguageandconcerns delapopulation (importante) d’être berbère, plusqu’uneminorité estliéeàlaberbérophonieetneconcerne differences, asindicatedpreviously. According tothe recent onlowerlation inMorocco studiesagree and25%inAlgeria, figurestoday andwithhuge into account.Whilethecolonialsources indicatedabout40%Amazigh/Berber-speakingpopu- writes in a later article ( inalaterarticle writes makeAmazigh/Berber speakers inMorocco them“bulky andAlgeria minorities,” asChaker and thepresence ofautochthonous populationscalled cultural interactionsafterthedissolutionofRomanempire, ofviolentclashes, ofteninterms sources,around suchasProcopius’ 123–125 CE. Historical 2014), whowrote inLatinbut inMadaura(M’daourouch was born inpresent-day Algeria) of “theantshelpingPsyche” inthe famous alphabet amongtheTuareg elements,suchasthemotif intheSahara,andby Berbers literary (e.g. findings bilingualLibyan oftheTifinagh andPunicorLatinstelae),by thePunicorigin uity. cultures andlanguagesispointedtoby TheinteractionofMediterranean archeological and among linguistic communities in North Africa inthe Africa and amonglinguisticcommunities inNorth ( relationships andby over thereciprocaldiscourse representation time oftheminority/majority by isnotjustlinked inequalityinpower but todemographics ischaracterized ation ofminority Moreover,groups, they aretomanageinnationalterms. difficult thenotionofbeinginasitu- a usuallyvague way: began tocreate Arabauthors their“Other” the progressive during conquest the Latinsources tothe donotcorrespond present-day Berber speakers in North Africa ( present-day Africa Berberspeakers inNorth andLatinsources of whetherarcheological findings pointtotheancestors toascertain ficult in thesources –atleastsomeof thegroupscalled Rouighi2011 Berber) inArabsources ( suchas of terms Amazigh/Berber ( Bertheleu 2008 Bertheleu Even are whenallthedifficulties taken intoaccount,itseemssafetosay thatthenumber of Since the mid-7th century CE, after the Arab conquest of North Africa, one finds the use onefinds Africa, CE,aftertheArabconquestofNorth Sincethemid-7thcentury 4 have existedinenvironments andliteracywere where writing diffusedsinceantiq- the arena: andcultural thedynamicsof Linguistic ), manyitplausible that–onthebasisoflinguisticelementspresent studiesfind : 25).Subsequently, relationships between Iattempttodelineatethehistorical al-Barbar Camps 1984 2003 Chaker 2013 (the Berbers), (theBerbers), ) reflecting on the fact that, as large and geographically concentrated that,aslargeandgeographically ) reflecting onthefact ; Modéran 2003 : 227).According toRamzi Daniela MerollaDaniela lisân al-barbarî Chaker (1989a Barbar Metamorphoses Millar 1968 28 ; Lee, Finkelpearl, andGraverini 2014 of the Arab ones, the latter term being usedin oftheArabones,latterterm 3 Atthesametime, thehighpercentages of Mauri Atlas des minorités danslemonde Atlas desminorités (Berberlanguage),and Mauri used vernaculars thatare usedvernaculars calledtoday : 834)wrote: “ : 128,quotedinMcDougall2003:70; long durée ofApuleius(PlantadeandPlantade Vandal War (Camps1984).Althoughitisdif- Rouighi (2011 andintherecent past. long durée , confirm thesocialand ,confirm la berbérité, laconscience al-barbariyya ), the (Atlasofthe
). Mauri (the of ” Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 of North Africa andAndalusiaby “tagging,” Africa of North underthelabel ing alocalBerber vernaculardidnotalways pre-colonial mean beingamemberofminority: “Western language” andArabic. Also, intheareatopresent-day speak- corresponding Algeria, communication, toolofreligious and theinterconnectedness ofthe language andwritten court dynasties inpresent-day Morocco, therole called“Western oftheBerbervariant language” as creolization oftheMaghreb. Theexamplesgiven previously illustratethepresence ofBerber group. minorized Suchnotionsdonottakeas ahistorically intoaccountthelongprocess of speakers, sincethey convey theideaofhomogeneous andseparategroupsofthe Berbers are inadequatewhenappliedto therelationships between Arab speakers andAmazigh/Berber language oftheKoran. Arabic, asorallanguages,becamesubordinatednaculars, totheprestige thesacred ofwritten before, inAmazigh/Berberdisappeared orbecamelimited,whileAmazigh/Berber ver- writing administrations. Judeo-Arabic Asnoted languageswere Africa. inNorth alsospoken andwritten Arabic) increasingly becamethe vehicleproduction, scholarlyliterary andurban forreligion, language(classical prestigious distant individuals andgroups(dialectal Arabic),whileawritten, anddialectalArabic)aswellBerber vernaculars asforcommerce andcommunication between where orallanguageswere production usedfordailycommunication andliterary (Amazigh/ brought ofmultilingual contexts, aboutby thediffusionofIslamandArabicledtoformation Thesocialandpoliticalchanges acquired byAfrica. largerstrataofthepopulationinNorth centuries. are preservedadmonitions. Mostofthesemanuscripts thankstoversions from the19thand20th poems,and present commentaries, religious intheArabicscript written Berber manuscripts the Souss(southMorocco)andatDjerbainTunisia. but alsointheMzabAlgeria ten production undertheAlmohaddynasty, inAmazigh/Berbernotonlyregions suchas andoftheBerberlanguageasonlyanorallanguage. Africa sincetheArabconquestofNorth asaminority Almohads opposestheleitmotifofBerbers use oftheWestern military, languageandArabicinreligious, and administrative tasksunderthe had dynasty, IbnTumart –who, promoted texts: itasalanguageforreligious usingitinwriting, played acentralrole inthepreaching aswell actionofthefounderAlmo- asinthemilitary Building onprevious studies, called Amazigh/Berberby theAlmoravid Africa. andAlmohaddynastiesinwesternNorth the ideaofautochthony ofthe aswell possibly aspoliticalalliances,andby tribal developingconfederations ofunclearorigin, cal and literary sources of this period. sources ofthisperiod. cal andliterary dynasties, andanadvanced bilingualismisexpressed inlinguisticelementsthatappearhistori- whichcontinued tobeusedunderthefollowingled tothedevelopment norms oforthographic Whenonelooksattheculturalarena inthe Over time, thediffusionofArabiclanguage(Arabization)increased, andArabicwas In the field of the literary tradition, the acquisition of Arabic literacy led to a religious writ- tradition,theacquisitionofArabicliteracyled toareligious oftheliterary Inthefield Linguistic elements, on the other hand, point to the existence and use of vernaculars today Linguisticelements,ontheotherhand,pointtoexistenceanduseofvernaculars Theuseofthe“Western language” inthe12thcentury by preachersandscholars religious Thelanguageusedby theAlmohadswas called of thispeople. linkedbecause thiswas tothelong-standingheresies atooderogatorily connotedterm The Almohadsmadethechoicenottodesignateas“Berber” theidiomthey used Ghouirgate (2015 Barbar Amazigh/Berber literature 5
Ghouirgate (2015 in the 9th century CE. inthe9thcentury 29 ) shows, forexample, thata“Berber” variant long durée al-lisān al-garbī : 596)concludesby indicating thatthe , the notions of majority/minority ,thenotionsofmajority/minority Barbar (theWestern language). ,heterogeneous groupsand (Ghouirgate2015 : 580 6 Several ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 sociocultural position. lectuals denied).TheBerberlanguageandliterature supposedlyalsoexpressed suchabackward and even offbefore puberty “sold”they couldbemarried totheirhusbands(whichBerberintel- was. Women’s statuswas retrograde, presented asparticularly sincewomen were and disinherited On theotherhand,Berbersocietywas stigmatizedasbeingmore retrograde thantheArabone intoWesternonly tobereintegrated civilization thankstoassimilationFrench colonization. depicted asthe Morocco during theprotectorateMorocco but during foravery low percentage ofthepopulation. Morocco. maintainedin Arabicteachingwas after1870andpartially suppressed inAlgeria introduced adivisive asArab, policyofcommunities defined Berber, Muslim,andJew. andspoken) theFrench intheMaghreb language(written and ties. Colonizationsuperimposed activi- forreligious support usually alimitednumber ofMuslimliteratesusedArabicaswritten andwentties intersected beyond languagegroupings.Wherewere Berbervernaculars spoken, that ofamosaicMuslimArab-andBerber-speakingpopulations,whosealliancesloyal- by languageincreased underthepostcolonialArabizationpolicy. ofcommunities united(anddivided) colonization,andtheconstruction –during and sedentary andurban,nomad language asethnicmarker suchasrural was applied –amongothercategories is acolonialandpostcolonialphenomenonlinked tothecreation ofnationalstates.Theuse Asdeveloped subsequently, ofAmazigh/Berberlanguagesandcommunities theminorization ( Hafsid dynastyofTunis inorder andtheSpanisharmy) tomaintaintheirown power positions andthelatter’s alliedwithoropposedtotheOttomanempire inAlgiers tegically enemies(the LesserKabylia). topresent Theseconfederationswerecorresponding maritime rival andstra- (Kuku, roughlythe 16thcentury