chapter 28 Prostitution and Colonial Relations
Liat Kozma
Colonial encounters played a significant role in shaping policies and desires in both Europe’s colonies and in Europe itself, and thus they deserve their own thematic overview. I define colonial relations as ethnic or racial-based hierar- chies and segregations which developed as a consequence of western imperial expansion. These were unequal power relations in which the colonizer had control over, or at least attempted to control, residential choices, mobility in public space and across borders, and who wedded and bedded with whom. I thus follow Ann Stoler’s contention that the very intimate domain of desire was shaped by these colonial interactions.1 Historical research on prostitution and colonialism is relatively recent. The argument historians present is that colonial domination and colonial power relations affected prostitution on multiple levels. First, the migration of wom- en for prostitution to, between, from, and within Europe’s colonies was facili- tated, encouraged, or restricted by colonial authorities. Second, colonial urban planning segregated colonizers from colonized, industrial from residential, and respectability from vice. Such segregations did not mean, of course, that different social groups did not interact or even live together. It means, how- ever, that questions of racial and class interactions were central to the colo- nial vision of the city. These policies, in turn, affected the urban geography of prostitution, its interaction with the city’s inhabitants, and divisions within brothels or prostitutes’ quarters. Furthermore, the permanent and temporary migration of men—as soldiers, sailors, or industrial workers—created highly gender-imbalanced environments, and prostitutes were the only women of- ficially allowed in some of them.2
1 Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault’s History of Sexuality and the Co- lonial Order of Things (Durham, 1995); Ann Laura Stoler, “Rethinking Colonial Categories: Eu- ropean Communities and the Boundaries of Rule”, Comparative Studies in Society and History, 31 (1989), pp. 134–161; Ann Laura Stoler, “Tense and Tender Ties: The Politics of Comparison in North American History and (Post) Colonial Studies”, The Journal of American History, 88 (2001), pp. 829–865. 2 Raelene Frances, “Prostitution: The Age of Empire”, in Chiara Beccalossi and Ivan Crozier (eds), A Cultural History of Sexuality in the Age of Empire (Oxford, 2011), pp. 145–170; Philip Howell, Geographies of Regulation: Policing Prostitution in Nineteenth-Century Britain and the
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The processes and categories of regulation—of prostitutes, brothels, and red-light districts—were not unique to the colonial context, and they are out- lined in detail in the other urban and thematic overviews. What I try to do here is examine the specificities of colonial contexts and the various levels of power relations between the state and its subjects as well as between individuals on different sides of ethnic or racial hierarchic divides.
Sources
Sources for precolonial periods are often very rare or non-existent because many colonized societies were predominantly illiterate or because records were not preserved. Hammad and Biancani’s work on Cairo is able to recon- struct the precolonial history of prostitution because in Islamic Cairo decrees, chronicles and court records were kept.3 This was not the case for colonial Nai- robi or Lagos, for which very little information is available. Some colonial cities discussed here, such as Singapore, Casablanca, and Nairobi, were not urban centres or did not exist at all before the colonial encounter, and thus only pro- vide a roughly century-long historical survey.4 Sources for the colonial period were produced mostly by the colonizers. Historians of prostitution in these societies therefore use sources written by colonial administrators or imperial voluntary organizations who sought to civilize indigenous populations, combat global prostitution, salvage colonial reputation, and/or mitigate the flaws of colonial rule. Ekpootu’s research on colonial Nigeria, for instance, relies mainly on colonial police records and ad- ministrative correspondence. Similarly, Tracol-Huynh’s article on Hanoi notes that most available sources on prostitution are French and that French writ- ings about Vietnamese women were imbued with stereotypes of their race and sex.5
Empire (Cambridge, 2009); Philippa Levine, Prostitution, Race and Politics: Policing Venereal Disease in The British Empire (New York, 2003); Ashwini Tambe, Codes of Misconduct: Regulat- ing Prostitution in Late Colonial Bombay (Minneapolis, 2009); Luise White, The Comforts of Home: Prostitution in Colonial Nairobi (Chicago, 1990). 3 Biancani and Hammad, this volume, Cairo. 4 Babere Kerata Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi: From the Precolo- nial Period to the Present”, unpublished paper collected for the project “Selling Sex in the City”, 2013; Ekpootu, this volume, Nigeria; Herzog, this volume, Singapore; Kozma, this vol- ume, Casablanca. 5 Ekpootu, this volume, Nigeria; Tracol-Huyn, this volume, Hanoi.