locatedinpresent centralKabylia, andBeniAbbas, roughly Berber confederations(alsocalled“kingdoms” of incolonialtexts)established atthebeginning role intheserelationships. For instance, onecantake thecaseoftwo largeandpowerful Kabyle relationships were governed by althoughlanguagecouldplay politicalandlineageaffiliation, a elite” ( 493). Theseschoolswere successful, however, increating Berber “anew francophonerural were “Berber” areas( onlyfortherecruitment ofpupilsandsometeachers speaking populations,notwithstandingthecreation oftheso-calledFranco-Berberschoolsthat and managementofBerberareas. There was noFrench colonialteachingofBerbertoBerber- fortheconquest andinterpreters administrators, ing waspersonnel, designedtotrainmilitary imposed themselves inAlgiers. self-production of“Berber” localidentities. activities, insynergywiththeoverall socialchanges,constituteda productive framework for the andnarratives. These translate, Berberoralpoetry collect, transcribe, andre-diffuse (inwriting) inBerber, andteachhowsemi-professionals, andto –begantolearn write andamateurs among theirArabic-speakingfellow An countrymen). lectuals whohadbeeneducatedintheFrench schoolsystem(sucheducationwas alsodiffused andlocalintel- students,schoolteachers, called intoquestionby anumber ofBerberwriters, Roberts 2014 Roberts The colonial discourse on the Berbers was ontheBerbers Janus were Thecolonialdiscourse Ontheonehand,Berbers faced. Public and religious schools disseminated French-language instruction in Algeria and PublicinAlgeria schoolsdisseminatedFrench-language andreligious instruction half ofthe19thcentury, From thefirst inthecolonialstudieswas thesituationdescribed Maddy-Weitzman 2011 inNorth andmajorities Africa minorities The makingof ; bons sauvages Genevois 1974 8 Therepresentations were ofBerbersocietyinandby colonialwritings of North Africa andastheRomancivilization’s Africa ofNorth whoaspired heirs, : 58). ). At alternating moments,they even). Atalternating defeatedtheOttomansand Daniela MerollaDaniela 30 umber oftheseindividuals Knibiehler 1994 7 – professionals, Berberteach- : Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 in thewholecountry. theMoroccanspaces andsupported Arabizationpolicy aimedatreplacing BerberwithArabic “national” languageinMaliandNigerfrom 1961ledtolimitedactivities ofschoolingand Theexceptionoftherecognitionist governments ofTuareg Africa. inNorth Berberasa characterofthenational- politics ofdivision aswell astheexpression oftheauthoritarian ing Berberspeakers asaminority. Suchaschoolpolicywas aconsequenceofthecolonial studies onBerberdeveloped mainlyoutsidetheMaghreb, toconfigur- whichcontributed there Morocco, was noBerberschooleducationinAlgeria, Libya, andTunisia. University political opposition. governments repression aimingtocontroland military by andtosuppress authoritarian all could have beenastrategybut, instead,thelabelof“Berberism” becameaweapon forpolice posed aquestionofmanagementtonationalcentralized states.Inclusionandfederation actionasconfederationsoflineagesandvillages – ofmilitary and, onecanadd,withahistory previously, thelargeAmazigh/Berber-speakingcommunities concentrated –geographically manipulatively asforeboding interpreted requests independence. forregional Asindicated and economicconditionsoflifeinBerber-speakingareas was presented as “Berberism,” “acculturation.” Theiractivism infavor oftheBerberlanguageandimproved political unity, whichwere represented by Arabic. Activists were accusedof“localism” andofFrench andMoroccanby tonationalidentityand governments Algerian andnationalelitesasarisk intoschoolprograms.the nationalculture Suchdemandswere anditsintegration interpreted todemandrecognition started forBerberasacomponentof speaking activists andwriters anddeniedvitalitypublic space.language oflocalancestors Atthesametime, Berber- languageacquired apoliticalconnotation.Berberwaswritten stigmatizedasthebygone colonizer, theprevious subordination ofBerber(asoralvernacular)toArabicasthesacred againstthe the adoptionofArabic. ofnationalaffirmation IfArabizationwas seenasaform military occupationofKabylia. military theunrestcolonial war thattookplace just afterindependence, andduring endingwiththe oftherevolutionaryset theKabyle onthemargins Berberleaders movement theanti- during probably involved FLN(NationalLiberationFront), which intheconflictswithinAlgerian nial movements. Thelanguagequestion,however –althoughnotexplicitlymentioned was Berber-Moroccanof aspecific identity.” Thisapplies (2011 in thenameofIslamandfreedom from Spanish andFrench domination. pretations oftherebellion are possible ( inter- ElKhattabi.Althoughvarious ofAbdelkrim the Rif(1921–1926)underleadership apowerfullatter region, rebellion ledtotheconstitutionofshort-lived military Republic of andMorocco,ments inAlgeria suchasinthecaseofKabylia, Inthe theAurès, andtheRif. actions.Berber-speakingareas were andmilitary parties oftenbastionsoftheanticolonialmove- didnotsucceed, andanticolonialforcesand Berbers”) from joinedpolitical allsidesandregions and, atthesametime, enforced the (fromofsuchcommunities intohiskingdom theMiddleAtlas)toindicateintegration origin intherebellion orintherepression,a factor chosetwo HassanIIstrategically spousesofBerber had aimedatsafeguarding autonomy. thelocaleconomy andtribal Althoughlanguagewas not offuturethe Moroccan which undertheleadership kingHassanIIrepressed army anuprising Considering thepost-independencepolicy, thatuntil the late1990s Considering itisnosurprise thelinguisticpolicyinMaghreb indeedcentered on Inthepost-independenceperiod, Thedivisive colonialpolicyaimedatopposingtwo homogeneous groups(“Arabs imagined : 85) writes: “Berberpopulationactedneitherasalargecohesive: 85)writes: unit,norinthename 10
9 A similar pattern developed Asimilarpattern where, intheRifregion in1958, Amazigh/Berber literature damnatio memoriae Pennel 2017 31 ), theRepublic oftheRifwas proclaimed by andlargeto oftheRepublic oftheRiffrom public North Afr North Maddy-Weitzman ican anticolo- Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 the late1990s. World –andwas Congress emblematically represented by thecreation oftheAmazighflagin to cross nationalborders–suchastheBerberAcademy inthe1970sandlateronAmazigh the transnationalapproach to“Amazigh-ness” hasbeenstrengthened by organizationsaiming has increased theproduction locallyandnationally. ofidentitydiscourses Atthesametime, init–issafetosaymented groupsparticipated that,by andlarge, Amazigh/Berberactivism homogeneous movement –becauseindividuals withdiverse politicalviews frag- andvarious demands oftheHirakmovement intheRif 20 February Movement.20 February dent stateofAzawad in2012. andthediffusionofglobalradicalIslamicmovements,marginalization tocreate theindepen- The epitomeoftheconfrontations was theattempt,linked tolong-standingsocioeconomic relationships, andrepeated andTuaregs violentclashesbetween nationalarmies occurred. an alphabetizationpolicy, power tomodifyingthedifficult thoughthisdidlittletocontribute state framework. and, recently, autonomy regional theRPK(RallyforKabylia)innational –whichinscribe –suchastheFFS(SocialistForcesparties Front), theRCD(RallyforCulture andDemocracy), isquestioned bycal organizationsinKabylia other andthatthechoiceforself-determination prophecy.a self-fulfilling Itshouldbeclear, however, thattheMAKisjustoneofpoliti- sadly ironic thatthefearofnationaldivision ledtorepressive outtobe policiesthatturned determination (MAK)–somehow determination pour l’autonomiedelaKab led tothedevelopment ofautonomy (MAK,Mouvement ofanactivist interms discourse colonial police and military repression.colonial police and military tion,” andpost- nationalism andArabization,centralizingpolicies,economic marginalization, theexpected“death”crises, suchasliteracy and “moderniza- oforallanguagesduetofactors flows thesocialchangesandmigration causedbynial fighting, colonizationand by postcolonial processes:impact ofanumber ofintertwined thedivisive colonization policyandtheanticolo- ties derived from local lineagesandconfederations.Suchconsciousnessdeveloped underthe whichrenewed suchasKabylia,regions theSouss,andRif, previous andmodified identi- of beingAmazigh/Berberdeveloped amonglocalelitesandthewiderstrataofpopulationin national power system( conversely, creating aclassinterested initsown anditsown intothe socialbenefits integration toshapinganelitistBerberconsciousnessor,1970s) are ascontributing differently interpreted power system.Theconsequencesofthespoilssystem(linked totheeconomicboomof middleclassinthe oftherural includedindividuals andfamilies policyhasstrategically rian ( middleclassesintothenationalpoliticsandin“patronage/spoilsrural ofpower” system ity’s strategytomanageAmazigh/Berberareas oftheBerberelitesand through theintegration isatthesametimecountered by andmajorities the Moroccan centralauthor- rate minorities the movement hundreds violentlyandarrest ofparticipants. is deniedby activists ( latter elementwas toaccusetheHirakmovement usedby theauthorities ofseparatism–which but intheregion, Amazighflagswere thedemonstrations.This corruption oftenvisible during activism, massdemonstrations,andstaterepression. 1995 and2016)inMorocco (from 2001and2011)was brought aboutafterlongyears of système decooptation If the minorization of Berbers/Imazighen coalescesinpostcolonialtimes,theideaofsepa- ofBerbers/Imazighen Iftheminorization The recognition of Amazigh as a national and official language in Algeria (respectively, Therecognition languageinAlgeria ofAmazighasanationalandofficial from 14 15 Decades of Algerian staterepression andeconomicdeprivation DecadesofAlgerian Kabylia InMorocco, theAmazigh/Berberlanguageandidentitywere notamongthe inFrench) ( Wolf 2018 Roberts 1982 Roberts 17 Hirak leaders asked Hirakleaders forasolutiontotheeconomicproblems and ylie; RPK,Rassemblement pourlaKabylie) and,in2013,ofself- 12 : 5)–addingsuchanaccusationtothereasons devised tocrush
Maddy-Weitzman 2011 taking uptheCatalanmodel( ; Chaker 1989b Daniela MerollaDaniela 16 –somehow afollow-up totheprevious national 32 13 Althoughitisimpossible tospeakofa : 71–81).Eitherway, theconsciousness : 88,96).Also, thepostcolonialAlge- Tilmatine 2017 ). Itseems 11
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 autochthonous culturalspace, disregard creolization. viously, thelatterculturalspaceisutopian andcontestedinthestudiesbecauseitalsotendsto seen asoverlapping withan“autochthonous” Amazigh/Berbercultural space. Asindicated pre- is territory African whenthe North reclaiming are thattheImazighen/Berbers majority into accountthelongprocess ofcreolization oftheMaghreb aswell astheactivist discourse totake fail villages andconfederations.It is undeniable thatthenotionsofmajority/minority from localidentitiesemerging pastlinkagesandstrongtospecific feelingsofbelonging modern toequally phenomenon,whichisarticulated shared Amazigh/Berberidentity isalsoamodern opposed by several ofaninternationally ofAmazigh/Berberactivism. currents Theformation isresented and enon, developed Suchaminorization inthecolonialandpostcolonialperiods. phenom- andunbalancedpoliticalpower a modern the senseoflimitedrights ishistorically “minorities.”without posingthemasinternal attempts tomaintainthedemandsinfavor ofAmazigh/Berber languagesandcommunities of anethnicalorculturalgroup” (Oiry-Varacca 2012–2013:12).Suchamoderate position and notasasubstratethatdevalues thatwhichwould comeafterwards orasaprerequisite associations andtrends “considerAmazighityasabasisofidentitycommontoallMoroccans ited, however, byofthenationstate. thepositionsclaimingAmazighaspart Many Amazigh Jay 2016 the autochthony ofImazighen(withrespect toothergroups)(Oiry-Varacca 2012–2013:12; tions andtheideaofculturalcontinuity ofa contradiction between thenationalpluralisticmodelmaintained by theAmazighassocia- assume altered, ifnotinauthentic, ancestry.” Moreover, activists tendtodismissorignore the would suggestthatallthosewho claimanArabgenealogynal andauthentic. . . must now Maghreb. Asindicatedby Karima unitydisregards thecreolization ofthe autopianculturalandterritorial to (re)construct aiming Africa presenting astheautochthonouspeopleofNorth theImazighen/Berbers existence.future There andwhichotherwisehasnohistorical isaweakness inthisapproach: people” ( language inMorocco totheUnitedNation’s of“indigenousminority legalstatusanddefinition HassanIdBelkassem, linkedfounders, theirdemandsfortherecognition oftheAmazigh/Berber to claimthestatusof“minority.” For example, theassociationTamaynut andoneofitsleading postcolonialstateshasledsomeactivists African inNorth Amazigh/Berber-speaking regions Theinequalityinpower of relationships andtheeconomicpoliticalmarginalization A widespread ideaamongAmazighactiviststo istheiraffiliation previously, atransnationalapproach toapan-Amazigh/Berberidentityhasalsodeveloped. withintheirnationalborders.Asindicated Arabization, activists challengetheirminorization ing themselves asthe“autochthonous” pre-existing theprocess Africa, of peopleofNorth language. Hence, insuchanapproach, are Imazighen/Berbers who“lost” populationiscomposedofArabizedBerbers African of theNorth theiroriginal cannotbepresented thatImazighen/Berbers asaminority,a positionaffirms becausemost aminority.tion of, Taking point,such ofArabizationtheMaghreb asastarting thehistory toself-determination. aspiring “majority”) (orratheraregional also beseenastheimplementationofideaaminority Insummary, ofAmazigh/Berberspeakers andcommunities theprocess in ofminorization Ontheotherhand,mostactivists refuseby tobeseenas,and be confined thedefini- : 72).Theintellectuallymore extreme consequencesofsuch anapproach are lim- Maddy-Weitzman 2011 minority A contested of situation politically : 132).Thepreviously mentionedpositionoftheMAKcan Amazigh/Berber literature Dirèche (2017 and territorially unified, whichishopedforinthe unified, andterritorially 33 : 81),presenting “Berberculture asorigi- Tamazgha whose existence is justified by whoseexistenceisjustified de facto Tamazgha themajority. Present- , a North African African ,aNorth Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 199–244). Bhabha writes: 199–244). Bhabha writes: found inHomiBhabha’s nation” chapter“Time, ofthemodern narrative andthemargin ( by inventingpolitical effectofwriting literature. acollectivity intheminority whichtakes form communal values strengthens andideasmore the thanindividual ones.Thelattercharacteristic works by arecollectiveis thatminority tendtoexpress characterized discourse, asthewriters According tosuchanapproach,individualistically oriented. anaspectofthispoliticalcharacter literature asrevolutionaryminority withregard tomainstream literature whichis(seenasmore) become collective ofasocialandpoliticaldrama–whichallows of theinterpretation intheform between theindividual andhis/her community. Becauseofsuchaholisticrelation, allevents literature isprovidedcal characterofminority by theattentionpaidtoholisticrelationship Ponzanesi 2004 (forinstance,course politics,andcollectivedescending from DeleuzeandGuattari’s dis- work: deterritorialization, nationalnarratives.voices creatingtohegemonic, counter-discourses majoritarian, On thecontrary, celebratetheexpressive DeleuzeandGuattari andinnovating force of“minor” “minor” literature isnotdirectly linked ortotheideaofa“lesser” todemographics literature. tionalism isthetopicoffollowing sections. cal linkbetween nationalterritory, language, andidentity( ofplayfulnessextreme orgravity;andthrough forms questioningandweakening thesociologi- place through an“accented” inKafka;through language, suchastheuseofPragueGerman cal ways ofexpression cantake andcreates language.disruption anew literary This distance ofthe“minor” voice from language, canoni- themainstream literary whichdisrupts ness andlivedwrote inGerman inPrague),but they express an“other” sensibility orconscious- donotneedtolive languageisspoken intheplacewherealization. Writers (Kafka themajority ormargin- itselfinasituationofminority language by whobelongtoagroupthatfinds authors but inthemainstream toworks (dominantornational) of alinguisticorotherminority written of“minor” definition famous literature, whichrefersnottowhatisproduced inthelanguage Taking FranzKafkaasanexample, unifying, and homogenizing narration: unifying, andhomogenizing narration: Asinthecaseof“minor” voices, culturaldifference exposesthecontradictionsofnational, The articulation of minority literature andculturaldifference withinthenationistobe ofminority Thearticulation literature, ofminority onthree andculturalstudiesagree maincharacteristics Literary WhatAmazigh/Berberliterature cantellusaboutminority, multilingualism, andtransna- position of the minority thatresists totalization. position oftheminority ference thesumofknowledge istorearticulate from theperspective ofthesignifying Theaimofculturaldif- discourse. . . . subversion ofminority similartothestrategies ofsupplementary inalogic Culturaldifference, ofintervention, participates asaform meaning, and strategies of identification. Designations of cultural difference interpellate Designationsofcultural difference ofidentification. interpellate meaning, andstrategies edges, ortoengageinthe“war ofposition,” of markstheestablishment ofnew forms Thevery possibility ofculturalcontestation,theabilitytoshiftground knowl- vis-à-vis thecanonicalliterature produced inthemainstream language. of Thedefinition ; Haines 2015 JanMohamed andLloyd 1987 ; andliterature Minorization Laurie andKhan2017 Laurie Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari (1975 Gilles DeleuzeandFelix Guattari Daniela MerollaDaniela 34 ; Bensmaia 1994 ). By deterritorialization ismeantthe ). Bydeterritorialization Lauri andKhan2017 Lauri ; Buchanan andMarks2000 ) developed their ( 1994 : 3).Thepoliti- : 232) 1994 : ; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 local heroes and