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Indeed, in most historical societies the life stories of the women in pros- titution are often mediated through those who tried to reform, regulate, or discipline them. In colonial contexts, notably, such mediation is further ex- tenuated by racial divisions and colonial power relations. So, those who wrote about prostitutes and recorded their life stories did not share these women’s language, and, as I demonstrate below, often held specific assumptions about the sexuality of non-European women.
Sexuality and Colonial Relations
Colonial relations were often metaphorically depicted as sexual encounters, be it the “virgin African continent”,6 or the likes of Kuchuk Hanem, the dancer who fascinated Flaubert in his mid-nineteenth century visit to Egypt and be- came a metaphor of the colonial coveting gaze in Edward Said’s Orientalism.7 Consequently, colonized women themselves became an object of colonial sexual fantasy, curiosity, and gaze. In certain cases, such as Kenya or India, the colonized woman was perceived as exotic and hypersexual.8 In other cases, such as Islamic societies, women’s sexuality was perceived, by definition, to be oppressed, and Muslim women were to be saved by colonial authorities or benevolent voluntary organizations. Such metaphors were translated into colonial erotic imagery, both at home and in the colonies themselves: erotic representations of the colonized, and sexual fantasies of the colonizer.9 Colonial policies in regulating and policing prostitution are best understood within a conceptual framework mindful of the role of desire and sexuality in shaping colonial relations. On the one hand, Ann Stoler has shown how the intimate domain of human interactions was central to colonial policies. British colonial officers, for example, were not allowed to age in the colonies so that imperial prestige would not be questioned by the sight of an elderly English- man. English and Dutch youth in the colonies were sent to boarding schools in Europe, so that affection toward their childhood nannies or desire toward indigenous girls would not undermine well-kept distinctions between colo- nizers and colonized. The policies that ensued from these anxieties differed
6 Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”. 7 Edward Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978), pp. 186–190. 8 Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”. 9 See, for example, Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colo- nial Contest (New York, 1995); Malek Alloula, The Colonial Harem (Minneapolis, 1986).
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10 Stoler, Sex and the Education of Desire, pp. 137–164; Ann Laura Stoler, Along the Archival Grain: Thinking through Colonial Ontologies (Princeton, 2009), pp. 57–104. 11 Herzog, this volume, Singapore. 12 Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 2004), p. 5; see also his book Black Skin, White Masks (London, 2008). 13 On sexual anxieties and racial violence in the American south, see for example Jane Dai- ley, Before Jim Crow: The Politics of Race in Post-Emancipation Virginia (Chapel Hill, 2000), and on African-American masculinity in the Jim Crow era, see Marlon Bryan Ross, Man- ning the Race: Reforming Black Men in the Jim Crow Era (New York, 2004).