values. For example, Camille prestige oftheArabiclanguage. There isalsoatensionbetween Muslimuniversal culture and withthebroadervernaculars context.Specifically, theuseofpoeticverses inArabicshows the are indicationsofsocialandpolitical interactionsofsuch and collectedsincethe19thcentury Lexical loans(from Arabicandtoalesserextentfrom French) in narratives toldinAmazigh andnarratives areAmazigh oralpoetry solidly anchored intheirown vernacular andterritory. since theIslamizationandArabizationofMaghreb. Moreover, analysisshows literary that of Amazighasanexclusively situation orallanguageandasareduced toaminority languageopposethestereotypes inAmazigh/BerberandBerberasacourt written manuscripts lonial and minority literatures. lonial andminority space” by“literary theoretical attributed approaches inthelightofcharacteristics topostco- culture. The language of Amazigh poems and tales confirms esthetic codesandtraditions,while culture. ThelanguageofAmazigh poemsandtalesconfirms from Muslimuniversal modelsarising tions challengetheassimilation tohomogenizing literary ofone’s intothe narration grated world andidentity. At thesametime, such intellectualnegotia- in Amazighfolktales–rather the negotiationofmultilingualism and Islamicreferences inte- oralanguage“deterritorialization” Nevertheless, aquestioningofbelonging onedoesnotfind CE)and renownedAbbasid dynasty inBaghdad(8thcentury ofthe personage caliphofthe al-Rashid,thefamous Harun emblematically represented concerning by thestories a“traditional”heroes: thefirst andtheseconda“conquering” defenderofthelocalgroup hero the Kabyle folktalescollectedandpublished in1893–1898,shows thepresence oftwo kindsof Asindicatedintheprevious sections,whenonelooksatthe literatures. dominations –but somestudieshave language beguntoapplypostcolonialresearch toAfrican European languagesofthecolonialdomination–andby extensioninthelanguagesofother isinamainstream language.when writing ing languagecreativity totheextreme by, amongotherdevices, interactingwithmothertongues andbring- genre andlanguageboundaries; blurring andmajorities; ties, andbetween minorities “Western” diversity andequalitywithinacommunity, exploring theories); between communi- rediscoveringmentation, alienation,andhybridity; localknowledge (asopposedtodominating questioningnotionsof“home,”characteristic; identity, includingfrag- andculturalaffiliation, beyondand writing national,cultural,andsocialborders,withtransnationalismasacentral of“postcolonial” somecharacteristics thinking Despite thecriticism, textscanbeidentified: worksent: many withcolonialismandpostcoloniality. contemporary are notatallconcerned andinworld momentinglobalhistory literature.most important theoppositeisappar- Infact, becauseitseemstosay thatEuropean ofethnocentrism, colonialismwas,form andstillis,the tralia, andOceania. produced aftertheencounter/clashfollowing European Aus- invasions America, inAsia,Africa, the so-calledpostcolonialliteratures. Postcolonialism, asitisknown, andliterature referstoart of“minor”characteristics literatures mentionedpreviously andoverlap intersect withthoseof Bhabha’s thatthe helpsustounderstand discourse reflection onculturaldifference andminority Studieslargelyrefer to“minor” voices andculturaldifference inliteratures produced inthe tems, are always “incomplete” oropentotranslation. ofidentitywhich,becausetheircontinual implicationinothersymbolicsys- forms 19 Inthefollowing section,areflection isoffered onAmazigh/Berberliterature and literature: voices beyondAmazigh/Berber minority 18 Nowadays, thelabel“postcolonialliterature” asyet another iscriticized Amazigh/Berber literature 35 Lacoste-Dujardin (1970 longue durée ( ), analyzing a corpus of ), analyzingacorpus Bhabha 1994 , both the religious ,boththereligious Arabian Nights : 233) . Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 Zahra, who sings in English and Chleuh Berber and incorporates Chleuh soundswithblues, Zahra, whosings inEnglishandChleuhBerber andincorporates however, may intheglobalmultilingual increasingly scene, participate asinthecaseof Hindi enforcement ofhomogenization globallanguages.Others, by Arabizationandinternational tomaintaininganddeveloping andcommunities, contributing families themandresisting the Menguellet), Malian blues, Algerian urban Menguellet), Malianblues, Algerian withinfluencesfrom songs(forinstance,gia”) Kabyle Berbercontemporary from IdirandAït Tinariwen, whose members play whosemembers Tinariwen, Anotherexampleisthemusic oftheTuareg andsynthesizers. drums, guitars, and electric band 1940s undertheinfluenceofAndalusianandEgyptianmusic andadoptingthesoundofacoustic jura andIzenzren have innovated ofmusic, interms abandoningtheorchestration diffusedinthe the world. suchasIdir, Singers AïtMenguellet,Matoub, andthebandsDjurd- andKhalidIzri “classical”incorporates from withinspirationandinstruments around musical stylesandpoetry modes. Increasingly, theoverwhelminglysongs popular genre ofmodern andenormously varied audiovisual, have anddigital oforal,written, duction, newattheintersection forms alsoarisen music groups.Althoughsomeoralgenres tendtodisappearalongwith theircontextsofpro- ( nine verses ofthesecondhalf19thcentury. intheKabyle poetry AsLahlou’s research literatures. Anexampleisgiven by theintroduction ofthepoemcomposedby astrophe of tradition in the whole of the Souss region. tradition inthewholeofSoussregion. tocreateitinerant bardslanguageand acommonandhighlyappreciated contributed literary respectively,example, create andaffirm, Kabyle-, Chaouia-,andRif-centered worlds, while Studiesshowshared theBerbervernaculars. thatKabyle, folktales,for Chaouia,andRiffian tion oftheconventional ofthelocalsocietieswhichproduced suchoralgenres norms and sustaintheidealofsocialcohesion,moralvalues, strategies andthereproduc-their literary or Mohandien Mhand isstillwell known, diffused,andappreciated amongtheKabyles. Hisnine-verse strophe, ofSiMohandou scenes,thepoetry onthenationalandglobal literary usually marginalized tion” ofhispoems,nottoapromotion ofcollective values. Moreover, althoughoral genres are also continued tousehismothertongueanddeveloped themesleading toan“individualiza- ofminorliterature.the definitions However, incontrastwiththelatter, SiMohandouMhand style, language, andlapidary asin theliterary inhiscasethroughpoem andintensified sobriety Mohand ouMhandinnovatively adoptedthenine-verse of strophe asanautonomousform Morgan(2007 “mainstream” withinsuchaculturalcontext( led toaweakening oftherole oftheprofessional “tribal” poetsandtheirstyles. ofpreviousof 1871;andtheconsequentdisruption social,political,andeconomicstructures defeataftertheuprising toKabyle villagesandconfederations;thelatermilitary land belonging the upheaval inducedby colonization.The colonizers’ anddisorientation ofthe expropriation 2017 In term of language, all these singers and bands sing in the Amazigh vernaculars oftheir oflanguage, andbandssingintheAmazighvernaculars allthesesingers Interm Anotherexampleofinnovation andchangeisprovided by the“modern” Amazighsongsand Innovation andchangedoexistinAmazighoralgenres, asthey dooverall inother oral echoes of its interior universe.echoes ofitsinterior spontaneous poetry, whichessentiallyexpresses theshocksofitsexistenceand ofallanindividual,and personal, –foritisfirst and narrativehagiographic, poetry SiMohandouMhand’s poemsdifferandopposethelongtraditionofepic, didactic, ) exemplary shows, canbeexplainedinthecontextof theemergenceofsuchapoetry ) argues that Tinariwen mergetheTuareg) arguesthatTinariwen styleof asefrou ,istoday widespread inKabyle poeticproduction, thushaving become teherdent Daniela MerollaDaniela (lute), 20 raï
,Moroccan Mammeri 1969 Mammeri 36 imzad (violin), chaabi ; Lahlou 2017 tinde ,pop, rock, andIndian music. assouf (drum), and electric guitar. andelectric (drum), ( (“solitude” or“nostal- Lahlou 2017 ): 21 ThepoetSi : 376) 22
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 quoted in andinFrance,the Kabyles but sellingaround alsoinAlgeria 200,000copies(Humblot 1978, mat 2010 ( linked andthefatherland Ifarecurrentthemeisthenostalgia todesert fantasies. national public, previous refashioning oftheTuaregs imagery ofcolonial warriors asthegrand and turbans,electronic andthemarketing guitars, of“rebel” music have theinter- fascinated sounds,theimages offour-wheeldrives, camels,beautifully clothedmenwithveilsinternational ment ( anda real politicalengage- bondingby experience creating expressing internal (past)military music imageofTuareg andforpresenting acontemporary society. Theirsongsare effective in (2010 they were awarded theBestWorld MusicGrammy inLosAngeles2012.Nadia in 2005,theiralbum ofKabyle culture”modernity ( vava inouva continuity synthesisofethnographic andchange:“ tion ofBerberculture through anoriginal sounds withEuropean IdirandBenMohamed were instruments, able tocounterthefolkloriza- ( by neithertheEastnorWestgaze “informed but by indigenousmodesofknowledge” Goodman addsthatBenMohammedseessuchaninnovation from asderiving theirinternal positioned Berberculture asbackward andatoddswiththestate’s projects” modernizing (49). state’sthe feelingofhomelinessandatsametimetocontest“theAlgerian which discourse singer IdirandthepoetBenMohamedwere able tovivify atraditionaltaleandrefrain toengage Bounfour(2006 be labeled“protest songs,” but withoutpointingtodidacticorpamphlet-like styles.Abdellah Touré andYoussou’ Ndour. suchasAliFarka folk,Egyptianmusic,singers jazz, American andtheinfluenceofAfrican cell phones and the Internet: cell phonesandtheInternet: militant ideasandtospread them through cassettesandothermedia,suchasradiolateron Goodman 2005 Skillfullyanalyzingthesong“ Atthesametime, theblend ofTuareg withelectronic classicmusic styleandinstruments and creators, could not carry beyond theirowncreators, couldnotcarry circles. the ideasthatBerberintellectuals,their popularized out hesitation,thatsungpoetry ancientand/orrecentre-reading history, by sociology, andsoon.Itcanbesaid,with- Theanswersis responsible tosuchquestionsare forthisstateofaffairs? given by among them,thatofidentityishaunting:Whoare we? Why are we dominated?Who resides essentiallyinitsrenewed Thecontemporaneityofsuchpoetry themesand, One goal, one religion Onegoal,onereligion You know, there isonecountry me hearandunderstand Friends Andonlyunitycanbreak it you know Friends, there isonlyonestake towhichyou fettered Andunity, handin : 155) explains that Tinariwen became internationally known styleof becameinternationally fortheirparticular : 155)explainsthatTinariwen Belalimat 2010 ), amajortheme oftheTinariwen’s songsisindeed“rebellion” againstMalianstate Goodman 2005 ” became“anemblem ofBerberidentity, legitimacy, heritage, asignoftherich and : 4438) aptly summarizes itasfollows: : 4438)aptlysummarizes : 49). Blending a traditional story with new attributed meaningsandtraditional withnew attributed : 49).Blendingatraditionalstory : 7)–forexample,were whensongsandmusic gatherings usedtoconvey Amassakoul : 65).TheTuareg alsoreceived bandTinariwen acclaim: international
23
In terms of themes, a large number of the Amazigh lyrics can ofthemes,alargenumber oftheAmazighlyrics Interms Goodman 2005 . A vava inouva (TheTraveler) hadsalesofmore than100,000copies,and Amazigh/Berber literature
(“ Imidiwen segdetteslem ,” Jane E. 37 : 68).“ A vava inouva Goodman (2005 ,” 1978) 25 ” becameahitnotonlyfor
: 49–68)shows thatthe Belalimat Belali- A 24
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 complaints, suchasinthesong andLibyanalso address thesituationofexilesandrefugees inAlgerian campsandcontemporary governments. bravery, Besidesthemesofmilitary rebellion againstauthoritarian ofrightful imageinterms 1960s, recalling acourageousmilitary oppression. repression Theirsongscastigatetheharsh oftheTuareg inthe particularly uprisings oneself . . .,one never says ‘I’” (Dehane1992: TC00:02:30–00:03:31) isnottotalk about AssiaDjebarsaysFor “thenorm inaninterview example, writer thefamous Déjeux1994 Francophoneliterature ( a well-known concerning criticism pointinliterary acceptable inhervernacularandthecommunity thatsuchalanguagecreates. Thiswas toexpress thatwhich, intheeyesoffer aspaceofliberty ofthesinger, orsocially isnot legitimate language, isexpressed by HindiZahraintheprevious “another” interview: languagecanalso arranged marriages: marriages: arranged ofherparents’the story asamore but canbeinterpreted generalizedcomplaintagainst marriage asboth“Oursoul”interpreted inEnglishand“Ursul” inAmazighTasoussit (Never again)–tells ences andurbanyouth culture. For example, hersong“Oursoul” –awordplay whichcanbe speakofintimateexperi- in someoftheAmazighsongsHindiZahra,whosetextsprimarily Tabaaramte,ties (Nouara,Cherifa, Djurdjura). Thisissomethingthatonecanalsorecognize femininityintheirown concerning communi-the rolestowomen attributed andthenorms about andreflect onlifefrom theirown “minor” positionvis-à-vismen,presenting ordiscussing as inthecaseofbandDjurdjura andthesingerFatimaTabaaramte), but they alsocomplain Amore complicatedrelationship tolanguagethanthatof“minor” vs“major,” orhegemonic Women Amazighidentities(such ofcontemporary intheconstruction participate assingers Butitdesperatelyrefuses toaccumulate money Isearch through forthenecessary allmeans Ifi Ohmother!SinceIleftforLibya persevering Iwillnever have whatIwant! They toldme:“Itwillwork out.” Iwillnever have whatIwant! They saidtome:“Rest,hewillcome.” They toldme:“Rest,your husband willcome.” and talkaboutthis. like thisinthevillage. You Berberwas theeasiestway hadtogetmarried. toexpress notreally ofmy forced, butstory parents. thesystemwas They hadtogetmarried, Especiallyin“Oursoul,”guage], Italkaboutdifferent stories. whenItalkaboutthe very hard forme tosingmy love inmy mother’s stories tongue. IntheBerber[lan- IchooseEnglishbecauseitisaway tocreate aspacefrom thethingsIsay. Itwould be nally arrived! ButIcannotsettleinnoway nallyarrived! : 130;Dehane1992: Tinariwen, “ Tinariwen, (HindiZahra,“Oursoul,” Ahimana Ahimana
Le Rouzic1996 Handmade ” (track4),2008
(OhMySoul): Daniela MerollaDaniela ( Hindi Zahra.
. , 38 2010 Belalimat (2010 ,
) ;
Gans-Guinoune 2010 26 “Discovery: HindiZahra.”
: 5)shows thattheTinariwen August 29, : 70;Yacine 1995). Bounfour 1990 Interview Interview 2011 ) ,
; Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 and culturaldifference, even inincreasingly globalscenes. whenparticipating from still-loved traditionsshows their“internal” literary thewill,andpractice, gaze toaffirm (orcombiningthem withotherlanguages)andonshared stylesderivednaculars literary/music hegemonic languagesandpoliticalsystems,atthesametime, thefocusonusingtheirown ver- create poetsandsingers inresponse andreactionit isclearthatcontemporary tothepressure of ofculturaldifference andglobalpostcolonialfeatures. If interm sion, whichcanbeinterpreted pointtoaprocessandmusicalmusical acquisition,negotiation,andsubver- registers ofliterary With the significant exceptionofthe With thesignificant Asfel was underscoredbyof theso-calledBerberSpring) themilitantandidentitytoneofnovels in the1980s.Theinterweaving context(therepression between creation andhistorical literary been educatedeitherinFrench novels orinArabic. Thefirst ( whohad ofwriters astheengagedeffort inthelastdecadesofcentury Berber started 1964 Scout, (Horizon ofFreedom, pseud.), (Horizon bynames ofcharacters) BrahimTazaghart, readable andclosetospoken Kabyle ( recurrent number andthesyntacticinfluenceofFrench, ofneologisms somenovels are more “recalcitrant” Islamists.IfthelanguageofKabyle novels becauseofthehigh isoftendifficult ofthemes,suchas love, variety a greater infidelity, children/parent conflicts,radicalism,and contests have Inthelastdecade, helpedtostimulate young novels show writers. stories andshort inKabyle, (TiziOuzou),established forwriting andmore Prize recently new TheMammeri Night, Tizir YirTagmat relations Kabyle inapoorandharsh of family contextistaken upinthetextby FatimaMerabti, stories short (2014 while, ontheotherhand,they show alexicalandsyntacticinfluencefrom French. As Arabic andpreserve thelanguagethrough andancientexpressions, theuseofBerberneologisms of thesenovels, asanalyzedby Abrous (1989:81–100,1992),are thatthey avoid loanwords from self-published or scattered in small periodicals. AfterAliMimoun Essafi’sself-published orscattered insmallperiodicals. plays published in the However, by andSouss writers. Riffian stories publication islimited,astheworks are often because itinvolves thesocialandeconomic rolesandwithin,theextendedfamily. of, ismorea traditionalworld thanameetingofhearts inwhich,as theworld oftales,marriage Kabyle woman Lynda writer, Koudache. Koudache presents women’s opposing“love” magic in Thepreviously mentionedexamplesofinnovations and inoralgenres andchangesinliterary Amazigh written production inMorocco Amazighwritten hasseentheappearanceof plays, novels, andshort (The Ritual Sacrifice, (TheRitualSacrifice, an extent that at present they constitute structuring parameters oftheirlived parameters an extentthatatpresent culture. they constitutestructuring elements,havethe mostimportant andadaptedby theKabyle beenintegrated tosuch Western culture, from particularly theFrench languageandculture, tomentiononly theelementsborrowed from IslamandtheArabiclanguageand,more recently, from in (AïtAli/DalletandDegezelle, eds.),anew production ofnovels inAmazigh/ written : 151)aptlynotes: 1983 1990 1997 (Bad Brotherhood, first two (BadBrotherhood, ofanovel first chapters that were published inthejournal ) by SaidSadi,aswell asofthenovels published later, suchas ) by AmarMezdadand Ger zikdtura and Writing languages andinother inAmazigh vernaculars 1998 ) andin (From thePast andToday, 1981 Aâecciw ntmes Bururu ) and Amazigh/Berber literature Tafrara Faffa Salhi 2005 (Owl, Cahiers deBelaïd (LaFrance, (Dawn, Lwerd ntayri (TheFire Hut, 2006 39 ) –suchas ) by Tahar Ould-Amar, andthecollection of 1995 1993/2008 1986 (TheRoseofLove, ,posthumouslypublished in ) by SalemZénia.Among thefeatures ) by RachidAlicheand Salas dNuja 2009 ungal ) by SaïdChemak.Thetheme ), the first published novel), thefirst ofa / ungalen (SalasandNuja )inKabyle appeared I 2004 ḍ dwass ) by Askuti (Day and 1963 and Igli ntlelli 2003 (Boy Salhi ,
Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 1980s, the first novel1980s, thefirst inSoussBerberis French. Salem totheBerber-nessofsomeworks,raised thisissuebyeven referring in thoughthey are written language . . . andtheperspectives envisaged.” andresearcher Nabile Writer “ifoneisinterestedand Arabic-speakingauthors inthelinguisticsubstratumofFrench (1986)wrote thatitwastospeakof“Francophone”line Arnaud necessary Berber-speaking Amrouche, andTaos Amrouche, linked toKabylia andculturalspace. asgeographical Jacque- transposition oforalgenres intheworks Fadhma ofMouloudFeraoun, MouloudMammeri, Kûnî (1948).Several studieshave highlightedtheuseofKabyle words andexpressions andthe (1935–2003)andMohamedMrabet(1936),by theLibyanMohamed Choukri IbrahimAl- and by theMoroccan MohamedKhaïr-Eddine(1941–1995),orinArabicby theMoroccan (1917–1989),FadhmaAmrouche (1882–1967),andTaosMammeri Amrouche (1947–1976), MouloudFeraoun (1913–1962), Mouloud inFrench, suchasinthecaseofAlgerian written 1990s. Anexampleisthegenre ofthenovel. were Thenovels often Berberwriters ofthefirst wrotelarge proportion ofAmazigh/Berber-speakingauthors inotherlanguagesuntilaboutthe (pseud.), published inMorocco (Oujda)in appeared inTarifit: novelgou, OmarBoumazzough,andAhmedZiani.Thefirst published by awoman writer novels productions aswell suchasMohamedBouzag- andfilms, astheatrical stories andshort activeand poemstohisname).Several inMorocco writers andtheNetherlandshave produced the SunAppear, 1997)by stories thelateMohamedChacha(whoalsohascollectionsofshort published inSoussBerber, stories suchas 20 collectionsofshort an imam’s decisiontopray andtoteachinAmazigh.Currently, there are atleast20novels and by MohammedAkunad.Published in2002,thisnovel theunforeseen consequencesof concerns are centralthemes–forexample, in travel, theNetherlands,andSpain.Emigration, inBelgium, andmemory emigration Riffian literature, andthe there isacontinuity ofculturalproduction between oforigin thecountry novelsThe first intheRifvernacularwere published inthediaspora.AscaseofKabyle Mohamed Akunad,and ment oftheShadow, Notorious debatesaround theworksNotorious included of MouloudFeraoun andMouloud Mammeri suchaquestforidentity werenarrating accusedof“localism” andofFrench “acculturation”. intellectualandpolitical powers.by nationalandinternational Assaidpreviously, thenovels discourse, these works aquestforidentitywhichresists culturalhomogeneity narrate endorsed text andreveal intercultural elementsandreferences. More thanan“ethnic” Amazigh/Berber languages, contexts,culturalimaginary, are andcharacters never isolatedfrom abroader con- However,Italian by ofAmazighorigin. authors thelanguageandculturalreferences toAmazigh addition tothevast production inFrench, there inDutch,Catalan,and are new writings inEurope in authors haveof migrant inthelanguagesofthesecountries: beenlargelywritten inArabicby theLibyan IbrahimAl-Koni.written Inmore writer recent times,theproductions texts of Agoun‘chich,1984)by MohamedKhaïr-Eddineandinliterary theMoroccan writer ences toBerberlanguagesandcommunities in writers whorevendicate (see writers aKabyle origin afterindependencebut,trend on thecontrary, doesnotfade continues in theproduction of Sucha anddictionaries. in anumber ofcases,onecanalsoaddtheirproduction ofgrammars through thecollectionandtranslationofpoems, songs, andoraltales; language by thesewriters the Kabyle roots oftheirworks, thereception ofthepublic, andthepromotion oftheBerber Asaconsequenceofthecolonialandpostcolonialschoolpolicy, thata itisnotsurprising Chaker (1989b Tasrit nwez 2008 Igdad nWihran ) by LahacemZaheur, : 23)speaksof“French-speaking Kabyle writers” by considering ru . (The Bride oftheRock)by SamiraYedjis (TheBride nIduraArrif Rez (TheBirds ofOran,
. Daniela MerollaDaniela Tawargit dimik ṭṭ abu addteffeghtfukt 2001 40 Légende etvied’Agoun’chich Merolla 1995 . Ijjigen ntidi (ADream andaLittleMore), authored ). Similarly, there are several refer- 2010 (TheFlowers ofSweat, (Breaking theTaboo andLetting ) by LahoucineBouyaakoubi. Amussu numalu (TheLegendandLife Farès (1987 (TheMove- 2007 : 94,96) ) by Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 elements. revealed as by debateonwhatcan/shouldbedefined thescientific Arabic, andtheblending inthesyntacticstructures, ofgenres, oftenappears forinstance, is mentioned previously, theinfluenceoflanguagesschooleducation,suchasFrench and asinthecaseofotherpostcolonialliteratures. As ofgenre andlanguageboundaries, blurring are centralthemes,aswell andofculturalaffiliation belonging aslanguagecreativity andthe from andfrom otherAmazighvariations commonlinguisticroots. Thequestioningofnational speakers/readers ofthesamevernacular. As useandpromotethat authors theirown andthattheirreadersare linguistic variation usually issolidlyanchored inthevernacular, andnarratives, writing Amazigh oralpoetry inthesense patriotism of the authors. oftheauthors. patriotism self-ethnography, ofthesupposedacculturation,regionalism, the nationalistcritique andlackof Amazigh vernaculars. Amazigh vernaculars. ally, andtransnationally, extentsisshared andsingin whichtovarious by thosewhonarrate inAmazighandfrom theculturalprojectwriting topromote Amazigh/Berberlocally, nation- production inFrench, Arabic, asisolatedfrom andotherlanguagesshouldnotbeunderstood lization ofthemainstream language, community building, andpoliticaltenor. However, the can therefore asthoseof“minor” beinterpreted aswe voices, saw, characterized, by destabi- motivated. The novels inotherlanguagesby speakers ofAmazigh/Berber vernaculars written state censure, becausethesenovels were perceived, whatever thethemestreated, aspolitically has not yet translated into organized support of literary writing inAmazigh( writing has notyet ofliterary translatedintoorganizedsupport andMorocco therecognitionindividual inthelasttwo efforts, ofAmazighinAlgeria decades and Salhi2014 the usualtranslations,respectively, for“novel” story” and“short ( public reception. public the novels, tocreating acommunity whichcontributes notonlynarratively but alsoin the mainstream languageand,at thesametime,of“reterritorializing” alsoestablishes aform andfor arenewedtheir vernaculars expression. Thislanguageinteractiondestabilizes literary locations,revealon inotherlanguagesofthediasporic thesearch forlinguisticinteractionwith in languagesotherthantheirmothertongue. Theirnovels inFrench andinArabic, andlater by orallanguagesandby whowere thespeakers ofAmazigh/Berber vernaculars ofteneducated prestige andhegemony ofliteracy andanindicationofthe“situationminority” experienced communication issymptomaticofthe national –languageinthearena oforalandwritten vention –and(inter) aimedatresisting totalization. Ontheotherhand,choiceofawritten Amazigh pointtoaculturaldifference and,inBhaba’s ofinter- toliterature asaform terms, ofthenovels transnational,andidentitydiscourse in Berber language, theterritorializing, this latteraspectislinked tothestill-continuing statusof“minority” attachedtotheAmazigh/ Atthesametime, onerecognizes are asneologisms created anAmazightransnationaleffort, inAmazighBerberisadefinitively endeavor. “territorialized” Writing Asinthecaseof the Maghreb novel inBerber. written We willsay thattheKabyle novel, novel, theRiffian andtheChleuhnovel compose novelfian diasporaespeciallyintheNetherlands). . . . ofRifandRiffian (theregion Tachelhit isspoken [aBerbervariant] andChleuhdiasporamainlyinFrance),Rif- yle diasporaespeciallyinFrance),Chleuhnovel ofSousswhere (mainlytheregion the Thus,wewithin thelimitsofthisvariant. willspeakofKabyle novel (Kabylia andKab- its[theBerbernovel’s] inoneoftheBerbervariants, Written reception isrealized only 28