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Indigenous Sexuality and Early Colonial Encounters
For many precolonial societies, we know little about how colonial encoun- ters affected patterns of non-marital or commercial sex. Very schematically, historical research points to at least three categories of precolonial sexual/ commercial practices: first, prostitution, or a phenomenon that closely resem- bled it (as in Vietnam and the Islamic world); second, an exchange of sex for money, the cultural connotations of which were different enough from prosti- tution to be considered as something else (such as Indian temple prostitution or North African courtesans); and third, societies in which there was no pros- titution as the society had little or no money/wage labour, and therefore there was no exchange of sex for money (as, for example, in Nairobi). A fourth cat- egory might be distinguished as cases in which we have no information at all, due to a lack of sources. All were transformed in the period of colonial control. In Latin America, for example, we know that there were sexual encoun- ters between Spanish and Portuguese men and local women that were either encouraged or tolerated by the colonial authorities. Little historical research, however, is available on commercial sex here.15 As early as 1538 the Spanish Crown granted the municipal authority of Mexico City a permit to operate a properly supervised “concubinary house” to service Spanish men, but it is unknown whether such a house was indeed opened at that point. Spanish
14 On North African soldiers in the French army, see for example Ethan M. Orwin, “Of Cous- cous and Control: The Bureau of Muslim Soldier Affairs and the Crisis of French Colo- nialism”, The Historian 70 (2008), pp. 263–284, 272; Glenford D. Howe, “Military-Civilian Intercourse, Prostitution and Venereal Disease Among Black West Indian Soldiers During World War i”, The Journal of Caribbean History, 31 (1997), pp. 88–102. 15 See, for example, Asuncion Lavrin (ed.), Sexuality and Marriage in Colonial Latin America (Lincoln, 1989); the more recent book by Karen Vieira Powers, Women in the Crucible of Conquest: The Gendered Genesis of Spanish American Society, 1500–1600 (Albuquerque, 2005); Asunción Lavrin, “Sexuality in Colonial Spanish America”, in Jose C. Moya (ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Latin American History (New York, 2011), pp. 132–152.
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16 Nuñez and Fuentes, this volume, Mexico City. 17 Erica Wald, “From Begums and Bibis to Abandoned Females and Idle Women: Sexual Relationships, Venereal Disease and the Redefinition of Prostitution in Early Nineteenth- Century India”, Indian Economic Social History Review, 46 (2009), pp. 5–25; Judy White- head, “Bodies Clean and Unclean: Prostitution, Sanitary Legislation, and Respectable Femininity in Colonial North India”, Gender & History, 7 (1995), pp. 41–63. 18 Tracol-Huynh, this volume, Hanoi.
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19 John Rodenbeck, “ʻAwalim; or, The Persistence of Error”, in Jill Edwards (ed.), Historians in Cairo: Essays in Honor of George Scanlon (Cairo, 2002); Karin van Nieuwkerk, “A Trade like Any Other”: Female Singers and Dancers in Egypt (Austin, 1995), pp. 33–36. 20 Barkahoum Ferhati, “La danseause prostitutée dite ‘Ouled Naïl’, entre mythe et réalité (1830–1962): Des rapports sociaux et des pratiques concretes”, clio: Femmes, Genre, His- toire, 17 (2003), pp. 101–113; Barkahoum Ferhati, “Enquête sur la prostitution en Algérie: Souvenirs de Bou-Saâda”, L’Année du Maghreb, 6 (2010), pp. 253–268. 21 Wald, “From Begums and Bibis”.
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Urban Spaces
The history of prostitution is predominantly an urban one, and the colonial context is no exception. Here, histories of colonial prostitution are intimately linked to histories of colonial urbanism in terms of how colonial authorities chose to construct and transform urban spaces. Historians of prostitution in
22 Ekpootu, this volume, Nigeria. 23 See, for example, Kenneth Morgan, Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America (Oxford, 2007); Lawrence C. Jennings, French Anti-slavery: The Movement for the Abolition of Slavery in France, 1802–1848 (Cambridge, 2000); Marcel van der Linden (ed.), Humani- tarian Intervention and Changing Labor Relations: The Long-Term Consequences of the Abolition of the Slave Trade (Leiden, 2011). 24 Judith Tucker, Women in Nineteenth Century Egypt (Cambridge, 1985), p. 174; Diane Robinson-Dunn, The Harem, Slavery and British Imperial Culture: Anglo-Muslim Relations in the Late Nineteenth Century (Manchester, 2006), pp. 84–85.