). However, whenonelooksattheinstitutionalside, notwithstandinglocaland 29 Such a reception also impacted nationalist criticism (seepreviously) Suchareception and alsoimpactednationalistcriticism 27 The nationalist critique in turn hasbeendebunked inturn initsideological Thenationalistcritique Amazigh/Berber literature Salhi andSadi(2016 41 : 32)note: Salhi 2011 ungal or : 86–87; Salhi 2011 tullist ,whichare Ameziane ). While Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 the discourse of its identity construction constituteoneoftherelevant ofitsidentityconstruction the discourse readings ( belongtoacontinuum inwhichtheBerber/Amazighreferencesnarrative characteristics and productions.genres withsuch ofliterary Literary ofavariety and establishes theintertextuality ofintervention thatcreates anidentitynarrative asaform and itsinhabitants)tohistory ences to the histories, scenes, and characters attached to a specific Amazigh/Berbervernacular attachedtoaspecific scenes,andcharacters ences tothehistories, presents istheplay andtheevocation ofintertextuality ofidentity–through ofadiscourse refer- each “atom,” eachtextorauthor, canbedirectly related Whatthe continuum tothe others. fore atthesametimemore complexthan,andlessrepresentable by, “field” a structured where hand, therangeofindividual positionsisalsodifferentiated andunequal.Thesituationisthere- institutionsofsuchacontinuum arehand, theliterary unequalandincompetition;ontheother space”media. IconsidertheAmazigh“literary avague andfloatingcontinuum. Ontheone of“habitus”languages anddifferent forms provided audiovisual, by anddigital oral,written, The Amazighcase, moreover, presents cleavages institutionsrelated todifferent amongliterary elements. istherefore withoutthe otherstructuring vernaculars) toestablish afield notsufficient context( African creolization oftheNorth beyond ofAmazigh/Berberliterature thelimitsofusualdefinition andtoacknowledge the such acontinuum space,” by thenotionof“Amazigh/Berberliterary whichaimstogo aterm (Amazigh/Berber, classicalArabic, dialectalArabic, French, Judeo-Arabic, Idefine andsoforth). Africa traditionsofthemultilinguallaps andinteractswithdifferent contextofNorth artistic 2006 productions;the media,andlocationofliterary reference to thetexts,whatever thelinguisticinteractioncharacterizing thelanguage,ish, andsoforth); and theiroralgenres inanothermainstream language(e.g. Arabic, Dutch,French, Italian,Span- andby themarked form reference inspoken, vernaculars sung,orwritten tosuchvernaculars viously present thefollowing ofthetextsby theuseofAmazigh traits: the“territorializing” textsdiscussedpre- modes)andmultilingualism, oneseesthattheoralandwritten and digital audiovisual,literatures Reflectingonmultimediality (oral,written, withinonelanguagefield. tends toisolatetextsthatmaintainintra-andextra-textualrelations withseveral languagesand have creation.ofAmazigh/Berberliterature beenmultiple Theusualdefinition linesofliterary have – fordifferent thatthere andsometimesoppositereasons –ofthefact ledtoanignoring about theuniquenessofalanguagetoexpress thefeelingofnationalunityinliterature. of relativism whichseeslanguageasthevehicle worldview ofaspecific andby nationalistideas colonial empiresarethrough andtheirex-colonies.Language-baseddefinitions justified aform nowadays fromliteratures deriving animperial, rejected, distinctionbetween of thecenters literature usingthesamelanguageorincaseofso-calledFrancophone/Anglophone retical approaches andAmerican toliterature–for instance, definitions inthecaseofBritish canbeproblematic.identification from thecombinationofpoliticalandtheo- Questionsarise language ofcreation. Althoughitmay seemsimple andimmediatelyapplicable, language-based Amazigh/Berber” onthebasisof corpus by oftheliterary theimmediateidentification ofAmazigh/Berber literature Thedefinition isusuallyconsidered equivalent to“literature in institutions (Magdelaine-Andrianjafitrimo 2006; institutions (Magdelaine-Andrianjafitrimo economic andintellectualstructure, alinguisticallyhomogeneous readership, andcommonshared 1991 forourapproach thanthenotionof“field”priate studies( commonlyusedinliterary Regarding the Amazigh/Berber literary productions, Regarding theAmazigh/Berberliterary theoretical approaches andnationalism A theoretical point needs to be mentioned here. The term “literary space” Atheoretical pointneedstobementioned here. “literary Theterm seemsmore appro- ). The notion of field implies a rigid autonomy of“literature,” impliesarigid ). Thenotionoffield bestowed withacoherent : 13–16, 28–40). This continuum is a domain of multiple affiliations, which partially over-: 13–16,28–40).Thiscontinuum whichpartially isadomainofmultiple affiliations, space Conclusion: literary Amazigh/Berber Daniela MerollaDaniela Merolla 2006 42 Mouralis 2001 : 73;Merolla 2014). ). Ashared language(oneofthe tamurt Merolla 1995 (theland Bourdieu , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 cultural homogeneity promoted ofintellectual andpoliticalpower. by centers various todiscussmanipulative andisanexampleoftheeffort visionsof and inthepostcolonialperiod of re-appropriation andsubversion colonization oflinguisticandculturaldataproduced during spaceexpresses alongprocessidentities, localandtransnational,intheAmazighBerberliterary inAmazigh.Theproductionshared byofcontemporary andwrite thosewhosing,narrate, space”ary andnotasisolatedfrom theculturalproject topromote AmazighBerber, whichis oftheseproductions, inamuch larger“liter- whichshouldbeunderstood re-territorialization community building, andpoliticaltenor. However,as deterritorialization, there isalsothe in mainstream languages,ontheotherhand,show to“minor” thetraitsattributed voices, such totalization and(so-called)universal cultures productions inthepresent andinthepast.Literary ofinterventionBerber pointtoculturaldifference whichchallenge andtoliterature asaform genres inAmazigh/ (oralandwritten) inliterary izing, transnationalism,andidentitydiscourse processes.product Asindicatedpreviously, ofcolonialandpostcolonialhistorical territorial- a“field” elementscharacterizing inBourdieu’sand theotherstructuring definition. problematic of“identity,” andconstruction institutions withoutbeing compelledtoshare literary used,doshare theAmazigh-Berber and themedium(orality, audiovisual, . . .) digital writing, the productions which,whatever thelanguage(Kabyle, Tasoussit, Arabic, French, English. . .) space”notion of“literary develops from thispointandindicatesthecontinuum provided by all anddonothavein Amazigh/Berberwhichdonotshare suchforums acommon“habitus.” The eachother,define but itismore complicatetospeakofthe“field” productions oforalandwritten inKabyle,”the “literature written who andwithworks forums withshared andwriters literary lectics ofpower Inotherwords, amongtextsandauthors. for onecanadoptthenotionoffield the languages(Amazigh/Berber, multiple dia- Arabic, determine French, English,andsoforth) audiovisual,The relations media)and amongthemediaofexpression anddigital (oral,written, productions. sungandwritten tional Amazighcommunity inmany alsotakes contemporary form to(and,eventually,referring Asseenpreviously, culturalregion. redefining)aspecific atransna-
6 5 4 11 10 7 9 3 2 1 8 See Tamazight “Tamazight” theterm isspoken intheMiddleAtlas.InAlgeria, isusedtorefer totheBerber AlltranslationsofitemslistedonlyinFrench intheReferences are mine. “Berber” was increasingly rejected by activists linkswith“barbarous” because of itsetymological in The uprisings in1962–1964,1985–1990,and1990–1996were Theuprisings repressed by harshly national armies. Zouggari (2005)andKateb(2004). Zouggari
In conclusion, the situation of minority attributed totheAmazigh/Berberlanguageisa attributed Inconclusion,thesituationofminority Ghouirgate(2015 western Morocco). Morocco)Rif (north andTasoussit (alsocalledTachelhiyt/Tachelhit orChleuh)intheSouss(south- Tarifit Algeria); (orTarifiyt,tains (north alsocalledChleuh by itsspeakers) isthevernacular inthe founded in2001.Taqbaylit (Kabyle) isspoken inKabylia andTachawit (Chaouia)intheAurès Moun- “Amazigh”the term was chosenwhentheIRCAM, theRoyal InstituteoftheAmazighCulture, was language asawhole, whereas inMorocco, toavoid oftheMiddle Atlas, confusionwith thevariant Maddy-Weitzman (2017 “Amazigh”the term see inMorocco andinAlgeria; European languagesandinArabic. Complexpoliticalissuesare involved of inthestateappropriation (Niger) andin1996(Mali),untilnew insurgentactsin2007–2009and 2012. pressure disquiet andinternational brought arelativelyLong-term stable in1995 peace agreement Maddy-Weitzman (2011 Roberts (1982 Roberts Hanoteau (1867 Études etDocumentsBerbères : 334), ), : 598–599,603). Basset (1920 Chaker (1984 ). : 86,89–90)and ), and
2016 : 174),and Amazigh/Berber literature . Coulon (1930 Mouline (2016 Notes Carlier (1984 43 ). Chaker (2013 ). : 347–371). ). Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 18 17 1 19 16 15 24 23 22 20 Abrous, D. 1992.Laproduction romanesque kabyle: unaperçu surlathématique, Abrous, D. 1989. 28 14 13 12 26 25 Barber, Karin. 1995. “African LanguageLiterature andPostcolonial 1995.“African Barber, Criticism.” Karin. J. Arnaud, 1986. Ameziane, Amar andMohandAkliSalhi.2014.“Tullist kabyle: réflexions préliminaires surlecorpus.” In Aliche, Rachid. 1986. Aliche, Rachid.1981. Akunad,Mohammed.2007. Akunad,Mohammed.2002. Akarkach,Btisam(ed.).2018. AitAli,Belaïd.1963,1964. Adam,Jeanne. 1987.“Influence d’uncontekabyle etdequelquesromans coloniauxsur‘LeFilsdupauvre’ Achour, 1986. Christiane. 2 29 2 27 Berrichi, Boussad.2013.“Émergenced’unenouvelle dunord.” littérature enAfrique Berrichi, In Bensmaia,Réda.1994.“Onthe Concept ofMinorLiterature.” In Emergence, Belalimat,Nadia.2010.“TheIshumarGuitar: Circulation &Evolution Per- from Diasporic 1920. Basset,Henri.
Bertheleu, Hélène. Bertheleu, 2008.“Pour desnouveaux uneapproche del’insertion sociologique venus.” 21 Thefollowing reflections are drawn from Following thewave ofdemonstrationswhichswept through Tunisia inDecember2010. Themovement to whilehetried was in2016–2017by triggered thedramaticdeathofMouhcineFikri “Oh my father”—standard transcription is “Ohmy transcription father”—standard HindiZahra,interview, TheAmazighflagpresents threeyellow, colors, andblue, green, withtheredcharacter Tifinagh Seethe“BerberSpring” in1980andthe“BlackSpring” in2001and2002. See“MaliTuareg rebels’ callforindependencerejected,” Translation by “Companions. . .”. Translation by Adam (1987 Diplôme d’EtudesApprofondies, Université deProvence. tions etclassifications surlaproblématique desgenreslittéraires Actesdu3èmecolloqueinternational amazighes:définitions, dénomina- National: FDB[1963(texts),1964(translation)]. Quai, Laffitte. de MouloudFeraoun.” In Routledge. losophy Kohl, 155–170. LondonandNew York: Tauris AcademicStudies. to the Worldformances Scene.” In Ibis Press. tures Revue desociolinguistique enligne Viau,255–272.Amsterdam andNewand Robert York: Rodopi. de lalittérature-monde. Poétiquesdelarelationetdudivers danslesespacesfrancophones Barber(1995 salvage his fish confiscated bysalvage confiscated thepoliceinAlHoceima.( hisfish Ilikoud (2006 Culshaw (2007 Lahlou(2017 Merolla (2006 Lacoste-Dujardin (1970 father. Berrichi (2013 Berrichi Lacheraf(1953 ,26(4):3–30. ,ed.by ConstantinV. Boundasand Dorothea Olkowski, 213–228.LondonandNew York: ), ), La littérature maghrébine de languefrançaise : 376). ) and ). Khadda (1991 La productionromanesquekabyle: depassageàl’écrit uneexpérience ), Belalimat (2010 ), ). Bourlet (2013 El-Zein (2015 Essai surlalittérature des Berbères Sahli (1953 ,114–120.Bouira:Université deBouira. Faffa Asfel Tilmatine (2017 Mouloud Feraoun, Unevoix encontrepoint [LaFrance].Lyon: Fédérop. [The Ritual Sacrifice]. Lyon: [TheRitualSacrifice]. Fédérop. ), Les CahiersdeBelaïd 2009 Ijjigen ntidi Tawargit dimik Galand-Pernet (1998 Opstand indeRif Actes du colloque Jean Amrouche, l‘éternel Jugurtha Actes ducolloqueJeanAmrouche, l‘éternel ), and ), ), (stagenameofZahraHindi)and ,11. : 5). Elbaz andMathieu-Job (2001 ), and Irele andGikandi(2004 Tuareg Societywithin aGlobalized World Achour (1986 Belalimat (2010 ). www.univ-rouen.fr/dyalang/glottopol [Flowers ofToil]. Aqlam. Agadir: Kizzi (2019 [A Dream and a Little More]. Rabat: Tizrigin Bouregreg. [ADream andaLittleMore]. Rabat:Tizrigin Daniela MerollaDaniela References Schipper, (2019 Merolla, andBrinkman [RebellionintheRif].Berchem: EPO. a baba-inuba ,ed.by Dallet and Jules-Louis Jean-Marie Degezelle. Fort ), 44 . Algiers: Carbonnel.New Awal- edition:2001.Paris: .Algiers: ). Bounfour (1999 ). : 7). . Paris: Publisud. .Paris: ), and ,where thelast BBC News Masbah 2017 ), and Merolla (1995 . Paris: Silex. .Paris: Tanti (2011 Gilles Deleuze andtheTheaterofPhi- , 2005 Merolla (2006 (3June 2012). ; , Akarkach 2018 ,ed.by AnjaFischerandInes 2018 ba
). isanalliterationon , 539–546. Marseille: Du ,539–546.Marseille: , Research in African Litera- inAfrican Research 2006 ), LiAF ,ed.by CéciliaFrancis ,Mémoire envuedu Kossmann (2000 ). : 341–342). ). Trajectoires etdérives :105. ; Wolf 2018 Glottopol, ⵣ ), and baba (Z). ). , Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 18:19 16 Jul 2020; For: 9780429354229, chapter3, 10.4324/9780429354229-5 Ghouirgate, Mehdi. 2015.“Leberbère auMoyen Âge. Uneculturede reconstitu- linguistiqueencours Genevois, 1974. Henri. Gans-Guinoune, etFrancophonie:cache-cacheentre 2010.“Autobiographie ‘nous’ Anne-Marie. et‘je’.” Galand-Pernet, Paulette. 1998. Farès, Nabil.1987. ÉtudesetDocumentsBerbères Tuareg El-Zein,Amira.2015.“Mythological GodsinIbrahimal-Koni’s Work.” Bhabha, Homi.1994. Bounfour, Abdellah.2005. Bounfour, Abdellah.1999. Bounfour, Abdellah.1990.“Autobiographie, genre etcroisement descultures. Lecasdelalittérature fran- Elbaz, Robert and Martine Mathieu-Job. andMartine Elbaz,Robert 2001. savoirs, berbère enAlgérie: usagesetprojections.” Dirèche, 2017.“Lavulgatehistorique Karima. In Deleuze, 1975. GillesandFelix Guattari. Goodman,Jane E.2005. Bourdieu, Pierre. 1991.“Lechamplittéraire.” Bounfour, Abdellah.2018. Bounfour, Abdellah.2006.“Littérature berbère contemporaine.” Chaker Chaker, unenjeudesociété.” Salem.1984.“Langageetidentitéberbère (Algérie/migration): 1984.“Être berbère.” Camps,Gabriel. Bouyaakoubi, Lahoucine(Anir).2010. Bourlet,Mélanie. 2013.“L’acte littéraire enpulaar.” del’écriture surlaperformativité d’écrire: Buchanan,IanandJohn Marks(eds.).2000. Haines,Daniel.2015.“From DeleuzeandGuattari’s Words ofReading.” toaDeleuzianTheory Hanoteau,Adolphe. 1867. Carlier, Omar. berbériste’ 1984.“Laproduction socialedel’imagesoi.Notesurla‘crise de1949.” Chaker, Salem.1989b. HindiZahra.2009.“J’aienvie depromouvoir l’amazighàtravers monchant.” [Interview]. Chaker, Salem.2013.“Amazigh/Berbère/Tamazight: danslesméandres d’unedénomination.” Chemak,Saïd.2008[1993]. Chaker, Salem.2003.“Leberbère.” In Coulon,Alfred. 1930.“Lafemmekabyle.” Culshaw, Peter. [Tinariwen].” Storm 2007.“Desert Déjeux,Jean. 1994. Dehane, Kamal.1992. de laMéditerranée tion.” Relief cophone duMaghreb.” Desrues, 67–89.Rabat:Centre Jacques-Berque.Desrues, arabes’ des‘printemps revendications amazighesdanslatourmente Poetics Peeters. Aix-en-Provence: Edisud. Peeters. l‘Afrique duNord l‘Afrique Africanistes and Guattari Studies and Guattari versity Press. Annuaire de l‘Afrique duNord Annuairedel‘Afrique Etudes berbères PUF. Maroc voir-l-amazigh-a-travers-mon-chant-61657.html (High CommissionforAmazighity). com/eft-press/T-N%20SonglinesMarApr07.pdf 124: 553–575. , Salem.1989a.“Arabisation.” ,3(1):61–76. ,29January. ,35:200–216. Annales. Histoire, SciencesSociales ,83(1):106–132.
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