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The settler’s town is a strongly built town, all made of stone and steel. It is a brightly lit town; the streets are paved with asphalt, and the gar- bage cans swallow all the leavings, unseen, unknown, and hardly thought about… The settler’s town is a well-fed town, an easygoing town; its belly is always full of good things. The settler’s town is a town of white people, of foreigners. The town belonging to the colonized people, or at least the native town, the Negro village, the medina, the reservation, is a place of ill fame, peopled by men of evil repute. They are born there, it matters little where or how; they die there, it matters not where, nor how. It is a world with- out spaciousness; men live there on top of each other, and their huts are built one on top of the other. The native town is a hungry town, starved of bread, of meat, of shoes, of coal, of light. The native town is a crouching village, a town on its knees, a town wallowing in the mire. It is a town of niggers and dirty Arabs.25
Colonial urbanism was a modernizing project in the sense that it relegated urban planning to experts who relied on supposedly impartial social science to generate objective criteria and techniques often termed “colonial labor atories”. Europe’s colonies were territories in which methods could be implemented, tried out, modified, and improved if necessary.26 Colonial urbanism was colonial in relying on unofficial zoning and de facto class- and race-based seg- regation and inequalities. Colonial cities segregated the respectable from vice, indigenous from the foreign, and lower-class from upper-class clientele. These districts were monitored by a system of gates and walls, as well as curtains and glazed windows.27 In Johannesburg, for example, the 1923 Act removed black people from the city’s centres and settled them on the outskirts of the city.
25 Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, pp. 38–39. 26 See for example, Omnia El Shakry, The Great Social Laboratory: Subjects of Knowledge in Colonial and Postcolonial Egypt (Stanford, 2007). 27 Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991), pp. 3–11; Christabelle Taraud, La prostitution coloniale: Algérie, Tunisie, Maroc: 1830–1962 (Paris, 2003), p. 85.
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In Shanghai, the various international concessions and the Chinese town had different prostitution regulations (and practices) and in Nairobi, blacks were confined to certain neighbourhoods.28 In North Africa, colonial urbanism entailed opening up the old city and making it more accessible to colonial policing; the gates which divided urban quarters after nightfall, for example, were removed. The winding alleyways and the rooftops which one could easily use for escape were most problematic in maintaining law and order. In addition, colonial authorities constructed new quarters adjacent to the old one, implementing rational principles of visibility and accessibility: standardized buildings, wide boulevards, and segregation be- tween residential and industrial regions. The tramway, and later the bus, also facilitated mobility within the city and necessitated urban planning which made it possible for these vehicles to move around the city.29 The geography of prostitution in colonized urban spaces was marked by the complex relationship between settlers’ and indigenous neighbourhoods, or between the indigenous city and the colonial city which developed around it. Postcolonial cities often bear the mark of this bifurcated past to this day. Colonial cities marked an unequal encounter between different social and economic systems, one imposed upon the other, causing social and economic ruptures and dislocations. These, in turn, created economic instability which drove women to prostitution. These processes supplemented, rather than re- placed, traditional modes of control and supervision of women with modern, bureaucratized ones.30 In the various case studies discussed in this volume, the colonial presence affected the geography of prostitution in several important ways. First, the co- lonial administration transformed urban geographies either by creating new urban centres or transforming existing ones. Nairobi and Casablanca are two examples of small towns/villages which became administrative colonial cen- tres, thus attracting both European and local immigrants in search of skilled or unskilled jobs.31 In some urban localities, this created a gender imbalance: male labour was much more in demand in these new or growing urban centres
28 Ziyad Choonara, “Selling Sex in Johannesburg: From 1886 to the Present”, unpublished paper collected for the project “Selling Sex in the City”, 2013; Gronewold, this volume, Shanghai. 29 Taraud, La prostitution coloniale, pp. 81–83. 30 Ibid., pp. 11–13; Wright, The Politics of Design; Anthony D. King, Spaces of Global Cultures: Architecture, Urbanism, Identity (London, 2004). 31 Chacha, ”An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”.
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32 Ekpootu, this volume, Nigeria. 33 Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”. 34 Herzog, this volume, Singapore. 35 Choonara, “Selling Sex in Johannesburg”.
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Regulation
The regulation of prostitution in colonized societies was often related to the presence of colonial military forces. So while regimes of regulation were in- creasingly criticized or abolished in Europe, regulation was imposed on colo- nized societies, first and foremost in order to protect colonial soldiers from venereal diseases, which could be, until the beginning of the twentieth cen- tury, fatal. The debilitating effects of syphilis on the military made regulation appear to be a viable tool even after medical advancements improved the qual- ity of care and thus the chances of recovery.38 In the case of Singapore, Herzog claims that even when it was clear that the medical regulation of prostitution was not effective, regulatory measures were maintained because they served a secondary goal of maintaining order and supervising the conduct of both prostitutes and soldiers.39 More generally, controversial medical practices were maintained in the colo- nies because they made it possible for colonial authorities to protect their sol- diers and settlers from disease while at the same time monitoring and regulating interracial sexual encounters. Actual policies and practices varied between and
36 Frances, this volume, Sydney/Perth. 37 Tracol-Huynh, this volume, Hanoi. 38 See, for example, Michelle K. Rhoades, “Renegotiating French Masculinity: Medicine and Venereal Disease during the Great War”, French Historical Studies, 29 (2006), pp. 293–327; Laura Doan, “Sex Education and the Great War Soldier: A Queer Analysis of the Practice of ‘Hetero’ Sex”, Journal of British Studies, 51 (2012), pp. 641–663; Mary Louise Roberts, “The Price of Discretion: Prostitution, Venereal Disease, and the American Military in France, 1944–1946”, 115 (2010), pp. 1002–1030; Glenford D. Howe, “Military-Civilian Intercourse, Prostitution and Venereal Disease Among Black West Indian Soldiers During World War i”, Journal of Caribbean History, 31 (1997), pp. 88–118. 39 Herzog, this volume, Singapore.
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40 Three notable examples are Howell, Geographies of Regulation; Levine, Prostitution, Race, and Politics; Stephanie A. Limoncelli, The Politics of Trafficking: The First International Movement to Combat the Sexual Exploitation of Women (Stanford, 2010). 41 Judith R. Walkowitz, Prostitution and Victorian Society: Women, Class, and the State (Cam- bridge, 1980); Antoinette Burton, Burdens of History: British Feminists, Indian Women, and Imperial Culture, 1865–1915 (Chapel Hill, 1994), pp. 127–170. 42 Julia Christine Scriven Miller, “The ‘Romance of Regulation’: The Movement against State- Regulated Prostitution in France, 1871–1946” (Unpublished Ph.D., New York University, 2000), pp. 361–446.
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Racial Hierarchies
Colonial prostitution, like colonial urban policies in general, relied on spatial segregation and legalized hierarchies between different populations. These could be simple dichotomous relations between colonizers and colonized, such as Europeans and non-Europeans, as was for instance the case in Cair o
43 Rhoades, “Renegotiating French Masculinity”, pp. 293–327; Doan, “Sex Education and the Great War Soldier”, pp. 641–663. 44 Tracol-Huynh, this volume, Hanoi. 45 Hertzog, this volume, Singapore.
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46 Biancani and Hammad, this volume, Cairo. 47 Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”; Choonara, “Selling Sex in Johannesburg”. 48 Herzog, this volume, Singapore. 49 Choonara, “Selling Sex in Johannesburg”. 50 Tambe, Codes of Misconduct, pp. 57–67. 51 Herzog, this volume, Singapore.
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mulatta women could be classified as white, non-white, or in-between, accord- ing to the context. These divisions, moreover, played on colonial male fantasies and on scientific assumptions about racial difference. In Vietnam, the colonial authorities saw Vietnamese prostitutes as dirty and dangerous, whereas Japa- nese women were considered to be medically safer and Chinese women were somewhere in the middle. European prostitutes, moreover, were considered to be a bad example of European behaviour, especially since they could be “bought” by Vietnamese men. In Vietnam, eastern European prostitutes had the privilege of being able to get private medical examinations.52 Colonial regulation also meant that colonized women were treated differ- ently than European women. Levine notes, for example, that in Britain itself women were registered after being arrested while the colonial assumption was that Indian women would register voluntarily because prostitution was not shameful in Indian culture. The colonial authorities also considered physical contact with colonized women to be a form of contamination that threatened to orientalise and degenerate British soldiers.53 White slavery was also a concept that European empires employed in at- tempts to understand and later regulate the prostitution of white women in the colonies. It was Victor Hugo who coined the term “white slavery” in the 1870s to designate the denigration of French women in state-licensed broth- els in France itself. In later decades, however, it was used to describe the kid- napping and trafficking of young women overseas such as English girls in the brothels of Brussels or Jewish women in Buenos Aires. The very existence and scope of such a trade has been controversial from the early days of the twenti- eth century up through present-day historical debates; it is clear that women migrated to work in prostitution and it is also clear that violence and decep- tion were involved in some of these cases and that women were often much more vulnerable in foreign lands than at home. The controversy lies in the ex- tent of coercion vs. consent involved, both in the past and present. In the colonial context, these concerns were intimately related to imperial honour and prestige, as outlined above. The ability of the Empire to protect European girls and to a lesser extent indigenous girls from being trafficked and coerced into prostitution was a matter of state policy with regards to limiting the migration of unaccompanied women to colonial possessions and restrict- ing admission to licensed brothels. These concerns were taken up in the 1920s by the League of Nations’ Committee on Traffic in Women and Children. Both
52 Tracol-Huynh, this volume, Hanoi. 53 Philippa Levine, “Venereal Disease, Prostitution and the Politics of Empire: The Case of British India”, Journal of the History Sexuality, 4 (1994), pp. 579–602.
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Britain and France were represented in the committee and adhered to the relevant international conventions, but they were very hesitant to adhere on behalf of their colonial and mandatory possessions, and this was critiqued by international women’s organizations as well as some of the members of the committee, especially the Danish feminist Valentine Dannevig.54 The question of white slavery or trafficking in women and children as it was later called was related to the presence of white prostitutes abroad, both in Europe and overseas. In the colonies, as Chacha demonstrates, the presence of white women was supposed to civilize the colony by encouraging white men to adopt normative standards of respectability.55 White prostitutes, on the other hand, had the potential to reduce the reputation of the empire in the eyes of the colonized.
Conclusion
The current overview first examined how colonial expansion affected the glob- al geography of prostitution. The formation of colonial outposts and capitalist enterprises attracted migratory populations and with them the urban devel- opment of prostitution. Thus, communities of migrants from the countryside, in addition to European women and migrants from neighbouring regions or settlements, came into being throughout the colonized world. The regulation of prostitution and commercial forms of exchange replaced a variety of for- mer prostitutional practices which disappeared in places like India and North Africa. Colonial policies also affected urban spaces, leading to the creation of walled brothel districts where there had been none, and some of those urban layouts outlasted colonial rule. Prostitution in colonial settings differed from prostitution in the metropolis in several important respects. One was racial segregation which is common, in one degree or another, to all colonial contexts. Another was colonial armies, the presence of which dictated policies, regulations, and practices. Yet another
54 On the League of Nations’ Committee on the Traffic in Women and Children, see Jessica R. Pliley, “Claims to Protection: The Rise and Fall of Feminist Abolitionism in the League of Nations’ Committee on the Traffic in Women and Children, 1919–1936?” Journal of Women’s History, 22 (2010), pp. 90–113; Magaly Rodríguez García, “The League of Nations and the Moral Recruitment of Women”, International Review of Social History, 57 (2012), pp. 97–128; Katarina Leppänen, “International Reorganisation and Traffic In Women: Ven- ues of Vulnerability and Resistance”, Lychnos (2006), pp. 110–128. 55 Chacha, “An Over-view History of Prostitution in Nairobi”.
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